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THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPEDIA 


VOL.  I. 
A -A  SHER. 


THE 


AMERICAN  CYCLOPEDIA: 


OF 


GENERAL    KNOWLEDGE 


EDITED   BY  . 

GEORGE  RIPLEY  AND  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 


VOLUME  I. 
A-A  S  H  E  R. 


NEW     YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND     COMPANY, 

549   AXD   551    BROADWAY. 

LONDON:   16  LITTLE   BPJTAIN 

1873. 


L.VTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1857,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in' the  year  1873,   by  D.  APPLETON  AND   COMPANY,  in 
the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


THE  work  originally  published  under  the  title  of  THE  NEW  AMERICAN  CYCLO 
PAEDIA  was  completed  in  1863,  since  which  time  the  wide  circulation  which  it  has 
attained  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the  signal  developments  which 
have  .taken  place  in  every  branch  of  science,  literature,  and  art,  have  induced 
the  editors  and  publishers  to  submit  it  to  an  exact  and  thorough  revision,  and 
to  issue  a  new  edition  entitled  THE  AMERICAN  CYCLOPAEDIA. 

Within  the  last  ten  years  the  progress  of  discovery  in  every  department  of 
knowledge  has  made  a  new  work  of  reference  an  imperative  want.  The  physi 
cal  sciences  have  revealed  unexpected  and  important  relations  in  the  material 
world.  Chemistry  and  physiology  have  been  well  nigh  reconstructed.  Light, 
heat,  and  force  are  now  subjected  to  new  processes  of  study,  with  results  truly 
astonishing.  The  elements  of  matter  have  undergone  a  fresh  analysis,  and  are 
arranged  in  new  classifications ;  the  spectroscope  has  made  known  the  intimate 
composition  of  the  stars,  and  opened  the  secular  history  of  the  sun  ;  while  the 
researches  of  the  physiologist  and  the  microscopist  have  won  brilliant  victories 
in  the  field  of  animated  nature.  Xo  less  remarkable  advances  have  been  made 
in  ethnology,  archaeology,  and  history.  The  records  of  antiquity,  have  received 
a  new  interpretation,  and  a  wonderful  light  has  been  thrown  upon  the  annals 
of  our  race. 

The  movement  of  political  affairs  has  kept  pace  with  the  discoveries  of 
science,  and  their  fruitful  application  to  the  industrial  and  useful  arts  and  the 
convenience  and  refinement  of  social  life.  Great  wars  and  consequent  revolu 
tions  have  occurred,  involving  national  changes  of  peculiar  moment.  The  civil 
war  of  our  own  country,  which  was  at  its  height  when  our  last  volume  appeared, 
has  happily  been  ended,  and  a  new  course  of  commercial  and  industrial  activity 
has  been  commenced.  The  second  French  empire  has  perished,  and  the  third 
French  republic  has  been  proclaimed  amid  the  perturbations  of  one  of  the 
greatest  conflicts  described  in  history.  A  new  German  empire  has  been  created 
by  the  same  mighty  convulsion  ;  the  Spanish  monarchy  has  fallen,  and  a  repub 
lic  for  the  first  time  has  been  founded  on  Spanish  soil.  Austria,  defeated 
by  Prussia,  has  been  reconstructed  on  a  new  basis,  Italy  has  been  united  in 
one  kingdom,  with  Home  for  its  capital,  and  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope 
completely  overthrown.  Japan  has  experienced  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
revolutions,  and  significant  changes  have  occurred  in  China  and  in  other  parts 
of  Asia.  Large  accessions  to  our  geographical  knowledge  have  been  made 


vj  PREFACE 

by  the  indefatigable  explorers  of  Africa,  and  a  new  impulse  lias  been  given 
to  human  activity  on  that  continent  by  the  discovery  of  gold  and  diamonds. 

The  great  political  revolutions  of  the  last  decade,  with  the  natural  result  of 
the  lapse  of  time,  have  brought  into  public  view  a  multitude  of  new  men, 
whose  names  are  in  every  one's  mouth,  and  of  whose  lives  every  one  is  curious 
to  know  the  particulars.  Great  battles  have  been  fought  and  important  sieges 
maintained,  of  which  the  details  are  as  yet  preserved  only  in  the  newspapers  or 
in  the  transient  publications  of  the  day,  but  which  ought  now  to  take  their 
place  in  permanent  and  authentic  history.  Since  the  completion  of  our  first 
edition,  the  decennial  censuses  of  the  United  States  and  of  Great  Britain  have 
been  taken,  as  well  as  many  other  censuses  throughout  the  world,  and  the 
statistics  of  population,  commerce,  manufactures,  and  other  branches  of  indus 
try,  that  were  correct  at  that  time,  have. been  superseded  by  new  material. 

In  preparing  the  present  edition  for  the  press,  it  has  accordingly  been  the 
aim  of  the  editors  to  bring  down  the  information  to  the  latest  possible  dates, 
and  to  furnish  an  accurate  account  of  the  most  recent  discoveries  in  science,  of 
every  fresh  production  in  literature,  and  of  the  newest  inventions  in  the  prac 
tical  arts,  as  well  as  to  give  a  succinct  and  original  record  of  the  progress  of 
political  and  historical  events. 

The  work  has  been  begun  after  long  and  careful  preliminary  labor,  and 
witli  the  most  ample  resources  for  carrying  it  on  to  a  successful  termination. 
Several  of  the  most  experienced  and  competent  of  the  writers  of  the  original 
work  have  been  employed  as  revisers,  and  the  assistance  of  new  contributors  of 
eminent  distinction  in  their  respective  departments  has  been  secured,  in  addi 
tion  to  that  of  members  of  the  former  corps.  Only  such  portions  of  the  original 
matter  have  been  retained  as  were  found  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  existing 
state  of  knowledge  ;  every  statement  has  been  compared  with  the  latest  authori 
ties  ;  every  error  that  could  be  discovered  by  the  most  careful  scrutiny  has  been 
corrected  ;  many  emendations  in  arrangement  and  style  have  been  introduced  ; 
all  apparent  superfluities  in  subject  and  treatment  have  been  retrenched  ;  a 
multiplicity  of  new  titles,  most  of  which  have  sprung  up  since  the  issue  of  the 
first  edition,  have  been  added ;  while  those  which  have  become  obsolete,  or 
which  were  found  to  have  lost  most  of  their  former  importance,  have  been 
made  to  give  place  to  others  of  fresher  interest  and  unquestionable  value. 
None  op  the  original  stereotype  plates  have  been  used,  but  every  page  has  been 
printed  on  new  type,  forming  in  fact  a  new  Cyclopaedia,  with  the  same  plan 
and  compass  as  its  predecessor,  but  with  a  far  greater  pecuniary  expenditure, 
and  with  such  improvements  in  its  composition  as  have  been  suggested  by 
longer  experience  and  enlarged  knowledge. 

The  illustrations  which  are  introduced  for  the  first  time  in  the  present 
edition  have  been  added  not  for  the  sake  of  pictorial  effect,  but  to  give  greater 
lucidity  and  force  to  the  explanations  in  the  text.  They  embrace  all  branches 
of  science  and  of  natural  history,  and  depict  the  most  famous  and  remarkable 
features  of  scenery,  architecture,  and  art,  as  w^ell  as  the  various  processes  of 
mechanics  and  manufactures.  Although  intended  for  instruction  rather  than 


PREFACE  vii 

f 

embellishment,  no  pains  have  been  spared  to  insure  their  artistic  excellence ;  the 
cost  of  their  execution  is  enormous,  and  it  is  believed  they  will  find  a  welcome 
reception  as  an  admirable  feature  of  the  Cyclopaedia,  and  worthy  of  its  high 
character. 

The  design  of  THE  AMERICAN  CYCLOPAEDIA,  then,  as  it  was  that  of  the  origi 
nal  work  on  which  it  is  founded,  is  to  furnish  a  condensed  exhibition  of  the 
present  state  of  human  knowledge  on  the  most  important  subjects  of  inquiry. 
The  discussion  of  the  controverted  points  of  science,  philosophy,  religion,  or 
politics  does  not  enter  within  its  plan  ;  but  it  aims  exclusively  at  an  accurate 
and  impartial  account  of  the  development  of  opinion  in  the  exercise  of  thought, 
of  the  results  of  investigation  in  every  department  of  science,  of  the  prominent 
events  in  the  history  of  the  world,  of  the  most  significant  productions  of  litera 
ture  and  art,  and  of  the  celebrated  individuals  whose  names  are  associated  with 
'the  phenomena  of  their  age. 

In  preparing  the  materials  of  the  work,  neither  the  editors  nor  their  collab 
orators  have  attempted  to  make  it  a  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  personal 
notions.  As  far  as  was  consistent  with  the  nature  of  the  case,  they  have  con 
fined  themselves  to  the  historical  relation  of  facts,  without  assuming  the 
function  of  advocates  or  judges.  In  instances  which  seemed  to  demand  a 
positive  verdict,  they  have  endeavored  to  present  an  illustration  of  evidence 
rather  than  an  exhibition  of  argument.  Each  subject  has  been  treated  in  the 
point  of  view  of  those  with  whom  it  is  a  specialty,  and  not  in  that  of  indifferent  or 
hostile  observers.  In  order  to  secure  the  most  complete  justice  in  this  respect, 
the  various  articles  in  the  work  have  been  intrusted,  as  far  as  possible,  to  writers 
whose  studies,  position,  opinions,  and  tastes  were  a  guarantee  of  their  thorough 
information,  and  furnished  a  presumption  of  their  fairness  and  impartiality. 

In  a  work  primarily  intended  for  popular  instruction  and  entertainment,  it 
is  obvious  that  elaborate  treatises  on  the  subjects  which  are  brought  forward  in 
its  pages  would  be  inappropriate.  Hence  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  furnish 
the  masters  of  literature  and  science  with  new  facts  or  principles  in  their 
peculiar  branches  of  study.  On  the  contrary,  the  editors  have  only  sought  to 
present  such  selections  from  the  universal  treasury  of  knowledge  as  wrill  place 
the  cultivators  of  one  department  of  research  in  possession  of  the  achievements 
of  other  departments,  and  especially  to  spread  before  the  great  mass  of  intelli 
gent  readers  a  faithful  report  of  the  opinions,  systems,  discoveries,  events, 
actions,  and  characters  that  make  up  the  history  of  the  world. 

A  popular  method,  however,  has  not  been  pursued  at  the  expense  of 
thoroughness  of  research  and  copiousness  of  statement  in  regard  to  topics 
which  seemed  to  demand  a  more  extended  treatment.  Ample  space  has  been 
nllotted  to  articles  of  this  character,  especially  on  subjects  connected  with 
modern  scientific  discoveries,  mechanical  and  industrial  inventions,  the  princi 
ples  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  American  and  European  history,  biography, 
and  geography.  Several  of  our  titles  in  those  divisions  are  treated  with  a  ful 
ness  of  detail,  and  present  a  variety  as  well  as  an  exactness  of  information,  which 
it  is  believed  will  entitle  them  to  the  rank  of  standard  authorities. 


viii  PREFACE 

While  the  brevity  that  has  been  observed  on  points  of  secondary  interest 
has  enabled  the  editors  to  give  a  greater  number  of  titles  than  is  usual  in  pro 
ductions  of  similar  intent,  they  have  rigidly  excluded  those  which  would 
increase  the  size  of  the  work  without  enhancing  its  value.  The  terms  which 
require  only  the  common  dictionary  definitions,  and  the  proper  names  which 
iill  an  unimportant  place  in  gazetteers  and  biographical  dictionaries,  have  been 
rejected  on  system. 

The  materials  which  have  served  as  a  foundation  for  the  work  have  been 
derived  from  a  great  variety  of  sources.  Besides  the  standard  works  on 
special  subjects,  scientific,  literary,  or  historical,  the  numerous  encyclopaedias, 
dictionaries  of  the  various  branches  of  study,  and  popular  conversations- 
lexicons,  in  which  the  literature  of  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  is  so  singularly 
rich,  have  been  diligently  consulted  and  compared.  Their  contributions  to  the 
common  stock  of  knowledge  have  furnished  many  valuable  facts,  statements, 
and  suggestions  ;  while  recent  biographies,  histories^  books  of  travel,  scientific 
treatises,  statistical  reports,  and  the  current  journals  and  periodical  literature 
of  the  day  have  been  put  in  constant  requisition,  and  their  contents  carefully 
digested  and  utilized. 

A  great  mass  of  important  information  has  been  derived  from  consultation 
with  practical  men  in  different  branches  of  manufactures  and  other  industrial 
processes;  public  officials  have  liberally  supplied  us  with  data  from  their 
archives ;  the  representatives  of  science  have  imparted  to  us  the  results  of  their 
experience;  the  constructors  of  great  works  of  internal  improvement  now  in 
progress  have  favored  us  with  the  explanation  of  their  methods  and  plans  ;  the 
journalists  throughout  the  country  have  promptly  responded  to  our  request 
for  facts  in  their  respective  localities  ;  while  many  of  the  writers  employed 
upon  the  work  have  enriched  it  with  the  fruit  of  their  personal  researches, 
observations,  and  discoveries  in  the  branches  of  learning  in  which  their  names 
have  attained  an  honorable  distinction. 

The  editors  of  this  Cyclopedia  are  unwilling  that  the  first  volume  of  the  new 
edition  should  pass  from  their  hands  without  a  distinct  expression  of  their 
obligations  to  their  staff  of  revisers,  to  their  corps  of  regular  contributors,  and 
to  the  numerous  men  of  eminence  in  science,  literature,  and  official  position, 
whose  effective  cooperation  has  lightened  their  own  labors,  and  laid  the  founda 
tion  for  the  utility  and  value  of  the  publication. 

The  volume  now  presented  to  the  public  may  be  regarded  as  an  earnest  of 
the  literary  and  typographical  execution  of  the  Avhole  work.  It  will  be  com 
pleted  mainly  by  the  same  writers  whose  contributions  are  contained  in  the 
first  edition,  together  with  many  ethers  of  equal  ability  (whose  names  will 
be  hereafter  announced),  and  will  be  made  to  pass  through  the  press  as  rapidly 
as  is  consistent  with  mechanical  accuracy. 

YORK,  July  4,  1873. 


THE 


AMERICAN   CYCLOPEDIA, 


REVISED    EDITION, 


1873. 


EDITORS-IN-CHIEF. 

GEORGE  RIPLEY. 
CHARLES  A.  DANA. 


ASSOCIATE    EDITORS. 


ROBERT  CARTER.. 
M.  HEILPRIN. 


ALFRED  H.  GUERNSEY. 
FRANCIS  A.  TEALL. 


STAFF    OF    REVISERS. 


WILLAED  BAETLETT. 

JULIUS   BING. 

WILLIAM  T.  BEIGIIAM,  ESQ.,  Boston. 

EDWAED  L.  BUELINGAME,  PH.  D. 

JOHN  D.  CIIAMPLIN,  JR. 

PROFESSOR  EDWAED  II.  CLAEKE,  M.  D, 

Harvard  University. 
HON.  T.  M.  COOLEY,  LL  D., 

Michigan  University,  Ann  Arbor. 
PROFESSOR  JOHN  C.  D  ALTON,  M.  D. 
EATON  S.  DEONE. 
W.  M.  FEERISS. 
B.  A.  FINKELSTEIN. 
AMOS   K.  FISKE. 
PROFKSSOR  AUSTIN  FLINT,  M.  D. 
CHAELES  S.  GAGE. 
JOHN  E.  G.  HASSAED. 
JAMES   W.  II AWES. 
CHAELES  L.  HOGEBOOM,  M.  D. 


PROFESSOR  T.  STEEEY  HUNT,  LL.  D., 

Mass.  Tech.  Inst.,  Boston. 
PROFESSOR  CHAELES  A.  JOY,  Pn.  D., 

Columbia  College,  New  York. 
PROFESSOR  SAMUEL  KNEELAND,  M.  D., 

Mass.  Tech.  Inst.,  Boston. 
JAMES   F.  LYMAN. 
EEV.  FEANKLIN  NOBLE. 
EEV.  BEENAED  O'EEILLY,  D.  D. 
EICHAED  A.  PEOCTOE,  A.  M., 

London,  Eng. 
PROFESSOR  EOBEET  II.  EICIIAEDS, 

Mass.  Tech.  Inst.,  Boston. 
PROFESSOR  ALEXANDEE  J.  SCIIEM. 
JOHN  G.  SHEA,  LL.D. 
PROFESSOR  J.  A.  SPENCEE,  D.  D., 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 
P.  II.  YANDEE   WEYDE,  M.  D. 
PROFESSOR  G.  A.  F.  VAN  EHYN,  Pn.  D. 
I.  DE  YEITELLE. 


WOOD  ENGRAVER. 

JOHN  FILMER. 


SECRETARY  AND  LIBRARIAN 

JOHN  MILXER. 


CORPS    OF    CONTRIBUTORS. 


HENEY  CAEEY  BATED,  Philadelphia. 
Hon.  HENRY  BARNARD,  LL.  D.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
WILLAED  BARTLETT. 

Prof.   C.  W.  BENNETT,    D.  D.,   Syracuse   Uni 
versity. 
JULIUS  BING. 

DELAYAN  BLOODGOOD,  M.  D.,  U.  S.  N. 
FRANCIS  C.  BOWMAN. 
T.  S.  BRADFORD,  U.  S.  Coast  Survey. 
Rev.  CHARLES  II.  BBIGIIAM,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
WILLIAM  T.  BRIGUAM,  Esq.,  Boston. 
EDWARD  L.  BURLINGAME,  Ph.  D. 
J.  C.  CAEPENTEE,  Baltimore. 
ROBERT  CAETEE. 

JOHN  R.  CHAMBEELIN,  Cincinnati. 
JOHN  D.  CIIAMPLIN,  Jr. 

Prof.  E.  II.  CLAEKE,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 
ELIAS  COLBEET,  Chicago. 
Hon.  T.  M.  COOLEY,  LL.  D.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
EDWARD  COOPEE. 
Prof.  S.  S.  CUTTING,  D.  D. 
S.  II.  DADDOW,  St.  Clair,  Pa. 
Prof.  J.  C.  DALTON,  M.  D. 
EATON  S.  DEONE. 
Col.  II.  A.  Du  PONT,  U.  S.  A. 
ISAAC  W.  ENGLAND. 
W.  M.  FEEEISS. 

B.  A.  FlNKELSTEIN. 

Prof.  AUSTIN  FLINT,  M.  D. 

ALFEED  II.  GUEENSEY. 

JAMES  W.  HAWES. 

Hon.  GEORGE  S.  HILLARD,  Boston. 

ClIAELES    L.  HOGEBOOM,  M.  D. 

Prof^  T.  STEEEY   HUNT,  LL.  D.,   Mass.  Tech. 

Inst.,  Boston. 

GEOEGE  HUSSMANN,  Bluffton,  Mo. 
B.  F.  ISHERWOOD,  late   Chief  Engineer  U.  S. 

Navy. 

Prof.  C.  A.  JOY,  Ph.  D.,  Columbia  College. 
Prof.  S.  KNEELAND,  M.  D.,  Mass.  Tech.  Inst., 

Boston. 


J.  N.  LARNED,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

CIIAELES  LINDSEY,  Toronto. 

E.  T.  MAGAUEAM. 

Prof.  F.  A.  MARCH,  D.  D.,  Lafayette  College. 
Easton,  Pa. 

W.  MATTHEWS. 

JOHN  MITCIIEL. 

Lady  BLANCHE  MURPHY. 

fcev.  FEANKLIN  NOBLE. 

A.  T.  NOETON. 

Rev.  BEENAED  O'REILLY,  D.  D. 

Prof.  J.  OETON,  Vassar  College. 

J.  C.  PETERS,  M.  D. 

Count    L.    F.    DE    POURTALES,    U.    S.    Coast 
Survey. 

V.  PEECHT. 

|  R.  A.  PROCTOR,  A.  M.,  London. 
|-  Prof  R.  H.  RICHARDS,  Mass.  Tech.  Inst.,  Boston. 
J  BEENAED  ROELKEE,  Ph.  D. 

Prof.  T.  T.  SABINE,  M.  D. 

Prof.  A.  J.  SCHEM. 

G.  F.  SEWAED,  U.  S.  Consul  General  in  China. 

JOHN  G.  SHEA,  LL.  D. 

G.  W.  SOREN,  Esq. 

Prof.  J.  A.  SPENCEE,  D.  D.,  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York. 

Hon.  E.  G.  SQUIER. 

EMERICH  SZABAD., 

G.  M.  TOWLE,  Boston. 

P.  H.  VANDEE  WEYDE,  M.  D. 

Prof.  A.  VAN  NAME,  Yale  College. 

Prof.  G.  A.  F.  VAN  RIIYN,  Ph.  D. 

1.  DE  VEITELLE. 
|  W.  S.  WARD. 

CHARLES  S.  WEYMAN. 

Prof.  W.  D.  WHITNEY,  LL.  P.,  Yale  College. 
I  Gen.  JAMES  GRANT  WILSON. 
|  Gen.  JAMES  HARRISON  WILSON. 
<  Prof.  ELIZUR  WEIGHT.  Boston. 
:  A.  WYLIE,  D.D.,  Shanghai,  China. 
i  Prof.  E.  L.  YOUMANS. 


Among  the  Contributors  of  New  Articles  to  the  First  Volume  of  the  Revised 

Edition  are  the  following : 


WILLARD  BARTLETT. 

ABYSSINIA, 

AFRICA. 

ALASKA. 


Prof.   C.  W.    BEXXETT,   D.  D.,   Syracuse   Uni 
versity. 

AMES,  EDWARD  K.,  D.D. 
ANDREW,  JAMES  OSGOOD,  D.  D. 
ASBURY,  FRANCIS. 

JULIUS  BIXG. 

ALEXANDER  II.  OF  ErssiA, 

and  other  articles  in  history  and  geography. 

DELAVAX  BLOODGOOD,  M.  D.,  U.  S.  X. 

ADMIRAL. 

FRAXCIS  C.  BOWMAX. 

AMATI  FAMILY,  and  other  musical  articles. 

Rev.  CHARLES  H.  BRIGHAM,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

ADRIAN,  MICH. 
ANN  ARBOR,  MICH. 

W.  T.  BRIGIIAM,  Esq.,  Boston. 

APPLE,  and  other  botanical  articles. 

EDWARD  L.  BURLIXGAME,  PH.D. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  and  articles  in  modern  history  and 

geography. 
ANTONY,  MARK,  and  articles  in  Greek  and  Roman 

history. 

Prof.    E.    H.   CLARKE,    M.  D.,    Harvard    Uni 
versity. 

ACONITE, 

ANTISEPTICS, 

ANTISPASMODICS, 

and  other  articles  of  materia  medica. 

Hon.  T.  M.  COOLEY,  LL.  D.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
ANGLO-SAXON  JURISPRUDENCE. 

S.  H.  DADDOW,  St.  Glair,  Pa. 
ANTHRACITE. 

Prof.  J.  C.  DALTOX,  M.  D. 

ACCLIMATION, 

ALIMENT  and  ALIMENTARY  CANAL, 

ANIMAL  HEAT, 

and  other  medical  and  physiological  articles. 

EATOX  S.  DROXE. 

ALABAMA, 
ANDERSONVILLE, 
ARIZONA, 
ARKANSAS, 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

Col.  IT.  A.  Du  POXT,  U.  S.  A. 

ARTILLERY. 

B.  A.  FlXKELSTEIX. 
ARABIA. 

ALFRED  IT.  GUERXSEY. 

AMERICA. 

J.  W.  HAWES. 

ALEXANDRIA,  LA.  AND  VAX 
ALLEGHENY.  PA, 
AMHERST.  MASS. 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

Hon.  GEO.  S.  HILLARD,  Boston. 

ADAMS,  CHARLES  FRANCIS. 

ADAMS,  HENRY. 

ADAMS,  JOIIN  QUINCY,  JR. 


GEORGE  HUSSMAXX,  Bluffton,  Mo. 

AMERICAN  WINES. 

Prof.   C.   A.  JOY,    Ph.D.,   Columbia   College, 
New  York. 
ALIZARINE, 
ALUM, 
ALUMINA, 
ALUMINUM, 

and  other  chemical  articles. 

Prof.  S.  KXEELAXD,  M.  D.,  Mass.  Tech.  Inst., 
Boston. 

ARCHEOLOGY,  and  articles  in  natural  history. 

I  CHARLES  LIXDSEY,  Toronto. 

ALGOMA, 

ARCHIBALD,  A.  G.,  and  other  Canadian  articles. 

;  Prof.  F.  A.  MARCH,  LL.  D.,  Lafayette  College, 
Easton,  Pa. 

ANGLO-SAXON  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

j  Prof.  J.  ORTOX,  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie. 

AMAZON. 

ANDES. 

Prof.  T.  T.  SATUXE,  M.  D.  * 

AMPUTATION. 
ANCHYLOSIS. 

Prof.  A.  J.  SCHEM. 

ALGEPJA. 
APOCALYPSE. 
APOCRYPHA. 
ARIANISM  and  ARIUS. 

J.  G.  SHEA,  LL.  D. 

AMERICAN  INDIANS  AND  THEIR  LANGUAGES. 

G.  W.  SOREX. 
ACTION. 
ADMIRALTY, 
AMNESTY,  and  other  legal  articles. 

Hon.  E.  G.  SQUIER. 

AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

P.  H.  YAXDER  WEYDE,  M.  D. 
AEROLITE. 
ALCHEMY. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Prof.  A.  VAX  NAME,  Yale  College. 

ARABIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

I.  DE  VEITELLE. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

W.  S.  WARD. 

ANCHOR. 
AQUARIUM. 
ARTESIAN  WELLS. 

C.  S.  WEYMAX. 

AERONAUTICS. 
ALFIERI.  YITTORIO. 
ARNOLD,  BENEDICT. 

Prof.  W.  D.  WHITXEY,  LL.  D.,  Yale  College. 

AFRICAN  LANGUAGES. 

ALPHABET. 

ARYAN  RACE  AND  LANGUAGE. 

Gen.  JAMES  H.  WILSOX. 

ANTIETAM,  BATTLE  OF. 

Prof.  ELIZUR  WRIGHT. 

ANNUITIES. 


THE 


NEW  AMERICAN   CYCLOPAEDIA, 


FIRST    EDITION, 


1858-1863. 


LIST    OF    CONTRIBUTORS. 


lion.  CHARLES  ALLEN,  Boston. 

A.  ARNOLD,  Esq.,  New  York. 

Hon.  S.  0.  ARNOLD,  Providence,  R.  I. 

PAUL  ARPIN,  Esq.,  late  Editor  of  the  "  Cour- 

rier  des  fitats  Unis,"  New  York. 
Prof.  A.  T).  BACIIE,  LL.  D.,  Washington. 
JACOB  B.  BACON,  New  York. 
JOHN  A.  BAGLEY,  C.  E.,  New  York. 
HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD,  Philadelphia. 
Hon.  GEORGE  BANCROFT,  LL.D,,  New  York. 

B.  FORDYCE  BARKER,  M.  D.,  New  York. 
Hon.  JOHN   R.   BARTLETT,   late   Secretary   of 

State  of  Rhode  Island,  Providence. 
VICTOR  BEAUMONT,  C.  E.,  New  York. 
Prof.  GUNNING  S.  BEDFORD,  M.  D.,  University 

Medical  College,  New  York. 
A.  M.  BELL,  M.D.,  Brooklyn. 
Rev.  IF.  W.  BELLOWS,  D.  1).,  New  York. 
Rev.  THOMAS  IT.  BEVEPJDGE,  Philadelphia. 

C.  J.  BIDDLE,  Esq.,  Philadelphia. 

JULIUS  BING,  late  U.  S.  Consul  in  Smyrna. 

Rev.  II.  BISHOP,  Oxford,  Ohio. 

Hon.  JEREMIAH  S.  BLACK,  late  U.  S.  Attorney 

General,  Washington. 
Commodore  GEORGE  S.  BLAKE,  U.  S.  N. 
LORIN  BLODGET,  Esq.,  Philadelphia. 
EDMUND  BLUNT,  Esq.,  New  York. 


!  JOSEPH  BLUNT,  Esq.,  New  York. 

j  JOHN  BONNER,  New  York. 

j  DION  BOUCICAULT,  London,  Eng. 

Rev.  C.  L.  BRACE,  New  York. 

Rev.  WILLIAM  BRADFORD,  New  York. 

THOMAS  M.  BREWER,  M.  D.,  Boston. 

CHARLES  F.  BRIGGS,  New  York. 

Rev.  CHARLES  II.  BRIGIIAM,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Rev.  EDWARD  BRIGHT,  I).  D.,  New  York. 

L.  P.  BROCKETT,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

Hon.  ERASTUS  BROOKS,  New  York. 

lion.  WILLIAM  BROSS,  Chicago. 

lion.  B.  GRATZ  BROWN,  St.  Louis. 

Rev.  JOHN  N.  BROWN,  1).  D.,  Philadelphia. 

EDWARD  BROWN-SEQUARD,  M.  D.,  London,  Eng. 

ORESTES  A.  BROWNSON,  LL.  D.,  New  York. 

T.  A.  BURKE,  Esq.,  Savannah,  Ga. 

Rev.  GEORGE  W.  BURNAP,  D.  D.,  Baltimore. 

SAMUEL  BURNHAM,  Boston. 

Rev.  GEORGE  BUSH,  D.  D.,  New  York. 
;  Col.  CARLOS  BUTTERFIELD,  Mexico. 

CHARLES  CAMPBELL,  Esq.,  Petersburg,  Va. 

ROBERT  CARTER,  New  York. 

J.  F.  II.  CLAIBORNE,  Esq.,  Burlington,  Miss. 

Rev.  JAMES  F.  CLARKE,  D.  D.,  Boston. 

J.  CLEMENT,  Esq.,  Dubnque,  Iowa. 

JOHN  F.  CLEVELAND,  New  York. 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   THE   FIRST  EDITION 


xiu 


T.  G.  CLEWELL,  Es  ].,  Cleveland,  O. 
J.  B.  COCIIRAN,  Esq.,  Shelbyville,  Ky. 

C.  0.  COFFIX,  Boston. 

J.  P.  COMEGYS,  Esq.,  Wilmington,  Del. 
CHARLES  T.  COXGDOX,  New  York. 
I 'rot'.  GEORGE  II.  COOK,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 
JOHN  ESTEX  COOKE,  Richmond,  Va. 
EDWARD  COOPER,  New  York. 
FREDERICK  S.  COZZEXS,  New  York. 
Rev.  J.  W.  CUMMIXGS,  D.  D.,  New  York. 
Rev.  DANIEL  CURRY,  D.  D.,  New  York. 
GEORGE  TICKXOR  CURTIS,  Esq.,  Boston. 
GEORGE  W.  CURTIS,  New  York. 
Prof.  E.  G.  CUTLER,  Harvard  University. 
»  Rev.  S.  S.  CUTTING,  D.  D.,  Rochester  Univer 
sity,  N.  Y. 

D.  L.  DALTON,  Esq.,  Washington. 

4.     Prof.  J.  C.  DALTOX,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

Hon.  CHARLES  P.  DALY,  Chief  Justice  of  the 

Court  of  Common  Pleas,  New  York. 
ALEXANDER  H.  DANA,  Esq.,  New  York. 
CHARLES  A.  DANA,  New  York. 
Prof.  JAMES  D.  DANA,  LL.  D.,  Yale  College, 

New  Haven. 

RICHARD  H.  DANA,  Jr.,  Esq.,  Boston. 
Rev.  J.  S.  DAVENPORT,  New  York. 
Hon.  CHARLES  S.  DAVIES,  LL.  D.,  Portland,  Me. 
Admiral  CHARLES  H.  DAVIS,  U.  S.  N. 
Rev.  GARDNER  DEAN,  New  York. 
WILLIAM  DEERING,  Esq.,  Albany. 
JOHN  D.  DEFREES,  Esq.,  Superintendent  of  the 

Government  Printing  Office,  Washington. 
EDWARD  F.  DE  LAXCEY,  Esq.,  New  York. 
Rev.  DAVID  D.  DEMAREST,  D.  D.,  Hudson,  N.  Y. 
Rev.  II.  M.  DEXTER,  D.  D.,  Boston. 
Rev.  JAMES  T.  DICKIXSON,  Middlefield,  Conn. 
Rev.  GEORGE  W.  DOANE,  D.  D.,  Newark,  N.  J. 
HUGH  DOHERTY,  M.  D.,  London,  Eng. 
JAMES  II.  DORR,  New  York. 
Hon.  WILLIAM  DORSIIEIMER,  Buffalo. 
ADOLF  DOUAI,  Ph.  D.,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 
JOHN  W.  DRAPER,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  President  of 

the  University  Medical  College,  New  York. 
LYMAN  C.  DRAPER,  Esq.,  Madison,  Wis. 
W.  II.  DRAPER,  M.  D.,  New  York. 
A.  H.  DUNLEVY,  Esq.,  Lebanon,  O. 
GEORGE  F.  DUXXING,  New  York. 

E.  A.  DUYCKIXCK,  New  York. 

Rev.  TRYOX  EDWARDS,  D.  D.,  New  London, 
Rev.   GEORGE  E.   ELLIS,  D.  D.,   Charlestown, 

Mass. 

RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON,  Concord,  Mass. 
ISAAC  W.  ENGLAND,  New  York. 


THOMAS  EVANS,  Philadelphia. 

Hon.  EDWARD  EVERETT,  LL.  D.,  Boston. 

C.  B.  FAIRBANKS,  Boston. 

C.  C.  FELTOX,  LL.  D.,  late  President  of  Har 
vard  University,  Cambridge. 

Rev.  WILLIAM  FISHBOUGH,  Brooklyn. 

Prof.  D.  W.  FISKE,  Cornell  University. 

CHARLES  L.  FLINT,  Esq.,  Secretary  of  the  Mas 
sachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  Boston. 

WILLIAM  C.  FOWLER,  LL.  D.,  late  Professor  in 
Amherst  College,  Mass. 

S.  P.  FOWLER,  Westfield,  Mass. 

JOHN  W.  FRANCIS,  M.  D.,  New  YTork. 

Major  General  WILLIAM  B.  FRANKLIN,  U.  S.  A. 

J.  II.  FRENCH,  Esq.,  Syracuse. 

Rev.  OCTAVIUS  B.  FROTHINGHAM,  New  York. 

WILLIAM  II.  FRY,  New  York. 

ALFRED  GARXEAU,  Quebec. 

SYDXEY  HOWARD  GAY,  New  York. 

Rev.  J.  M.  W.  GEIST,  Lancaster,  Pa. 

Prof.  JOSIAH  W.  GIBBS,  LL.  D.,  New  Haven. 

Capt.  WALTER  M.  GIBSOX,  Salt  Lake  City. 

Prof.  CHAXDLER  R.  GILMAX,  M.  D.,  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York. 

D.  C.  GILMAN,  Librarian  of  Yale  College,  New 
Haven. 

Rev.  E.  W.  GILMAN,  Bangor,  Me. 

Prof.  HENRY  GOADBY,  M.  D.,  State  Agricul 
tural  College  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor. 

PARKE  GODWIN,  LL.  D.,  New  York. 

AUGUSTUS  A.  GOULD,  M.  D.,  Boston. 

B.  A.  GOULD,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Hon.  HORACE  GREELEY,  New  York. 

Prof.  GEORGE  W.  GREENE,  Providence,  R.  I. 

WILLIAM  L.  G.  GREENE,  Boston. 

L.  GROSVENOR,  Esq.,  Pomfret,  Conn. 

R.  A.  GUILD,  Librarian  of  Brown  University, 
Providence,  R.  I. 

Count  ADAM  DE  GUROWSKI,  Washington. 

Prof.  CHARLES  C.  HACKLEY,  D.  D.,  Columbia 
College,  N.  Y. 

NATHAN  HALE,  Jr.,  Esq.,  Boston. 
|  B.  H.  HALL,  Esq.,  Troy. 

Prof.  JAMES  HALL,  LL.  D.,  Albany. 

JAMES  HALL,  Esq.,  Cincinnati. 

Rev.  HENRY  HARBAUGH,  D.  D.,  Lebanon,  Pa. 

Prof.  A.  W.  HARKNESS,  Brown  University, 
Providence,  R.  I. 

JOHN  R.  G.  HASSARD,  New  York. 
I  A.  A.  HAYES,  M.  D.,  Boston. 
I  Hon.  CHARLES  C.  HAZEWELL,  Boston. 
I  Rev.   FREDERICK    II.    HEDGE,    D.  D.,   Harvard 
University. 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION 


Prof.  BENJAMIN  F.  HEDRICK,  Washington. 

M.  HEILPRIN,  New  York. 

Prof.  JOSEPH  HENRY,  Secretary  of  the  Smith 
sonian  Institution,  Washington. 

HENRY  W.  HERBERT  ("  Frank  Forrester  "). 

E.  0.  HERRICK,  late  Librarian  of  Yale  College, 
New  Haven. 

THOMAS  HICKS,  N.  A.,  New  York. 

RICHARD  HILDRETH,  Esq.,  late  U.  S.  Consul  at 
Trieste. 

ADAMS  S.  HILL,  Esq.,  Boston. 

Rev.  THOMAS  HILL,  I).  D.,  late  President  of 
Harvard  University. 

lion.  GEORGE  S.  HILLARD,  Boston. 

JOHN  S.  HITTELL,  San  Francisco. 

Prof.  JAMES  TIIACHER  HODGE,  New  York. 

Prof.  O.  W.  HOLMES,  M.  D.,  Boston. 

GEORGE  F.  HOUGHTON,  Esq.,  St.  Albans,  Vt. 

EDWARD  II.  HOUSE,  New  York. 

Prof.  F.  M.  HUBBARD,  D.  D.,  University  of 
North  Carolma,  Chapel  Hill. 

Prof.  J.  S.  HUBBARD,  National  Observatory, 
Washington. 

Rev.  HENRY  N.  HUDSON,  Litchfield,  Conn. 

WILLIAM  HUMPHREYS,  Esq.,  New  York. 

CHARLES  II.  HUNT,  Esq.,  New  York. 

RICHARD  M.  HUNT,  New  York. 

JOHN  HUNTER,  Prince  Edward  Island. 

W.  II.  HUNTINGTON,  Paris,  France. 

WILLIAM  II.  HURLBUT,  New  York. 

J.  A.  JACOBS,  Esq.,  Danville,  Ky. 

A.  G.  JOHNSON,  Esq.,  Troy. 

OLIVER  JOHNSON,  New  York. 

Prof.  S.  W.  JOHNSON,  Yale  College. 

Prof.  A.  C.  KENDRICK,  Rochester  University, 
N.  Y. 

J.  C.  G.  KENNEDY,  late  Superintendent  of  the 
Census  Bureau,  Washington. 

Most  Rev.  FRANCIS  PATRICK  KENRICK,  D.  D., 
late  Archbishop  of  Baltimore. 

lion.  WILLIAM  KENT,  New  York. 

lion.  JOHN  B.  KERR,  late  U.  S.  Minister  to 
Central  America,  Baltimore. 

CHARLES  KING,  LL.  D.,  late  President  of  Co 
lumbia  College,  New  York. 

Rev.  T.  STARR  KING,  San  Francisco. 

THOMAS  T.  KINNEY,  Newark,  N.  J. 

JAMES  KIRBY,  Esq.,  Montreal. 

Prof.  S.  KNEELAND,  M.  D.,  Mass.  Tech.  Inst., 
Boston. 

CH-ARLES  KRAITSIR,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

Rev.  C.  PHILIP  KRAITTH,  D.  IX,  Philadelphia. 

CHARLES  LANMAN,  Washington. 


!  I.  A.  LAPHAM,  Esq.,  Milwaukee. 

EUGENE  LAWRENCE,  New  York. 

ISAAC  LEA,  Philadelphia. 

Rev.  LUTHER  LEE,  Chagrin  Falls,  0. 

CHARLES  G.  LELAND,  New  York. 

J.  P.  LESLEY,  late  of  the  Pennsylvania  Geo 
logical  Survey,  Philadelphia. 

CHARLES  LINDSEY,  Esq.,  Toronto. 

Rev.  A.  A.  LIVERMOEE,  New  York. 

JOHN  LOCKWOOD,  Brooklyn. 

Prof.  THOMAS  R.  LOUNSBURY,  Yale  College. 

Prof.  JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL,  Harvard  Uni 
versity. 

Prof.  BENJAMIN  W.  MCCREADY,  M.D.,  Belle- 
vue  Hospital  Medical  College,  New  York. 

R.  SIIELTON  MACKENZIE,  D.  C.  L.,  Philadel 
phia. 

Major  MARTIN  T.  McMAnoN. 

JOHN  McMuLLEN,  New  York. 

Rev.  II.  N.  MCTYEIRE,  D.  D.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

EDWARD  MAGAURAM,  New  York. 

Prof.  ACIIILLE  MAGNI,  Brooklyn. 

EDWARD  D.  MANSFIELD,  Esq.,  State  Commis 
sioner  of  Statistics,  Morrow,  O. 

KARL  MARX,  Ph.  D.,  London,  Eng. 

JOHN  T.  MASON,  Esq.,  Baltimore. 

E.  MASSERAS,  Editor  of  the  "  Courrieh  de,s 
£tats  Unis,"  New  York. 

Hon.  A.  B.  MEEK,  Mobile,  Ala. 

JOHN  MEIGS,  Esq.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

DAVID  B.  MELLISII,  New  York. 

ANDREW  MERWIN,  New  York. 

Col.  JAMES  MONROE,  New  York. 

FRANK  MOORE,  New  York. 

JOSEPH  N.  MOREAU,  Philadelphia. 

D.  MORRISON,  Toronto. 

Rev.  ANDREW  B.  MORSE,  Danbury,  Conn. 
Rev.  JOHN  N.  MURDOCK,  D.  D.,  Boston. 
JAMES  P.  NESMITH,  New  York. 
CHARLES  NORDHOFF,  New  York. 
Rev.  B.  G.  NORTHROP,  Saxonville,  Mass. 
FRANK  II.  NORTON,  New  York. 

E.  B.  O'CALLAGHAN,  M.  D.,  Albany. 
II.  S.  OLCOTT,  New  York. 

FREDERICK  LAW  OLMSTED,  Architect  and  Chief 
Engineer  of  the  Central  Park,  New  York. 

Rev.  SAMUEL  OSGOOD,  D.  D.,  New  York. 

FRANKLIN  J.  OTTARSON,  New  York. 

Prof.  MARTYN  PAINE,  M.  D.,  University  Medi 
cal  College,  New  York. 

J.  W.  PALMER,  M.  D.,  Baltimore. 

Prof.  THEOPHILUS  PARSONS,  LL.  D.,  Dane  Pro 
fessor,  Harvard  University. 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION 


Rev.  ANDREW  P.  PEABODY,  D.  D.,  Harvard 
University. 

Prof.  E.  R.  PEASLEE,  M.  D.,  New  York  Medi 
cal  College,  New  York. 

Rev.  W.  N.  PENDLETON,  D.  D.,  Lexington,  Va. 

GEORGE  PERRY,  New  York. 

JOHN  L.  PEYTON,  Staunton,  Va. 

OCTAVIUS  PICKERING,  Esq.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Hon.  JAMES  S.  PIKE,  late  U.  S.  Minister  Resi 
dent  at  the  Hague. 

Don  RAFAEL  POMBO,  Charge  d' Affaires  of  New 
Granada,  New  York. 

Col.  P.  A.  PORTER,  U.  S.  A.,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 

W.  S.  PORTER,  New-  Haven. 

Rev.  THOMAS  S.  PRESTON,  D.  D.,  New  York. 

WILLIAM  C.  PRIME,  Editor  of  the  ''Journal  of 
Commerce,"  Author  of  "Coins,  Medals,  and 
Seals,'1  New  York. 

EDMUND  QUINCY,  Dedham,  Mass. 

HERMANN  RASTER,  Edijtor  of  the  "Abend  Zei- 
tung,"  New  York. 

J.  II.  RAYMOND,  LL.  D.,  Principal  of  the  Poly 
technic  Institute,  Brooklyn. 

SAMPSON  REED,  Boston. 

Prof.  JAMES  RENWICK,  LL.  D.,  Columbia  Col 
lege,  New  York. 

LEVI  REUBEN,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

N.  P.  RICE,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

CHARLES  R.  RODE,  Editor  of  the  "American 
Publishers'  Circular,"  New  York. 

Rev.  JOHN  L.  RUSSELL,  Curator  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History,  Salem,  Mass. 

HORACE  ST.  JOHN,  Esq.,  London,  Eng. 

JAMES  M.  SANDERSON,  New  York. 

JOHN  0.  SARGENT,  New  York. 

JOHN  SAVAGE,  New  York. 

Prof.  PHILIP  SCIIAFF,  D.  D.,  late  of  the  Theo 
logical  Seminary,  Mercersburg,  Pa. 

GEORGE  SCHEDEL,  Esq.,  late  II.  B.  M.  Consular 
Agent  for  Costa  Rica. 

Prof.  ALEXANDER  J.  SCHEM,  New  York. 

Hon.  FRANCIS  SCHROEDER,  late  U.  S.  Minister 
Resident  at  Stockholm,  New  York. 

Rev.  EDMUND  DE  SCHWEINITZ,  D.  D.,  Litiz,  Pa. 

S.  H.  SCUDDER,  Boston. 

E.  C.  SEAMAN,  Esq.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Rev.  BARNAS  SEARS,  D.  D.,  late  President  of 
Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  I. 

HENRY  D.  SEDGWICK,  Esq.,  New  York. 

Hon.  WILLIAM  H.  SEWARD,  late  U.  S.  Secretary 
of  State. 

JOHN  GILMARY  SHEA,  LL.  D.,  New  York. 

Prof.  B.  SILLIMAN,  Jr.,  New  Haven. 


i  WILLIAM  GILMORE  SIMMS,  LL.  D.,  Charleston. 
!  D.  D.  SLADE,  M.  D.,  Boston. 
Prof.  HENRY  B.  SMITH,  D.  D.,  Union  Theologi 
cal  Seminary,  New  York. 
Prof.  J.  L.  SMITH,  Kenyon  College,  Gambier,  O. 
RICHARD  SMITH,  New  York. 
Rev.  J.  A.  SPENCER,  D.  D.,  New  York. 
CHARLES  J.  SPRAGUE,  Boston. 
E.  C.  SPRAGUE,  Esq.,  Buffalo. 
Rev.  WILLIAM  B.  SPRAGUE,  D.  D.,  Albany. 
Hon.  E.  G.  SQUIER,  late  U.  S.  Minister  to  Peru, 

New  York. 

Hon.  HENRY  B.  STANTON,  New  York. 
L.  D.  STICKNEY,  Esq.,  Memphis,  Tenn. 
FRANK  II.  STORER,  Boston. 
Rev.  JOSEPH  B.  STRATTON,  Natchez,  Miss. 
Rev.  W.  P.  STRICKLAND,  D.  D.,  New  York. 
WILLIAM  STUART,  New  York. 
Rev.  THOMAS  0.  SUMMERS,.  D.  D.,  Nashville, 

Tenn. 

Rev.  WILLIAM  L.  SYMONDS,  Portland,  Me. 
FRANCIS  A.  TEALL,  New  York. 
Miss  ROSE  TERRY,  Hartford. 
Hon.  ALEXANDER  W.  THAYER,  U.  S.  Consul  at 

Trieste. 

Rev.  T.  B.  THAYER,  D.  D.,  Boston. 
WILLIAM   S.  THAYER,  Esq.,   U.  S.    Consul  at 

Alexandria,  Egypt. 
JOHN  R.  THOMPSON,  Richmond,  late  Editor  of 

the  "  Southern  Literary  Messenger." 
Rev.  JOSEPH  P.  THOMPSON,  D.  D.,  New  York. 
Rev.  JOHN  THOMSON,  D.  D.,  New  York. 
Col.  T.  B.  THORPE,  New  York. 
T.  II.  THRASHER,   Esq.,  late  U.  S.  Consul  at 

Havana. 

GEORGE  TICKNOR,  LL.  D.,  Boston. 
Rev.  FRANCIS  TIFFANY,  Springfield,  Mass. 
OSMOND  TIFFANY,  Baltimore. 
JOHN  B.  TILESTON,  Boston. 
W.  C.  TODD,  Newburyport,  Mass. 
ROBERT  TOMES,  M.  D.,  New  York. 
R.  T.  TEALL,  M.  D.,  Author  of  "Hydropathic 

Encyclopedia,"  New  York. 
Baron  R.  DE  TROBRIAND,  Col.  U.  S.  A.,  New 

York. 
W.  P.  TROWBRIDGE,  Esq.,  U.  S.  Coast  Survey, 

Washington. 

HENRY  T.  TUCKERMAX,  New  York, 
lion.  SAMUEL  TYLER,  LL.  D.,  Frederick  City, 

Md. 

Prof.  W.  S.  TYLER,  D.D.,  Amherst. 
HENRY  C.  VAIL,  late  of  the  Westchester  Farm 

School,  N.  Y. 


XVI 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   THE   FIRST  EDITION 


GEORGE  VAN  SANTVOORD,  Esq.,  Troy. 

Hon.  E.  WAKELY,  Omaha  City. 

Hon.  ALEXANDER  WALKER,  New  Orleans. 

C.  J.  WALKER,  Esq.,  Detroit. 

Rev.  J.  F.  WALKER,  Rupert,  Vt. 

JAMES  S.  WALLACE,  Esq.,  Louisville. 

W.  T.  WALTIIALL,  Spriijg  Hill,  Ala. 

HENRY  WARE,  Boston. 

EDWARD  WARREN,  M.  D.,  Newton  Lower  Falls, 
Mass. 

SAMUEL  WEBBER,  M.  D.,  Charlestown,  1ST.  II. 

Rev.  JOHN  WEISS,  Milton,  Mass. 

DAVID  A.  WELLS,  Esq.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hon.  JOHN  WENT  WORTH,  Chicago. 

CHARLES  S.  WEYMAN,  New  York. 

E.  P.  WHIPPLE,  Boston. 

J.  C.  WHITE,  M.  I).,  Boston. 

RICHARD  GRANT  WHITE,  Author  of  "Shake 
speare's  Scholar,"  &c.,  New  York. 


R.  LYLE  WHITE,  Meadville,  Pa. 

W.  M.  WIIITEIIEAD,  M.  D.,  Elizabeth,  N.  J. 

W.  II.  WHITTEMORE,  Boston. 

Prof.  W.  D.  WHITNEY,  LL.  D.,  Yale  College. 

Pres.  W.  M.  WIGHTMAN,  D.  D.,  Greenborough, 
Ala. 

II.  WILLEY,  New  Bedford,  Mass. 

Major  SIDNEY  WILLARD,  Boston. 

Gen.  JAMES  GRANT  WILSON,  New  York. 

Rev.  W.  D.  WILSON,  D.  D.,  Ilobart  Free  Col 
lege,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

WILLIAM  E.  WORTHEN,  Author  of  a  "Cyclo 
paedia  of  Drawing,"  New  York. 

F.  D.  WRIGHT,  Esq.,  Milwaukee. 

JAMES  WYNNE,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

Prof.  E.  L.  YOUMANS,  Editor  of  the  "Popular 
Science  Monthly,"  New  York. 

WILLIAM  YOUNG,  Editor  of  the  "  Albion,"  New 
York. 


THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPEDIA. 


A  THE   first  of  the  vowels,   and  the  first  j 
letter  of  all   written   alphabets   except  ; 
the  Amharic  or  Abyssinian,  of  which  it  is  the 
thirteenth,  and  the  Runic,  of  which  it  is  the  j 
tenth.     This  almost  universal  precedence  ap 
pears  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  its  typical  and 
probably  only  original  sound  (all)  is  the  most 
easily  uttered  of  all  sounds,  being  produced  by  , 
a  simple  expulsion  of  the  breath  through  the 
freely  opened  throat  and  mouth.     In  English, 
A  has  at  least  four  distinct  sounds,  as  heard  in 
mate,  mat,  mart,  ball ;  and  that  heard  in  mare 
is  usually  reckoned  a  fifth.     In  the  words  any,  • 
many,  it  has  exceptionally  the  sound  of  short 
e.      In  combination  with  other  vowels,  it  is 
sometimes  heard  alone,  as  in  maid,  aunt,  pear  ; 
and  is  sometimes  silent,  as  in  boat,  head,  beauty. 
The  historical  features  of  A  are  interesting. 
Its  sound  (probably  that  which  we  now  have 
in  mart)  was  disliked  by  Cicero,  and  in  the  | 
treatise  De   Orator  e,  c.  xlix.,  he  terms  it  in- 
suavissima   littcra.     By  the  ancients,    A  was 
employed  as  a  numeral,  and  stood  for  500,  and 
when  a  dash  was  placed  over  it,  thus,  A,  for  , 
ten   times   that  number,  or  5,000.     It  is  the 
first  of  the    seven   Dominical   letters   in   the 
Julian  calendar — an   imitation  of  the  littercB 
nundinales,  which  were  in  use  among  the  Ro 
mans  long  before  the  introduction  of  Christian 
ity.    In  logic,  the  letter  A  denotes  a  universal  ; 
affirmative.     In  the  comitia  of  the  Romans,  it 
was   used  in   giving   suffrages.       In    criminal 
trials  it  represented  Absolve,  I  acquit;  hence 
Cicero,  in  his  speech  for  Milo,  terms  it  littera 
salutaris.     In  ancient  inscriptions,  A   stands 
for  'Augustus,  Augmtalis,  ager,  agit,  aiunt,  all-  i 
quando,  antique,  asaolet,  aut;  AA  for  Augusti,  \ 
Augusta,   Aulus  Agerius,   ces   alienum,   ante  ' 
audita,  apud  agrum,  aurum  argentum  ;  AAA 
for  August  i  when  three  in  number,  and  for 
aurum,  argentum,  ces.     On  the  reverse  of  an-  I 
cient  medals,   it  indicates  the  city  in  which 
they   were   issued,  as   Argos  or   Athens ;    on 
modern  coins  it  is  the  mark  of  the  city  of 
Paris,  doubtless  taken  anagraminatically  from 
VOL.  i. — 1 


AALBORG 

the  last  letter  of  the  name  Lutetia.  A  is  also 
a  frequent  abbreviation,  as  in  A.  D.  for  Anno 
Domini,  A.  M.  for  Artium  Magister  or  Anno 
Mundi,  &c.  In  medical  prescriptions  it  is  used 
thus,  a,  or  da,  for  ana,  of  each.  In  bills  of 
exchange  it  is  in  England  and  France  an  ab 
breviation  for  accepted.  AAA  is  the  chemical 
abbreviation  for  amalgama. — A,  in  music,  is 
the  nominal  of  the  sixth  diatonic  interval  of 
the  first  octave  of  the  modern  scale.  It  cor 
responds  to  the  La  of  Guido.  A  was  the  low 
est  note  of  the  ancient  Greek  scale,  and  for 
many  centuries  represented  the  deepest  tone 
used  in  music.  Alterations  in  the  scale  were 
made,  however,  in  the  10th  century  by  Guido, 
and  subsequently  by  others,  so  that  at  present 
C  is  the  first  note  of  the  natural  scale,  and  A 
the  sixth  diatonic  interval ;  a  marks  the  same 
interval  in  the  second  octave.  A  is  also  the 
nominal  of  one  of  the  two  natural  modes. 

AA,  the  name  of  a  number  of  small  rivers  in 
central  and  northern  Europe,  derived  from  the 
Celtic  ach,  or  Teutonic  aa,  flowing  water.  The 
most  important  are  :  I.  A  river  of  the  Nether 
lands,  province  of  North  Brabant,  which  joins 
the  Dommel  at  Bois-le-Duc.  II.  A  river  of 
Russia,  government  of  Livonia,  flowing  into 
the  gulf  of  Riga.  III.  A  river  of  France,  de 
partment  of  Le  Nord,  flowing  into  the  North 
sea  near  Gravelines.  IV.  A  river  of  Switzer 
land,  canton  of  Aargau,  which  forms  the  lakes 
of  Baldegg  and  Hallwyl,  and  flows  into  the 
Aar.  V.  A  river  of  Switzerland,  canton  of 
Unterwalden,  which  flows  through  the  lake  of 
Sarnen,  and  empties  into  the  lake  of  Lucerne. 

AACHEN.     See  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 

AALBORG  (Eel  Town),  a  seaport  and  city 
of  Denmark,  in  Jutland,  capital  of  a  district 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  Lym- 
fiord,  15  m.  from  its  outlet  in  the  Cattegat ; 
pop.  in  1870,  11,721.  It  has  a  school  of  navi 
gation,  manufactories,  and  a  large  herring  fish 
ery.  It  was  a  celebrated  seaport  as  early  a=» 
1070,  and  for  a  long  time  the  most  important 
mart  of  Jutland  for  all  native  products. 


AALEN 


AARAU 


AALEN,  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  capital  of  a 
bailiwick  in  the  circle  of  Jaxt,  on  the  Kocher, 
45  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Stuttgart;  pop.  in  1871, 
5,552.  It  has  woollen  factories,  tanneries,  and 
several  iron  works. 

AALI  PASHA,  a  Turkish  statesman,  born  in 
Constantinople  in  1815,  died  there,  Sept.  7, 
1871.  The  son  of  a  priest  and  a  functionary, 
he  entered  the  public  service  at  an  early  age 
as  a  protege  of  Keshid  Pasha.  From  1834  to 
1836  he  oiliciated  as  secretary  of  legation  in 
Vienna,  and  previous  to  his  return  to  Turkey 
visited  Russia.  In  1838  he  was  attached  to 
the  legation  at  London,  and  subsequently  be 
came  charge  d'affaires,  lie  was  undersecre 
tary  of  foreign  affairs  in  1840,  and  ambas 
sador  to  England  from  1841  to  1844.  After 
his  return  from  England  he  was  a  member  of 
the  supreme  council  of  state  and  of  justice, 
foreign  minister,  and  chancellor  of  the  im 
perial  divan.  Under  the  administration  of 
Reshid  Pasha  he  continued  to  be  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  from  1846  to  1852.  His  ability 
in  settling  the  controversy  with  Greece  caused 
his  promotion  to  the  rank  of  mushir  (field  mar 
shal)  and  pasha.  Toward  the  end  of  1852  he 
was  for  a  short  time  grand  vizier  or  prime 
minister;  but  disagreeing  with  his  associates 
in  the  cabinet  on  important  questions,  and  be 
ing  held  in  a  measure  responsible  for  the  failure 
of  the  first  Turkish  loan,  he  retired,  and  was 
appointed  governor  general  of  Smyrna  (1853), 
and  afterward  of  Brusa  (1854).  Toward  the 
end  of  1854,  however,  during  the  Crimean 
war,  he  was  restored  to  power  as  president  of 
the  newly  established  board  of  reforms  (Tanzi- 
mat\  and  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  In 
1855  he  attended  the  conference  of  Vienna, 
and  while  absent  was  appointed  grand  vizier. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  convention 
which  framed  the  Ilatti-IIumayum  of  Feb.  18, 
1850,  confirming  all  the  guarantees  previous 
ly  given  to  the  Christian  powers  for  the 
equal  rights  and  religious  liberty  of  Christians 
in  Turkey.  As  minister  plenipotentiary  he 
signed  in  1856  the  treaty  of  Paris,  though  he 
did  not  fully  approve  of  its  terms.  Indeed,  he 
found  so  many  difficulties  in  regard  to  the  ar 
rangements  of  that  treaty  for  the  settlement  of 
the  Roumanian  question  that  he  relinquished 
his  post  of  grand  vizier  to  Reshid  Pasha,  Nov. 
1,  1856,  but  the  sultan  induced  him  to  remain 
a  member  of  the  cabinet  without  portfolio, 
and  an  active  member  of  the  supreme  council. 
On  Reshid  Pasha's  death  he  resumed  the  office 
of  grand  vizier,  Jan.  11,  1858,  but  retired 
again  in  1859,  on  account  of  dissatisfaction 
with  the  demands  of  the  foreign  powers  and 
the  reformatory  measures  of'  Abdul-Medjid. 
But  he  subsequently  returned  to  his  old  post 
in  the  Tanzimat,  and  acted  as  grand  vizier  dur 
ing  the  temporary  absence  of,  Rushdi  Pasha, 
and  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  during  Fuad 
Pasha's  visit  to  Syria,  on  occasion  of  the  mas 
sacres  of  Damascus.  After  the  accession  of 
the  present  sultan,  Aali  Pasha  was  once  more 


called  to  the  head  of  the  cabinet  as  grand 
vizier,  June  7,  1861,  but  in  November  yielded 
that  post  to  Fuad  Pasha,  becoming  again  min 
ister  of  foreign  affairs.  In  1864  he  attended 
the  conference  at  Paris  to  settle  the  Rouma 
nian  question,  and  continued  to  preside  over 
foreign  relations  till  1867,  when  he  once  more 
exchanged  offices  with  Fuad.  In  June,  1867, 
the  sultan  appointed  him  regent  of  the  empire 
during  his  visit  to  European  courts.  In  Sep 
tember  he  went  to  Crete  to  finish  the  insur 
rection  in  that  island,  which  however  continued 
till  1868 ;  but  it  was  due  chiefly  to  his  mod 
eration  that  a  war  with  Greece  was  then 
avoided.  After  the  death  of  Fuad  Pasha  (Feb. 
11,  1869)  Aali  discharged  the  duties  both  of 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  grand  vizier. 
In  the  recent  complications  with  Egypt,  as 
well  as  in  the  precarious  relations  with  Rou- 
mania,  Albania,  Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  Mon 
tenegro,  he  displayed  his  characteristic  mod 
eration,  and  prevented  an  outbreak,  while  pre 
serving  the  integrity  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 
In  the  London  conference  of  1870  for  the  con 
sideration  of  the  Russian  demand  for  the  de- 
neutralization  of  the  Black  sea,  and  the  modi 
fication  to  that  effect  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  of 
1856,  he  bore  a  conspicuous  part,  insuring  the 
safety  of  Turkey.  Before  he  died  he  had  re 
stored  good  relations  with  Russia  and  Greece, 
and  checked  the  ambition  of  the  khedive. 
His  interest  in  reforms  made  him  unpopular 
with  the  Turks  of  the  old  school,  though  with 
all  his  appreciation  of  Christian  civilization  he 
never  ceased  to  be  a  zealous  Moslem.  He 
was  small  in  stature,  unseemly  in  appearance, 
diffident  in  manner,  and  distinguished  for  offi 
cial  honesty.  His  biographer,  Fatin  Eftendi, 
ascribes  to  him  poetical  talent. 

AALST.     See  AELST. 

AALTE1V,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  province 
of  Gelderland,  district  of  Zutphen,  situated  On 
the  Aa;  pop.  in  1867,  6,160,  and  increasing 
rapidly.  It  has  many  tanneries  and  factories. 

AAR,  or  Aarc,  the  largest  river  of  Switzer 
land  after  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone.  It  rises 
in  the  glaciers  of  the  Grimsel  in  the  Bernese 
mountains,  forms  at  Handed:  a  magnificent 
waterfall  above  290  feet  high,  flows  N".  W., 
N.  E.,  and  N.  about  120  miles  through  the 
lakes  of  Brienz  and  Thun,  and  through  the 
cantons  of  Bern,  Soleure,  and  Aargau,  and 
falls  into  the  Rhine  between  the  village  of 
Coblenz,  in  Aargau,  and  Waldshut,  in  Baden. 
Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Saane,  Thiele,  Emmen, 
Wigger,  Reuss,  and  Limmat. — Aar  is  also  the 
name  of  several  small  rivers  in  Germany. 

AARAU,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  capital  of  the 
canton  of  Aargau,  on  the  Aar;  pop.  in  1870, 
5,449.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  is  celebra 
ted  for  its  manufactories  of  mathematical  in 
struments.  In  August,  1712,  a  peace  was  con 
cluded  at  Aarau  between  the  cantons  of  Bern 
and  Unterwalden.  During  the  time  of  the  Hel 
vetic  republic  (1798)  Aarau  was  the  seat  of  the 
central  government. 


AARD-VARK 


AARGAU 


AARD-VARK  (orycteropus  capensis\  a  planti 
grade  animal  of  the  class  mammalia,  order 
sdentata,  peculiar  to  Africa,  and  extremely 
common  in  the  southern  part  of  that  conti 
nent,  especially  in  the  Cape  Colony,  where  it 
is  called  aard-rark  or  earth  pig.  It  was  for 
merly  classed  Avith  the  myrmecophaga,  or  ant- 


eaters.  The  aard-vark  is  more  closely  allied 
in  anatomical  structure  and  in  its  dental  sys 
tem  to  the  armadillos  than  to  any  other  class 
of  animals,  although  it  has  not  their  defensive 
armor.  It  has  neither  incisors  nor  canine  teeth, 
and  its  molars  are  different  in  structure  from 
those  of  any  other  quadruped ;  they  have  no 
roots,  and,  like  the  tusks  of  the  elephant  and  the 
incisors  of  the  gnawing  animals,  are  constantly 
increased  by  the  deposit  of  new  bony  matter 
at  the  base  to  compensate  for  the  continual 
wear  at  the  extremity.  It  has  large,  flat  feet, 
hollow  on  the  under  side,  with  powerful  claws, 
the  toes,  four  in  front  and  five  behind,  gradu 
ally  diminishing  outward  from  the  interior  and 
second,  corresponding  to  the  fore  and  index 
fingers  of  the  human  hand.  This  structure 
gives  it  great  facilities  for  digging  the  burrows 
in  which  it  lives,  and  for  excavating  the  hills 
of  the  great  ants,  on  which  it  feeds  exclusively, 
as  do  the  pangolins  of  Asia,  the  myrmecopliaga 
of  America,  and  the  echidna  of  Australia.  At 
first  sight,  the  aard-vark  resembles  a  small, 
short-legged  pig.  Its  length,  when  full-grown, 
exclusive  of  the  tail,  is  about  3  feet  5  inches, 
its  head  11  inches,  its  ears  6  inches,  and  its 
tail  1  foot  9  inches.  Its  head  is  long  and  at 
tenuated,  its  upper  jaw  projecting  beyond  the 
lower ;  its  mouth  small ;  its  tongue  long,  slen 
der,  and  flat,  unlike  the  cylindrical  organ  of 
the  myrmecophaga,  nor  capable  of  so  great 
protrusion,  but,  like  theirs,  covered  with  gluti 
nous  saliva,  which  firmly  retains  the  ants  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact.  Its  ears  are  long, 
erect,  and  pointed ;  its  eyes  of  moderate  size, 
two  thirds  nearer  to  the  brow  than  to  the 
snout.  Its  body  is  thick  and  corpulent,  the 
limbs  short  and  very  strong.  The  skin  is  gen 
erally  bare,  but  thinly  scattered  with  a  few 
stiff,  reddish-brown  hairs,  which  are  more  nu 
merous  on  the  hips  and  thighs  than  on  the 
other  parts  of  the  body.  The  tail  is  nearly 
naked,  very  thick  at  the  base,  but  tapering  to 
a  sharp  point  at  the  end.  The  aard-vark  is  a 
very  timid,  inoffensive  animal,  burrowing  in 
the  ground,  if  pursued,  so  rapidly  as  to  get 


wholly  out  of  sight  in  the  space  of  a  few  min 
utes,  and  working  inward  with  such  power 
and  quickness  that  it  is  impracticable  to  dig 
him  out.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits  and  in 
its  hours  of  feeding,  and  becomes  exceedingly 
fat.  Its  flesh  is  wholesome,  and  its  hams, 
salted  and  dried,  are  good  eating. 

AARD-WOLF  (earth  wolf;  proteles  Lalan- 
dii,  viverra  cristata\  a  singular  quadruped,  of 
the  digitigrade  carnivorous  mammalia,  •  first 
brought  from  Caffraria  by  the  traveller  Dela- 
lande.  To  the  external  appearance  and  osteo- 
logical  structure  of  the  hyena  it  unites  the 
head  and  feet  of  the  fox,  and  the  intestines  of 
the  civet.  It  has  five  toes  on  the  fore  feet,  the 
interior  one  of  which  is  situated  high  above 
the  others,  and  does  not  touch  the  ground,  and 
but  four  behind.  Its  fore  legs  are  much  longer 
than  the  hind  ones,  which  makes  it  compara 
tively  slow  in  its  motions.  In  size  it  is  about 
equal  to  a  full-grown  fox,  which  it  also  resem 
bles  in  its  pointed  muzzle ;  but  it  stands  much 
higher  on  its  legs,  while  its  ears  are  larger  and 
more  naked,  and  its  tail  shorter  and  not  so 
bushy.  It  has  a  coarse,  stiff  mane,  which  runs 
along  the  whole  of  its  neck  and  back,  and  is 
erectile  when  the  animal  is  enraged.  Its  gen 
eral  color  is  pale  ash,  with  a  slight  tinge  of 
yellowish  brown;  the  muzzle  is  black,  and 
nearly  naked,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  stiff 
moustaches,  Around  its  eyes,  and  on  each 
side  of  the  neck,  are  dark  brown  transverse 
marks,  and  on  the  body  are  eight  or  ten  simi 


lar  bands,  the  arms  and  thighs  being  barred 
with  the  same  color.  Its  legs  and  feet  are 
dark  brown  behind,  and  gray  on  the  inner  sur 
face.  The  long  hairs  of  the  mane  are  gray, 
with  two  bands  of  black,  the  latter  occupying 
the  tips ;  those  of  the  tail,  which  are  equally 
stiff,  are  of  the  same  color.  The  ears  are 
brown  without,  and  gray  internally.  In  habits 
it  resembles  the  fox,  constructing  burrows,  in 
which  it  sleeps  during  the  day,  going  abroad 
and  feeding  only  by  night.  It  is  timid,  inof 
fensive,  and  shy  in  its  habits,  but  many  individ 
uals  are  ordinarily  found  residents  of  the  same 
burrow,  which  has  always  several  apertures  for 
escape.  It  is  said  to  run  very  fast,  in  spite  of 
the  excessive  length  of  its  fore  legs. 

AARGAl"  (Fr.  Argovie),  a  Swiss  canton,  bound 
ed  by  Zurich,  Zug,  Lucerne,  Bern,  Soleure, 
Basel,  and  the  Rhine,  which  separates  it  from 
Baden;  area,  542  sq.m.;  pop.  in  1870,  198,873, 


AARIIUUS 


ABACO 


of  whom  107,T03  were  Protestants,  89,180 
Roman  Catholics,  and  1,542  Jews.  The  coun 
try  is  diversified  by  hills,  mountains,  and 
valleys,  the  soil  well  cultivated,  and  extensive 
vineyards  abound.  It  is  watered  by  the  rivers 
Aar,  Reuss,  and  Limmat,  the  two  latter  being 
navigable.  Cottons,  silks,  and  linens,  woven 
by  hand,  are  the  principal  manufactures,  and, 
with  straw  hats,  cheese,  corn,  wine,  and  cat 
tle,  form  the  chief  exports.  The  canton  is 
divided  into  the  following  eleven  districts: 
Aarau  (pop.  19,247),  Baden  (23,462),  Brem- 
garten  (18,751),  Brugg  (17,102),  Kulm  (20,790), 
Laufenburg  (14,407),  Lensburg  (18,497),  Muri 
(14,297),  Rheinfelden  (11,417),  Zofingen  (20,- 
980),  and  Zurzach  (13,861).  Capital,  Aarau. 
The  canton  was  organized  in  1803.  Each  of 
the  50  electoral  districts  elects  a  member  of 
the  grand  council  for  every  200  voters  and  for 
a  fraction  of  over  130 ;  state  officers  and  teach 
ers  of  state  schools  are  ineligible.  The  grand 
council  elects  from  its  number  a  governing 
council  (RegierungsratJi)  of  eleven  members, 
three  of  whom  at  least  must  be  Protestants 
and  three  Catholics.— On  Feb.  13,  1841,  all  the 
convents  of  the  canton  were  abolished  and 
their  property  confiscated.  The  protest  of 
several  Catholic  cantons  against  this  measure 
was  so  vigorously  supported  by  the  Austrian 
government,  that  the  government  of  the  can 
ton  in  1843  reestablished  four  female  convents. 
Most  of  the  cantons  were  satisfied  with  this, 
but  the  minority  were  induced  by  it  to  organ 
ize  the  Sonderbund.  In  1802  the  grand  coun 
cil  declared  in  favor  of  the  emancipation  of  the 
Jews,  but  the  people  voted  it  down. 

AARHUUS,  a  seaport  of  Denmark,  in  East 
Jutland,  capital  of  Aarhuus  bailiwick,  on  the 
Cattegat,  37  m.  S.'E.  of  Viborg;  pop.  in  1870, 
15,025.  It  contains  one  of  the  finest  and  larg 
est  cathedrals  in  Denmark,  a  library,  and  a 
museum.  Its  commerce  is  considerable,  and 
it  has  a  regular  steam  communication  with 
Copenhagen. 

AARO\.  I.  Son  of  Amram,  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  elder  brother  of  Moses,  his  spokesman  in 
the  embassy  to  the  court  of  Pharaoh,  and  sub 
sequently  the  first  high  priest.  He  was  recre 
ant  to  his  trust  in  the  absence  of  Moses  upon 
Mount  Sinai,  and  made  the  golden  calf  for  the 
people  to  worship.  He  died  on  Mount  Hor  at 
the  age  of  123  years,  and  his  office  descended 
to  Eleazar,  his  son.  II.  A  physician  of  Alex 
andria,  Egypt,  who  flourished  in  the  7th  cen 
tury.  He  wrote  on  medicines,  and  is  the  first 
author  who  mentions  the  small-pox. 

AARSEXS,  Frans  van,  a  Dutch  diplomatist, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1572,  died  in  1041.  In 
1599  lie  was  appointed  ambassador  at  the 
French  court,  and  concluded  (1009)  the  truce 
of  12  years  between  the  United  Provinces  and 
Spain.  He  was  afterward  ambassador  to  Ven 
ice,  and  sent  on  numerous  special  missions,  and 
in  1040  went  to  England  to  negotiate  the  mar 
riage  between  William  prince  of  Orange  and 
the  princess  Mary.  He  was  originally  a  pro- 


|  tege  and  partisan  of  Barneveldt,  but  turned 
;  against  him  and  was  the  chief  instrument  in 
!  his  destruction. 

AASEtf,    Ivar  Andreas,   a  Norwegian  philol- 
•  ogist,  born  at  Oersten,  Aug.  5,  1813.    The  son 
;  of  a   poor  farmer,  he  became  well  educated 
!  through  his  own  efforts.    He  first  devoted  him 
self  to  botany,  and  then  studied  the  different 
local  dialects  of  his  country,  producing  Det 
\  norsl-e    Folkcsprogs    Grammatik    (Christiania, 
j  1848)  and   Ordbog  over  det  norslce  Folkesprog 
(1850).     Among  his  more  recent  works  is  one 
on  Norwegian  proverbs  (1850).     An  annuity 
has  been  conferred  upon  him  by  Norway. 

AASVAR,  a  group  of  small  islands,  below  the 
arctic  polar  circle,  about  12  m.  from  the  Nor 
wegian  coast,  forming  part  of  the  prefecture 
of  Nordre  Helgoland  and  of  the  parish  of  Don- 
naes,  in  the  province  of  Nordland.  They  have 
recently  acquired  importance  as  a  station  for 
herring  fisheries,  giving  employment  to  over 
10,000  fishermen.  The  annual  value  of  the 
exports  is  estimated  at  about  $1,000,000,  and 
the  fish  is  known  as  the  great  Nordland  herring. 
They  are  caught  from  December  to  January, 
and  sometimes  in  quantities  exceeding  200,000 
tons.  During  the  rest  of  the  year  the  islands 
are  almost  deserted. 

AB,  the  eleventh  month  of  the  Jewish  civil 
year  and  the  fifth  of  the  ecclesiastical,  corre 
sponding  to  a  part  of  July  and  a  part  of  August. 
The  ninth  of  the  month  is  one  of  the  principal 
Jewish  fast  days,  commemorating  both  the  de- 
j  struction  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu 
chadnezzar  and  that  by  Titus. 

ABABDEH,  or  Ababdie,  tribes  of  N.  E.  Afri- 
|  ca,  tributary  to  Egypt,  under  the  jurisdiction 
|  of  a  resident  sheik,  spread  over  the  N.  part  of 
j  the  desert  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea7 
I  from  Kenneh  to  Asswan  and  Dera,  and,  ac- 
j  cording  to  Belzoni,  as-  far  as  Suez.  They  are 
divided  into  three  principal  tribes — the  Fokara, 
Ashabat,  and  Melaykab — and  number  about 
120,000.  Their  armed  force  consists  of  about 
20,000  men.  They  are  often  erroneously  con 
founded  with  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  but  differ 
from  them  in  appearance,  habits,  and  language. 
Some  of  them  are  agriculturists,  but  they  lead 
generally  a  nomadic  life,  and  act  as  guides 
to  the  Sennaar  caravans,  which  start  from 
Daraweh,  40  m.  N.  of  Asswan.  They  have 
few  horses,  but  many  camels  and  dromedaries, 
the  latter  being  especially  celebrated  in  the 
East.  They  fight'  mounted  on  camels,  naked 
to  the  waist.  Burckhardt,  in  his  "  Travels  in 
Nubia,"  regards  them  as  of  Arab  stock,  but  is 
not  supported  in  this  view  by  other  authorities. 
However,  they  have  intermarried  with  Arabs, 
and  adopted  their  religion.  To  the  Romans 
they  are  believed  to  have  been  known  under 
the  name  of  Blemyes ;  but  after  the  Arab  con 
quest  of  Egypt  they  appear  under  the  collective 
name  of  Bega,  as  traders  on  the  Red  sea. 
Nearly  on  a  line  with  Asswan,  in  the  Ababdeh 
territory,  are  the  ruins  of  Berenice. 
ABACO,  Great,  a  long  and  crooked  island,  the 


ABACUS 


ABASCAL 


largest  of  the  Bahama  group,  150  m.  E.  of  Flori 
da,  80  in.  long  by  an  average  of  15  wide.  Its  N". 
point  is  in  lat.  26°  30'  N.,  Ion.  70°  57'  W. 
Pop.  about  2,000,  including  Little  Abaco,  ad 
joining,  28  by  4  to  5  m.  Many  of  the  inhabit 
ants  are  white  Creoles.  They  work  at  ship 
building,  turtling,  and  wrecking. 

ABACI'S.     I.  In  architecture,  the  upper  part 
of  the  capital  of  a  column,  supporting  the  en- 


Corinthian  Abacus. 


Doric  Abacus. 


tablature,  said  to  have  been  designed  from  a 
square  tile  laid  over  a  basket.  The  shape  of 
the  abacus  differs  in  different  orders.  II. 
Among  the  ancients,  a  cupboard.  III.  The 
mystic  staff  carried  by  the  grand  master  of  the 
Templars.  Its  head  was  of  silver,  marked 
with  the  peculiar  cross  of  the  order;  but  it 
was  supposed  to  bear  another  secret  device, 
concealed  or  disguised,  and  revealed  only  to 
the  initiated,  being  no  other  than  the  ortho- 
phallic  symbol  of  heathen  antiquity,  indicating 
the  worship  of  the  generative  power  as  dis 
tinct  from  the  cre 
ative  attribute  of 
God.  IV.  A  cal 
culating  machine 
to  facilitate  arith 
metical  computa 
tions.  In  China  it 


Counting  Abacus. 


is  much  employed.  The  Chinese  call  it  sh wan- 
pan.  A  man  who  uses  the  shwanpan  can  tell 
the  amount  of  a  column  of  figures  the  moment 
they  are  read  off  to  him.  It  is  also  found  in 
Russian  shops  and  counting  houses.  Improved 
forms  of  this  machine  are  known  in  the  Uni 
ted  States  as  the  "adder." 

ABAD  I.  (ABU  AMRU  IBX  HABED),  first  Moorish 
king  of  Seville,  and  founder  of  the  Abadite  dy 
nasty,  born  in  the  hitter  half  of  the  10th  cen 
tury,  died   about  1041.     His  ancestors,  from 
Emesa  in  Syria,  had  settled  at  Tocina,  on  the 
Guadalquivir.     He  was  brought  up  at  Seville, 
where  by  his  munificence  and  amiability  he 
became  so  popular  that  the  people,  wearied  by  i 
the  bad  administration  of  the  Ommiyade  rulers,  \ 
chose  him  in  1015  as  their  king.     After  con-  \ 
solidating  his  power  at  Seville,  he  added  Cor-  ! 
dovato  his  dominions,  and  reigned  26  years. — 
Abad  II.  (MOHAMMED  IBX  HABED),  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1012,  died  in  1069.      He 
added  the  territory  of  Carmona  to  Seville,  gra 
dually  acquired  all  Andalusia,  and  aimed  at  the 
subjugation  of  entire  Spain.    He  was  cruel  and 
relentless.-— Abad  III.  (MOHAMMED  IBX  HABED), 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1039,  died  in  1095. 
lie  was  celebrated  for  love  of  art  and  letters  and  | 
for  poetical  talent.  He  continued  the  conquests  \ 
of  his  father  and  grandfather,  added  a  part  of 
Portugal  to  his  dominions,  and  threatened  Cas 
tile.     At  the  same  time  he  was  tolerant  and 
kindly.     Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile,  after  having  j 
been  his  enemy,  married  his  daughter.     This  ! 


I  alliance  with  a  Christian  king  excited  the  jeal- 
|  ousy  of  the  petty  Moorish  rulers.     Aided  by 
|  the  king   of  Morocco,  they  attacked   Alfonso 
|  and  Abad,  and  the  latter  only  avoided  the  sack 
ing  of  Seville  by  surrendering  (1091).     He  was 
imprisoned  four  years  in  Morocco,  where  his 
j  four  daughters  were  compelled  to  spin  wool  for 
their  subsistence.  His  poems,  composed  during 
his  captivity,  were  admired.     The  Abadite  dy 
nasty  ended  with  him. 

ABADDON.     See  APOLLYOX. 

ABAKA  KHAN,  second  Mongol  king  of  Persia, 
of  the  family  of  Genghis  Khan,  succeeded  his 
father,  Hulaku  Khan,  in  1265,  and  died  about 
1280.  He  completed  the  conquests  of  his  father, 
restored  Bagdad,  and  consolidated  the  Mongol 
sway  over  western  Asia. 

ABANA,  mentioned  in  Scripture  in  connection 
with  Pharpar  as  a  river  of  Damascus,  is  now 
generally  identified  with  the  Barada,  the  Chry- 
sorrhoas  of  the  Greeks,  while  the  Awaj  is  con 
sidered  identical  with  Pharpar. 

ABANCOIRT,  Charles  Xavier  Joseph  d>,  min 
ister  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  born  at 
Donay,  July  4,  1758,  died  Sept.  10,  1792.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  revolution  he  was 
captain  in  the  cavalry,-  but  was  made  minister 
of  war  in  consequence  of  the  occurrences  of 
June  20,  1792.  During  the  proceedings  of  the 
10th  of  August  he  was  accused  of  being  a  foe 
to  freedom,  and  was  imprisoned.  With  many 
others  he  was  dragged  before  the  tribunal  at 
Orleans,  whence  he  was  to  be  reconducted  to 
Paris ;  but  the  transport  was  mobbed  on  the 
way  at  Versailles,  and  Abancourt  and  his 
fellow  prisoners  were  butchered. 

ABANO,  Pietro  d>  (Lat.  Petrm  de  Apono),  an 
Italian  philosopher,  born  at  Abano  in  1250, 
died  in  1316.  He  studied  at  Constantinople 
and  Paris,  became  professor  of  medicine  at 
Padua,  and  wrote  several  works  on  philosophy 
and  medicine.  Like  other  men  of  his  age,  he 
practised  astrology,  and  was  accused  of  magic 
and  sentenced  to  be  burnt,  but  died  in  prison. 

ABARBANEL.     See  ABRAVAXEL. 

ABARCA,  Joaquin,  a  Spanish  bishop,  born  in 
Aragon  about  1780,  died  at  Lanza,  near  Turin, 
June  21,  1844.  Having  been  promoted  in  1823 
from  a  village  priest  to  be  bishop  of  Leon,  for 
supporting  the  absolute  rule  of  Ferdinand  VII., 
he  accompanied  the  pretender  Don  Carlos  to 
Portugal  and  England,  and  acted  as  his  agent, 
and  in  1836  as.  his  prime  minister  in  the  Basque 
provinces,  but  finally  forfeited  his  regard.  Being 
banished  from  Spain  after  various  political  in 
trigues  and  adventures,  he  retired  in  1839  to  a 
monastery  at  Lanza,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death. 

ABARDI,  a  mountain  or  range  of  highlands  in 
eastern  Palestine,  facing  Jericho.  Its  most 
elevated  spot  was  Xebo,  on  which  Moses  died. 

ABASCAL,  Jose  Fernando,  a  Spanish  states 
man,  born  at  Oviedo  in  1743,  died  in  Madrid, 
June  13,  1821.  He  entered  the  Spanish  army 
in  1762,  and  distinguished  himself  as  colonel  in 
the  war  against  the  French  republic.  In  1796 


ABAUZIT 


ABBAS  MIRZA 


he  became  governor  of  Cuba,  and  defended 
Havana  against  the  British.  Thence  trans 
ferred  to  be  governor  of  New  Galicia,  he  was 
in  1804  appointed  viceroy  of  Peru.  On  his 
journey  thither  he  was  captured  by  the  Eng 
lish,  but  escaped  and  reached  Lima.  His  ad 
ministration  was  successful,  and  for  some  time 
he  checked  the  movement  for  independence  in 
Peru,  the  Plata  states,  and  Chili.  On  return 
ing  home,  in  1816,  lie  Avas  greeted  as  a  na 
tional  benefactor  and  made  a  marquis. 

ABAUZIT,  Firmin,  a  French  theologian  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Uzes,  Nov.  11,  1679,  died 
in  Geneva,  March  20,  1767.  The  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes  banished  his  mother  to 
Geneva  while  he  was  yet  a  boy,  and  her  devo 
tion  to  the  reformed  church  incited  the  young 
Firmin  to  study  theology  and  the  exact  sciences. 
At  the  age  of  19,  while  travelling  in  Holland, 
lie  won  the  friendship  of  Bayle  and  Basnage. 
In  England  he  became  the  friend  of  Newton, 
and  was  distinguished  by  William  III.  Voltaire 
and  Rousseau  spoke  highly  of  his  genius  and 
wisdom.  His  writings  include  "An  Essay  on 
the  Apocalypse,"  "  Reflections  on  the  Eucha 
rist,1'  and  "The  Mysteries  of  Religion." 

ABBADIE.  I.  Jacques,  a  French  Protestant 
divine,  born  at  Nay,  in  Be"arn,  in  1658,  died  in 
London,  Oct.  6,  1727.  After  completing  his 
studies  at  Sedan  lie  went  to  Germany  and  Hol 
land,  and  became  pastor  of  the  French  church 
of  Berlin.  In  1690  he  went  to  England,  and, 
after  preaching  some  time  in  London,  was 
made  dean  of  Killaloe  in  Ireland.  He  was  a 
warm  partisan  of  William  III.,  and  wrote  a  de 
fence  of  the  revolution  and  a  history  of  the 
assassination  plot.  II is  most  important  works 
are :  Traite  de  la  divinite  de  Jesus  Christ,  and 
Traite  de  la  xerite  de  la  religion  chretienne. 
II.  Antoine  Thomson  and  Arnand  Michel  d',  French 
explorers,  brothers,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
in  1810  and  1815.  Their  father,  a  Frenchman 
temporarily  residing  in  Dublin,  returned  with 
them  to  France  in  their  early  childhood.  In 
1835  Antoine  explored  Brazil  on  a  mission  from 
the  academy  of  sciences,  while  Arnaud  trav 
elled  in  Algeria.  The  two  brothers  happening 
to  meet  at  Alexandria  in  1837,  they  set  out  on 
an  exploring  expedition  to  Abyssinia,  which 
lasted  till  1845,  and  afterward  passed  three 
years  in  the  Galla  country.  A  rumor  of  their 
death  caused  a  third  brother,  Charles,  to  pro 
ceed  to  that  country,  where  he  found  them ; 
and  in  1848  they  returned  to  France.  A  joint 
work  of  the  two  brothers  appeared  in  1860-'63, 
under  the  title  of  Geodesic  (FlUthiopie.  Many 
of  their  writings  are  contained  in  tlie  Bulletin 
of  the  Paris  geographical  society,  including 
Notes  sur  le  Jiaut  fleuve  Blanc,  published  sep 
arately  in  1849.  The  English  expedition  to 
Abyssinia  led  Arnaud  d'Abbadie  to  publish  in 
1868  Dome  am  dans  la  Haute- fithiopie.  The 
two  brothers  reside,  when  in  France,  at  TJr- 
rugne,  a  village  in  the  Basses-Pyrenees. 

ABBAS  I.,  the  Great,  fifth  shah  of  Persia  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Sofis,  born  in  1557,  died 


Jan.  27,  1628.  Pie  succeeded  to  the  throne  on 
the  murder  of  his  two  elder  brothers  in  1587. 
He  conquered  Gilan,  Mazanderan,  Khorassan, 
and  a  great  part  of  Afghanistan ;  and  by  the 
victory  of  Bassorah  in  1605  over  the  Turks, 
and  in  many  successive  campaigns,  he  gained 
extensive  accessions  of  territory  all  along  the 
western  frontier.  Shah  Abbas  constructed  the 
great  highroad  of  Mazanderan,  300  miles  long 
and  40  feet  wide,  of  which  parts  still  remain. 
He  suppressed  the  Kurghis,  a  body  similar  to 
the  Turkish  janizaries ;  he  fomented  the  sec 
tarian  differences  of  the  Shiahs  and  the  Sunnis, 
and  reduced  the  dogmas  of  the  Shiahs  into  the 
form  of  a  creed.  His  fame  extended  to  Europe, 
and  ambassadors  were  sent  to  him  from  every 
court.  He  was  not  exempt  from  the  vices  of 
oriental  despotism.  Among  other  crimes,  he 
put  to  death  his  eldest  son,  leaving  his  throne 
to  his  grandson,  Sefy  Mirza. 

ABBAS  BEN  ABD-EL-MOTTALIB,  paternal  uncle 
of  Mohammed,  born  at  Mecca  in  566,  died  in 
652.  He  was  the  progenitor  of  the  Abbasside 
dynasty,  but  not  knowrn  as  such  until  an  ad 
venturer,  requiring  a  title  to  his  usurpations, 
traced  his  descent  to  him.  He  was  only  four 
years  the  senior  of  Mohammed,  and  was  yet  a 
pagan  when  the  prophet  commenced  his  reli 
gious  career,  and  long  hesitated  to  espouse  his 
nephew's  cause.  In  the  battle  at  the  well  of 
Bedr  Abbas  fought  against  his  nephew,  and 
was  taken  prisoner.  So  soon,  however,  as 
Mohammed's  career  seemed  prosperous,  the 
uncle  gave  in  his  adhesion,  and  became  one  of 
the  most  zealous  supporters  of  the  new  faith. 
His  influence  and  mediation  brought  over  the 
family  of  the  Koreishites ;  for  when  Moham 
med,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  force,  was 
about  laying  siege  to  Mecca,  Abbas  went  for 
ward,  and  not  only  demonstrated  to  Abu  Sotian 
the  inutility  of  resistance,  but  induced  him  to 
come  to  Mohammed's  camp  and  to  have  a  per 
sonal  interview,  which  ended  in  Abu  Sofian's 
making  the  profession  of  faith  on  behalf  of 
himself  and  his  kinsmen.  When  Mecca  sur 
rendered  to  Mohammed,  the  holy  well  Zemzem 
was  retained,  in  deference  to  Abbas,  its  keeper, 
though  other  pagan  rites  and  superstitions  were 
swept  away.  At  the  battle  of  Honem  Abbas 
rallied  the  fugitives  and  recovered  the  fortune 
of  the  day.  At  Mohammed's  funeral  he  was 
chief  mourner.  Caliph  Omar,  on  occasion  of 
a  terrible  drought,  took  his  hand,  and  prayed 
to  Allah  by  the  virtues  of  Abbas  to  have  pity 
on  the  perishing  people.  Caliph  Othman  also, 
when  he  met  the  patriarch,  dismounted. 

ABBAS  MIRZA,  a  Persian  prince  and  warrior, 
born  in  1783,  died  in  1833.  He  was  the  second 
and  favorite  son  of  Feth  Ali,  shah  of  Persia. 
He  was  the  declared  enemy  of  Russia,  and 
commanded  the  armies  of  his  father  in  the  wars 
with  that  power  in  1811-'13  and  1826-'8,  but 
his  campaigns  proved  unsuccessful.  In  1829 
the  populace  of  Teheran  murdered  the  Russian 
embassy,  and  Abbas  Mirza  voluntarily  went  to 
St.  Petersburg  to  give  satisfaction,  but  was  dis- 


ABBAS  PASHA 


ABBEOKUTA 


missed  honorably.  He  was  amiable  and  chival 
rous.  He  was  nominated  by  his  father  heir  to 
the  throne,  excluding  his  elder  brother;  but 
the  father  survived  both. 

ABBAS  PASHA,  viceroy  of  Egypt,  grandson 
of  Mehemet  Ali,  and  nephew  of  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  born  in  1813,  died  July  12,  1854.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Syrian  wars  of  his 
grandfather,  but  without  distinguishing  him 
self.  After  the  brief  reign  of  Ibrahim  Pasha, 
Mehemet  All's  eldest  son,  Abbas  ascended  the 
viceregal  throne,  as  hereditary  successor,  in 
1848.  He  undid  in  many  respects  the  work 
of  Mehemet  Ali,  dismissed  his  European  offi 
cials,  and  manifested  an  arbitrary,  capricious, 
and  cruel  disposition.  He  succeeded,  how 
ever,  in  disarming  his  adversaries  at  Constan 
tinople,  who  endeavored  to  cripple  him  and 
reduce  Egypt  to  a  more  inferior  condition. 
In  the  Crimean  war  he  aided  the  sultan.  His 
death  was  sudden,  and  probably  violent. 

ABBASSIDES,  caliphs  of  Bagdad,  the  third  Mo 
hammedan  dynasty,  founded  by  Abul  Abbas 
as-Saffeh  (the  Bloody),  who  claimed  the  caliph 
ate  as  lineal  descendant  of  Mohammed's  uncle 
Abbas,  whence  the  name.  He  was  proclaim 
ed  by  his  adherents  at  Cufah  in  749,  and  after 
ward  defeated  and  put  to  death  the  last  Ommi- 
yade  caliph,  Merwan  IL,  all  but  two  of  whose 
family  were  treacherously  slaughtered.  He 
died  in  754,  and  his  descendants  to  the  num 
ber  of  36  reigned  till  1258,  when  the  last, 
Mostasem,  was  expelled  from  the  throne  by 
Hulaku  Khan.  The  line  includes  the  illustrious 
names  of  Al-Mansour,  Haroun  al-Eashid.  and 
Al-Mamoun;  but  from  the  10th  century  they 
had  sunk  to  the  position  of  mere  spiritual 
chiefs  of  Islam,  all  political  power  being  wield 
ed  by  the  emir  el-omra,  or  commander-m- 
chief.  After  their  deposition  at  Bagdad,  Ahmed, 
a  member  of  the  family,  fled  to  Egypt,  where 
he  was  recognized  as  caliph,  and  his  descen 
dants  nominally  reigned  there,  under  the  pro 
tection  of  the  Mamelukes,  till  1517,  when  Egypt 
was  conquered  by  the  Turks.  Motawakkel, 
the  last  caliph,  was  carried  to  Constantinople, 
but  allowed  to  return  to  Cairo,  where  he  died 
in  1538. 

ABBATUCCI.  I.  Jacques  Pierre,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Corsica  in  1726,  died  in  1812. 
He  was  a  rival  and  political  opponent  of  Paoli, 
but  submitted  to  his  control  in  the  war  with 
the  Genoese.  After  the  French  conquest, 
which  he  resisted  at  first,  he  accepted  a  com 
mission  in  the  royal  army,  and  was  subse 
quently  appointed  to  protect  Corsica  against 
the  attempts  of  Paoli  and  the  English.  After 
the  capture  of  Toulon  he  resigned  and  re 
turned  to  France,  where  he  was  made  general 
of  division.  He  remained  there  till  1796, 
when,  the  English  leaving  Corsica,  he  went 
home.  II.  Charles,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1771,  died  Dec,  3,  1796.  He  served  in 
the  early  part  of  the  revolution  as  artillery  of 
ficer  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  1794  was  Pichegru's 
adjutant.  He  was  made  general  of  brigade 


for  bravery  in  1796,  and  afterward  general  of 
division  for  defeating  the  corps  of  the  prince 
of  Conde.     He  died  from  a  wound  received  in 
an  engagement  with  the  Austrians  at  Hiinin- 
gen,  where  Moreau  caused  a  monument  to  bo 
;  erected   to   his   memory.     III.    Jacques    Pierre 
Charles,    a    diplomatist,    nephew    of  the   pre 
ceding,  born  in  Corsica,  Dec.  22,  1791,   died 
j  Nov.  11,  1857.     Under  the  restoration  he  was 
1  a  law  officer  in  Corsica.     After  the  revolution 
|  of  1830  he  was  appointed  presiding  judge  at 
Orleans,  and  from  1839  was  its  representative 
in  the  chamber  of  deputies.     lie  was  a  leader 
of  the  opposition  to  Guizot's  ministry,  and  af 
terward  of  the  reform  banquets.     After  1848 
i  he  was  conspicuous  in  the  national  assembly 
by  his   opposition    to    the    social-democratic 
',  movement.     He  subsequently  became  a  zeal 
ous  supporter  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and  after  the 
coup  d'etat  was  appointed  by  him  minister  of 
justice  and  keeper  of  the  seals,  Jan.  22,  1852. 
His  sons,  CHAELES  (born  March  25,  1816),  AN- 
;  TOIXE  DOMINIQUE,  and  SEVEEIX,  all  figured  un 
der  the  second  empire  as  active  Bonapartists, 
the  last  chiefly  as  representative  from  Corsica. 
ABBE,  the  French  word  for  abbot.     Before 
;  the  revolution  of  1789,  any  Frenchman  who 
chose  to  devote  himself  to  divinity,  or  even  to 
finish  a  brief  course  of  study  in  a  theological 
j  seminary,  became  an  abbe,  waiting  hopefully 
|  for  the  king  to  confer  on  him  the  benefice  of 
an  abbey — that  is,  a  certain  portion  of  the  rev- 
|  enues  of  a  monastery.     In  the  mean  time  he 
engaged  in  any  and  every  kind  of  literary  labor, 
exerted  an  important  influence  upon  society, 
and  was  to  be  met  with  everywhere — at  the 
i  court  of  the  monarch,  the  public  tribunals,  the 
;  salon  of  the  fashionable  lady,  the  opera,  the 
playhouse,  and  the  cafe.     An  abbe  was  to  be 
found  in  almost  every  wealthy  family,  either 
;  as  the  friend  of  the  house  or  the  private  tutor 
of  the  children.     There  were  many  good  and 
noble  abbe's,  who  acquired  distinction  as  theo 
logians,  poets,  and  savants ;  but  as  a  class  they 
,  subjected  themselves  to  popular  suspicion  and 
i  literary  satire ;  and  with  the  revolution  they 
'  disappeared,  though  the  title  is  still  sometimes 
!  used  as  a  phrase  of  politeness. — ABBES  COM- 
i  MEXDATAIEES  was  the  title  of  the  225  abbots 
appointed  by  the  king  of  France.     Each  re- 
|  ceived  one  third  of  the  revenues  of  a  monas- 
j  tery,  but  he  could  not  interfere  with  the  prieur 
\  clamtral,    who   had   exclusive    control.     The 
i  cibbayes  des  savants  were  less  important  sine- 
;  cures,  applied  as  pensions  for  scholars  and  un- 
titled  scions  of  aristocracy. 

ABBEOKUTA,   or  Abeakntah,  an  independent 

city  of  central  Africa,   in  the   Egba   district 

of  Yoruba,  with  a  small  territory  containing 

several  minor  towns,   on   the  Ogoon,   which 

separates  it  on  the  TV.  from  Dahomey,  about 

!  50  m.  N.  of  Lagos,  and  110  m.  E.   S.  E.  of 

Abomey;  pop.  of  the  city  estimated  by  Major 

|  Burton  in  1861  at  150,000,  and  of  the  whole 

state  at  200,000.     The  city  stands  on  a  granite 

formation  567  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  is 


ABBESS 


ABBOT 


surrounded  by  a  mud  wall  six  feet  high  thatched 
with  palm  leaves,  20  m.  in  circumference  and 
enclosing  much  farming  land.     The  name  is 
derived  from  a  flat  rock  600  feet  long  covering 
the  top  of  a  high  hill  and  projecting  at  the 
sides.     The  streets  are  generally  narrow  and 
very   irregular    and    dirty.      The   houses   are 
built  o£  dried  mud  and  thatched,  with  10  to  20 
rooms,    surrounding    an    inner    court    where 
sheep  and  goats  are  kept.     Several  trades  are 
carried  on  in  a  primitive  way,  and  there  are 
unions  of  smiths,  carpenters,  weavers,  dyers, 
and  potters,  the  last  two  composed  of  women. 
Regular  markets  are  held,  with  very  active 
traffic,  chiefly  by  women,  in  cooked  and  un 
cooked  food,  vegetable  oils,  shea  or  tree  but 
ter,  raw  cotton,  grass  and  other  cloths,  manu 
factures  of  excellent  leather,  cutlery  and  other 
European  manufactures,  and  many  other  arti 
cles.      The    currency  is  cowry  shells,  but  in 
18(37   it   was   proposed   to   introduce    copper 
coins.     Caravans  go  from  Abbeokuta  to  Lake 
Tchad   and    Timbuctoo,    respectively   800   m. 
(direct)  X.  E.  and  850  m.  N.  N.  W.     The  town 
is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Ogoon, 
which  is  ascended  by  light  steamers  during 
eight  months  in  the  year.     The  principal  ex 
ports  are  palm  oil  and  shea  butter.     The  na 
tive  cotton  plant  is  perennial  and  the  fibre 
good,  and  great  efforts  have  been  made  to 
stimulate    its    cultivation.      In    1859-'60    the 
quantity  sent  to  England  was  about  2,800,000  ! 
Ibs.,  but  it  soon  fell  off  to  about  400,000  on  ac-  j 
count  of  local  war  and  indolence. — The  gov-  j 
eminent  of  Abbeokuta  is  entirely   elective.  I 
There  is  a  king,  whose  function?  are  chiefly  j 
judicial.     The  army  is  commanded  by  an  al-  | 
most    independent    general    (baloguri),    with  j 
elected  war  captains.     There  is  a  sort  of  le 
gislature   composed   of  the   so-called  Ogboni  | 
lodges  (of  which  there  is  one  in  each  town) 
and  the  war  captains,  which  controls  the  reve- 
nue  and  taxation,  and  is  said  to  possess  un-  j 
limited  power.     The  income  of  the  state  con-  j 
sists   of.  taxes   on   products   collected    at   the 
gates,  amounting  to  about  1  per  cent.     The  ! 
religion  of  most  of  the  people  is  fetishism,  but  i 
missions  have  been  established  by  the  Wes-  ' 
leyans,  Episcopalians,  and  Baptists,  whose  con 
verts  in    1801  numbered  about  1,500.     They 
publish  a  newspaper  in  the  Egba  tongue,  and 
there  is  a  church  built  of  wood  with  a  mud 
steeple  and  a   bell.      The   missionaries   were 
temporarily  expelled  by  a  mob  in  1867. — Ab 
beokuta  was  founded  in  1825  by  refugees  from 
numerous  Egba  towns  which   had  been   de 
stroyed  in  war  and  many  of  their  inhabitants 
carried  off  as  slaves.     Its  people  opposed  the 
slave    trade,  established   commerce   with  the 
English  at  Badagry  and  Lagos,  and  have  suc 
cessfully  withstood  many  attacks  from  neigh 
boring  states,  especially  Dahomey  and  Ibadan. 
The  king  of  Dahomey  suffered  disastrous  de 
feats  under  its  walls  in  1851  and  1864. 

ABBESS,  the  female  superior  of  a  convent  of 
nuns  ranking  as  an  abbey,   in   some   of  the 


|  more  ancient  orders.  An  abbess  is  solemnly 
I  blessed  and  inducted  into  office  by  a  bishop, 
;  and  uses  the  ring,  cross,  and  crozier. 

ABBEVILLE,  a  well  built,  fortified  town  of 
•  France,  in  the  department  of  Somme,  on  the 
!  river  Somme  and  the  Northern  railway,  25  m. 
\  N.  N.  W.  of  Amiens;   pop.  in   1866,   19,385. 
i  The  town  contains  a  fine  but  unfinished  Gothic 
I  cathedral,    with    other    public   edifices,    and 
!  among     its    manufactories    is    one    of    cloth 
founded  by  Colbert  in  1669.     Vessels  of  800 
;  tons  burden  sail  up  the  Somme  to  Abbeville. 
In   1259   peace  was  here  concluded  between 
!  Louis  IX.  of  France  and  Henry  III.  of  England. 
ABBEVILLE,   a  W.  N.   W.   county  of  South 
|  Carolina,   bounded   S.    W.  by  the   Savannah 
river,  and  N".  E.  by  the  Saluda;  area,  960  sq. 
:  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  31,129,  of  whom  20,213  were 
|  colored.      The   soil   is   generally   fertile,  well 
I  watered,  and  well  cultivated.     The  Greenville 
|  and  Columbia  railroad  runs  through  the  county. 
j  The  productions  in  1868  were  4,044,713  Ibs.  of 
j  cotton,    324,850    bushels   of    corn,    52,686   of 
|  wheat,  51,374  of  oats,   and  23,471   of  sweet 
|  potatoes.     The  total  value  of  property  in  1870 
was  $7,165,354.     Capital,  Abbeville. 

ABBO    CERNUSTS,    or    Abbon  the    Crooked,    a 
French  monk  of  St.  Germain  des  Pre"s,  died  in 
923.     He  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  of 
|  some  historical  value,  in  Latin,  descriptive  of 
j  the  siege  of  Paris  by  the  Northmen  in  885-'7, 
I  at  which  he  was  present.     A  French  transla- 
|  tion  of  it  has  been  published  by  Guizot. 

ABBO  FLORIA€EI\S1S,  or  Abbon  of  Henry,  a 
French  monk,  abbot  of  Fleury,  and  author  of 
"  Lives  of  the  Popes,"  born  near  Orleans  about 
945,  slain  Aug.  13,  1004,  while  striving  to  quell 
a  fray.  He  was  several  times  engaged  in  con 
troversies  with  the  bishops  as  champion  of  the 
rights  of  his  order.  In  986,  and  again  in  996, 
Abbo  was  sent  to  Rome  by  King  Robert,  to 
persuade  the  pope  to  abandon  his  intention  of 
placing  the  kingdom  under  interdict,  and  was 
successful  in  each  case. 

ABBOT  (from  the  Semitic  al  or  alia,  fa 
ther),  a  prelate  of  high  rank  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  who  governs  a  principal  mon 
astery  of  one  of  the  old  religious  orders,  which 
may  also  have  minor  convents  depending  on 
it.  An  abbot  is  solemnly  consecrated  by  a 
bishop,  though  this  is  regarded  as  a  merely  ec 
clesiastical  and  not  a  sacramental  rite.  Abbots 
are  allowed  to  use  the  mitre,  pastoral  cross, 
ring,  and  crozier,  and  to  celebrate  pontifical 
mass,  and  are  styled  right  reverend.  Some  of 
them  in  former  times  exercised  a  quasi-episco 
pal  jurisdiction  over  a  small  district,  and  were 
allowed  to  confer  tonsure  and  minor  orders. 
During  the  middle  ages  many  abbots,  especial 
ly  in  England,  were  powerful  feudal  barons. 
In  modern  times  they  are  simply  superiors  of 
religious  houses.  In  ecclesiastical  councils  an 
abbot  can  speak,  but  not  vote. 

ABBOT,  Abiel,  I).  I).,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Andover,  Mass.,  Aug.  17,  177«,  died 
on  the  return  voyage  from  Havana,  June  7, 


ABBOT 


ABBOTSFORD 


1828.  lie  graduated  at  Harvard  university, 
and  in  1794  became  minister  of  the  Congrega 
tional  society  in  Haverhill,  where  he  remained 
eight  years.  In  1802  he  took  charge  of  a  par 
ish  in  Beverly,  and  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life  as  pastor  in  that  place.  He  was  en 
tirely  free  from  sectarian  bitterness.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  series  of  "  Letters  from  Cuba  " 
(8vo,  Boston,  1829),  and  a  number  of  sermons. 

ABBOT,  Benjamin,  LLt  D.,  an  American  teach 
er,  for  50  years  principal  of  Phillips  acad 
emy  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  born  about  1763,  died 
at  Exeter,  Oct.  25,  1849.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college,  and  took  charge  of  the  acad 
emy,  which  he  conducted  till  1838. 

ABBOT,  Charles,  Lord  Colchester,  from  1802 
till  1817  speaker  of  the  British  house  of  com 
mons,  born  Oct.  14,  1757,  died  May  8,  1829. 
He  served  through  a  long  and  useful  career  in 
parliament,  occupying  at  different  times  offices 
of  honor  and  emolument.  He  was  the  author 
of  one  or  two  treatises  on  juridical  reform.  In 
1817  he  retired  from  the  speakersjiip,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Colchester. 

ABBOT,  George,   archbishop   of  Canterbury, 
born  at  Guildford,  Oct.  29,  1562,  died  at  Croy- 
don,  Aug.  5,  1633.     In  1597  he  was  appointed 
master  of  University  college,  Oxford,  and  was 
three  times  vice  chancellor.     In  1604,  when 
by  order  of  King  James  the  translation  of  the  | 
Bible  was  commenced,  Abbot  was  one  of  the  ' 
eight  divines  to  whom  the  whole  of  the  New  ; 
Testament  except  the  Epistles  was  intrusted. 
In  1609  he  was  made  bishop  of  Lichfield  and 
Coventry;    in  January,   1610,  bishop  of  Lon-  ! 
don;    in  November  following,  archbishop  of  } 
Canterbury.      He   steadfastly    opposed    King 
James's  project  of  a  divorce  between  Lady  ' 
Frances  Howard  and  the  earl  of  Essex,  and  i 


combated  the  royal  decree  permitting  Sunday 
sports.  Laud  was  his  bitter  enemy.  While 
visiting  Hampshire  for  the  restoration  of  his 
health,  he  accidentally  shot  a  gamekeeper 
with  the  arrow  aimed  at  a  deer ;  and  this  mis 
fortune,  which  was  made  the  subject  of  a  judi 
cial  inquiry  and  a  royal  pardon,  preyed  on  his 
health  and  spirits  during  the  rest  of  his  days. 

ABBOT,  Gorhain  Dummer,  LL.  D.,   an  Ameri 
can  teacher  and  author,  brother  of  Jacob  and 
|  J.  S.  C.  Abbott,  born  in  Brunswick,  Me.,  Sept.  3, 
!  1807.     After  studying  theology  at  Andover  he 
i  made  the  tour  of  the  United  States  and  several 
voyages  to  Europe,  in  order  to  examine  the 
systems  and  state  of  public  education,  as  well 
as  the  variety,  extent,  and  character  of  the  is 
sues  of  the  press.     In  1837  he  became  pastor 
I  of  the  Presbyterian  church  at  New  Rochelle, 
i  N.  Y. ;  in  1841-' 3  was  travelling  agent  of  the 
!  "  American  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
1  Knowledge";    and   in  1843    commenced  the 
I  "  Abbot  Collegiate  Institute  "  for  young  ladies 
!  in  New  York,  afterward  called  the  "  Spingler 
Institute."     He  retired  from  teaching  in  1866. 
i  He  has  written  "  Pleasure  and  Profit,"  "  Prayer 
Book  for  the  Young,"  "  Mexico  and  the  United 
i  States,  their  Mutual  Relations  and  Common  In- 
|  terests"  (8vo,  1869),  and  edited  several  educa 
tional  and  periodical  works.     (See  ABBOTT.) 

ABBOT,  Samuel,  a  wealthy  Boston  merchant, 
!  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Andover  theologi 
cal  seminary,  born  at  Andover  in  1732,  died 
April  30,  1812.  In  1807  he  made  a  donation 
of  $20,000  toward  establishing  the  seminary, 
and  at  his  death  left  it  $100,000  in  addition. 
He  also  gave  away  large  sums  for  various 
charitable  objects. 

ABBOTSFORD,  the  seat  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
from  which  his  baronet's  title  was  taken.     It 


Abbotsford. 


10 


ABBOTS-LANGLEY 


ABBOTT 


is  situated  in  the  parish  of  Melrose,  in  Rox 
burghshire  and  Selkirkshire,  on  the  right  hank 
of  the  Tweed,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
abbeys  of  Melrose,  Jcdburgh,  and  Dryburgh, 
and  the  towns  of  Selkirk  and  Galashiels.  Sir 
Walter  bought  the  estate  in  1811,  built  the 
mansion,  and  gave  it  its  present  name,  adopted 
from  an  adjoining  ford  in  the  Tweed.  The 
house  is  irregular,  and  after  the  pattern  of  the 
old  English  manor  houses ;  flourishing  planta 
tions  hem  it  round,  and  a  beautiful  haugh  or 
meadow  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Tweed 
forms  its  immediate  prospect.  The  external 
walls  of  the  house  and  garden  are  interca 
lated  with  antique  carved  stones  taken  from 
old  castles  and  abbeys.  The  inside  was 
decorated  with  beautiful  paintings,  the  work 
of  D.  B.  Hay  of  Edinburgh,  and  a  library  of 
curious  works  and  British  antiquities.  Ab- 
botsford  was  occupied  by  James  Hope  Scott, 
Esq.,  and  his  wife,  the  sole  surviving  grand 
daughter  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  until  that  lady's 
death,  Oct.  26,  1858.  Since  that  period,  pend 
ing  the  minority  of  Miss  Scott,  the  only  sur 
viving  child,  the  mansion  has  been  let  for  the 
use  of  a  Roman  Catholic  seminary  for  girls. 

ABBOTS-LAMLEY,  a  parish  in  Hertfordshire, 
England,  21  m.  N.  of  London,  noted  as  the 
birthplace  of  Nicholas  Breakspear  (Pope 
Adrian  IV.),  the  only  Englishman  who  ever  oc 
cupied  the  holy  see.  "The  Booksellers'  Re- 
treat "  in  this  place  is  an  institution  founded 
by  English  booksellers  as  a  home  for  decayed 
members  of  the  trade. 

ABBOTT,  a  family  of  American  writers, 
whose  name  was  originally  spelled  Abbot.  I. 
Jaeob,  born  at  Ilallowell,  Me.,  Nov.  14,  1803. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college,  Brunswick, 
Me.,  in  1820,  and  studied  divinity  at  the 
theological  seminary  in  Andover,  Mass.  From 
1825  to  1829  he  was  professor  of  mathematics 
and  natural  philosophy  in  Amherst  college, 
and  afterward  took  charge  of  the  newly 
founded  Mount  Vernon  school  for  girls  in  Bos 
ton.  In  1834  he  engaged  in  organizing  a  new 
Congregational  church  in  Roxbury  (the  Eliot 
church);  and  about  1838,  relinquishing  the 
pastoral  charge  to  his  brother  John  S.  C.,  he 
removed  to  Farmington,  Me.,  and  has  since  de 
voted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  literary  la 
bor,  chiefly  in  the  production  of  books  for  the 
young.  For  several  years  he  has  resided  in 
New  York.  A  complete  catalogue  of  his 
works  would  considerably  exceed  200  titles. 
Many  of  them  have  been  serial,  each  series 
comprising  from  3  to  36  volumes.  Among 
them  are  the  "Young  Christian"  series  (4 
vols.),  the  "Rollo  Books"  (28  vols.),  the 
"Lucy  Books"  (6  vols.),  the  "Jonas  Books" 
(6  vols.),  the  "Franconia  Stories"  (10  vols.), 
the  "Harper's  Story  Books"  (36  vols.),  the 
"Marco  Paul  Series"  (6  vols.),  the  "Gay 
Family"  series  (12  vols.),  the  "Juno  Books'" 
(6  vols.),  "Rainbow  and  Lucky"  series  (5 
vols.),  and  4  or  5  other  series  of  5  or  6  vol 
umes  each;  "Science  for  the  Young"  (4  vols. 


|  issued,  "Heat,"  "Light,"  "Water  and  Land," 

!  and   "Force");    "A  Summer  in  Scotland"; 

'  "  The  Teacher  "  ;  more  than  20  of  the  series  of 
illustrated  histories  to  which  his  brother  John 
S.  C.  contributed,  and  a  separate  series  of  his 
tories  of  America  in  4  volumes.  lie  has  also 
edited,  with  additions,  several  historical  text 

I  books,  and  compiled  a  series  of  school  readers. 
II,  John  Stephens  Cabot,  brother  of  the  preced 
ing,  born  in  Brunswick,  Me.,  Sept.  18,  1805. 
He  was  also  educated  at  Bowdoin  college 
and  Andover  theological  seminary,  graduating 
from  the  former  in  1825.  He  was  ordained  to 
the  ministry  in  the  Congregational  church  in 
1830,  and  was  settled  successively  at  Worces 
ter,  Roxbury,  and  Nantucket,  Mass.  His  first 
published  work,  "The  Mother  at  Home,"  ap 
peared  in  1833,  and  was  followed  not  long  af 
ter  by  "The  Child  at  Home."  In  1844  he  re 
linquished  the  pastorate,  and  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  literature,  but  has  since  occa 
sionally  resumed  his  ministerial  labors  for  brief 
periods,  and.  in  1866-'8  acted  as  stated  sup 
ply  in  New  Llaven.  With  few  exceptions  his 
works  have  been  professedly  historical.  The 
principal  of  them  are:  "Practical  Christian 
ity";  "Kings  and  Qr.eens,  or  Life  in  the 
Palace  "  ;  "  The  French  Revolution  of  1789  "  ; 
"  The  History  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte "  (2 
vols.)  ;  "  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena  "  ;  "  The  His 
tory  of  Napoleon  III."  (1868);  10  vols.  of 
illustrated  histories;  "A  History  of  the  Civil 
War  in  America"  (2  vols.,  1863-'6);  "Ro 
mance  of  Spanish  History"  (1870);  and  "The 
History  of  Frederick  the  Second,  called  Fred 
erick  the  Great"  (1871).  Most  of  Mr.  Ab 
bott's  books  have  had  a  large  sale,  and  several 
of  them  have  been  translated  into  many  lan 
guages.  III.  Gorham  D,  See  ABBOT.  IV.  Ben 
jamin  Yanghan,  son  of  Jacob,  a  lawyer,  born  in 
Boston,  June  4,  1830.  lie  was  educated  in 
New  York,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851. 
He  has  produced  many  volumes  of  reports  and 
digests  of  state  and  United  States  laws  and  de 
cisions  of  the  higher  courts  of  New  York.  He 
is  now  (1872)  a  member  of  the  national  com 
mission  for  revising  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  also  preparing  a  National  Digest. 
V.  Austin,  brother  of  the  preceding,  also  a  law 
yer,  born  in  Boston,  Dec.  18,  1831.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  New  York  bar  about  1852,  en 
tered  into  partnership  with  his  brother,  and 
has  cooperated  with  him  in  the  preparation  of 
legal  treatises,  compilations,  and  digests.  He 
has  also  occasionally  contributed  to  lighter 
literature,  his  earliest  ventures  being  two  joint 
novels  entitled  " Conecut  Corners "  and  "Mat 
thew  Caraby,"  in  which  his  brothers  Benjamin 
and  Lyman"  participated.  YL  Lyman,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  Dec. 
18,  1835.  He  graduated  from  the  university 
of  the  city  of  New  York  in  1853,  studied  law, 
and  went  into  partnership  with  his  brothers 
in  1856;  but  he  afterward  studied  theology 
with  his  uncle,  the  Rev.  J.  S.  C.  Abbott,  and 
was  ordained  to  the  ministry  in  the  Congrega- 


ABBOTT 


ABBREVIATIONS 


11 


tional   church   at  Farmington,   Me.,   in   1860. 
lie  was  settled  as  pastor  of  the  first  Congre 
gational    church    in    Torre   Haute,    Ind.,    the 
same  year,  and  remained  there  till  1865,  when 
he   was  chosen    secretary   of  the    American 
union  (freedmen's)  commission,  and  held  that 
office  till  1868.    He  was  also  pastor  of  the  New 
England  church  in  New  York  city  from  1866 
to  1869,  when  he  resigned,  to  devote  himself 
to  literature.     He  was  associated  with  his  bro 
thers  in  the  production  of  two  novels,  and  has 
also  published  "  The  Results  of  Emancipation  in 
the  United  States"  (1867),  "Jesus  of  Naza 
reth:    His  Life   and  Teachings"  (1869),    and  ! 
"  Old  Testament  Shadows  of  New  Testament  i 
Truths  "  (1870).     He  has  edited  two  volumes  of  j 
"Sermons  by  Rev.  Henry  Ward  Beecher,"  and  I 
"Morning  and  Evening  Exercises,"    selected  | 
from  the  writings  of  the  same  author.     He  is  | 
now  (1872)  the  editor  of  the  "  Literary  Record  " 
of  "Harper's  Monthly  Magazine,"  and  editor- 
in-chief  of  "  The  Illustrated  Christian  Week-  j 
ly,"  published  by  the  American,  tract  society,  j 
VII.  Edward,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  [ 
Farmington,  Me.,  July  lo,  1841.     He  was  edu-  } 
cated  in  New  York,  has  contributed  to  period-  \ 
ical  and  other  literature,   and   is  one  of  the  \ 
editors  of  "The  Congregationalist,"  a  leading  j 
Congregational  newspaper  published  in  Boston.  , 

ABBOTT,  Charles,  Lord  Tenterden,  an  English  j 
lawyer,  born  Oct.  7,  1762,  died  Nov.  4,  1832,  | 
He  was  appointed  lord  chief  justice  of  the  ; 
king's  bench  in  1818,  and  in  1827  was  created  \ 
a  peer  as  Baron  Tenterden.  His  treatise  on  ( 
maritime  law  is  a  standard  work. 

ABBREVIATIONS,  certain  contractions  of  va-  | 
rious  words  and  phrases,  effected  by  omitting  '•• 
some  of  the  letters  or  syllables.     The  object  j 
in  view  is  the  saving  of  time  and  space.    They  I 
are  found  in  every  written  language,  but  since  j 
the  art  of  printing  was  discovered  are  much  j 
less  used.     The  Romans  called  them  nota,  and 
Lucius  Annasus  Seneca  made  a  list  of  them,  ; 
embracing  upward  of  5,000.     The   abbrevia-  j 
tions  in  most  ordinary  use  are  those  of  names  I 
and  titles.     Physicians  and  lawyers  use  them 
largely  for  the  sake  of  despatch.     The  Jewish  j 
writers  not  only  throw  out  letters  and  sylla 
bles,   but   often   omit   everything   except   the  i 
initial  letter.     They  even  take  the  initials  of  a  ! 
continuous  series  of  words,  and,  uniting  them 
with   the   aid   of  vowels,    make    new    words 
standing  in  the  place  of  all  those  thus  abridged,  i 
The  monks  of  the  middle  ages  used  so  many 
abbreviations  in   copying   the   works    of  the  \ 
Greek  and  Latin  writers,  that  only  experienced  i 
persons   can  decipher  them.      The   Germans 
use  them  to  -a  greater  extent  than  any  other 
nation,  for  words  in  common  use.    Many  words 
in  modern  languages  originated  in  Latin  al>-  ! 
breviations,   which  illiterate  persons  mistook 
for  the  words  themselves.     The  following  are 
the  principal  abbreviations  in  common  use : 


A.  B.    Artium   Baccalaureus, 

Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Abi>.    Archbishop. 


A.  C.    Ante  Christum,  before 

Christ. 
Acct.    Account. 


A.  D.  Anno  Domini,  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord. 

Adjt.     Adjutant. 

Ad  lib.  Ad  libitum,  at  pleas 
ure. 

Adtn.    Admiral. 

Adinr.    Administrator. 

Admx.    Administratrix. 

vEt.  or  jEtat.    Jitatis,  of  age. 

A.  G.     Adjutant  General. 

A.  H.  Anno  Hegirse,  in  the 
year  of  the  Hegira. 

Ala.    Alabama. 

A.  M.  Anno  mundi,  in  the 
year  of  the  world ;  Ante  me 
ridiem,  before  noon ;  Artium 
Magister,  Master  of  Arts. 

A.  R.  A.  Associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy. 

Ark.    Arkansas. 

A.  U.  C.    Anno  urbiscondi  tee, 
or  Ab  urbe  condita,  in  the 
year  from  the   building  of 
the  city  (Rome). 

B.  A.    Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Bart,  or  Bt.    Baronet. 
Bbl.     Barrel. 

B.C.    Before  Christ. 

B.  D.     Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

B.  I.    British  India. 

B.  L.    Bachelor  of  Law. 

Bp.    Bishop 

Brig.  Gen.    Brigadier  General. 

Bush.    Bushel. 

B.  V.    Blessed  Virgin. 
B.V.M.   Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

C.  Centigrade  (thermometer). 
Cal.    California. 

Cap.    Capitulum,  chapter. 

Capt.    Captain. 

C.  B.  Companion  of  the  Bath ; 
Cape  Breton. 

C.  E.    Civil  Engineer. 

Cent.    Centum,  hundred. 

Cf.    Cont'erre,  compare. 

Chap.    Chapter. 

Chron.    Chronicles. 

C.  J.     Chief  Justice. 

C.  O.  D.  Collect  (or  cash)  on 
delivery. 

C.  G.  H.    Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Col.  Colonel ;  Colossiaus ;  Col 
orado. 

Conn,  or  Ct.    Connecticut. 

Cor.    Corinthians. 

Cor.  Sec.  Corresponding  Sec 
retary. 

Coss.    Cpnsules,  consuls. 

C.  R.  Civis  Romanus.  a  Ro 
man  citizen. 

Cr.    Creditor. 

C.  T.    Colorado  Territory. 
Ct.  or  Conn.    Connecticut. 
Cwt.    Hundred  weight. 

D.  (r7.).    Denarius,  denarii,  a 
penny,  ponce. 

D.  C.    District  of  Columbia. 

D.  C.  L.    Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.  D.     Doctor  of  Divinity. 

Del.  Delaware ;  delineavit, 
drew  it. 

Deut.     Deuteronomy. 

D.  F.  Defensor  fide'i.  defend 
er  of  the  faith. 

D.  G.  Dei  gratia,  by  the  grace 
of  God. 

Do.  Ditto  (Ital.,  said),  the 
same. 

Dr.     Doctor;  debtor. 

D.  T.     Dakota  Territory. 

D.  V.    Deo  volente,  God  will 
ing. 

Dwt.     Pennyweight. 

E.  East.      ' 

Eccl.  or  Eocles.     Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus.    Ecclesiasticus. 

E.  E.    Errors  excepted. 

E.  g..  or  Ex.  gr.  Exempli 
gratia,  for  example. 

E.  I.  East  India,  or  East  In 
dies. 

Eph.     Ephosians. 

Eatd,     Esuras. 


Esq.    Esquire. 

Et  al.  Et  alii,  or  alios,  and 
others. 

Etc.    Etcetera,  and  so  forth. 

Et  seq.  Et  sequentes,  or  se- 
quentia,  and  the  succeeding. 

Ex.  or  Exod.     Exodus. 

Exr.    Executor. 

Ezek.    Exekiel. 

F.,  or  Fahr.     Fahrenheit. 

F.  and  A.  M.  Free  and  Ac 
cepted  Masons. 

F.  A.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Anti 
quarian  Society. 

F.  D.  Fidei  defensor,  defend 
er  of  the  faith. 

F.  G.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Geo 
logical  Society. 

Fla.  orFlor.     Florida. 

F.  R.  G.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Roy 
al  Geographical  Society. 

F.  R.  A.  S.  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society. 

F.  R.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society ;  L..  of  London ;  E_, 
of  Edinburgh ;  D.,  of  Dublin. 

F.  S.  A.    Fellow  of  the  Soci 
ety  of  Antiquaries. 

Ga.    Georgia. 
Gal.    Galatians. 

G.  C.  B.    Grand  Cross  of  tho 
Bath. 

Gen.    General;  Genesis, 

G.  M.    Grand  Master. 

Gov.    Governor. 

Hab.    Habakkuk. 

Hag.     Haggai. 

H.  B.  M.  His  or  Her  Britan 
nic  Majesty. 

Heb.     Hebrews. 

Hhd.     Hogshead. 

H.  I.  H.  His  or  Her  Imperial 
Highness. 

H.  M.  S.  His  or  Her  Majesty's 
ship. 

Hon.    Honorable. 

Hos.    Hosea. 

H.  R.  House  of  Representa 
tives. 

H.  R.  H.  His  or  Her  Royal 
Highness. 

la,  Iowa.  (This  should  not 
be  used  for  Indiana,  but 
Ind.) 

Ib.  or  Ibid.  Ibidem,  in  tha 
same  place. 

Id.    Idem,  the  same. 

Id.  T.     Idaho  Territory. 

I.  e.    Id  est.  that  is. 

I.  H.  S.  Jesus  Hoininnm  Saf- 
vator.  Jesus  (lesns)  the  Sa 
viour  of  men.  (Saidtohave 
originated  from  a  misread 
ing  of  the  Greek  1H2  for 
'IH2OY2,  Jesus.) 

111.    Illinois. 

Incog.     Incognito,  unknown. 

Ind.     Indiana. 

Ind.  T.     Indian  Territory. 

Inst.  Instant,  of  the  present 
month. 

I.  O.  O.  F.  Independent  Or 
der  of  Odd  Fellows. 

I.  O.  U.     I  owe  you. 

Isa.    Isaiah. 

I.  T.  Idaho  Territory :  Indian 
Territory.  (Better,  Id.  T. 
and  Ind.  T.) 

Jam.    Jamaica. 

JIT.    Jeremiah. 

J.T.     Justices. 

Josh.    Joshua. 

J.  P.    Justice  of  the  Peace. 

J.  U.  D.  Juris  utriusque  doc 
tor,  doctor  of  both  canon  and 
civil  law. 

Jud.    Judith. 

Judg.    Judges. 

Kan.     Kansas. 

K.  B.    Knight  of  the  Bath. 

K.  C.  B.  Knight  Commander 
of  the  Hath. 

K.  G.     Knight  of  the  Garter. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


ABDALLAH  BEN  ZOBAIB 


K  G.  C.    Knight  Grand  Cross. 

K.  G.  C.  B.  Knight  of  the 
Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

Ks.    Kansas. 

Kt.     Knight. 

Ky.    Kentucky. 

L.  (L  £).  Libra,  a  pound 
(money). 

La.    Louisiana, 

Lb.    Libra,  a  pound  (weight). 

L.  C.     Lower  Canada. 

Lev.    Leviticus. 

L.  I.     Long  Island. 

Lib.    Liber,  book. 

Lieut,  or  Lt.     Lieutenant.  • 

LL.  B.  Legum  Baccalaui'eus, 
Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.  D.  Legum  Doctor,  Doc 
tor  of  Laws. 

L.  S.  Locus  sigilli,  place  of 
the  seal. 

L.  S.  D.  Pounds,  shillings, 
and  pence. 

M.    Monsieur. 

M.  A.    Master  of  Arts. 

Mace.    Maceabees. 

Maj.  Gen.    Major  General 

Mai.    Malachi. 

Mass.    Massachusetts. 

Matt.    Matthew. 

M.  C.    Member  of  Congress. 

M.D.  Mediciriai  Doctor,  Doc 
tor  of  Medicine. 

Md.    Mar  viand. 

M.  E.     Methodist  Episcopal. 

Me.    Maine. 

Messrs.  Messieurs,  gentle 
men,  sirs. 

Mic.    Micah. 

Mich.    Michigan. 

Minn.    Minnesota. 

Miss.    Mississippi 

Mile.    Mademoiselle. 

MM.    Messieurs. 

Mine.    Madame. 

Mo.    Missouri. 

Moas.    Monsieur. 

M.  P.    Member  of  Parliament. 

MS.,  MSS.  Manuscript,  man 
uscripts. 

M.  T.    Montana  Territory. 

Mt.    Mount. 

Mus.  D.  or  Mus.  Doc.  Doctor 
of  Music. 

N.    North. 

N.  A.  National  Academician; 
North  America. 

N.  B.  Nota  bone,  mark  well ; 
New  Brunswick ;  North 
Britain. 

N.  C.    North  Carolina. 

N.  E.  Northeast,-  New  Eng 
land. 

Neb.    Nebraska. 

Neh.    Nehemhh. 

Nem.  con.  Nemine  contra- 
dicente.  no  one-  contradict 
ing,  unanimously. 

Nev.    Nevada. 

N.  P.    Newfoundland. 

N.  G.    New  Granada, 

N.  H.    New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.     New  Jersey. 

N.  M.    New  Mexico. 

N.  0.     New  Orleans. 

No.     Numero.  number. 

N.  P.     New  Providence. 

N.  S.  New  style  ;  Nova  Sco 
tia. 

N.  T.    New  Testament. 

Num.     Numbers. 

N.  W.     Northwest. 

N.  Y.     New  York. 

N.  Z.    New  Zealand 

O.     Ohio. 

Oh.     Obiit.  died. 

Obad.    Obn.liah. 

Or.    Oregon. 

O.  S.    Old  style. 

O.  T.    Old  Testament. 

Oxon     Oxoniensis,  of  Oxford. 

Oz.    Ounce. 

Pa.    Pennsylvania. 


P.  E.    Protestant  Episcopal. 

P.  E.  I.  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Penn.    Pennsylvania. 

Per  cent,  or  per  ct.  Per  cen 
tum,  by  the  hundred. 

Ph.  D.  Philosophic  Doctor, 
Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Phil.    Philippians. 

Phila.    Philadelphia. 

P.M.  Postmaster;  Post  me 
ridiem,  alter  noon. 

P.  O.    Post  office. 

P.  P.    Parish  priest. 

P.  P.  C.  Pour  prendre  conge, 
to  take  leave. 

P.  K.     Porto  Rico. 

Prof.    Professor. 

Pro  tern.  Pro  ternporc,  for 
the  time,  temporarily. 

Prov.     Proverbs. 

Prox.  Proximo,  next,  of  the 
next  month. 

P.  S.    Postscript. 

Ps.     Psalm. 

Pxt    Pinxit,  painted  it. 

Q.     Quadrans.  farthing. 

Q.  C.    Queen's  counsel. 

Q.  d.  Quasi  dicat,  as  if  he 
should  say. 

Q.  E.  D.  Quod  erat  demon 
strandum,  which  was  to  be 
demonstrated. 

Q.  M.    Quarter-master. 

Qr.     Quarter;  farthing. 

Q.  S.  Quantum  sufficit,  as 
much  as  is  necessary. 

Qu.,  Qy.    Quaere,  query. 

Q.  v.    Quod  vide,  which  see. 

E.  Bex  or  Kegina,  king  or 
queen. 

E.  A.  Royal  Academician  ; 
Royal  Artillery. 

E.  E.    Koyal  Engineers. 

Eec.  Sec.  Eecording  Secre 
tary. 

Eef.  Ch.    Eeformed  Church. 

Eev.    Revelation ;  Reverend. 

K.  I.    Rhode  Island. 

R.  M.  S.    Eoyal  mail  steamer. 

R.  N.    Royal  Navy. 

Rom.    Romans. 

E.  S.  D.  Royal  Society  of 
Dublin. 

R.  S.  E.  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh. 

R.  S.  V.  P.  Repondez  s'il 
vous  plait,  Answer  if  you 
please. 

Rt.  Hon.     Right  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev.     Right  Reverend. 

8.(«.).  Solidus. shilling;  south. 

S.  A.    South  America. 

Sam.    Samuel. 

S.  C.    South  Carolina. 

Sc.  or  Sculp.  Sculpsit,  en 
graved  it. 

Scan.  Mag.  Scandalnm  mag- 
natum.  defamation  of  the 
gri-at,  or  of  officials. 

Sec.    Secretary. 

S.  J.    Society  of  Jesus.  Jesuit. 

S.  P.  Q.  R.'  Senatus  Popu- 
lusqne  Romanus.  the  senate 
and  people  of  Rome. 

Ss.    Scilicet,  namely. 

St.    Saint. 

S.  T.  D.  Sacra?  Theologte 
Doctor.  Doctor  of  Sacred 
Theology. 

Tenn.     Tennessee. 

Thess.    Thessalonians. 

Tit.    Titus. 

T.  T.  L.    To  take  leave. 

U  C.  Upper  Cannda:  Urbis 
condita1.  year  of  Rome. 

Ult.  Ultimo,  last,  of  the  last 
month. 

U.  P.  United  Presbyterian. 

U.  S.  United  States ;  United 
Service. 

U.  S.  A.  United  States  of 
America ;  United  States  Ar 
my. 


U.  S.  N.    United  States  Navy. 
U.  T.     Utah  Territory. 
V.  or  vs.    Versus,  against. 
V.  A.     Vicar  Apostolic. 
Va.    Virginia. 
V.  D.  M.    Verbi  Dei  Minister, 

Minister  of  the  Word   of 

God. 

Ven.     Venerable. 
V.  G.     Vicar  General. 
Viz.    Videlicet,  namely. 
V.  P.    Vice  President. 
Vs.    Versus,  against. 


Vt.    Vermont. 

W.    West. 

W.  I.    West  Indies. 

Wris.     Wisconsin. 

W.  S.     Writer  to  the  Signet. 

W.  T.    Washington  Territory. 

W.  Va.    West  Virginia. 

Wy.  T.    Wyoming  Territory. 

X.    XpicrTos,  Christ. 

Xmas.     Christmas. 

Zech.    Zechariah. 

Zeph.     Zephaniah. 

&c.    Et  cetera,  and  so  forth. 


ABD,  an  initial  word  in  proper  names  com 
mon  to  the  Semitic  languages.  It  signifies 
"servant,"  and  is  usually  coupled  with  the 
name  of  the  Divinity  or  of  a  moral  attribute ; 
thus,  Abd-allah,  "  the  servant  of  Allah ;  "  Abd- 
er-Rahman,  "servant  of  the  Merciful." 

ABDALLAH  BEN  ABD-EL-MOTTALIB,  an  Arab 
merchant,  father  of  Mohammed,  born  at  Mecca 
about  545,  died  in  570.  In  youth,  according 
to  the  Moslem  legend,  he  narrowly  escaped 
sacrifice  at  his  father's  hands,  who,  having  but 
this  one  child,  had  made  a  vow  to  the  gods 
that  if  they  would  grant  him  ten  children,  he 
would  sacrifice  one  to  them.  The  children 
came,  and  the  lot,  being  taken,  fell  on  Ab- 
dallah,  then  24  years  old.  The  father  was  on 
the  point  of  fulfilling  his  vow,  when  by  the 
advice  of  his  friends  he  stayed  his  hand,  and 
consulted  a  wise  woman,  who  directed  him  to 
place  ten  camels,  the  price  of  blood  among  the 
Arabs,  on  one  side,  and  his  son  on  the  other, 
I  and  to  cast  lots  between  them ;  and  as  often  as 
|  the  lots  should  be  against  the  youth,  he  was  to 
|  add  ten  more  camels.  The  experiment  was 
tried,  and  the  lot  was  against  Abdallah  ten 
times;  the  father  sacrificed  one  hundred  camels 
and  saved  his  son.  Immediately  after  this 
escape,  Abdallah  married  Amina,  daughter  of 
Wahb,  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Benu  Zahra.  On 
the  evacuation  of  Mecca  by  the  Abyssinians, 
who  had  invaded  the  country,  he  was  sent  by 
his  father  to  Medina,  then  called  Yathreb,  to 
buy  provisions  for  the  famished  Meccaites,  who 
had  been  obliged  to  fly  to  the  mountain  fast- 
I  nesses.  Abdallah  died  on  the  journey,  leaving 
|  his  wife  pregnant  with  her  first  child.  That 
I  child  was  Mohammed. 

ABDALLAH  BEN  ZOBAIR,  ruler  of  Mecca,  born 
about  622,  died  in  692.     He  was  the  first  born 
1  of  the  disciples  of  Mohammed  after  the  hegira, 
!  and  his  advent  was  a  matter  of  great  rejoicing. 
!  He  was  the  son  of  Zobair,  a  friend  and  com- 
!  panion  of  Mohammed,  and  of  Asina,  the  sister 
!  of  Ayesha,  the  prophet's  favorite  wife.  He  was 
thus  Mohammed's  nephew  by  marriage,   and 
!  was  brought  up  under  his  immediate  tutelage. 
|  After  Mohammed's  death,  the  question  of  suc- 
I  cession   was   one   of  great  moment.     On  the 
I  death  of  the  prophet's  immediate  successors, 
|  and  the  election  of  Ali,  Mohammed's  nephew 
!  and  son-in-law,  to  whom  Ayesha  was  decidedly 
opposed,  Abdallah  sided  with  his  aunt  and  re 
sisted  All's  claims.    He  was,  however,  severely 
wounded  in  a  contest  with  the  rival  faction ; 
i  but  on  the  assassination  of  Ali  he  boldly  re- 
•j  newed  his  opposition  to  Moawiyah,  and  on  his 


ABD-EL-HALIM 


ABD-EL-KADER 


13 


death  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  ngainst 
Yezid,  his  successor.  He  seized  upon  the  holy 
city,  an.d  maintained  himself  against  both  the 
remonstrances  and  the  arms  of  the  caliph.  At 
this  early  period  there  were  three  distinct 
governments  in  the  territories  conquered  by 
the  Arabs,  in  Persia,  Syria,  and  Arabia.  Ab- 
dallah's  chief  opponent  was  Yezid,  caliph  of 
Damascus.  In  the  siege  which  he  sustained  at 
Mecca,  the  temple  of  the  holy  Caaba  was  de 
stroyed  by  the  assailants,  and  the  death  of 
Yezid  alone  saved  the  city  from  capture.  Ab- 
dallah  was  now  acknowledged  sultan  and  ca 
liph  of  Mecca  by  the  Arabs,  and  rebuilt  the 
city  and  temple,  not  without  opposition  from 
his  superstitious  subjects,  who  considered  it 
sacrilege  to  touch  the  stones  of  the  sacred  edi 
fice.  He  completed  the  restoration  in  685. 
Yezid's  son,  Moawiyah  II.,  abdicated  in  favor 
of  Menvan,  on  whose  death  his  son  Abd-el- 
Malek  ben  Menvan  succeeded  him,  and  pushed 
the  war  vigorously  against  Abdallah,  by  whose 
anathemas  Abd-el-Malek's  subjects,  when  they 
made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  were  greatly  in 
fluenced  or  scandalized.  Abd-el-Malek  van 
quished  Abdullah's  brother  and  lieutenant  Mo- 
zab  ben  Zobair  in  the  plains  of  Persia,  added 
Irak  to  the  caliphate  of  Damascus,  and  de 
spatched  an  army  against  Abdallah  at  Mecca. 
The  holy  city  was  a  second  time  besieged,  and 
resisted  for  several  months.  Abdallah,  at  the 
age  of  70,  defended  himself  to  the  last,  and 
when  the  city  was  taken  by  storm  retired  to 
the  Caaba,  where  he  was  killed  by  a  blow  on 
the  head  from  a  tile.  He  is  described  as  brave 
to  rashness  and  crafty  to  perfidy. 

ABD-EL-HALIM,  known  as  HALIM  PASHA,  an 
Egyptian  prince,  son  of  Mehemet  Ali  and  a 
white  slave  woman,  born  at  Cairo  in  1826.  He 
was  educated  at  Paris,  and  of  late  resides  near 
Cairo,  in  a  magnificent  palace  celebrated  for  its 
beautiful  pleasure  grounds.  The  sultan  has 
often  taken  his  part  in  his  family  quarrels  with 
his  relatives  Abbas  and  Sa'id,  the  late  viceroys, 
and  Ismail  Pasha,  the  present  khedive.  Abbas 
(1848-?54)  endeavored  even  to  appropriate 
Halim's  property,  but  restored  it  to  him  at  the 
request  of  the  sultan,  who  also  conferred  upon 
Halim  the  rank  of  pasha  and  mushir  (field 
marshal).  Under  Snid  he  was  for  a  short  time 
a  member  of  the  family  council,  until  that 
viceroy  was  form-illy  recognized  by  the  sultan 
(July,  1854).  In  1855-'6  he  officiated  for  a 
brief  period  as  governor  general  at  Khartoom. 
Since  the  accession  of  his  nephew  Ismail  (1863), 
Halim  has  been  more  persecuted  than  in  the 
reign  of  Abbas  Pasha.  In  1866,  when  the 
sultan  consented  to  modify  the  organic  Mo 
hammedan  laws  of  succession  in  favor  of  a 
direct  line  of  hereditary  rulers  in  Egypt,  it  was 
hoped  that  this  would  do  away  with  the  jeal 
ousy  of  Ismail  Pasha  against  his  uncle,  but  the 
khedive  remains  unfriendly. 

ABD-EL-HAMID,  the  Arabic  name  adopted  by 
Du  COUEET,  a  French  traveller,  on  his  becoming 
a  Mohammedan.  He  was  born  in  1812  at  Hu- 


ningen,  in  Alsace,  travelled  from  1834  to  1847 
in  the  East,  was  sent  in  1848  on  a  mission  to 
Timbuctoo,  a  report  of  which  appeared  in  1853 
(Memoire  d  Napoleon  ///.),  and  published  in 
1855  the  story  of  his  Arabic  pilgrimages  (Me- 
dine  et  la  MeJcke,  3  vols.),  which  was  worked 
up  by  Alexandre  Dumas  in  his  Pelerinage  de 
Hadji  AM-el-Hamid  Bey  (2  vols.,  1855). 

ABD-EL-KADER,  an  Arab  emir  in  Algeria, 
born  near  Mascara  in  1806  or  1807.  He  was 
the  descendant  of  an  ancient  family  of  Mara 
bouts,  and  the  son  of  Mahiddin,  an  influential 
emir,  who,  suspected  of  plotting  the  subversion 
of  Turkish  rule,  was  compelled  to  retire  with 
his  son  to  Cairo  in  1827.  When  Abd-el-Kader 
returned  from  this  exile  Algiers  had  been  cap 
tured  by  the  French.  A  man  of  remarkable 
powers  and  accomplishments,  and  of  the 
greatest  bravery,  the  young  emir  soon  became 
the  leader  of  his  countrymen,  and  organized 
among  them  a  system  of  resistance  to  the 
French  invaders,  whom  he  began  to  harass  at 
the  head  of  his  own  and  the  neighboring  tribes. 
Encouraged  by  the  failure  of  an  attack  which 
Gen.  Boyer,  commandant  of  Gran,  made  in  the 
spring  of  1832  upon  his  stronghold  at  Tlemcen, 
Abd-el-Kader  conducted  his  attacks  upon  the 
French  on  a  larger  scale,  and  with  such  skill 
and  bravery  that  the  admiring  Arabs  proclaim 
ed  him  chief  of  the  believers.  For  two  years 
he  continued  operations,  but  in  1834  Gen.  Des- 
michels,  Boyer's  successor,  by  causing  a  defec 
tion  of  the  native  tribes,  obliged  him  to  make 
peace,  France  acknowledging  his  sway  over 
the  tribes  west  of  the  Shelliff'.  Abd-el-Kader 
now  spent  a  short  period  of  quiet  in  introducing 
European  discipline  and  tactics  among  his  fol 
lowers.  But  he  soon  crossed  the  ShellitFduring 
a  successful  war  with  a  native  chief;  and  the 
French,  alarmed  by  his  growing  power,  again 
began  hostilities  under  Gen.  Trezel,  who  was 
sent  to  replace.  Desmichels.  Trezel,  marching 
to\vard  Mascara,  was  surprised  and  utterly  de 
feated  by  Abd-el-Kader  in  the  defile  of  Muley 
Ismail.  Marshal  Clauzel  was  now  made  gov 
ernor  of  Algiers.  In  December  and  January, 
1835-' 6,  he  succeeded  in  reaching  and  destroy 
ing  Mascara,  and  in  capturing  Tlemcen,  where 
he  left  a  garrison ;  but  this  accomplished,  he 
was  obliged  at  once  to  make  a  disastrous  re- 
'treat  to  *Oran.  In  April,  1830,  Abd-el-Kader 
utterly  defeated  Gen.  d'Arlangcs  near  Tlemcen, 
and  obliged  him  to  fall  back  on  a  fortified  camp 
he  had  established  on  the  Tafna  to  keep  open 
the  communication  between  the  French  garri 
son  of  Tlemcen  and  their  base  of  supplies.  In 
this  camp  the  general  was  shut  up  by  Abd-el- 
Kader's  troops,  and  compelled  to  remain  until 
relieved  by  Gen.  Bugeaud.  This  officer  was 
now  appointed  to  the  command  in  Algiers,  and 
conducted  the  war  with  great  success,  first  de 
feating  Abd-el-Kader  July  7,  1836,  and  finally 
compelling  him  in  May,  1837,  to  conclude  a 
peace  by  which  he  acknowledged  French  sov 
ereignty,  though  himself  confirmed  as  emir  of 
Oran,  Titteri,  and  part  of  xUgiers.  But  he  was 


ABD-EL-WAHAB 


ABDIAS 


not  content,  and  in  1839  war  was  renewed. 
After  desperate  fighting,  Abd-el-Kader  was 
defeated  everywhere;  and  in  1842  he  was 
driven  from  Algeria  and  took  refuge  in  Moroc 
co,  where  he  induced  the  emperor  to  aid  him 
against  the  French.  But  the  Moorish  ruler, 
being  utterly  defeated  by  the  French  army  at 
Isly,  Aug.  14,  1844,  was  obliged,  in  order  to 
save  himself  from  the  vengeance  of  France,  to 
turn  against  the  emir  ;  and  Abd-el-Kader,  who 
now  defied  both  the  French  and  the  Moors,  soon 
found  himself  deserted  by  all  but  his  own  tribe, 
and  beaten  at  every  point.  After  continuing 
the  contest  as  long  as  possible,  he  was  finally 
captured  and  sent  to  Paris  in  1848,  although  he 
had  surrendered  only  on  condition  that  he  should 
be  sent  to  Egypt  or  St.  Jean  d'Acre.  He  was 
kept  in  France  until  released  by  Louis  Napoleon 
in  1852,  with  a  pension  of  100,000  francs,  on 
condition  that  he  should  not  return  to  Algeria 
or  again  take  up  arms  against  France.  He 
went  to  Broussa  in  Asia  Minor,  and  when  that 
town  Avas  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1855, 
lie  removed  to  Constantinople.  He  has  been 
since  1852  on  the  best  terms  with  the  French 
government,  and  in  1855  visited  Paris  during 
the  industrial  exposition.  lie  subsequently 
took  up  his  residence  in  Damascus,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  generously  aiding  the 
Christians  during  the  bloody  riots  in  the  sum 
mer  of  1860.  In  1 864  he  went  to  Egypt,  where 
he  was  presented  with  a  piece  of  land  by  M.  de 
Lesseps,  projector  of  the  Suez  canal.  During 
this  journey  he  was  also  made  a  member  of  the 
order  of  Freemasons.  In  1865  he  went  to 
England,  and  in  1867  attended  the  great  ex 
position  in  Paris.  In  1870  he  offered  his  sword 
to  the  French  against  the  Germans,  but  the 
offer  was  declined.  In  October,  1871,  he  ad 
dressed  a  lettei  to  M.  Triers  declining  to  visit 
France  on  the  ground  of  ill  health,  but  making 
suggestions  relative  to  the  condition  and  gov 
ernment  of  Algeria.  Of  his  24  children  most 
have  died.  One  of  his  daughters  has  become  a 
convert  to  Christianity.  Abd-el-Kader  is  the 
author  of  a  book  of  philosophico-religious  medi 
tations,  written  in  exile,  in  Arabic,  and  trans 
lated  into  French  under  the  title  of  Eappel  d 
V intelligent,  Aris  d  V indifferent  (Paris,  1858). 

ABD-EL-WAHAB,  founder  of  the  Mohammedan 
sect  of  Wahabees  or  "Wahabites,  born  of  poor 
parents,  in  the  Arabian  province  of  Nedjed, 
about  1691.  After  long  travels  through  vari 
ous  parts  of  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia, 
he  finally  taught  his  new  religious  doctrines  in 
his  native  region,  and  died  in  1787.  (See 
WAHABITES.) 

ABDERA  (now  Polystild),  an  ancient  city  of 
Thrace,  on  the  S.  coast,  at  or  E.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Nestus.  It  was  a  flourishing  town 
in  the  times  of  the  Persian  wars  with  Greece, 
and  preserved  its  importance  under  the  Ro 
mans.  Its  inhabitants  were  proverbial  for  their 
ignorance  and  stupidity,  from  which  ill  repute 
they  were  not  saved  by  the  lustre  that  Demo- 
critus,  Protagoras,  Anaxarchus,  and  Hecateeus 


threw  around  the  name  of  the  town  as  their 
birthplace.  Lucian,  La  Fontaine,  and  Wieland 
have  made  them  subjects  of  their  satire.  Coins 
of  this  city  are  numerous. 

ABDERRAHMAN  I.,  surnamed  the  Wise,  the 
first  ruler  of  the  family  of  the  Ommiyades  in 
Spain,  born  at  Damascus  in  731,  died  in 
787.  After  the  massacre  of  his  family  in  the 
East  he  retired  to  Mauritania,  where  he  re 
mained  in  privacy  until  he  was  called  to  Spain 
by  a  deputation  of  friends,  who  were  tired  of 
anarchy.  Abderrahman  with  a  handful  of  rel 
atives  landed  at  Almunecar  on  the  coast  of 
Andalusia  in  755,  and  soon  found  himself  at 
the  head  of  a  large  army.  He  entered  Seville, 
and  was  acknowledged  as  sovereign.  Next  he 
advanced  against  Yusuf  el-Feri,  the  most  pow 
erful  of  the  rival  emirs,  whose  army,  though 
of  greatly  superior  numbers,  he  entirely  de 
feated,  firmly  establishing  himself  on  the 
throne  of  Cordova.,  It  was  during  these  in 
ternal  dissensions  in  Spain  that  the  Moham 
medans  were  finally  driven  out  of  France,  and 
forced  to  recross  the  Pyrenees.  The  eastern 
caliphs,  who  always  kept  up  the  idea  of  main 
taining  the  right  of  spiritual  and  temporal  rule 
over  the  Spanish  Moors,  anathematized  Abder 
rahman,  and  despatched  two  expeditions 
against  him,  but  in  vain.  The  kingdom  of 
Cordova  was  at  peace  when  Charlemagne 
fruitlessly  crossed  the  Pyrenees.  Abderrah 
man  built  the  magnificent  mosque  of  Cordova, 
designed  by  himself,  at  which  he  is  said  to 
have  labored  an  hour  a  day  with  his  own 
hands.  He  planted  the  first  palm  tree  in  Cor 
dova,  the  stock  from  which  all  those  now  in 
Spain  are  descended. 

ABDERRAHMAN,  sultan  cf  Morocco,  born  in 
1778,  died  in  August,  1859.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  1823,  on  the  death  of  his  "vncle, 
Muley  Suleiman.  At  his  succession  the  prac 
tice  of  paying  tribute  to  the  Barbary  states 
and  Morocco  by  independent  Christian  states, 
as  a  guarantee  against  piracy,  had  not  ceased ; 
but  Abderrahman  was  compelled  by  the  Aus- 
trians  in  1828  to  abandon  the  claim.  In  1844 
the  prolonged  resistance  of  Abd-el-Kader  to 
the  French  invasion  in  Algeria  involved  Mo 
rocco  in  war  with  France,  and  Mogadore  and 
Tangier  were  bombarded  by  a  French  fleet. 
The  contest  was  terminated  by  the  battle  of 
Isly,  Aug.  14,  1844,  in  which  only  Abd-el- 
Kader's  Arabs  fought  well  on  the  Moslem  side. 
Abderrahman  was  now  compelled  to  turn  his 
arms  upon  the  Algerian  emir,  and,  having  col 
lected  a  large  army,  finally  drove  him  beyond 
the  frontiers  of  Morocco  into  French  captivity. 
Abderrahman  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son, 
Sidi  Mohammed,  born  in  1803. 

ABDIAS,  of  Babylon,  the  supposititious  au 
thor  of  a  hook  called  Historia  Certaminis 
Apostolici  (published  at  Basel  in  1551),  in 
which  he  asserted  that  he  had  seen  Christ, 
that  he  was  one  of  the  70  disciples,  that  he 
had  witnessed  the  deaths  of  several  of  the 
apostles,  and  that  he  accompanied  St.  Simon 


ABDICATION 


ABDOMEN 


15 


and  St.  Jucte  into  Persia,  by  whom  he  was 
made  the  first  bishop  of  Babylon. 

ABDICATION,  the  abandonment  of  a  throne 
by  a  crowned  head,  was  rare  and  generally 
compulsory  in  ancient  times.  The  abdication 
of  Diocletian  and  Maximian  is  the  best  known 
case  in  antiquity.  Among  modern  princes  who 
have  more  or  less  voluntarily  laid  down  their 
crowns,  we  find  Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  Ger 
many  (1556);  Christina  of  Sweden  (1654); 
in  Poland,  John  Casimir  (1660);  in  Spain, 
Philip  -V.  (1724)  and  Charles  IV.  (1808);  in 
Savoy  and  Sardinia,  Amadous  VIII.  (1434), 
Victor  Amadeus  II.  (1730),  Victor  Emanuel 
I.  (1821),  and  Charles  Albert  (1849);  in 
France,  Napoleon  I.  (1814  and  1815),  Charles 
X.  (1830),  and  Louis  Philippe  (1848) ;  in  Hol 
land,  Louis  Bonaparte  (1810)  'and  William  I. 
(1840);  in  Bavaria,  Louis  I.  (1848);  in  Aus 
tria,  Ferdinand  (1848).  The  most  recent  and 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  royal  abdications 
is  that  of  King  Amadeus  of  Spain,  who  after  a 
reign  of  two  years  became  disgusted  with  the 
difficulties  of  his  position,  and  on  Feb.  11,  1873, 
resigned  the  crown  for  himself  and  heirs,  and 
returned  to  his  native  Italy.  Abdication,  vol 
untary  or  compulsory,  is  considered  by  jurists 
as  a  personal  act,  which  in  no  wise  affects  the 
right  of  succession. 

ABDOMEN  (Lat.,  of  undetermined  etymology), 
the  lower  part  of  the  body,  included  between  the 
level  of  the  diaphragm  and  that  of  the  pelvis. 
The  abdomen  consists  of  its  walls  or  boundaries, 
the  cavity  embraced  by  them,  and  the  organs  or 
viscera  included  therein.  The  walls  are  con 
stituted  below  by  the  pelvis,  a  strong  basin- 
shaped  bone  with  wide  flaring  edges,  upon  the 
upper  surface  of  which  the  weight  of  the  ab 
dominal  organs  is  sustained ;  behind  by  a  part 
of  the  spinal  column  and  the  strong  muscles 
attached  to  its  sides ;  above  by  the  diaphragm, 
a  vaulted  muscular  sheet,  which  forms  the  par 
tition  between  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  and 
that  of  the  chest ;  and  in  front  by  the  abdomi 
nal  muscles  and  their  integuments,  extending 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  to  the  pelvis. 
In  front  and  laterally,  the  abdominal  walls  are 
soft  and  flexible,  being  composed  only  of  the 
skin,  fatty  tissue,  fibrous  membranes,  and  mus 
cles  ;  behind  they  are  more  solid  and  unyield 
ing,  owing  to  the  bony  framework  of  the  spinal 
column,  which  here  forms  so  large  a  part  of 
their  substance.  For  convenience  of  anatomi 
cal  examination  and  reference,  the  abdomen  is 
divided  externally  into  three  nearly  equal 
transverse  bands  or  zones,  an  upper,  middle, 
and  lower;  thess  zones  being  again  divided 
into  three  nearly  equal  parts  or  "regions," 
namely,  one  middle  and  two  lateral  regions  in 
each  zone.  In  the  upper  zone  the  middle  re 
gion  is  the  epigastrium  (Gr.  £-/,  over,  and 
•yaffTijp,  the  stomach),  because  a  portion  of  the 
stomach  is  situated  immediately  beneath  it; 
the  two  lateral  regions  of  the  saine  zone  being 
the  right  and  left  hypochondria  (VTTO,  under, 
and  xovdpoe,  a  cartilage),  because  these  two  re 


gions  are  beneath  the  cartilages  of  the  lower 
ribs.  In  the  middle  zone,  the  median  portion 
is  the  umbilical  region,  so  called  because  it 
contains  the  umbilicus  or  navel ;  the  two  lat 
eral  portions  are  the  right  and  left  lumbar  re 
gions,  or  the  loins.  In  the  lowermost  zone, 
the  middle  region  forms  the  hypogastrium 
(v-o  and  yaaTrip),  and  the  two  lateral  portions 
the  right  and  left  iliac  regions,  which  are  oc 
cupied  on  each  side  by  the  ilium,  or  flaring 
portion  of  the  pelvis. — The  cavity  of  the  abdo 
men  is  lined  by  a  very  extensive  and  delicate 
membrane,  the  peritoneum  (Gr.  KepiTetveiv,  to 
extend  around),  which  is  also  reflected  over 
the  surfaces  of  the  abdominal  organs,  as  the 
covering  of  a  chair  or  sofa  may  be  reflected  or 
extended  over  its  cushion.  In  the  case  of 
those  abdominal  organs  which  remain  fixed  in 
their  places,  like  the  pancreas  and  the  kidneys, 
the  peritoneum  simply  passes  over  their  ante 
rior  surfaces ;  but  those  which  are  movable, 
like  the  liver,  stomach,  and  intestines,  are 
more  or  less  completely  invested  by  it,  some  of 
them  being  attached  to  the  posterior  abdomi 
nal  walls  only  by  the  double  layer  of  perito 
neum,  returning  upon  itself  after  having  cov 
ered  their  exterior.  Thus  these  organs  are 
covered,  and  the  abdominal  walls  are  lined,  by 
opposite  surfaces  of  the  same  continuous  peri 
toneal  membrane;  and  these  surfaces  are 
moistened  by  a  minute  quantity  of  serous  fluid, 
which  enables  them  to  move  gently  to  and  fro 
upon  each  other,  without  causing  friction  or 
irritation  of  the  parts.  The  organs  con 
tained  in  the  abdomen  are  as  follows:  In 
the  upper  zone;  the  liver,  stomach,  spleen, 
pancreas,  and  the  commencement  of  the 
small  intestine;  in  the  middle  zone,  the  mass 
of  the  small  intestine,  with  portions  of  the 
large  intestine,  the  kidneys,  and  the  supra 
renal  capsules ;  and  in  the  lowermost  zone,  the 
remainder  of  the  small  and  large  intestines. 
The  very  last  portion  of  the  large  intestine  oc 
cupies  the  deeper  parts  of  the  cavity  of  the 
pelvis,  together  with  fhe  urinary  bladder  and 
the  uterine  organs. — Owing  to  the  flexible 
character  of  the  abdominal  walls,  much  infor 
mation  may  be  obtained  regarding  the  condi 
tion  of  the  internal  organs  by  external  manual 
examination.  If  an  organ  be  enlarged,  indu 
rated,  or  displaced,  these  changes  may  be  de 
tected  by  careful  manipulation,  and  their  in 
crease  or  diminution  may  be  determined  from 
day  to  day.  If  one  or  more  of  them  be  in 
flamed,  this  condition  is  indicated  by  an  un 
natural  tenderness  on  pressure ;  and  the  exact 
situation  and  character  of  the  inflammation 
may  often  be  fixed  by  observing  whether  the 
tenderness  be  superficial  or  deep-seated.  Un 
natural  growths  and  tumors  may  be  detected 
in  the  same  way,  and  their  origin  ascertained 
in  many  cases  with  considerable  approach  to 
certainty.  Penetrating  wounds  of  the  abdo 
men  are  very  dangerous,  because  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  if  allowed  to  es 
cape  into  the  cavity  of  the  peritoneum,  pro- 


16 


ABDUL- AZIZ 


ABDUL-MEDJID 


duce  an  irritation  and  subsequent  inflammation  | 
of   the    membrane;    and    this    inflammation,  | 
spreading  in  every  direction  over  the  contigu-  j 
ous  surfaces  of  the  peritoneum,  becomes  so  ex-  | 
tensive  and  violent  as  almost  invariably  to  pro 
duce  fatal  consequences.     Nevertheless,  surgi-  | 
cal   operations   in    which   the   cavity   of    the 
abdomen  is  opened,  but  in  which  care  is  taken 
to  prevent  the  escape  or  dissemination  of  irri 
tating  substances,  have  often  been  performed 
with  a  successful  result.     Sudden  and  power 
ful  blows  upon  the  abdomen,  especially  in  the 
region  of  the  epigastrium,  are  also  sometimes 
fatal,  even  when  none  of  the  internal  organs 
are  lacerated,  owing  to  the  depressing  influ 
ence  of  the  shock  upon  the  nervous  system. 

ABDIL-A/I/,  sultan  of  Turkey,  second  son  of 
Mahmoud  II.,  born  Feb.  9,  1830.  He  succeed 
ed  his  brother  Abdul-Medjid,  June  25,  1801. 
Like  all  heirs  to  the  Turkish  throne,  his  life 
until  his  accession  was  passed  in  seclusion,  and 
little  is  known  of  him  during  that  period  ex 
cept  that  he  was  fond  of  agricultural  studies, 
and  established  a  model  farm  at  Scutari.  On 
mounting  the  throne  he  was  prodigal  with 
promises  of  reform,  dismissed  the  corrupt 
minister  of  finance,  Eiza  Pasha,  reduced  his 
civil  list,  got  rid  of  the  seraglio,  declared  that 
he  would  not  indulge  in  polygamy,  and  seemed 
to  take  a  lively  interest  in  ameliorating  the 
condition  of  the  people,  and  in  purging  public 
affairs  from  fraud  and  corruption.  His  inten 
tions  were  excellent,  and  he  was  determined 
to  give  to  his  empire  the  benefits  of  European 
civilization.  Hence  his  journey  to  France, 
England,  and  Austria  in  1867,  which  tended 
to  make  him  popular  in  those  countries,  but 
alienated  from  him  the  sympathies  of  ortho 
dox  Mussulmans.  Disregarding  the  fanatical 
spirit  of  the  opposition,  he  allowed  foreigners, 
for  the  first  time  in  Turkey,  to  hold  real  estate, 
established  a  public  high  school  after  a  French 
model,  enriched  the  capital  with  various  scien 
tific  institutions,,  and  endeavored  to  place  the 
administration  of  justice  upon  a  more  solid 
basis  by  ordering  the  supreme  court  (1869)  to 
draw  nj)  a  civil  code.  In  many  respects,  how 
ever,  his  good  intentions  were  soon  overborne 
by  opposition,  the  power  of  ancient  usages,  and 
his  own  weakness.  He  recognized  the  in 
dependence  and  unity  of  Italy,  negotiated 
treaties  of  commerce  with  England  and  France, 
crushed  rebellion  in  Montenegro  (1862)  and  in 
Crete  (1868),  and  signed  in  1871  the  treaty  of 
London  deneutralizing  the  Black  sea.  lie  tol 
erated  the  accession  to  the  Roumanian  throne 
of  Prince  Charles  of  Ilohenzollern  as  a  mat-  I 
ter  of  policy,  but  found  much  trouble  in  his  I 
relations  with 'Egypt.  In  1866,  in  considera 
tion  of  a  vast  sum  of  money,  he  had,  contrary 
to  the  Mohammedan  law,  granted  to  Ismail 
Pasha  .the  right  of  succession  to  the  viceregal 
throne  in  a  direct  line  from  father  to  son, 
while,  instead  of  the  title  of  viceroy,  that  of 
khedive  was  conferred  upon  him.  A  similar 
change  was  proposed  for  Turkey,  so  as  to  ena 


ble  Yusuf,  the  eldest  son  of  Abdul-Aziz,  born 
in  1857  before  his  accession  to  the  throne,  to 
succeed  him,  contrary  to  the  ancient  institu 
tions  of  the  empire ;  but  it  was  found  imprac 
ticable,  and  the  presumptive  heir  is  conse 
quently  the  sultan's  eldest  nephew,  Mehemet 
Murad,  born  in  1840.  Besides  Yusuf,  the  sul 
tan  has  four  recognized  children :  Sultana  Sa- 
likhe,  born  in  1862;  Mahmoud  Jemil,  born 
in  the  same  year;  Mehmed  Selim,  1866;  and 
Abdul-Medjid,  1868. 

ABDtL-MEDJID,  sultan  of  Turkey,  born  April 
23,  1823,  died  June  25,  1861.  He  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father  Mah 
moud  II.,  July  1,  1839.  Educated  in  the  seclu 
sion  of  the  seraglio,  his  weak  and  almost  femi 
nine  character,  his  kind  disposition,  his  love 
of  pleasure,  his  inexperience  and  want  of 
knowledge,  seemed  to  render  him  utterly  unfit 
to  rule.  Mehemet  Ali  having  a  second  time 
rebelled,  his  son  Ibrahim  had  routed  the  Turk 
ish  army  near  Nizib,  June  24,  1839,  and  was 
on  his  march  against  Constantinople,  where  a 
strong  party  was  secretly  conspiring  to  elevate 
him  to  the  throne.  At  the  same  time  the  capu- 
dan  pasha  or  grand  admiral  betrayed  his  trust 
by  surrendering  the  entire  fleet  to  Mehemet  Ali. 
The  intervention  of  England  and  the  German 
powers  checked  the  Egyptian  designs,  and 
by  the  treaties  of  July  15,  1840,  and  July  13, 
1841,  Turkey  was  formally  admitted  into  the 
political  system  of  Europe.  The  personal 
share  of  Abdul-Medjid  in  all  these  proceedings 
was  very  small  indeed.  During  the  earlier 
years  of  his  reign  he  was  scarcely  more  than 
a  puppet  in  the  hands  of  others ;  but  he  be 
came  keen  enough  to  discern  the  purposes  of 
his  advisers,  while  his  benevolent  disposition 
made  him  anxious  to  do  justice  and  to  pro 
mote  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  On  Nov.  3, 
1839,  acting  under  the  advice  of  Reshid  Pasha, 
he  convoked  all  the  grand  officers  of  the  em 
pire,  the  sheiks  of  the  derviscs,  the  three  patri 
archs  of  the  Christian  sects,  the  three  high 
rabbis  of  the  Jews,  the  foreign  diplomats,  the 
ulemas  and  mollahs,  the  trustees  of  all  corpo 
rations  at  Constantinople,  and  citizens  gene 
rally,  around  the  pavilion  of  Gulhane  in  the 
imperial  park,  and  there  promulgated  the 
Hatti-STierif  or  fundamental  law,  the  bill  of 
rights,  intended  to  be  the  basis  of  a  political 
reconstruction.  Equality  before  the  law  was 
guaranteed  to  all  subjects  of  the  sultan,  with 
out  distinction  of  creed  or  nationality;  an 
equitable  mode  of  taxation  was  to  be  intro 
duced  ;  a  just  system  of  conscription  was  also 
promised.  More  than  once  the  Hatti-Sherif 
was  confirmed  and  repeated  in  new  decrees; 
and  in  1845  the  sultan  went  so  far  as  to  call  a 
kind  of  congress,  consisting  of  representatives 
from  different  provinces  of  the  empire.  A 
board  of  education  was  instituted  in  1845,  and 
a  system  of  free  public  schools  established  in 
1846.  On  Feb.  18,  1856,  the  Hatti-Humayum 
was  published,  being  the  draught  of  a  liberal 
constitution.  "While  from  1840  to  1853  almost 


ABECEDARIANS 


ABfiLAED 


17 


every  year  of  Abdul-Medjid's  reign  was  marked 
by  insurrections  in  one  province  or  another, 
the  court  was  the  theatre  of  incessant  in 
trigues,  amid  which  the  position  of  the  sultan 
was  scarcely  more  honorable  or  important 
than  that  of  a  nominally  sovereign  king  in 
the  East  Indies.  For  several  years  he  led  a 
dissolute  life,  but  afterward  he  appeared  to 
mend  his  ways  in  some  degree,  and  improved 
his  education  by  studying  French,  mathemat 
ics,  history,  and  music.  European  customs 
and  fashions  became  more  and  more  prevalent 
at  court,  concerts  and  Italian  opera  were  estab 
lished  permanently,  and  in  1854  the  sultan, 
"the  supreme  father  of  the  faithful,"  even 
went  to  a  ball.  When  in  1849  the  defeated 
Hungarian  patriots  sought  refuge  on  Turkish 
soil,  Abdul-Medjid  preferred  running  the  risk 
of  a  formidable  war  to  betraying  those  who 
had  confided  in  the  sacredness  of  hospitality 
as  taught  by  Mohammed.  He  had  seven  sons 
and  two  daughters,  but  was  succeeded,  accord 
ing  to  law,  by  his  brother  Abdul- Aziz. 

ABECEDARIANS,  a  sect  which  appeared 
among  the  Anabaptists  of  Germany  in  the 
16th  century,  led  by  one  Storck,  previously  a 
disciple  of  Luther.  They  held  that  without 
the  aid  of  study  the  Holy  Spirit  would  convey 
directly  to  the  understanding  a  knowledge  of 
the  Scriptures,  and  that  therefore  it  was  bet 
ter  not  to  know  how  to  read.  Carlstadt,  a 
Wittenberg  divine,  and  at  one  period  of  his 
life  a  bitter  antagonist  of  Luther,  is  said  to 
have  countenanced  the  Abecedarians  by  tear 
ing  off  his  doctor's  gown  and  burning  it. 

A'BECKET,  Gilbert  Abbott,  an  English  humor 
ous  author,  born  in  London  in  1810,  died  in 
Boulogne,  April  28,  1856.  He  was  called  to 
the  English  bar  in  1841.  He  was  a  contributor 
to  both  the  London  "Times"  and  "Daily 
News,"  and  was  special  correspondent  of  the 
"Times"  in  a  celebrated  poor  law  inquiry,  in 
which  he  displayed  great  judgment.  He  was 
one  of  the  earliest  contributors  to  "Punch," 
and  wrote  the  "  Corriic  Blackstone,"  comic 
histories  of  England  and  Rome,  and  a  great 
number  of  burlesque  plays.  He  was  appointed 
one  of  the  police  magistrates  of  London.  On 
his  death  the  queen,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Lord  Palmerston,  granted  his  widow  a  pen 
sion  of  £100  a  year. 

ABEEL,  David,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  June  12, 
1804,  died  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  4,  1846.  He 
studied  theology  at  the  seminary  in  New 
Brunswick,  and  after  preaching  for  more  than 
two  years  at  the  village  of  Athens,  N.  Y.,  his 
health  gave  way,  and  in  October,  1829,  he 
sailed  for  Canton  as  a  chaplain  of  the  seaman's 
friend  society,  but  at  the  end  of  a  year's  labor 
placed  himself  under  the  direction  of  the 
American  board.  He  visited  Java,  Singapore, 
and  Siam,  studying  the  Chinese  tongue,  when 
his  health  failed  him  entirely,  and  he  returned 
home  in  .1833  by  way  of  England,  visiting 
Holland,  France,  and  Switzerland,  and  every- 
VOL.  i. — 2 


where  urging  the  claims  of  the  heathen.  He 
also  assisted  in  England  in  forming  the  society 
for  promoting  female  education  in  the  East. 
In  America  he  published  a  description  of  his 
life  in  China  and  the  adjacent  countries,  and  a 
work  entitled  "  The  Claims  of  the  World  to 
the  Gospel."  In  1838  he  returned  to  Asia,  and 
visited  Malacca,  Borneo,  and  other  places,  set 
tling  at  Kolingsu.  Once  more  his  health  gave 
way,  and  he  returned  home  in  1845. 

ABEGG,  Julius  Friedrieh  Heinrich,  a  German 
jurist,  born  in  Erlangen,  March  27,  1796,  died 
in  Breslau,  May  29,  1868.  In  1818  he  received 
his  legal  doctorate,  and  in  1820  commenced 
delivering  lectures  at  Konigsberg.  In  1826  he 
became  professor  of  law  at  Breslau,  and  in 
1846  was  delegate  of  the  legal  faculty  at  Bres 
lau  to  the  Prussian  national  synod.  He  was  a 
very  influential  writer  upon  criminal  adminis 
tration.  One  of  his  last  works  was  Entwurf 
einer  Stra/f'processordnung  fur  den  preussischen 
Staat  (Leipsic,  1865). 

ABEL,  the  second  son  of  Adam.  He  was  a 
shepherd,  and  was  slain  by  his  brother  Cain, 
from  envy.  It  has  been  maintained  by  some 
fathers  of  the  church  that  Abel  never  married; 
hence  the  sect  of  Abelites. 

ABEL  DE  PUJOL.  I.  Alexandre  Denis,  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Valenciennes,  Jan.  30,  1785, 
died  in  Paris,  Sept.  28,  1861.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  David,  and  achieved  distinction  as  a  histo 
rical  painter  of  the  older  classical  school. 
Many  of  his  works  may  be  found  in  French 
churches.  II.  Adrienue  Marie  Louise  Grandpierre 
Deycrzy,  wife  of  the  preceding,  to  whom  she 
was  married  in  1856,  born  at  Tonnerre,  in  the 
department  of  Yonne,  in  1798.  She  was  a  pupil 
of  her  future  husband,  and  made  her  debut  in 
1836  by  a  picture  representing  a  painter's  stu 
dio.  She  afterward  painted  portraits,  a  scene 
from  Gil  Bias,  &c. — A  son  of  Abel  de  Pujol, 
born  about  1815,  is  also  a  painter. 

ABELARD,  or  Abailard,  Pierre,  a  French  scho 
lastic  philosopher,  born  near  Nantes,  in  Brit 
tany,  in  1079,  died  April  21, 1142.  Having  made 
early  and  rapid  progress  in  the  learning  of  the 
age,  he  relinquished  his  family  inheritance  in 
favor  of  his  brothers,  that  he  might  be  free 
from  the  cares  of  property,  and  have  no  im 
pediment  to  the  gratification  of  his  thirst  for 
knowledge.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  betook 
himself  to  Paris,  and  inscribed  himself  among 
the  pupils  of  William  de  Champeaux,  a  famous 
professor.  In  the  public  disputations  which 
were  the  fashion  of  the  day,  Abelard  had  no 
superior.  In  a  discussion  on  the  origin  and 
nature  of  ideas,  he  made  such  a  brilliant  dis 
play  of  ability,  learning,  and  logical  acuteness, 
that  he  endangered  the  supremacy  of  De 
Champeaux  in  the  seat  of  learning  where  he 
had  so  long  held  sway ;  and  his  jealousy  was 
at  a  high  pitch  when  Abelard,  though  only  22 
years  old,  opened  a  school  of  philosophy  at 
Melun,  near  Paris,  a  favorite  retreat  of  the 
court,  which  was  well  attended  by  students 
who  deserted  the  other  teachers.  Abelard's- 


18 


ABELARD 


failing  health  compelled  him  for  a  time  to  re 
tire  to  his  native  air;  but  so  soon  as  he  had 
recruited  his  strength,  he  returned  to  the  scene 
of  his  triumphs,  and  resumed  his  place  as 
pupil  at  the  feet  of  his  old  master.  De  Cham- 
peaux  became  a  monk,  but  still  continued  his 
secular  pursuits,  and  the  fiery  debates  were 
renewed,  in  which  Abelard  again  came  off 
victor.  De  Champeaux  was  made  bishop  of 
Chalons,  and  his  new  power  was  exercised 
to  crush  his  adversary  with  other  weapons 
than  those  of  argument.  The  canon  Fulbert 
had  a  niece  of  whose  intellectual  and  personal 
accomplishments  he  was  justly  proud.  Ad 
miring  the  talents  and  distinction  of  Abelard, 
lie  invited  him  to  complete  the  education  of 
his  beautiful  niece.  Abelard  boasted  that  he 
taught  to  lleloi'se  the  three  languages  neces 
sary  for  the  understanding  of  the  Scriptures. 
The  relation  of  master  and  pupil  was  not  long 
preserved ;  a  warmer  sentiment  than  esteem 
seized  their  hearts,  and  the  unlimited  oppor 
tunities  of  intercourse  which  were  afforded 
them  by  the  canon,  who  confided  in  Abelard's 
age  (he  was  now  almost  40)  and  in  his  public 
character,  were  fatal  to  the  peace  of  both. 
The  condition  of  lleloi'se  was  on  the  point  of 
betraying  their  intimacy.  They  fled.  Fulbert 
pursued,  and  Abelard  having  proposed  mar 
riage,  the  enraged  uncle  consented.  On  ac 
count  of  AbehmTs  ecclesiastical  ambition,  this 
marriage  was  to  be  kept  secret ;  but  Fulbert 
divulged  the  fact,  which  IIe"lo'ise,  from  a  spirit 
of  devotion  to  her  lover,  denied.  Exasperated 
at  his  niece's  perverseness,  Fulbert  punished 
her,  and  she  then  fled  to  Abelard,  who  placed 
her  in  the  nunnery  of  Argenteuil.  Fulbert 
now  abandoned  himself  to  a  transport  of  sav 
age  vindictiveness,  and,  watching  his  oppor 
tunity,  burst  into  Abelard's  chamber  with  a 
band  of  ruffians,  and  gratified  his  revenge  by 
inflicting  on  him  an  atrocious  mutilation.  Ful 
bert  was  deprived  of  his  benefice,  his  goods 
were  confiscated,  and  his  accomplices  punished 
by  undergoing  the  treatment  they  had  inflicted 
on  AbC'lard.  In  this  affair,  Abelard,  in  his 
memoirs,  admits  his  own  excessive  culpability; 
he  states  that  he  was  under  evil  influence, 
that  he  abused  the  confiding  trust  of  his  friend 
Fulbert,  and  that  he  deliberately  plotted  the 
seduction  of  lleloi'se,  who,  on  her  part,  was 
far  less  blarnable  than  he.  The  unhappy  man, 
on  his  recovery  from  the  outrage,  sought  an 
asylum  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Denis,  and  be 
came  a  monk,  Ilelo'ise  took  the  veil  at  Argen 
teuil.  But  Abelard's  .spirit  was  not  crushed ; 
he  continued  his  public  lectures.  Ilis  great 
popularity  soon  drew  a  crowd  of  eager  stu 
dents  from  all  parts,  and  this  roused  the  mal 
ice  of  his  old  opponents,  lie  abandoned  the 
field  of  profane  philosophy,  and  addressed 
himself  to  theology.  His  writings  on  the 
Trinity,  maintaining  doctrines  to  which  some 
of  the  tenets  of  the  modern  Unitarians  bear  a 
close  resemblance,  were  made  the  point  of  at 
tack.  In  1121  he  was  accused  of  heresy,  and 


'  a  council  being  called  at  Soissons,  in  which  he 
j  was  not  allowed  to  defend  his  doctrines,  his 
j  works  were  adjudged  heretical,  and  ordered 
j  to  be  burned.     The  monks  of  St.  Denis,  who 
j  were   desirous   of  relieving   themselves  of   a. 
I  brother  whose  strict  life  was  a  rebuke  to  their 
j  own,  now  took  offence  at  his  opinion  that  Di- 
i  onysius  the  Areopagite  was  not  the  founder  of 
I  their  abbey.     For  this  impiety  they  followed 
|  him  up  so  fiercely  that  he  was  compelled  to 
I  flee,  and  in  a  desert  place  between  Nogerit 
:  and  Troves  he  built  himself  a  rude  hermitage, 
j  after  the  fashion  of  an  anchoret.    Many  of  his 
I  pupils  followed  him  into  this  retreat,  and  with 
I  their  assistance  he  founded  the  Paraclete.    lie 
!  was  now  elected  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
I  Gildas  de  Kuys,  in  the  see  of  Vannes,  but  this 
i  Avas  a  source  of  further  trouble.     The  feudal 
!  lord  of  the  monastery  had  deprived  the  monks 
of  their  territory  for  their  irregular  life,  which 
Abelard  himself  was  no  less  desirous  of  re 
forming,  and  thereby  ran  the  risk  of  assassi 
nation  within  the  walls,  while,  in  his  desire  to 
|  maintain  the  temporal  rights  of  the  convent, 
he  was  in  little  less  danger  without.     lie  re 
gretted  the  seclusion  and  independence  of  the 
Paraclete.     Heloise  had  been  elected  abbess 
of  Argenteuil.    The  demesne  of  the  convent 
had  been  claimed  by  the  monks  of  St.  Denis, 
and  the  nunnery  suppressed.     Heloise  and  her 
nuns  were  without  home  or  shelter.     In  this 
emergency  Abelard  ottered  them  the  Paraclete 
to  found  an  institution,  and  went  to  assist  per 
sonally  in   their   establishment   there,   which 
was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  Innocent  II.     This 
reunion,   after  a  separation  of  eleven   years, 
was  precious  to  both  ;  and  he  afterward  made 
frequent  visits  to  the  Paraclete.    His  doctrines 
once  more   brought    persecution    upon    him. 
This  time  St.  Bernard  was  his  opponent.    Abe 
lard  was   charged  with   dogmatizing  on  the 
power  and  nature  of  the  divine  essence,  there 
by  attempting  to  reduce  to  human  comprehen 
sion  that  which  Bernard  affirmed  was,   and 
ought   to   be,    held   incomprehensible    by    all 
Christians.     In    1140   a   council  was  held  at 
Sens,  in  which  Louis  VII.  in  person  presided. 
Abelard's  opinions  were  again  adjudged  heret 
ical,  and  he  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  silence. 
To  escape  this  decree,  he  appealed  to  the  pope 
and  set  out  for  Rome,  and  on  his  road  thither 
he  was  able  to  interest  Peter  the  Venerable, 
abbot  of  Cluny,  in  his  case.     This  friend  used 
his  efforts  on  his  behalf,  and  procured  an  ab 
solution  from  the  holy  father.     Abelard  died 
at  St.  Marcel,  near  Chalon,  whither  he  had 
gone  from  Cluny  for  his  health.    Ilis  body  was 
delivered  to  lleloi'se,  and  by  her  interred  at 
the  Paraclete,  where  she  herself  was  afterward 
buried  by  his  side.    In  1792  the  Paraclete  was 
sold,  and  the  remains  of  the  two  lovers  were 
removed  to  the  church  of  Nogent-sur-Seine. 
They  were  exhumed  in  1800  and  placed  in  the 
garden  of  the  Mus£e  Frangais  in  Paris,  and  in 
1817  were  deposited  beneath  a  mausoleum  in 
j  the  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise. — The  position 


ABELARD 


ABENAQUIS 


19 


of  Abelard  in  the  philosophical  movement  of 
his  age  is  well  described  by  M.  Cousin:  "A 
hero  of  romance  within  the  church,  a  refined 
spirit  in  a  barbarous  age,  a  founder  of  a  school, 
and  almost  a  martyr  to  an  opinion,  everything 
conspired  to  make  Abelard  an  extraordinary 
personage.  But  of  all  his  titles,  that  which 
gives  him  a  separate  place  in  the  history  of 
the  human  mind  is  his  invention  of  a  new 
philosophical  system,  and  his  application  of 
this  system  and  of  philosophy  in  general  to 
theology.  Doubtless  before  Abelard  might  be 
found  some  rare  examples  of  this  dangerous 
process,  although  a  useful  one,  even  in  its 
errors,  to  the  progress  of  reason ;  but  it  is 
Abelard  who  established  it  as  a  principle ;  who 
contributed  more  than  any  other  to  found 
scholasticism,  for  scholasticism  is  nothing  else. 
After  Charlemagne,  and  even  before,  there 
was  taught  in  several  places  a  little  of  gram 
mar  and  logic ;  religious  instruction,  too,  was 
not  wanting,  but  this  instruction  was  limited 
to  a  more  or  less  regular  exposition  of  sacred 
dogmas ;  it  might  suffice  for  faith,  but  did  not 
nurture  intelligence.  The  introduction  of  dia 
lectics  into  theology  could  alone  produce  that 
spirit  of  controversy  which  is  the  vice  and  the 
honor  of  scholasticism.  Abelard  is  the  chief 
author  of  this  introduction ;  he  is,  then,  the 
principal  founder  of  the  mediaeval  philosophy, 
so  that  France  has  not  only  given  to  Europe, 
through  Abelard,  the  scholasticism  of  the  12th 
century,  but  also  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  has  given,  in  Descartes,  the  destroyer 
of  this  same  scholasticism,  and  the  father  of 
modern  philosophy.  And  there  is  no  incon 
sistency  in  this ;  for  the  same  spirit  which  had 
raised  the  ordinary  religious  instruction  to  that 
systematic  and  rational  form  which  we  call 
scholasticism,  would  alone  be  able  to  rise 
above  that  form,  and  to  produce  philosophy 
properly  so  called.  Thus  the  same  country 
was  able  to  support,  with  an  interval  of  a  few 
centuries,  Abelard  and  Descartes.  We  dis 
cover  also,  through  the  many  differences  of 
these  two  men,  some  striking  resemblances. 
Abelard  sought  to  gire  an  account  of  the  only 
thing  which  could  be  studied  in  his  time — the 
ology;  Descartes  has  given  account  of  what 
it  was  permitted  to  study  in  his  time — man  and 
nature.  The  latter  recognized  no  authority 
but  that  of  reason ;  the  former  undertook  to 
introduce  reason  into  authority.  Both  doubt, 
both  investigate ;  they  seek  to  understand  all 
that  is  possible  to  man,  and  to  rest  only  in  cer 
tainty.  This  is  their  spirit  in  common,  which 
they  borrow  from  the  French  spirit,  and  this 
fundamental  feature  of  resemblance  causes 
many  others;  as,  for  example,  that  clearness 
of  language  which  springs  spontaneously  from 
definite  and  precise  ideas.  It  may  be  added 
that  Abelard  and  Descartes  are  not  only  both 
Frenchmen,  but  that  they  belong  to  the  same 
province,  to  that  Brittany  whose  inhabitants 
are  distinguished  by  so  lively  a  sense  of  inde 
pendence  and  so  strong  a  personality.  Thence, 


in  these  two  illustrious  compatriots,  with  their 
native  originality,  with  dispositions  to  admire 
moderately  what  was  done  before  their  time 
and  in  their  time,  came  the  love  of  indepen 
dence,  pushed  often  into  a  quarrelsome  spirit ; 
confidence  in  their  own  strength  and  contempt 
of  their  adversaries ;  more  of  logical  connec 
tion  than  of  solidity  in  their  opinions ;  more 
sagacity  than  comprehensiveness;  more  of 
vigor  in  the  temper  of  their  mind  and  charac 
ter  than  of  elevation  and  profoundness  in  their 
thought ;  more  of  ingenuity  than  of  common 
sense,  satisfied  with  the  perfection  of  their  own 
views  rather  than  rising  to  universal  reason." 
— The  works  of  Abelard  were  collected  by 
Frangois  Amboise  and  Andre  Duchesne,  and 
first  published  at  Paris  in  1(516.  The  best 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Cousin  (Paris, 
1850),  who  has  accompanied  the  principal 
writings  of  the  author  with  admirable  critical 
and  expository  notices.  The  narrative  of  his 
life  is  contained  in  his  autobiography  entitled 
Hwtoria  Galamitatum  suarum.  Pope  has  ver 
sified  some  of  the  supposed  letters  between 
the  lovers.  The  most  important  modern  works 
on  the  biography  of  Abelard  are  by  Fessler, 
Alialard  und  Heloise  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1806); 
Mine.  Guizot,  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  les  ecrits 
d'Abailard  et  cVffelo'ise  (Paris,  1839) ;  Remu- 
sat,  Abelard  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1845) ;  Bohringer, 
Kirchcngeschickte  (vol.  iv.,  1854j;  Wilkens, 
Peter  AMlard  (Gottingen,  1855). 

ABELITES,  Abelians,  Abelonians,  or  Abelontos, 
a  sect  of  Christians,  probably  of  Gnostic  origin, 
j  who,  though  practising  marriage,  denounced 
!  sexual  intercourse  as  a  service  of  Satan,  main- 
1  taining  that  thereby  original  sin  was  perpetu- 
1  ated.     As  Abel  had  not  been  married,  they 
took  their  name  from  him.     Their  numbers 
were  recruited  by  children  whom  they  brought 
|  up  in  pairs  of  each  sex  under  one  roof.     They 
;  existed  about  the  4th  century,  and  are  men 
tioned  by  St.  Augustine..    They  lived  near  the 
city  of  Hippo  in  Africa. — The  name  ABELITES 
was  given  in  the  18th  century  to  the  members 
of  a  secret  society,  whose  professed  object  was 
to  cultivate  the  honesty  and  candor  of  Abel, 
whom  they  took  for  their  model  and  patron. 

ABEN,  Aven,  Ebn,  Ibn,  Arabic  patronymic 
prefixes  to  proper  names,  corresponding  to  the 
Hebrew  Tien,  son  of.  (See  BEX.) 

ABEAAQIIS,  or  Abnakis  (Men  of  the  Eastern 
Land),  a  group  of  Indian  tribes  of  the  Algon 
quin  family,   originally  occupying  the  present 
state  of  Maine,   and  comprising   the  Canibas 
or  Abenaquis  proper  on   the   Kennebec,    the 
Etechemins  or  Malecites  as  for  as  the  river  St. 
i  John,  and,  according  to  some,  the  Pennacooks 
1  on  the  Merrimack  and  the  Sokokis  west  to  the 
1  Connecticut.     They  were  approached  early  in 
the  17th  century  by  the  English  and  French, 
i  but  adhered  to  the  latter,  whose  missionaries 
converted  most  of  them  to  Christianity.     They 
figure  constantly  in  the  New  England  border 
I  wars  under  the  name  of  Tarranseens,  but  were 
finally  overthrown  and  their  missionary  Rale 


20 


ABENCERRAGES 


ABERCROMBY 


killed  at  Norridgewock  in  1724.  Many  had 
emigrated  to  Canada,  where  two  villages  still 
remain,  bearing  the  name  Abenaquis,  at  St. 
Francis  and  Becancour.  The  remnants  in 
Maine  are  called  Penobscots  and  Passama- 
quoddies,  from  the  rivers  on  which  they  reside. 
Another  remnant  is  in  New  Brunswick,  near 
Fredericton.  During  the  American  revolution 
they  embraced  the  cause  of  the  colonies  under 
their  chief  Orono.  Their  language  was  thor 
oughly  studied  by  Father  Sebastian  Rale,  whose 
dictionary  is  still  highly  important.  Their  his 
tory  has  been  written  by  the  Rev.  E.  Vetro- 
mile  (New  York,  I860),  and  more  fully  by  the 
Kev.  J.  A.  Maurault  (Sorel,  1806). 

ABENCERRAGES  (Arabic,  Iln  Serraj  or  Zer- 
ragli),  the  name  of  a  distinguished  Moorish 
family,  whose  mortal  feud  with  the  Zegris, 
another  noble  family  of  Granada,  contributed 
to  the  fall  of  the  Granadian  monarchy.  The 
quarrel  originated  in  the  varying  fortunes  of 
Mohammed  VII.  of  Granada,  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  15th  century,  who  was  alternately 
a  monarch  and  an  exile,  and  whose  cause  the 
Abencerrages  espoused  with  unswerving  fidel 
ity.  It  is  told  that  one  of  the  youths  of  the 
Abencerrages,  having  loved  a  lady  of  the  royal 
house,  was  climbing  to  her  window  when  he 
was  discovered  and  betrayed,  and  the  king,  in 
revenge  for  the  outrage  on  the  sanctity  of  his 
harem,  shut  up  the  whole  family  in  a  tower 
or  court  of  the  Alhainbra,  and,  letting  loose 
the  fury  of  their  hereditary  enemies,  had  them 
butchered  in  cold  blood.  This  tragical  tale  has 
been  the  foundation  of  many  poetical  produc 
tions.  The  inexorable  criticism  of  our  century 
has,  however,  demonstrated  the  fictitious  char 
acter  of  the  romantic  story.  (See  Conde's 
.Historia  de  la  domination  de  los  Arabes  en 
EspaHa,  Madrid,  1829.) 

ABENDBERG,  one  of  the  secondary  elevations 
of  the  Bernese  Alps,  rising  from  the  plateau 
of  Interlachen  or  Bernese  Oberland,  in  the 
canton  of  Bern,  Switzerland,  S.  W.  of  the  vil 
lage  of  Interlachen,  its  northern  base  abutting 
on  the  lake  of  Thun.  It  rises  about  8,500  feet 
above  the  plateau,  and  5,300  above  the  sea 
level.  Its  southern  slope  is  very  fertile,  and 
the  lower  portion  heavily  wooded.  It  is  re 
garded  as  one  of  the  most  salubrious  regions 
of  the  Alps.  In  1842  Dr.  Louis  Guggenbtihl 
selected  a  site  on  the  southern  slope,  several 
hundred  feet  below  the  summit,  for  an  asylum 
for  cretins,  whom  he  hoped  by  careful  treat 
ment  and  the  health-giving  influences  of  the 
climate  to  restore  to  reason  and  healthful  de 
velopment.  The  institution  did  not  accomplish 
all  that  was  expected  from  it,  and,  after  being 
maintained  for  18  or  20  years,  was  on  the 
death  of  its  founder  given  up.  (See  GUGGEN- 
BUIIL,  Louis.) 

ABEN  EZRA,  properly  Abraham  ben  Mcir  ben 
Ezra,  one  of  the  most  esteemed  biblical  com 
mentators  among  the  Jews  of  the  12th  century, 
born  in  Toledo,  Spain,  in  1093,  died  in  Rome 
'in  1167  or  1168.  He  was  also  distinguished  as 


a  physician,  mathematician,  astronomer,  poet, 
and  grammarian.  He  was  poor,  and  travelled 
extensively,  lecturing  before  large  audiences. 
His  writings,  some  of  which  have  been  trans 
lated  into  Latin,  are  numerous,  and  evince 
originality,  boldness,  and  independence.  His 
style  is  pithy  and  often  epigrammatic. 

ABEXSBERG,  a  small  town  of  Lower  Bavaria, 
18  in.  S.  W.  of  Ratisbon;  pop.  about  1,600. 
It  is  believed  to  have  been  the  Abasinum  of 
the  Romans.  It  has  a  thermal  spring,  and 
contains  the  ruins  of  a  fine  castle.  On  April 
20,  1809,  Napoleon  fought  and  defeated  the 
Austrians  near  Abensberg,  who  lost  12  guns 
and  20,000  men,  including  the  prisoners  made 
on  the  following  day.  This  was  the  precursor 
of  the  victories  of  Landshut  and  Eckmuhl. 

ABERBROTHWICK.     See  AEBEOATII. 

ABERCROMBIE,  James,  a  British  general,  born 
in  Scotland  in  1706,  died  April  28,  1781.  He 
was  commander-in-chief  in  America  in  1756, 
and  again  in  1758,  on  the  retirement  of  Lou- 
doun.  He  attacked  Ticonderoga  July  8,  at  the 
head  of  15,000  men,  and  was  repulsed  with  a 
loss  of  nearly  2,000  killed  and  wounded.  He 
then  retreated  to  his  fortified  camp  on  the 
south  side  of  Lake  George.  lie  was  superseded 
by  Sir  Jeflery  Amherst,  who  retook  Ticonde 
roga  and  Crown  Point.  In  1759  he  returned  to 
England,  and  was  afterward  a  member  of  par 
liament  and  deputy  governor  of  Stirling  castle. 

ABERCROMBIE,  John,  M.  I).,  a  Scottish  phy 
sician,  born  in  Aberdeen,  Nov.  11,  1781,  died 
in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  14,  1844.  He  contributed 
valuable  papers  to  the  u Edinburgh  Medical 
and  Surgical  Journal."  His  principal  works 
are :  "  Pathological  and  Practical  Researches  on 
Diseases  of  the  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord  "  (Edin 
burgh,  1828,  1830);  u  Inquiries  concerning  the 
Intellectual  Powers  of  Man  and  the  Investiga 
tion  of  Truth"  (1830);'  "Philosophy  of  the 
Moral  Feelings"  (1833).  The  university  of 
Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  honorary  degree 
of  doctor  of  medicine,  and  in  1835  Marischal 
college  elected  him  its  lord  rector.  He  was 
considered  the  first  physician  in  Scotland. 

ABERCROMBY,  Sir  Ralph,  a  British  general, 
born  in  1738,  died  March  28,  1801.  He  was 
descended  from  a  good  Scottish  family,  entered 
the  army,  and  became  major  general  in  1787. 
In  1793  he  went  to  Holland  in  the  unsuccess 
ful  Walcheren  expedition,  and  gained  universal 
esteem  by  his  humanity  and  soldierlike  quali 
ties.  He  was  now  made  commander-in-chief 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  took  several  of  the 
French  West  India  islands.  After  his  recall 
he  was  made  lieutenant  governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  showed  his  judgment  and  pres 
ence  of  mind  in  suppressing  a  mutiny  of  the 
Highland  regiments,  who  had  revolted  because 
they  were  required  to  serve  as  marines.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  of  1798  in 
Ireland,  he  Avas  sent  there  as  commander-in- 
chief,  but  his  distaste  for  the  service  was  so 
decided  that  he  Avas  removed  to  Scotland.  In 
1799  he  again  served  in  Holland.  In  1800  he 


ABERDARE 


ABERDEEN 


21 


was  sent  to  Egypt  to  act  against  the  French 
invasion  of  that  country,  and  on  March  8,  1801, 
lie  made  good  his  landing  at  Aboukir  in  the  face 
of  a  hostile  force,  but  with  considerable  loss. 
He  encamped  near  Alexandria,  and  was  at 
tacked  by  the  French,  and  on  the  21st  the  bat 
tle  of  Alexandria  was  fought.  Sir  Ralph  was 
severely  wounded  early  in  the  action,  but  con 
cealing  his  wound,  he  continued  on  the  field, 
giving  his  orders,  until  after  the  action  was 
over,  and  the  French  had  been  entirely  defeat 
ed.  His  dangerous  condition  was  then  made 
known.  He  died  a  week  afterward,  and  his 
remains  were  conveyed  to  Malta  and  there  in 
terred.  His  widow  was  created  a  peeress  as 
Baroness  Abercromby,  with  succession. 

ABKUUARK,  a  town  and  parish  of  Glamor 
ganshire,  S.  Wales,  at  the  junction  of  the  river 
Dare  with  the  Cynon,  20  in.  N.  N.  W.  of  Car 


diff,  and  4  m.  S.  W.  of  Merthyr  Tydvil ;  pop. 
of  the  parish  (25  sq.  m.)  in  1861,  32,299;  in 
1871,  about  40,000.  In  1841  the  population 
was  but  6,471.  The  increase  is  due  to  the 
great  extension  of  coal  and  iron  mining.  The 
coal  is  largely  consumed  in  the  iron  mills  of 
the  town,  and  a  considerable  amount  is  export 
ed.  There  are  many  fine  public  and  private 
buildings,  good  water  works,  and  a  public  park. 
ABERDEEN.  I.  New,  the  capital  of  the  county 
of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  situated  between  the 
rivers  Don  and  Dee,  and  near  the  mouth  of 
the  latter,  512  m.  from  London,  and  114  m.  X. 
by  E.'  from  Edinburgh;  pop.  in  1871,  88,125. 
It  was  styled  New  Aberdeen  after  its  restora 
tion  in  1336,  having  been  burned  by  Edward 
III.  It  is  incorporated  by  royal  charter  grant 
ed  by  William  the  Lion  in  1179.  The  public 
edifices,  chiefly  of  granite,  are  the  East  and 


Aberdeen  from  the  Cross. 


West  church,  the  Marischal  college,  the  royal 
infirmary,  the  town  house  and  tolbooth  or  jail, 
the  post  office,  mechanics'  hall,  and  several  oth 
ers  erected  within  the  last  few  years.  There  is 
a  fine  one-arch  bridge  of  132  feet  span  over  the 
river  Dee,  opening  into  Union  street,  which 
is  70  feet  wide  and  a  mile  long,  and  is  the 
chief  thoroughfare  of  the  city.  Over  the  Don, 
at  the  N.  end  of  the  town,  is  a  bridge  of  five 
arches  and  75  feet  span.  There  are  about  50 
religious  edifices  of  all  denominations,  the 
largest  number  being  Presbyterian.  The  East 
and  West  church  is  a  noble  pile  170  feet 
long,  with  a  spire  150  feet  high.  The  town 
house  and  tolbooth  are  situated  in  Castle  street, 
and  have  a  spire  120  feet  high.  Marischal  col 
lege,  founded  by  George  Keith,  earl  of  Maris 
chal,  in  1593,  has  an  observatory  and  good  col 
lection  of  instruments,  a  museum,  and  a  fine 
library.  Since  1858  it  has  been  incorporated 


with  King's  college  as  the  university  of  Aber 
deen,  which  has  now  21  professors  and  over  600 
students.  Gordon's  hospital,  founded  in  1729 
by  Robert  Gordon,  is  a  school  for  boys,  who 
are  admitted  from  8  to  11,  and  kept  until  15 
years  of  age,  and  on  quitting  the  foundation 
are  entitled  to  receive  an  apprentice  fee  of  £10 
or  £7.  The  other  charitable  institutions  are 
the  royal  infirmary  and  lunatic  asylum,  the 
general  dispensary,  two  ophthalmic  institu 
tions,  the  Cruickshank  asylum  for  the  blind, 
Dr.  Carnegie's  hospital  for  destitute  female 
children,  the  Midbellie  fund  for  granting  pen 
sions  of  £5  to  £15  to  widows,  and  the  female 
orphan  asylum,  which  is  supported  by  volun 
tary  contributions,  and  whose  inmates  are 
trained  for  domestic  service.  The  cross  on  the 
east  of  Castle  street  is  a  monumental  structure 
of  remarkable  beauty.  The  market  is  com- 
i  modious,  built  in  two  floors,  with  galleries 


ABERDEEN 


ABERDEENSIIIRE 


running  around  the  whole.  The  commerce  and 
manufactures  of  Aberdeen  are  extensive. 
Ships  of  1,000  to  1,500  tons  are  built  here. 
Cotton  manufactures  employ  4,000  hands, 
linens  and  woollens  each  as  many  more.  The 
Aberdeen  granite  is  used  all  over  Great  Brit 
ain,  and  largely  exported.  Aberdeen  is  ac 
tively  engaged  in  the  northern  whale  fishery. 
Tiie  Victoria  dock  has  a  water  area  of  40 
acres.  There  are  water  works  which  supply 
the  town  from  the  river  Dee.  There  is  rail 
way  communication  direct  with  London.  The 
town  is  governed  by  a  provost,  four  bailies, 
a  dean  of  guild,  and  a  treasurer,  with  12  other 
members  of  council.  II.  Old,  a  town  of  great 
antiquity,  situated  one  mile  N.  of  the  new 
town,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Don  ;  pop.  about 
2,000.  King's  college,  founded  in  1494,  is 
situated  here. 

ABERDEEN,  Earls  of,  viscounts  of  Formartin 
and  barons  of  Haddo,  Methlic,  Tarvis,  and  Kel- 
lie  in  the  Scottish  peerage,  and  Viscounts  Gor 
don  in  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
family  is  an  offshoot  of  the  ancient  Scotch 
family  of  the  Gordons. — Sir  Jonx  GOEDON  of 
Haddo  was  created  a  baronet  in  1642  by  Charles 
I.,  as  a  reward  for  his  services  in  the  battle 
of  Turriff  between  that  monarch  and  the  par 
liamentary  forces.  Being  taken  prisoner  after 
a  desperate  defence  of  the  house  of  Kellie, 
he  was  long  imprisoned  in  the  nave  of  the 
ancient  cathedral  of  St.  Giles  at  Edinburgh, 
which  from  him  took  the  familiar  name  of 
"  Iladdo's  Hole,"  and  was  at  length  beheaded 
in  1645.  His  estates  remained  under  seques 
tration  till  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  when 
they  were  restored  to  his  eldest  son,  Sir  John 
Gordon,  who  died  in  1665. — Sir  GEORGE  GOR 
DON*  of  Haddo,  lord  high  chancellor  of  Scotland, 
was  in  1682  elevated  to  the  Scottish  peerage, 
by  the  titles  above  mentioned.  On  the  revo 
lution  the  new  earl  resigned  office,  and  de 
clined  taking*  the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  Wil 
liam  of  Orange,  but  he  appeared  again  at  court 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  He  opposed  the 
union  of  Scotland  and  England  from  his  seat  in 
parliament,  and  died  in  1720,  aged  83. — GEORGE 
HAMILTON  GORDON,  4th  earl,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
Jan.  28,  1784,  died  Dec.  14,  1860.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow,  and  at  St.  John's  college, 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1804. 
While  still  a  young  man  he  founded  a  club,  the 
members  of  which  must  have  made  a  journey 
to  Greece.  In  1806,  though  only  22,  he  was 
elected  as  one  of  the  16  Scottish  representative 
peers,  and  so  remained  until  he  was  created  a 
peer  of  the  realm  in  his  own  right  in  1814,  as 
Viscount  Gordon  of  Aberdeen.  In  1813  he 
was  sent  to  the  court  of  Vienna  as  a  secret  envoy 
to  detach  Austria  from  her  enforced  alliance 
with  Napoleon.  He  succeeded,  and  was  soon 
afterward  again  sent  to  Vienna,  and  arranged  ! 
the  preliminaries  between  the  emperor  Francis 
and  Joachim  Murat,  king  of  Naples,  for  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  to  the  throne  of 
Naples.  During  Canning's  ministry  he  was  in 


opposition.  In  1828,  the  duke  of  Wellington 
having  formed  a  ministry  on  high  tory  princi 
ples,  Aberdeen  became  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs,  remaining  in  office  till  Novem 
ber,  1830,  and  opposing  the  Greek  war  of  in 
dependence,  but  favoring  the  abolition  of  the 
test  and  corporation  acts,  and  the  Catholic 
emancipation  act,  while  resisting  the  movement 
for  parliamentary  reform.  On  the  death  of 
George  IV.  Aberdeen  resigned  with  his  col 
leagues,  lie  afterward  took  a  conspicuous 
part  in  endeavoring  to  reunite  the  Scottish  na 
tional  church.  From  1841  to  1846  he  was 
again  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  in  the  min 
istry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  participated  in 
settling  the  northeastern  and  Oregon  bound 
ary  questions  with  the  United  States.  On  Dec. 
28,  1852,  he  became  prime  minister,  but  was 
compromised  in  public  opinion  by  his  attempt 
to  evade  the  Crimean  war,  and  by  its  blunders 
after  it  was  begun,  and  was  compelled  to  re 
sign  Oct.  7,  1855,  when  he  was  made  a  knight 
of  the  Garter.  He  had  been  president  of  the 
society  of  antiquaries,  and  in  1822  published 
"  An  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Beauty  in 
Grecian  Architecture."  —  GEORGE  HAMILTON 
GORDON,  6th  earl,  born  Dec.  10,  1841,  lost  at 
sea  Jan.  27,  1870.  He  succeeded  to  the  title  in 
1864.  In  1866  he  embarked  in  a  sailing  vessel 
from  Aberdeen  for  St.  Johns,  N.  B.,  and  dur 
ing  the  voyage  volunteered  to  fill  the  place 
of  a  disabled  seaman.  This  occupation  he  re 
sumed  after  some  time  spent  in  travel,  made 
several  short  voyages  under  the  name  of 
George  Henry  Osborne,  acted  as  a  commercial 
agent  at  Pensacola,  and  was  licensed  as  a  mate 
in  New  York  in  1867,  and  as  a  captain  in  1868. 
In  January,  1870,  he  shipped  as  mate  of  the 
three-masted  schooner  Hera,  bound  from  Bos 
ton  to  Melbourne,  and  on  the  fourth  day  out 
was  swept  overboard  in  a  storm.  He  had  for 
some  time  kept  his  family  advised  of  his  wan 
derings,  but  as  all  replies  to  his  letters  miscar 
ried,  he  ceased  writing.  An  agent  sent  out  in 
search  of  him  succeeded  with  great  difficulty 
in  tracing  his  subsequent  career. 

1BERDEENSH1RE,  a  county  of  Scotland, 
on  the  N.  E.  coast,  between  lat.  56°  52'  and 
57°  42'  N.,  and  Ion.  1°  49'  and  3°  48'  W. ; 
length,  87  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  36  m. ;  area, 
1,985  sq.  m.,  or  1,270,740  acres,  being  about 
one  sixteenth  of  all  Scotland ;  pop.  in  1871, 
244,607.  It  contains  83  parishes  and  parts  of 
six  others,  and  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
Mar,  Formartin,  Buchan,  Garioch,  and  Strath- 
bogie.  On  the  S.  and  S.  W.  borders  of  the 
county  are  the  Grampian  hills.  The  High 
lands  of  this  district  include  some  of  the  high 
est  mountains  in  Scotland,  Ben  Macdhui, 
Cairntoul,  Ben  Avon,  and  Cairngorm,  from 
which  last  the  fine  yellow  pebble  so  much  used 
in  Highland  dress  and  ornaments  takes  its 
name.  The  Scottish  kings  used  to  hold  for 
midable  gatherings  to  hunt  the  red  deer  in  the 
wilds  of  Braemar ;  and  the  abundance  of  care 
fully  preserved  game  makes  the  district  still  a 


ABERDEVINE 


ABERRATION 


favorite  rendezvous  of  sportsmen.  The  Bullers 
of  Buchan,  near  Peterhead,  are  also  an  at 
tractive  object  to  the  tourist.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Dee  and  the  Don.  The  climate,  ex 
cept  in  the  mountain  districts,  is  mild,  and 
wheat  prospers.  Cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  eggs,  and 
butter  are  transported  by  steam  from  Aber 
deen  to  London,  to  the  value  of  about  £1,000,- 
000  annually.  Granite  is  the  most  important 
mineral  production.  Besides  the  queen's  es 
tate  of  Balmoral,  Aboyne  castle,  belonging  to 
the  earl  of  Aboyne,  Iladdo  house,  seat  of  the 
earl  of  Aberdeen,  Huntly  lodge,  of  the  duke  of 
Richmond,  and  Forbes  castle  are  noteworthy. 

ABERDEVINE  (cardmlis  spinux),  also  called 
the  siskin,  a  small  European  song  bird,  which 
breeds  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  visits  Eng 
land,  France,  and  Germany  during  the  winter 
season  only.  It  somewhat  resembles  the 
green  variety  of  the  canary  bird,  with  which 
it  is  so  far  connected  that  it  will  interbreed 
with  it  in  confinement,  when  the  produce  is 
what  are  known  by  bird  fanciers  as  mules. 
Its  length  is  about  4f  inches,  its  tail  short  and 
forked.  Its  upper  parts  are  variegated  with 
olive  brown,  yellow,  and  pale  green,  the  feath 
ers  being  edged  with  yellow  ;  its  bill  and  legs 
are  light  horn  brown.  Its  note  is  soft  and 
pleasant.  It  builds  in  the  topmost  branches 
of  pine  trees,  and  lays  four  or  five  bluish  white 
eggs,  speckled  with  purplish  red.  Its  Latin 
name  carduelis  expresses  its  fondness  for  the 
seeds  of  the  thistle. 

ABERNETIIY,  John,  an  English  surgeon, 
born  either  in  Scotland  or  Ireland  in  1764, 
died  at  Enfield,  April  18,  1831.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Sir  Charles  Blick,  surgeon  to  St.  Bar 
tholomew's  hospital,  London,  and  afterward 
of  the  celebrated  John  Hunter.  Early  in  his 
career,  in  a  work  entitled  "  The  Constitutional 
Origin  and  Treatment  of  Local  Diseases,"  he 
established  the  fundamental  principles  upon 
which  surgical  operations  have  since  been  con 
ducted.  His  bold  and  successful  operations  of 
tying  the  carotid  and  external  iliac  arteries 
established  his  reputation,  and  almost  revolu 
tionized  surgery.  He  acquired  great  distinc 
tion  as  an  anatomist  and  physiologist,  suc 
ceeded  Sir  Charles  Blick  at  St.  Bartholomew's, 
was  appointed  surgeon  to  Christ's  hospital  in 
1813,  and  in  1814  professor  of  anatomy  and  sur 
gery  to  the  royal  college  of  surgeons.  His 
works  became  text  books  in  nearly  all  the 
medical  colleges  in  Europe  and  America.  He 
contributed  the  anatomical  and  physiological 
articles  to  Dr.  Rees's  "  Cyclopaedia  "  from  A 
to  C,  and  published  numerous  tracts,  treatises, 
and  surgical  and  physiological  essays.  One  of 
the  most  popular  and  well  known  of  his  works 
was  his  "  Surgical  Observations,"  the  pe 
rusal  of  which  he  almost  invariably  recom 
mended  to  his  patients.  His  last  production 
(issued  a  few  months  prior  to  his  death)  was  a 
collected  and  revised  edition  of  his  "  Lectures 
on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surgery."  His 
writings  are  remarkable  for  clearness,  concise- 


j  ness,  and  simplicity.  Ilis  simple  and  inipres- 
I  sive  style  of  lecturing  never  failed  to  enchain 
j  his  audience,  despite  his  dogmatism  and  con- 
I  tempt  of  others'  opinions.  His  private  charac- 
i  ter  was  admirable,  but  in  public  his  manners 
I  were  uncouth,  churlish,  and  capricious.  Many 
anecdotes  of  his  eccentricities  are  current. 

ABERRATION.  I.  Aberration  of  Light,  the  al- 
j  teration  of  apparent  position  in  a  heavenly 
j  body,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  observer  is  car- 
j  ried  along  by  the  earth's  motion,  the  velocity 
|  of  which  is  a  measurable  quantity  in  relation 
to  the  velocity  of  light.  The  aberration  of 
light  is  therefore  due  to  the  combined  effect 
of  the  transmission  of  light  and  of  the  earth's 
motion.  The  solution  of  all  problems  to  which 
it  gives  rise  is  due  to  the  astronomers  of  the 
last  century ;  their  calculations  are  in  perfect 
accord  with  the  minutest  practical  observa 
tions,  made  with  the  most  elaborate  and  largest 
astronomical  instruments  constructed  in  some 
observatories  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  measur 
ing  this  amount  of  aberration.  If,  at  a  time  when 
rain  drops  were  falling  in  a  perfect  calm  per 
pendicular  to  the  earth's  surface,  we  were 
standing  on  a  platform  car  on  a  railroad  track, 
and  rapidly  moving  forward  or  backward,  the 
drops  would  strike  us  under  an  angle  deviating 
from  the  perpendicular  in  proportion  to  the 
swiftness  of  our  motion.  The  direction  of  this 
deviation  would  in  either  case  be  toward  the 
side  we  are  moving  to,  and  this  is  exactly  the  case 
with  the  light  coming  to  us  from  the  heavenly 
bodies.  This  is  evident  when  we  compare  the 
direction  of  the  rain  drops  with  that  of  the 
light,  and  that  of  the  car  with  the  motion  of 
the  earth  in  its  yearly  orbit.  If  now  the  direc 
tion  in  which  light  reaches  us  be  changed,  the 
apparent  position  of  the  body  from  which  the 
light  proceeds  must  be  changed  also.  Let  A  B 


s1  s 

*   * 


T    T1 

* 


I         I 


A  B  C  D 

Aberration  of  Light. 

represent  a  small  portion  of  the  earth's  orbit, 
and  S  M  the  ray  of  light  from  a  fixed  star  S  ; 
the  motion  of  the  earth  from  B  toward  A  will 
cause  the  light  to  come  in  the  direction  S'  A, 
and  the  star  will  appear  to  stand  in  S'.  If  C  D 
represents  a  small  portion  of  the  earth's  orbit 
half  a  year  later,  thus  moving  in  an  opposite 
direction,  the  star  T  will  for  the  same  rea- 


ABERRATION 


ABEYANCE 


son  appear  to  stand  in  T'.  If  the  velocity 
of  our  earth  was  so  much  slower  as  to  be 
for  our  most  delicate  instruments  incompara 
ble  to  the  velocity  of  light,  no  apparent  in 
fluence  would  be  exerted  on  the  apparent 
direction,  and  there  would  be  no  appreciable 
aberration;  but  the  relation  happens  to  be 
within  the  pale  of  actual  measurement.  Tak 
ing  the  length  of  the  earth's  yearly  orbit  in 
round  numbers  at  000,000,000  miles  and  the 
length  of  the  year  at  31,556,931  seconds,  the 
velocity  of  our  earth  is  nearly  19'2  miles  per 
second  ;  and  light  being  transmitted  at  the  rate 
of  192,000  miles  per  second,  it  is  clear  that 
it  travels  about  10,000  times  faster  than  the 
earth.  If  now  we  consider  that  an  equal  ve 
locity  would  change  tbe  direction  of  the  per 
pendicular,  or  1)0°,  into  its  half,  or  45°,  we  see 
that  a  velocity  of  only  TOYO-Q-O  WO11^  deviate 
the  angle  approximately  To,Vo-o  of  45°,  or  about 
16  seconds.  This,  however,  is  a  rough  esti 
mate  ;  trigonometrically  calculated,  we  obtain 
more,  namely,  20  seconds.  This  now  must 
be  the  maximum  aberration  produced  by  the 
yearly  motion  of  the  earth  on  the  position  of 
all  stars  observed  at  right  angles  to  the  direc 
tion  of  that  motion.  They  must  all  appear 
displaced  to  an  amount  of  20"  forward,  and 
this  is  in  fact  observed  in  all  heavenly  bodies 
at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  As 
after  six  months  the  earth  moves  in  an  oppo 
site  direction  at  the  other  side  of  the  sun,  this 
displacement  must  be  observed  in  an  opposite 
direction  after  the  lapse  of  every  half  year, 
making  a  total  displacement  of  40"  in  the 
position  of  all  the  stars  situated  near  the  poles 
of  the  ecliptic ;  therefore  they  appear  to  have 
a  yearly  movement  in  small  ellipses  of  40" 
mean  diameter,  or  about  one  fortieth  the  di 
ameter  of  the  moon.  II.  Aberration  in  Optical 
Instruments.  As  white  light  is  composed  of 
colored  rays  of  different  refrangibility,  any 
kind  of  refraction  must  split  it  up  into  rays  of 
different  colors.  This  is  called  dispersion.  As 
the  convex  lenses  used  in  telescopes,  micro-' 
scopes,  and  other  optical  instruments  refract 
the  light  to  focal  points,  this  dispersion  causes 
an  infinite  number  of  foci.  Those  consisting 
of  the  most  refrangible  rays,  the  violet,  are 
the  nearest  to  the  lens,  and  they  follow  in  the 
order  of  their  refrangibility — blue,  green,  yel 
low,  orange,  and  red ;  the  focus  of  the  last  is 
the  furthest  distant  from  the  lens.  This  grand 
defect,  called  chromatic  aberration,  is  correct 
ed  by  the  construction  of  achromatic  lenses. 


sented  in  the  adjoined  figure,  in  which  A  B  is 
the  lens,  V  the  focus  of  the  most  refrangible  or 
violet,  and  R  that  of  the  least  refrangible  or  red 
rays. — Another  defect,  called  spherical  aberra 
tion,  arises  from  the  nature  of  the  curve  used  in 
making  lenses  and  reflectors.  Geometry  proves 
that  parallel  rays  can  only  be  refracted  and  re 
flected  to  a  single  focus  by  a  parabolic  curve ; 
however,  lenses  and  reflectors  are  ordinarily 
ground  as  parts  of  a  sphere,  which  differs  from 
a  parabola  in  the  fact  that  in  the  latter  the 
j  amount  of  curvature  increases  toward  the  cen- 
|  tre  or  axis.  The  consequence  is  that  a  sec 
tion  of  a  sphere,  not  having  curvature  enough 
toward  this  point,  has  an  infinite  number  of 
foci  at  different  distances ;  those  formed  by 
parts  nearest  to  the  axis  will  be  the  furthest 
off,  while  those  formed  by  the  refractions  or 
reflections  near  the  circumference  of  the  lens 
or  mirror  will  be  the  nearest.  The  two  figures 


Chromatic  Aberration. 


(See  ACHEOMATIC  LENS.)     The  course  of  the 
rays  producing  chromatic  aberration  is  repre- 


Spherical  Aberration. 

given  here  represent  the  case  of  this  aberration 
|  by  refraction  and  reflection :  C  I)  is  the  lens,  of 
I  which  the  rays  passing  near  the  centre  P  are 
united  in  F,  while  the  rays  passing  near  the 
circumference  D  C  unite  nearer  to  the  lens  in 
E.  G  H  is  the  curved  mirror  or  reflector  which 
reflects  the  rays  U I  and  W  K  falling  on  it  near 
its  centre  in  1ST,  while  the  rays  S  G  and  T  II, 
falling  on  it  near  the  circumference,  are  brought 
together  much  nearer  in  M.  When  the  aper 
ture  of  the  lens  or  mirror  is  small,  for  instance 
only  5°  or  about  TV  part  of  the  circumference, 
these  differences  are  practically  inappreciable ; 
but  when  the  aperture  must  be  large,  as  is  the 
case  with  astronomical  telescopes,  peculiar  ar 
rangements  are  contrived,  so  that  in  making 
the  lenses  or  reflectors  a  curve  is  obtained 
as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  parabolic  form. 

ABERYSTWITH,  a  seaport  town  of  Cardigan 
shire,  Wales,  near  the  outlet  of  the  Ystwith 
and  Rheidiol,  39  m.  N.  E.  of  Cardigan ;  pop. 
in  1871,  6,896.  It  is  a  bathing  place,  and  has 
considerable  commerce  and  extensive  fisheries. 
In  the  vicinity  are  many  lead  mines. 

ABEYANCE    (law    Fr.     abbayer,    to   expect, 
wait  for ;  Fr.  ~bayer,  to  gape),  a  law  term  im 
plying  expectation,   suspense,  though  by  the 
signification  preferred  by  the  best  authors  the 
thing  in  abeyance  is  conceived  to  be  in  the 
j  remembrance   or  consideration    of    the  law. 
,  The  title  to  a  ship  captured  in  war  is  said  to 


ABIAD 


ABINGTOST 


25 


be  in  abeyance  until  condemnation  to  the  cap 
tor  by  the  prize  court.  So  an  estate  of  inher 
itance  or  the  fee  was  said  to  be  in  abeyance 
when  there  was  no  one  in  being  in  whom  it 
could  vest,  as  in  the  case  of  a  grant  to  A  for 
life,  remainder  in  fee  to  the  heirs  of  B,  who 
was  then  living :  as  there  can  be  no  heir  of  a 
living  man,  the  fee  was  said  to  be  in  abeyance 
untilB's  death.  Mr.  Fearne,  an  acute  writer 
upon  the' law  of  real  property,  denounced  the 
theory  of  an  abeyance  as  an  absurd  fiction ; 
and  he  contended  with  great  ability  that  in  the 
case  just  supposed  the  estate  of  inheritance 
was  not  in  abeyance  during  B's  life,  but  re 
mained  in  the  grantor  of  the  life  estate  until  the 
happening  of  the  condition  on  which  it  might 
pass  to  B's  heirs  devested  him  of  it.  The 
principle  of  abeyance,  however,  has  always 
stood  last  in  the  la\v,  and  has  carried  with  it 
very  practical  results.  The  plan  of  the  feudal 
system,  which  required  that  there  should  al 
ways  be  some  one  ready  to  render  the  military 
and  other  feudal  services  to  the  lord,  fixed  the 
rule  of  the  feudal,  and  later  of  the  common 
law,  that  there  must  al \vays  be  a  tenant  of 
the  freehold,  and  that  that  must  never  be  in 
abeyance.  It  was  difficult  for  a  long  time, 
however,  to  get  rid  of  the  abeyance  of  the  fee, 
that  is,  of  the  absolute  ownership  of  the  estate, 
distinguished  from  mere  portions  of  it  like  a 
freehold  life  estate.  But  the  recognition  of 
the  rule  caused  great  embarrassments ;  for  dur 
ing  the  suspension  of  the  fee  there  was  no  one 
to  defend  the  title,  or  take  any  of  those  remedies 
in  respect  to  the  property  which  depended  on 
the  absolute  ownership.  The  doctrine,  there 
fore,  came  to  be  regarded  with  more  and  more 
disfavor,  and  its  inconveniences  inspired  from 
time  to  time  some  of  the  most  important  re 
forms  of  the  law.  Blackstone  says  in  one  of 
his  arguments,  that  the  famous  rule  in  Shel 
ley's  case  owed  its  origin  and  adoption  to  the 
aversion  of  the  common  law  to  the  suspension 
of  estates  through  the  operation  of  abeyance  ; 
and  the  same  spirit  of  the  law  helped  to  break 
down  the  limitation  or  creation  of  remote  and 
contingent  remainders. 

ABIAD,  Balir  el.     See  NILE. 

ABIATHAR,  a  Hebrew  high  priest,  the  son  of 
Ahimelech,  who  was  slain  by  Saul  for  receiving 
David  when  a  fugitive.  He  was  for  a  long  time 
faithful  to  David,  especially  during  Absalom's 
rebellion,  when  he  accompanied  the  king.  He 
afterward,  however,  took  part  in  the  rebellion 
of  Adontjah,  and  was  in  consequence  deprived 
of  the  priesthood  and  banished  from  the  capi 
tal  by  Solomon. 

ABIB  (properly,  Jlodcsh  Jia-abib,  the  month 
of  the  ears  of  com),  the  first  month  of  the 
Mosaic  Hebrew  year,  corresponding  nearly  to 
our  April.  After  the  Babylonish  captivity 
this  month  was  called  Nisan,  month  of  blos 
soms  or  flowers.  (See  XISAX.) 

ABH  II.  WUhelm  Hermann,  a  German-Russian 
naturalist,  born  in  Berlin,  Dec.  11,  1806.  He 
graduated  in  1831  at  the  university  of  Berlin, 


visited  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  published  Erlau- 
ternde  Abbildungeri  ion  geologisclien  ErscJici- 
nungen,  beobachtct  am  Vesuv  und  Aetna  1833 
und  1834  (Berlin,  1837),  and  Ucber  die  Natar 
und  den  Zusammcnhang  dcr  viLlkanixcken 
Bildungen  (Brunswick,  1841).  In  1842  he 
became  professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  univer 
sity  of  Dorpat,  and  in  1853  a  member  of  the 
St.  Petersburg  academy  of  sciences.  He  has 
explored  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  Caucasus, 
Russian  Armenia,  northern  Persia,  and  Daghes- 
tan,  and  published  in  the  German  and  French 
languages  many  works  relating  to  the  palaeon 
tology,  geology,  <tc.,  of  those  regions,  besides 
his  contributions  to  the  bulletins  and  memoirs 
of  the  St.  Petersburg  academy  since  1843. 

ABIMELECII.  I.  A  Philistine  king  of  Gerar, 
into  whose  dominions  Abraham  removed  after 
the  destruction  of  Sodom.  The  latter,  from 
motives  of  prudence,  pretended  that  Sarah,  his 
wife,  was  his  sister,  whereupon  Abimelech 
took  her  from  him,  intending  to  make  her  his 
concubine.  By  divine  command,  however,  he 
restored  her,  rebuking  Abraham  for  his  fraud. 
Another  Philistine  king  of  Gerar  of  the  same 
name  was  similarly  deceived  by  Isaac  in  regard 
to  Rebekah,  and  also  rebuked  him.  II.  A  son 
of  Gideon  by  a  Shechemite  concubine,  who 
made  himself  king  after  murdering  all  his  TO 
brethren  except  Jotham,  and  was  killed  after 
a  reign  of  three  years  while  besieging  the 
tower  of  Thebez.  (See  HEBREWS.) 

ABINGER,  James,  Lord,  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  Jamaica  about  1769,  died  in  London, 
April  7,  1844.  He  is  better  known  and  re 
membered  as  Sir  James  Scarlett,  lie  was  a 
member  of  parliament  for  Peterborough  from 
1818  to  1830,  afterward  for  Maldon,  Cocker- 
mouth,  and  Norwich.  lie  was  at  first  a  mod 
erate  whig,  but  gradually  became  a  stanch 
tory.  As  an  advocate  he  was  one  of  the  most 
popular  men  of  his  day.  and  his  practice  was 
immensely  lucrative.  His  oratorical  powers 
were  of  the  most  persuasive  character ;  his 
speech  usually  assumed  almost  a  conversa 
tional  tone  with  the  jury,  and  he  had  the  art 
of  appea'ring  to  address  himself  to  each  of  his 
auditors-  individually.  He  was  attorney-gen 
eral  from  April,  1827,  to  January,  1828,  and 
again  from  May,  1829,  to  November,  1830.  In 
December,  1834,  he  was  appointed  lord  chief 
baron  of  the  exchequer,  and  on  Jan.  12,  1835, 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Abinger. 

ABINGTOX,  Frances,  an  English  actress,  bora 
about  1731,  died  in  London,  March  4,  1815. 
Her  father  was  a  common  soldier  named  Bar 
ton.  She  was  employed  as  a  child  in  running 
errands,  and  afterward  as  a  flower  girl.  Her 
first  appearance  as  an  actress  was  on  the 
boards  of  the  Haymarket  in  the  character  of 
Miranda  in  "The  Busybody,"  1755.  She  had 
previously  married  Mr.  Abington,  her  music 
master,  from  whom  she  separated  in  a  few 
months.  At  Dublin  she  was  a  great  favorite, 
and  when  Garrick  in  1765  invited  her  to 
London,  she  soon  became  the  first  comic 


ABIPOXES 


ABNER 


actress  of  the  day.  She  bade  adieu  to  the 
stage  April  12,  1709,  and  left  at  her  death  a 
legacy  to  each  of  the  theatrical  funds. 

ABIPOXKS,  a  tribe  of  South  American  Indians 
who  inhabited  the  district  ol'Chaco  in  Paraguay, 
but  now  occupy  the  territory  lying  between  San 
ta  Fe  and  St.  Jago,  east  of  the  Parana  river. 
Our  accounts  of  this  singular  people  are  mainly 
derived  from  Dobrizholi'er,  who  lived  among 
them  se\en  years  at  the  end  of  the  last  centu 
ry.  His  volumes  were  translated  from  the 
Latin  by  Miss  Coleridge  (3  vols.  8vo,  1822). 
The  whole  tribe  at  that  time  did  not  number 
above  5,000.  They  practise  tattooing.  The 
men  are  of  tall  stature,  good  swimmers,  and 
expert  horsemen.  The  women  practise  infan 
ticide  to  a  great  extent,  but  suckle  those  in 
fants  they  permit  to  live  for  the  space  of  two 
years.  In  counting  they  can  go  no  further 
than  three.  See  A.  d'Orbigny,  Vllomme  Ame- 
ricain,  vol.  ii. 

ABJURATION,  Oath  of,  usually,  an  oath  by 
which  one  renounces  allegiance.  But  ancient 
ly  in  England,  and  before  21  James  I.,  ch.  28, 
§  17,  one  who  had  been  guilty  of  a  felony,  and 
who  had  iled  for  safety  to  the  sanctuary  of  a 
church  or  churchyard,  might  upon  confession 
of  his  crime  take  an  oath  before  a  coroner  that 
lie  would  abandon  or  renounce  the  country  for 
ever,  and  thereupon  he  was  permitted  to  leave 
it  in  safety.  The  statute  just  named  took 
away  the  privilege  of  sanctuary,  and  with  it 
this  privilege  of  abjuration.  Formerly  too,  in 
England — for  example,  under  the  statute  of 
35  Elizabeth,  ch.  1 — any  person  above  the  age 
of  16  years  who  refused  to  hear  divine  service 
or  incited  others  to  abstain  from  attending  it, 
and  by  speech  or  in  writing  denied  her  majes 
ty's  authority  in  causes  ecclesiastical,  was  re 
quired  to  conform  and  make  submission  to  the 
church,  or  else  to  abjure  the  realm  forthwith 
and  for  ever,  before  the  justices  at  the  assizes 
or  in  sessions. — The  oath  of  abjuration  in 
respect  to  the  sovereign  came  into  use  in  Eng 
land  after  the  restoration,  and  was  changed 
from  time  to  time  until  in  the  6  George  III. 
it  took  the  form  which  it  retained  till  1858. 
All  clergymen  and  public  officers  were  re 
quired  to  take  it  on  coming  to  their  places,  to 
gether  with  the  separate  oaths  of  allegiance  and 
supremacy.  The  statute  of  21  and  22  Victoria, 
ch.  48  (1858),  displaced  these  three  oaths  by  a 
single  one  which  embraced  the  elements  of 
all  of  them.  It  ended  with  the  words,  "  and 
I  make  this  declaration  on  the  true  faith  of  a 
Christian.1'  In  ordinary  cases  Jews  had  been 
excused  from  adding  these  words,  but  until 
1858  no  statute  authorized  their  omission  from 
the  parliamentary  oath  ;  so  that  when  in  1850 
Baron  de  Rothschild,  and  in  1851  Mr.  Salomons, 
had  come  into  the  house  and  refused  to  take 
the  oath  in  its  full  form,  they  were  declared 
incapable  of  sitting  as  members.  The  statute 
of  21  and  22  Victoria,  ch.  49,  however,  author 
ized  the  houses  to  dispense  with  the  obnox 
ious  words  in  the  case  of  Jews,  and  this  au 


thority  was  thereupon  exercised  in  favor  of 
Baron  de  Rothschild ;  and  in  I860  a  standing 
order  on  the  subject  was  made  to  avoid  the  in 
convenience  of  special  resolutions  in  separate 
instances.  But  the  statute  of  29  and  CO  Victoria, 
ch.  19  (1800),  removed  all  difficulty  by  dropping 
the  embarrassing  clause  altogether  from  the 
parliamentary  oath. — Under  the  United  States 
statute  relating  to  naturalization,  the  subject  of 
a  foreign  state  who  seeks  to  become  an  Ameri 
can  citizen  is  required  to  declare  on  oath  or 
affirmation,  before  the  court  to  which  he  ap 
plies,  that  he  absolutely  and  for  ever  renounces 
and  abjures  all  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  every 
foreign  power,  authority,  or  sovereignty  what 
ever,  and  particularly,  and  by  name,  to  the 
foreign  prince  or  potentate,  state,  or  sover 
eignty  of  which  he  has  been  hitherto  a  subject. 

ABKHASIA,  or  Abchasia,  the  country  of  the 
Abkhasians,  a  warlike  tribe  between  the  Black 
sea  and  the  Caucasus,  which  has  been  con 
quered  by  the  Russians.  It  is  bounded  N.  and 
N.  E.  by  the  land  of  the  Circassians,  E.  by 
I  Suanethi,  S.  E.  by  Mingrelia,  and  S.  and  W. 
by  the  Black  sea.  Its  area,  vaguely  limited,  is 
about  10,000  sq.  m.  Under  the  Roman  empe 
ror  Justinian  the  Abkhasians  became  Chris 
tians,  but  subsequently  they  adopted  Moham 
medanism,  to  which  religion  they  still  nomi 
nally  belong,  though  their  religion  in  fact 
consists  of  a  barbarous  mixture  of  Christian, 
Moslem,  and  heathen  notions  and  usages.  The 
country  was  formerly  divided  into  ten  commu 
nities,  the  most  important  of  which  were  Ab- 
khasia  proper  (with  80,000  inhabitants),  the 
Tziebelda  (8,000),  Samurzakan  (9,800),  and  the 
country  of  the  Jigets  or  Zadzes  (10,000).  Ab- 
khasia  proper  has  again  had  since  1771  an  he 
reditary  dynasty  of  its  own,  that  of  the  Sher- 
vashidze,  which  since  1824  has  been  under 
Russian  sovereignty.  The  residence  of  the 
prince  is  at  Soyuk-Su  (pop.  about  5,000).  On 
the  coast  the  Russians  have  fortified  several 
places,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Sukhum 
Ivaleh,  or  Baglata  (pop.  SOO),  supposed  to  be 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Dioscurias,  where  ac 
cording  to  Pliny  800  different  tribes  used  to 
trade.  About  15,000  Abkhasians  have  of  late 
emigrated  from  Russia  to  Turkey. 

ABLUTION,  a  religious  ceremony  in  many  por 
tions  of  the  world.  In  the  Catholic  church  it 
means  the  cleansing  of  the  cup  after  the  Lord's 
supper,  and  is  applied  to  the  wine  and  water 
with  which  the  priest  who  consecrates  the 
host  washes  his  hands. 

ABNER,  the  son  of  Ner,  cousin  of  Saul  and 
the  general  of  his  troops.  He  was  greatly 
loved  by  Saul,  and  faithful  to  him  until  his 
death,  and  then  transferred  his  allegiance  to 
Ishbosheth,  Saul's  son,  to  whom  he  preserved 
the  throne  of  Israel  for  seven  years  against  the 
rival  claims  of  David.  At  length,  Ishbosheth 
having  accused  him  of  improprieties  with  one 
of  his  father's  concubines,  he  went  over  to  the 
cause  of  David.  But  the  aid  he  might  have  ren 
dered  to  that  king  was  cut  off  by  his  sudden 


ABO 


ABORTION 


27 


death  at  the  hand  of  Joab,  David's  captain, 
who  was  probably  moved  with  jealousy  at  the 
influence  of  so  powerful  a  rival  for  the  kind's 
favor,  though  Joab  alleged  that  the  object  of 
the  assassination  was  to  avenge  the  death  of 
his  brother  Asahel.  David  was,  or,  as  inti 
mated  by  Joseplms,  pretended  to  be,  deeply 
afflicted  at  the  death  of  Abner,  and  lamented 
him  in  a  sort  of  funeral  dirge. 

ABO  (S\ved.  Alo),  a  city  of  Russia,  in  Fin 
land,  capital  of  the  government  of  Abo-Bjor- 
neborg,  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Aurajoki, 
not  far  from  where  it  flows  into  the  gulf  of 
Bothnia,  260  m.  W.  by  X.  of  St.  Petersburg; 
pop.  in  1870,  21,830.  It  was  founded  in  1157 
by  the  Swedes,  and  was  the  capital  of  Finland 
till  1819.  A  bishopric  was  established  here  in 
the  13th  century.  In  1827  the  greater  part 
of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  fire,  including  the 
university  buildings  and  the  library,  contain 
ing  40,000  volumes.  The  university  was  re 
built  in  Helsingfors,  the  new  capital  of  the 
pro vince.  Abo  is  still  the  seat  of  considerable 
trade. — The  peace  of  Abo,  concluded  Aug.  17, 
1743,  between  Sweden  and  Russia,  terminated 
the  struggle  between  those  countries  com 
menced  in  1741,  at  the  instigation  of  France, 
in  order  to  prevent  Russia's  participation  in 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession.  During 
this  contest,  the  blunders  of  the  Swedish  gen 
erals  enabled  the  Russians  to  take  poss3ssion 
of  Finland.  The  empress  Elizabeth  offered  to 
restore  the  greater  part  of  the  province,  on 
condition  that  Sweden  should  elect  Prince 
Adolphus  Frederick  of  Holstein-Eutin  succes 
sor  to  the  throne.  This  demand  Sweden  com 
plied  with  July  4,  1743. 

ABO-BJORXEBORG,  one  of  the  governments 
of  the  grand  duchy  of  Finland,  situated  on  the 
Finnish  and  Bothnian  gulfs;  area,  9,869  sq.  m. ;  j 
pop.  in  1867,  319,784,  nearly  all  Lutherans. 
Capital,  Abo. 

ABOMEY,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Da 
homey,  Africa,  in  lat.  7°  59'  N".,  Ion.  1°  20'  E., 
100  m.  X.  N.  W.  of  Badagry ;  pop.  about  50,- 
000.  It  is  about  eight  miles  in  circumference, 
surrounded  by  a  ditch,  and  entered  by  six  gates, 
all  of  which  are  ornamented  with  human 
skulls.  It  contains  three  royal  palaces  of  two 
stories  each.  Within  the  palaces  are  barracks, 
in  which  the  5,000  Amazons  of  the  king's 
army  live  in  celibacy,  guarded  by  eunuchs. 

ABORIGINES.    See  AMERICAN  INDIANS. 

ABORTION  (Lat.  abortus,  a  miscarriage),  the 
premature  expulsion  of  the  fetus  or  embryo, 
at  so  early  a  period  that   it  is   incapable"  of 
living,  and  the  pregnancy  is  consequently  un 
fruitful.     In  the  human  species,  a  child  may 
often  continue  to  live  and  be  reared  if  born  as 
early  as  the  seventh  month  of  pregnancy ;  and 
these  accordingly  are  said  to  be  cases  of  upre-  j 
mature  birth."     Nevertheless,  if  a  child  born  | 
after  the  seventh  month  and  before  the  natural  1 
term  of  parturition  should  at  once  die  in  con-  j 
sequence  of  such  premature  birth,  this  would  I 
also  be  a  case  of  abortion.     In  the  earlier  and  • 


middle  periods  of  pregnancy,  the  death  of  the 
foetus  sometimes  takes  place  from  internal 
causes,  and  it  is  soon  afterward  discharged 
from  the  uterus,  to  which  it  has  become  a 
source  of  irritation.  Thus,  whether  the  foetus 
die  in  consequence  of  premature  delivery,  or 
whether  the  premature  delivery  be  a  conse 
quence  of  the  death  of  the  foetus,  all  such  cases 
are  generally  included  umler  the  term  abor 
tion.  Abortion  is  sometimes  produced,  by 
various  means,  with  the  criminal  intent  of 
getting  rid  of  the  product  of  conception,  and 
thus  preventing  the  birth  of  a  living  child.  All 
such  means  are  dangerous  to  the  mother,  and 
may  readily  lead  to  a  fatal-  result.  The  pro 
duction  of  abortion  for  this  purpose  is  there 
fore  doubly  criminal,  since  its  first  object  is  the 
destruction  of  the  life  of  the  foetus  or  child ; 
and  this  object  is  furthermore  accomplished  at 
the  risk  of  death  to  the  mother. — The  legal 
and  medical  sciences  are  not  quite  in  accord 
upon  the  matter.  The  increasing  frequency  of 
this  practice  of  abortion  in  the  most  en 
lightened  communities  at  the  present  day  has 
attracted  to  it  the  particular  attention  of  phy 
sicians  ;  and  they  urge  that  the  evil  cannot  be 
suppressed  without  the  enactment  of  laws  not 
only  more  severe  but  of  a  different  character 
from  those  which  have  hitherto  existed.  They 
insist  that,  as  the  first  and  most  essential  step 
in  the  course  of  a  reform  of  the  law,  the  legis 
lature  must  not  only  abandon  the  old  idea  that 
the  quickening  of  the  child  is  the  commence 
ment  of  its  life,  but  must  proceed  directly  upon 
the  fact,  especially  emphasized  by  modern 
medical  science,  that  the  life  of  the  future 
human  being  begins  at  the  very  instant  of  con 
ception  ;  that  not  only  therefore  must  the  old 
criteria  of  criminality  which  depended  upon 
quickening  be  abandoned,  but  the  protection 
of  the  foetal  life  must  be  the  direct  object  of 
the  law,  no  less  than  the  protection  of  the  life 
or  well-being  of  the  mother,  or  the  genera*! 
conservation  of  public  morality  and  decency. 
It  will  be  seen  on  an  examination  of  the  later 
statutes  that  a  substantial  advance  toward 
these  positions  has  been  made  by  legislation 
during  the  last  20  years. — For  the  purpose  of 
an  intelligent  view  of  the  existing  law,  and  in 
anticipation  of  still  further  legislation,  some 
facts  upon  the  physical  side  of  the  subject  may 
be  well  kept  in  mind.  The  foetus  cannot  be 
properly  regarded  at  any  period  of  its  existence 
as  merely  pars  viscerum  matru,  as  the  phrase 
is;  that  is  to  say,  as  an  essential  constituent 
part  of  the  mother.  The  ovum  does  not  origi 
nate  in  the  uterus,  but  after  impregnation  is 
lodged  there,  being  totally  disconnected  from 
the  organism  of  the  mother  during  the  transi 
tion  ;  and  it  is  attached  to  the  uterus  for  the 
simple  purposes  of  shelter  and  nutrition.  The 
human  form  is  developed  and  is  visible  in  the 
foetus  even  before  the  period  of  its  quickening. 
This  term  quickening  is  the  name  given^to 
those  phenomena  of  different  sorts  by  which 
action  in  the  foetus  is  manifested  to  the  mother. 


ABORTION 


This  mere  incident  of  progressive  development 
appears  at  no  absolutely  certain  time,  but  usu 
ally  between  the  115th  and  130th  days  after  con 
ception.  Viability  of  the  fetus  does  not  depend 
necessarily  on  its  age,  though  it  is  usually  not 
viable,  or  capable  of  living,  before  the  lapse  of 
seven  months  after  conception  ;  yet  it  may  be 
at  undeterminable  periods  before  that  time. — 
Though  the  legal  offences  relating  to  abortion 
depend  almost  entirely  upon  positive  statutes, 
yet  it,  is  sometimes  material  to  determine 
whether  an  act  of  this  character  is  criminal  at 
common  law,  as  the  phrase  is ;  or,  in  other 
words,  by  the  general,  customary,  and  un 
written  law.  It  is  said  by  some  of  the  best 
writers  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  at 
common  la\v  the  wrongful  destruction  of  an 
unborn  child  was  a  high  misdemeanor,  and 
that  at  an  early  period  in  England  it  was 
deemed  murder.  There  are  no  reported  cases 
confirming  this  view,  but  two  passages  of  Brae- 
ton  and  Fleta  ought  not  to  be  overlooked. 
Though  they  are  in  some  respects  of  obscure 
meaning,  yet  they  are  noteworthy,  not  only  as 
being  the  earliest  declarations  on  the  subject 
contained  in  English  law  books,  but  because 
the  rules  they  lay  down  are  so  far  advanced  be 
yond  those-  of  the  English  law  even  of  to-day. 
Both  books  were  written  in  Latin,  the  former 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  (121(5-1272),  the  lat 
ter  in  that  of  Edward  I.  (1272-1307).  Bract  on 
says:  "If  any  one  shall  have  given  blows  or 
drugs  to  a  pregnant  woman,  in  consequence  of 
which  she  shall  have  aborted,  if  the  child  were 
already  formed  and  animate,  and  especially  if 
animate,  he  is  guilty  of  homicide.'1  The  author 
of  Fleta  says:  "Whoever  shall  have  done  vio 
lence  to  a  pregnant  woman,  or  shall  have  given 
her  drugs  or  blows  so  as  to  produce  an  abor 
tion,  or  to  prevent  conception  (ut  non  conci- 
piat\  if  the  fcetus  was  already  formed  and 
animate,  is  a  homicide ;  and  likewise,  whoever 
shall  have  given  or  taken  drugs  with  the  in 
tent  to  prevent  generation  or  conception  (con- 
ceptio).  So,  too,  the  woman  is  guilty  of  a 
homicide  who  has  destroyed  her  animate  child 
in  her  womb,  by  potions  or  things  of  that 
sort."  These  passages,  it  will  be  noticed,  pro 
nounce  the  mother's  destruction  of  her  unborn 
quick  child  a  homicide.  The  present  law  of 
England  declares  that  any  woman  being  with 
child,  and  whether  quick  or  not  is  indifferent, 
who  uses  drugs  or  any  other  means  to  procure 
her  miscarriage,  is  guilty  of  a  felony,  and  is 
punishable  by  imprisonment  only.  Coke,  who 
lived  in  the  16th  century,  says  in  his  third  In 
stitute  that  "if  a  woman  be  quick  with  child, 
and  by  a  potion  or  otherwise  killeth  it  in  her 
womb,  or  if  a  man  beat  her  whereby  the  child 
dieth  in  her  body  and  she  is  delivered  of  a  dead 
child,  this  is  a  great  misprision  and  no  murder." 
In  this  passage  occurs  the  reference  to  the 
quickening  of  the  child,  which  has  always 
down  to  a  very  recent  period  been  made  an 
essential  element  in  the  degree  of  criminality 
in  English  acts  relating  to  abortion.  With 


reference  to  the  common  law  on  the  subject, 
it  has  been  held  in  Massachusetts,  Maine,  and 
New  Jersey,  that  it  is  not,  apart  from  statutes, 
i  an  indictable  offence  to  use  means  upon  a  preg- 
;  nant  woman,  with  her  consent,  for  the  purpose 
and  with  the  effect  of  procuring  an  abortion, 
!  unless  the  mother  were  quick  with  child.     It 
|  is  not  to  be  understood,  however,  from  this 
\  that    very    grave   and    even    capital    offences 
j  may  not  be  involved  in  such  an  act  as  that 
referred  to  even  at  common  law ;  for  in  such 
!  a   case,   as  Chief  Justice   Shaw  remarked,  if 
!  the  woman's  death  ensued,  the  party  making 
the  attempt  would  be  guilty  of  murder,  and 
i  this  whether   the  woman  consented  or  not ; 
!  for  the  act  is  done  without  lawful  purpose,  is 
|  dangerous  to  life,  and  the  consent  of  the  wo 
man  no  more  annuls  the  legal  imputation  of 
i  malice  than  it  does  in  the  case  of  a  duel.    And 
!  furthermore,   as  to  the   child  produced   by  a 
I  criminal  abortion,  if  it  fairly  live  after  birth 
!  and  then  die  from  injuries  received  in  the  body 
of  the  mother  before  its  birth,  it  is  clearly  a 
case  of  homicide.     In  Pennsylvania  the  courts 
dissent  from'  the  view  as  to  the  common  law 
I  which  is  taken  in  the  states  first  mentioned. 
It  was  there  declared  that  miscarriage,  both  in 
law  and   in   physiology,  means   the   bringing 
j  forth  of  the  fcetus  before  it  is  perfectly  formed 
and  capable  of  living,  and  that  it  was  of  itself 
a  flagrant  crime  at  common  law  to  attempt  to 
|  procure  the  miscarriage  or  abortion  of  a  wo- 
j  man;  that  it  was  a  crime  against  nature  which 
I  obstructed  the  fountain  of  life,  and  therefore  it 
was  punishable.     To  the  objection  on  the  part 
of  the  prisoner  that  the  indictment  was  de 
fective,  because  it  ought  to  and  did  not  allege 
i  that  the  woman  was  quick  with  child,  it  was 
I  answered  by  the  court  that  that  was  not  the 
1  law  in  Pennsylvania,  and  ought  not  to  have 
;  been  anywhere ;  that  it  was  not  the  murder  of 
a  living  child  which  constituted  the  offence, 
but  the   destruction   of  gestation   by  wicked 
means  and  against  nature ;   and  that  the  mo 
ment  the  womb  is  instinct  with  embryo  life 
and  gestation  has  begun,  the  crime  may  be 
committed. — But  practically  the  actual  law  on 
the  subject  exists  only  in  the  statutes.     The 
I  principal  English  acts  of  modern   times  are 
I  those  of  43  George  III.,  ch.  58,  §  2  ;  9  George 
!  IV.,  ch.  31,  §  14;  7  William  IV. ;  and  1  Vic 
toria,  ch.  85,  §  6  ;  all  of  which  are  displaced  by 
the   present  law  of  24  and  25   Victoria,   ch. 
j  100,  £§  58,  59.     The  first  of  these  acts,  known 
j  as  Lord  Ellenborough's  act,  provided  that  any 
|  person  who  should  wilfully,  maliciously,  and 
unlawfully   use   means    .    .    .    with   intent   to 
j  cause  and  procure  the  miscarriage  of  any  wo 
man  being  quick  with  child  was  a  felon,  and 
should  suffer  death ;  and  the  act  further  pro 
vided  that  in  any  such  case,  if  the  woman  was 
not  found  to  be  quick  with  child  at  the  time  of 
the  commission  of  the  act,  the  offender  should 
be  guilty  of  a  felony  and  liable  to  tine,  impris 
onment,  pillory,  transportation,  &c.    The  stat 
ute  of  9  George  IV.,  ch.  31,  known  as  Lord 


ABORTION" 


29 


Lansdowne's  act,  did  not  differ  substantially 
from  the  former,  but  farther  provided  against 
the  use  of  instruments.  The  next  statute  pro 
vided  that  whosoever,  with  intent  to  procure 
the  miscarriage  of  any  woman,  should  use  un 
lawful  means^  &c.,  should  be  guilty  of  felony 
and  liable  to  transportation  for  life  or  not  less 
than  15  years.  The  present  statute  provides 
that  every  woman  being  with  child  who,  with 
intent  to  procure  her  own  miscarriage,  shall 
unlawfully  administer  to  herself  drugs,  or  use 
instruments,  and  whosoever  with  similar  in 
tent,  whether  the  woman  be  or  be  not  with 
child,  shall  use  the  like  unlawful  means,  shall 
be  guilty  of  felony,  and  liable  on  conviction  to 
penal  servitude  for  life  or  not  less  than  three 
years,  or  to  imprisonment.  Supplying  or  pro 
curing  anything  knowing  that  it  is  to  be  used 
with  intent  to  procure  the  miscarriage  of  any 
woman,  whether  she  be  or  be  not  with  child, 
is  a  misdemeanor. — Of  the  more  recent  statutes 
in  the  United  States,  that  of  Maine  (revision  of 
1871)  provides  that  whoever  administers,  &c., 
to  any  woman  pregnant  with  child,  whether 
such  child  be  quick  or  not,  &c.,  if  the  act  is 
done  with  intent  to  destroy  the  child,  and  the 
child  is  destroyed  before  birth,  shall  be  pun 
ished  by  imprisonment  not  more  than  five 
years  or  by  fine  not  excaeding  $1,000 ;  and  if 
done  with  intent  to  produce  the  miscarriage  of 
such  woman,  by  imprisonment  not  more  than 
ono  year  and  by  fine  of  not  more  than  $1,000. 
The  statute  of  Illinois  of  1869  enacts  that  any 
person  who  by  any  means  shall  cause  any 
pregnant  woman  to  miscarry,  or  shall  attempt 
to  procure  or  produce  such  miscarriage,  shall 
be  liable  to  imprisonment  not  less  than  two 
nor  more  than  ten  years ;  and  if  by  any  such 
attempt  the  death  of  the  woman  shall  be 
caused,  the  party  offending  shall  be  guilty  of 
murder,  and  be  punished  as  the  law  requires 
for  that  offence.  But  this  crime  may  be  com 
mitted,  as  has  already  l>een  shown  by  the 
opinion  of  Chief  Justice  Shaw,  independently 
of  any  statutory  provision  to  that  effect.  In 
Missouri  (revision  of  1870)  the  wilful  killing  of 
an  unborn  quick  child  by  any  injury  to  the 
mother  which  would  be  murder  if  it  resulted 
in  the  death  of  the  mother,  is  manslaughter  in 
the  first  degree ;  and  every  person  who  shall 
use  means,  &c.,  on  a  woman  pregnant  with  a 
quick  child,  with  intent  thereby  to  destroy 
such  child,  unless  the  act  is  necessary  to  pre 
serve  life,  &c.,  shall,  if  the  death  of  such  child 
or  mother  ensue  from  the  means  so  employed, 
be  guilty  of  manslaughter  in  the  second  de 
gree;  and  every  person  who  shall  wilfully  ad 
minister  to  or  use  means  on  any  pregnant 
woman  with  intent  thereby  to  procure  an  abor 
tion,  unless  necessary  to  save  life,  or  advised 
by  physicians  to  be  so  necessary,  is  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor,  and  is  punishable  by  imprison 
ment  for  one  year  or  by  fine  of  $500,  or  by 
both.  In  Pennsylvania  the  statute  (1860)  pro 
vides  that  if  any  person  shall  unlawfully  use 
means  on  any  woman  pregnant  or  quick  with 


child,  or  supposed  to  be  so,  with  intent  to  pro 
cure  the  miscarriage  of  the  woman,  and  she, 
or  any  child  of  which  she  may  be  quick,  shall 
die  in  consequence  of  such  unlawful  acts,  the 
offender  is  guilty  of  a  felony,  and  is  liable  to 
fine  not  exceeding  $500  or  to  be  imprisoned 
not  exceeding  seven  years ;  and  it  is  further 
provided  that  if  any  person,  with  intent  to 
procure  the  miscarriage  of  any  woman,  shall 
use  unlawful  means  uponjier,  he  shall  also  be 
guilty  of  felony  and  subject  to  a  fine  not  ex 
ceeding  $500  and  to  imprisonment  for  not  more 
than  three  years.  The  latest  statutes — for 
example,  those  of  New  Jersey,  Illinois  (1869), 
Kansas  (1868),  and  New  York  (1869) — do  not 
require  that  the  woman  be  quick  with  child, 
but  only  that  she  be  "pregnant"  or  "•with 
child."  The  Ohio  statute  of  1867  is  to  the 
same  effect,  but  differs  in  its  phraseology  from 
the  statutes  of  any  of  the  other  States.  It  pro 
vides  that  any  person  who  shall  administer  or 
advise  to  be  administered  to  any  woman  preg 
nant  with  a  vitalized  embryo  or  foetus,  at  any 
stage  of  utero-gestation,  any  medicine  or  sub 
stance,  or  employ  any  other  means,  with  intent 
thereby  to  destroy  such  vitalized  embryo  or 
foetus,  unless  necessary  or  advised  by  physi 
cians  to  be  necessary  to  save  the  life  of  the 
mother,  shall,  in  case  of  the  death  of  such 
embryo  or  foetus  or  mother  in  consequence 
thereof,  be  guilty  of  a  high  misdemeanor, 
and  punishable  by  imprisonment  from  one  to 
seven  years.  In  Massachusetts,  by  the  present 
statute,  the  offender  is  guilty  of  felony  if  the 
mother  die  in  consequence  of  the  act,  and  is 
liable  to  imprisonment  from  five  to  twenty 
years ;  and  if  she  does  not  die,  is  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor  and  punishable  by  fine  and  im 
prisonment  not  more  than  seven  years.  The 
present  statute  of  New  York  was  enacted  in 
1869,  superseding  that  of  1846.  This  earlier 
act  declared  that  every  person  who  should  ad 
minister  to  any  woman  pregnant  with  a  quick 
child  any  drug,  or  use  any  instrument  or  o-ther 
means,  with  intent  thereby  to  destroy  such 
child,  should  in  case  of  the  death  of  such  child 
or  of  such  mother  be  guilty  of  manslaughter  in 
the  second  degree.  The  act  of  1869  omits  the 
word  "quick,"  saying  "with  child,"  and  with 
regard  to  £he  intent  substitutes  the  words 
"  with  intent  thereby  to  produce  the  miscar 
riage  of  any  such  womnn  ;"  and  it  preserves  the 
provision  that  in  case  the  death  of  such  child 
or  of  such  woman  be  thereby  produced,  the 
offender  shall  be  guilty  of  manslaughter  in  the 
second  degree.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
omission  of  any  criterion  of  quickening,  and 
the  provision  respecting  the  death  of  the  child, 
make  the  crime  possible  from  the  very  earliest 
stage  of  gestation.  Under  the  former  statutes 
it  was  also  an  essential  element  of  the  crime 
that  there  should  be  an  intent  to  destroy  the 
child ;  now  that  intent  is  immaterial,  and  if 
there  was  the  mere  intent  to  procure  the  mis 
carriage,  and  the  death  of  the  child  is  pro 
duced,  the  crime  is  committed.  The  statutes 


;o 


ABORTION 


ABRACADABRA 


here  selected  represent  fairly  the  present  state 
of  the  statutory  law,  and  especially  the  more 
recent  legislation  on  the  topic. — In  a  late  case 
in  Massachusetts  the  court  was  inclined  to  hold 
that  an  indictment  could  not  be  maintained 
there  if  the  foetus  had  lost  its  vitality  at  the 
time  of  the  commission  of  the  act,  so  that  it 
could  never  mature  into  a  living  child.  In  a 
similar  case  in  Vermont  it  was  held  not  essen 
tial  that  the  foetus^  should  be  alive  when  the 
attempt  was  made.  Where  the  language  is 
general,  as  for  example,  "  with  intent  to  pro 
cure  the  miscarriage  of  any  woman,"  it  is  im 
material  whether  the  woman  was  or  was  not 
pregnant  at  the  time.  The  "administering" 
or  "causing  to  be  taken,"  usually  mentioned 
in  the  statutes,  does  not  require  an  actual  de 
livery  by  the  hand  of  the  defendant.  Thus  it 
lias  been  held  that  one  administered  poison  to 
another  by  mixing  it  in  her  coffee  and  putting 
it  in  her  way.  And  these  words  have  been 
held  to  be  answered  by  proof  that  one  gave  the 
drug  to  the  woman  with  directions  how  to  use 
it,  and  she  did  use  it,  though  not  in  the  de 
fendant's  presence.  In  New  Jersey,  under  a 
statute  which  provided  that  if  any  person  mali 
ciously  or  without  lawful  justification,  with  in 
tent  to  cause  the  miscarriage  of  a  pregnant 
woman,  should  advise  or  direct  her  to  take 
any  drug,  it  was  held  that  the  actual  taking  or 
swallowing  of  the  drug  by  the  woman  was  no 
element  of  the  crime ;  the  defendant  was  guilty 
within  the  statute  if  only  he  gave  the  advice 
with  the  intent  there  declared.  In  this  case 
the  court  added  that  the  design  of  the  statute 
was  not  to  prevent  the  procuring  of  abortions 
so  much  as  to  guard  the  health  and  life  of  the 
mother  against  the  consequences  of  such  at 
tempts.  The  word  "malicious"  in  these  stat 
utes  does  not  require  proof  of  cruelty  or  wan 
tonness  or  revenge.  It  is  enough  that  there  is 
no  legal  justification;  and  there  is  no  such 
justification  in  the  consent  of  the  woman,  nor 
though  the  real  motive  was  to  screen  one  or  both 
of  the  parties  from  public  exposure  and  dis 
grace.  The  patient  in  cases  of  abortion  is  not 
technically  an  accomplice  in  the  offence  so  as 
to  be  disqualified  from  testifying ;  but  as  she  is 
in  almost  all  cases,  by  virtue  of  her  consent, 
implicated  in  the  moral  wrong,  this  circum 
stance  would  fairly  affect  her  credibility. 
Where  the  statute  simply  requires,  as  in  Mas 
sachusetts,  that  the  act  shall  have  been  done 
"unlawfully,"  the  indictment  need  not  charge 
that  it  was  malicious  and  without,  lawful  justi 
fication;  and  the  word  unlawfully  precludes 
any  possibility  of  inference  that  the  act  was 
done  for  the  purpose  of  saving  the  life  of  the 
woman,  or  under  any  other  circumstance  which 
would  afford  a  legal  justification.  The  present 
statute  of  Ohio  (1867)  makes  it  a  misdemeanor 
to  print  or  publish  advertisements  of  drugs  for 
the  exclusive  use  of  women,  or  of  any  means 
for  preventing  conception  or  producing  miscar 
riage,  or  to  keep  any  such  articles  for  sale  or 
gratuitous  distribution.  A  similar  statute  was 


passed  in  New  York  in  1869,  and  in  Pennsyl 
vania  in  1870. 

11*01  K IK,  an  Egyptian  port  about  12  m. 
N.  E.  of  Alexandria,  In  the  bay  of  Aboukir 
was  fought,  Aug.  1,  1798,  the  famous  battle 
of  the  Nile  or  of  Aboukir,  between  the  French 
fleet  sent  out  from  Toulon  under  Brueys  with 
Bonaparte  and  an  army  on  board,  and  the 
English  fleet  sent  in  pursuit  under  Admiral 
Nelson.  Though  the  French  fought  desperately, 
the  engagement,  which  was  begun  at  dusk, 
ended  at  daybreak  in  a  great  victory  for  the 
English.  Only  four  French  vessels  escaped ; 
the  French  lost  more  than  5,000  men ;  the 
English  killed  and  wounded  were  but  895. 
Nelson  was  slightly,  Brueys  mortally  wounded. 
The  story  of  the  battle  is  filled  with  examples 
of  individual  bravery  on  both  sides. — At  Abou 
kir,  on  July  23,  1799,  Bonaparte,  with  a  com 
paratively  small  force,  almost  annihilated  the 
Turkish  army  under  Mustapha  Pasha, 

ABOIT,  Edmond,    a   French  author,  born  at 
Dieuze,  Meurthe,  Feb.  14,  1828.     He  was  edu 
cated  at  Paris,  and  in  the  French  school  at 
Athens.     His  literary  talents  had  already  be 
come  noted  when   in    1855   he  published  La 
Grece  contcmporaine,  which    made  him  cele 
brated  both  at  home  and  abroad.      He  next 
produced  in  the   Rcmie   des   Dcux-Mondcs   a 
novel  entitled  Tolla,  which  became  the  occa 
sion  of  a  controversy,  in  which  he  was  accused 
of  publishing  private  papers.      After  this  he 
brought  out  novels  and  plays  very  rapidly,  and 
contributed  much  to  the  press.     His  Roi  des 
montagnes  (1856)  increased  his  reputation  as  a 
witty,  pungent  writer.     Though  not  generally 
successful  as  a  playwright,  he  made  a  hit  by 
his  play  entitled  Risctte,    ou    Ics  millions  de 
la  mansarde  (afterward   called    Gaetana],    in 
which   sharp   political  and  religious  allusions 
abound.      His  most  popular  novels  are   Ger- 
maine  (1857)  and  Madclon   (1863).      He  has 
also  published  Rome  contemporaine  (1863),  Le 
Progres  (1864),   V Assurance  (1806),  VA  B  C 
du  tramilleur  (1868),   and  Le  Fellah  (1870). 
As  a  contributor  to  the    Gaulois  newspaper 
I  (1867-"70)  he  criticised  the  ministers  of  Napo- 
i  Icon  III.,  while  he  paid  court  to  the  emperor 
I  himself,  who  made  him  an  officer  of  the  legion 
'  of  honor  in  1867,  and  in  February,  1870,  ap- 
i  pointed  him  member  of  the  council  of  state-. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  July,  1870,  he 
accompanied  MacMahon's  army  to  Alsace,  as 
correspondent   of   the   Soir  newspaper;    but 
after  the  battle  of  Worth  he  barely  escaped 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Germans.     He 
continues  (1872)  his  connection  with  the  Soir. 
His  marriage  in  1864  with  Mile,  de  Gnillerville, 
of  Roncherolles,  near  Rouen,  made  him  affluent. 
ABRACADABRA,    a    magical    word   with   the 
ancients,  supposed  to  possess  some  talismanic 
I  properties   when   inscribed   and   partially   re- 
i  peated  in  a  triangular  form,  so  as  to  be  read  in 
j  different   directions,    upon    a  square  piece  of 
paper  or  linen,  folded  and  worn  as  an  amulet 
or  variously  used  in  incantations. 


ABRAHAM 


ABRANTfcS 


31 


ABRAHAM  (originally  ABEAM),  the  first  patri 
arch  of  the  Hebrews. "  See  HEBREWS. 

ABRAHAM  A  SAMTA  CLARA,  a  German  preach 
er,  whose  proper  name  was  ULRICH  vox  ME- 
OERLE,  born  at  Krahenheimstetten  in  Swabia  in 
1642,  died  in  Vienna,  Dec.  1,  1709.  He  was 
mi  Augustinian  monk,  and  preached  such  witty 
and  powerful  sermons  that  the  German  empe 
ror  appriited  him  court  chaplain.  He  wrote 
u  HotcHFPotch,"  "Judas  the  Arch  Knave," 
"Fie  and  Shame  on  the  World,"  &c. 

ABRAATES,  a  town  in  Portuguese  Estrema-  | 
dura,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Tagus,  j 
80  m.  N.  E.  of  Lisbon;  pop.  in  1863,  5,590.    It 
is  surrounded  by  a  very  fertile  and  highly  cul 
tivated  plain,  dotted  with  villages  and  villas, 
but  is  chiefly  important  as  a  military  position, 
commanding  one  of  the  frontier  roads  from 
Spain  into  Portugal. 

ABRAMfcS.     I.    Andoche   Junot,    duke   of,    a 
French  soldier,  born  at  Bussy-le-Grand,  Bur-  j 
gundy,  Oct.  23,  1771,  died  in  Montbard,  July  | 
29,  1813.     He  wras  educated  for  the  law,  but  | 
in  1792  enlisted  in  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  and  i 
by  his  courage  won  the  sobriquet  of  u  the  Tem 
pest."     He  attracted  Bonaparte's  attention  at  ; 
the   siege   of  Toulon,    and   a  close    intimacy  i 
sprang  up  between  the  two,  Junot's  devotion 
to  his  superior  amounting  almost  to  fanaticism.  I 
He  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Italy  as  his  aide-  j 
de-camp,  and  won  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  j 
campaign  of  1797.     He  distinguished  himself  j 
in  Egypt,  and  was  made  brigadier  general.    A  j 
wound  received  in  a  duel  with  a  brother  officer,  j 
who  was  not  as  enthusiastic  a  Bonapartist  as  j 
himself,  delayed  his  return  to  France,  and  he  ' 
landed  at  Marseilles  on  the  day  of  the  battle  of 
Marengo.     He  was  forthwith  appointed  to  the 
command  of  Paris,  and   a   few  months  later 
married  Mile.  Laure  de  Permon,  and  was  made 
general  of  division.     But  his  own  as  well  as 
his  wife's  indiscretions  were  so  distasteful  to 
Napoleon,  that  in  1803  he  removed  Junot  to 
the  command  of  one  of  the  corps  of  the  u  army 
of  England."     On  the  establishment  of  the  em 
pire  Junot  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  colonel- 
general  of  the  hussars,  received  a  pension  of 
30,000  francs,  and  a  little  later  the  grand  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honor ;  but  he  could  not  con 
ceal  his  disappointment  at  not  having  been 
placed  among  the  first  marshals  of  the  empire. 
His  dissatisfaction,  his  improper  behavior  and 
lavish   expenditures,    coupled  with  his  wife's 
eccentricities,  caused  the  emperor  to  send  them 
for  a  while  into  honorable  exile ;  and  Junot 
was  in  1805  appointed  ambassador  to  Lisbon, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  only  by  osten 
tation.     In  the  same  year  he  wrent  to  Germany 
without  permission,  and  arrived  in  time  to  par 
ticipate  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.    Iii  1800  he 
was  again  appointed  governor  of  Paris  and 
commander  of  the  first  military  division ;  but 
his  follies  again  compromised  him,  and  in  1807 
he  was  sent  to  Spain  to  take  command  of  the 
army  that  was  to  invade   Portugal.      At  the 
Lead  of  25,000  mc-n,  hastily  collected  and  ill 


provided,  he  marched  from  Salamanca  Nov.  12  ; 
reached  the  frontier  at  Alcantara  amid  extreme 
privation  and  suffering ;  gained  the  town  of 
Abrantes,  whence  his  title  of  duke,  Xov.  23 ; 
and,  without  pausing  a  moment,  seized  Lisbon 
(Dec.  1),  at  the  head  of  only  1,500  grenadiers, 
most  of  whom  were  so  worn  out  that  they 
seemed  to  be  only  walking  skeletons.  Display 
ing  enormous  activity,  he  got  possession  of  the 
principal  fortresses  of  the  kingdom,  and  reor 
ganized  and  strengthened  his  exhausted  forces ; 
but  his  success  was  soon  checked  by  the  arrival 
of  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  with  an  English  army. 
Junot  was  defeated  at  Vimieira,  and  constrained 
by  the  convention  of  Cintra,  Aug.  22,  1808,  to 
evacuate  Portugal.  Landed  at  La  Rochelle 
with  his  troops  by  the  English  fieet,  he  imme 
diately  joined  Napoleon,  who  took  him  back  to 
Spain,  where  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
third  corps,  then  besieging  Saragossa.  He  par 
ticipated  in  the  campaign  of  1809  in  Germany, 
and  in  1810  was  sent  back  to  Spain,  where  he 
was  severely  wounded  in  the  face  by  a  bullet. 
In  1812  he  commanded  a  corps  of  the  invading 
army  in  Russia;  but  his  slow  operations  did 
not  satisfy  the  emperor,  who,  instead  of  em 
ploying  him  actively  the  next  year  in  Saxony, 
appointed  him  commander  of  Venice  and  gov 
ernor  general  of  the  Illyrian  provinces.  This 
kind  of  disgrace,  combined  with  other  troubles 
and  the  suffering  from  his  old  wounds,  preyed 
so  much  upon  him  that  he  became  insane,  and 
was  taken  to  his  father's  house  at  Montbard, 
where  he  threw  himself  from  a  window  and 
died  from  the  effects  of  the  fall.  II.  Laure 
Permon  .In not,  duchess  of,  wife  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Montpellier,  Nov.  6,  1784,  died  at 
Chaillot,  near  Paris,  June  7,  1838.  Her 
mother,  a  Corsican,  claimed  descent  from  the 
Comnenus  family.  Her  father,  M.  Permon, 
made  a  fortune  by  provisioning  Rochambeau's 
American  troops,  but  lost  it  before  his  death 
(October,  1 793).  The  mother  lived  in  good  style 
at  Paris,  and  her  house  was  frequented  by 
Bonaparte,  Junot,  and  other  distinguished  per 
sons.  Bonaparte,  according  to  her  daugh 
ter's  Memoires,  wished  to  marry  her,  though 
she  was  old  enough  to  be  his  mother.  Mile. 
Pennon  became  the  wife  of  Junot  in  1800,  the 
first  consul  giving  her  rich  presents,  both  then 
and  many  times  afterward.  This  munificence 
encouraged  Mme.  Junot  in  a  course  of  extrava 
gance  which,  as  well  as  her  other  indiscre 
tions,  eventually  proved  disastrous  to  her  for 
tunes.  Napoleon's  friendship  for  her  was  also 
said  to  have  excited  the  jealousy  of  Josephine, 
while  her  excessive  love  of  finery  and  her  sharp 
tongue  made  him  call  her  petite  peste.  While 
in  Madrid  and  Lisbon  with  her  husband,  her 
lavish  expenditure  and  her  regal  pretensions 
caused  astonishment.  At  Neuilly  she  hired  a 
palace  known  as  the  Folie  St.  James,  where 
she  performed  in  private  theatricals,  in  which 
'she  excelled.  Even  while  following  her  hus 
band  in  the  Spanish  campaign,  she  kept  up^hcr 
Parisian  style  of  entertainments  in  the  various 


ABRAXAS 


encampments  of  the  army.  At  the  same  time 
she  bore  all  the  fatigues  of  the  war  with  great 
fortitude.  While  at  Lyons  she  paid  a  visit  to  | 
Mine.  Eecamier,  and,  courting  the  society  of  | 
other  persons  who  were  not  liked  by  Napoleon,  j 
she  incurred  his  displeasure,  and  was  not  per 
mitted  to  resiile  in  Paris.  Her  husband,  too,  j 
having  forfeited  the  good  will  of  the  emperor,  \ 
was  banished  from  Paris,  though  he  was  in  a 
dying  condition;  and  the  duchess,  while  at-  j 
tempting  to  see  him  at  Montbard,  where  he 
died,  was  taken  ill.  In  spite  of  Napoleon's  j 
orders  she  went  to  Paris  in  September,  1813, 
and  her  house  became  once  more  the  centre  of 
distinguished  persons,  especially  after  the  res 
toration  of  the  Bourbons,  toward  which  she 
had  contributed.  Jn  1817  she  took  up  her  res 
idence  at  Koine.  Having  sold  the  magnifi 
cent  library  and  the  other  valuable  legacies  of 
her  husband,  and  being  at  the  end  of  her  re 
sources,  she  entered  into  a  contract  for  the 
publication  of  her  Avritings.  At  the  time  of  , 
the  July  revolution,  1830,  she  lived  in  retire-  j 
ment  at  the  Abbaye-aux-Bois,  near  Paris,  arid  j 
in  1831  began  the  publication  of  the  Memoircs 
ou  Souvenirs  historiques  sur  Napoleon,  la  Revo 
lution,  le  Dircctoire,  le  Consulat,  V Empire  et 
la  Eestauration  (18  vols.  18mo,  Paris,  1831- 
'34).  She  also  wrote  memoirs  of  her  expe 
rience  in  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and 
many  novels  and  stories,  besides  contributing 
to  periodicals;  but  her  literary  fame  rests 
chiefly  on  her  brilliant  gossip  and  overflowing 
anecdotes  relating  to  the  court  of  Napoleon. 
Notwithstanding  her  incessant  literary  ac 
tivity,  she  remained  very  poor,  and  died  at 
Chaillot  two  days  after  her  removal  to  a  pri 
vate  hospital  in  that  place.  Louis  Philippe 
sent  some  money  for  her  relief,  but  she  died 
before  it  reached  her.  Ignazio  Cantu.  published  1 
in  1837  Rclazione  della  duchessa  d1  Alrantes, 
and  A.  D.  Roosmalen  in  1838  Lcs  derniers 
moments  de  la  duchesse  d' Air  antes.  III.  Napo-  j 
Icon  Andoche  Jnnot,  duke  of,  son  of  the  preced 
ing,  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  died  there  in  March, 
1851.  Obliged  to  leave  the  diplomatic  service 
on  account  of  his  scandalous  private  life,  he 
became  known  in  light  literature  by  a  variety 
of  works  of  ephemeral  reputation,  the  principal 
among  them  being  Lcs  boudoirs  de  Paris  (6  vols. 
8vo,  Paris,  1844-'5).  IV.  Adolphe  Alfred  Mi 
chel  .In  not,  duke  of,  brother  and  heir  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  Spain, 
Nov.  25,  1810,  died  in  July,  1859.  He  was 
aide-de-camp  of  (Jen.  MacMahon  in  Algeria 
(1848),  and  of  Prince  Napoleon  in  the  Cri 
mea  (1854),  served  with  a  high  rank  in  the 
Italian  war,  and  died  from  a  wound  received 
at  the  battle  of  Solferino.  V.  Josephine  Jnnot  d', 
sister  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  5, 
1802,  married  in  1841  M.  James  Araet,  after 
having  been  previously  a  sister  of  charity  and 
canoness.  She  is  the  author  of  a  number  of 
stories  and  novels  published  under  her  maiden 
name.  The  best  known  of  them  are :  Histoires 
morales  et  edifiantes  (1837);  La  duchesse  de 


Valombray  (2  vols.,  1838);  and  Etienne  Saul- 
nier  (2  vols.,  1850).  VI.  Constance  Junot  d', 
sister  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  May  12, 
1803,  is  the  wife  of  M.  Louis  Aubert,  for  some 
time  editor  of  the  National  newspaper,  and  in 
1848  prefect  in  Corsica.  Under  the  name  of 
Constance  Aubert  she  has  been  connected 
with  periodical  literature  as  a  writer  on  fash 
ions,  manners,  and  customs.  In  1859  she  pub 
lished  a  Manuel  d"1  economic  elega'i^j^  and  in 
1865  a  little  volume  on  the  luxury  of  women 
(Encore  le  luxe  des  femmes :  Les  femmes  sages 
et  les  femmes  folles). 

ABRAYANEL,  Abrabanel,  or  Abarbanel,  Isaac  ben 
Jndali,  a  Jewish  author,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1437, 
died  in  Venice  in  1508.  His  family  boasted  a 
lineal  descent  from  the  kings  of  Judah.  He  re 
ceived  an  excellent  education,  and  was  equally 
successful  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  wealth, 
and  influence.  Alfonso  V.  of  Portugal  em 
ployed  him  in  state  affairs;  but  his  son  and 
successor,  John  II.,  not  only  withdrew  all 
favor  from  him,  but,  unjustly  suspecting  him  of 
intrigues  with  Spain,  caused  him  to  fly  to  that 
country,  and  confiscated  his  property.  lie 
sought  consolation  in  study,  but  after  a  time 
entered  the  service  of  King  Ferdinand  of  Ara- 
gon.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain, 
decreed  in  1492  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
again  made  him  an  exile.  Repairing  to  Na 
ples,  he  was  well  received  by  Ferdinand  I., 
and  by  his  son  Alfonso  II. ;  but  the  invasion  of 
the  French  in  1495  drove  him  with  the  Nea 
politan  court  to  Messina,  whence  he  repaired  to 
Corfu.  In  1496  he  established  himself  at 
Monopoli  in  Apulia,  where  he  remained  till 
1503.  The  last  years  of  his  life  he  spent  in 
Venice,  where  he  once  more  engaged  in  state 
affairs.  His  works,  the  principal  of  which  are 
commentaries  on  various  books  of  the  Scrip 
tures,  partly  of  a  critical  and  partly  of  a  doc 
trinal  character,  and  a  number  of  philosophical 
treatises,  are  marked  by  a  glowing  enthusiasm 
for  Judaism,  a  comparative  independence  of 
spirit,  vast  research,  and  elegant  Hebrew  dic 
tion.  One  of  his  three  sons,  LEONE  (originally 
Judah)  was  the  author  of  a  philosophical  work 
in  Italian,  entitled  Dialoglii  di  Amore,  which 
passed  through  several  editions. 

ABRAXAS  (Gr.  a/3pa^  or  a/tym<r<zf),  a  mystical 
word  employed  by  the  Egyptian  Gnostic  Basil- 
ides  to  signify  the  Supreme  Being  as  ruler  of 
the  365  heavens  of  his  system,  which  number 
is  represented  by  its  letters  according  to  Greek 
numeration ;  probably  in  imitation  of  the  sig 
nificance  attached  to  the  name  of  the  Persian 
god  Mithras  (M«0/oaf),  the  letters  of  which  have 
the  same  numerical  value.  Some  authorities, 
however,  give  the  word  other  derivations  and 
different  significations  as  a  designation  of  the 
Supreme  Being. — Many  ancient  stones  or  me 
tallic  tablets  called  Abraxas  gems  or  images,  or 
Basilidian  stones,  have  been  found,  chiefly  in 
Egypt,  Syria,  and  Spain.  They  are  generally 
inscribed  with  the  word  Abraxas  or  Abrasax, 
and  sometimes  with  others,  and  bear  a  great 


ABRUZZO 


ABSCESS 


33 


variety  of  Gnostic  and  other  mystical  symbols,  ! 
occasionally  perhaps  merely  natural  markings. 
They  were  used  as  amulets,  and  supposed  to  be  | 
endued  with  miraculous  qualities. 

ABRl'ZZO,  or  the  Abrnzzi,  the  northernmost  j 
division  of  the  former  kingdom  of  the  Two  j 
Sicilies,  now  forming  part  of  the  kingdom  of  . 
Italy,  embracing  the  highest  and  wildest  por 
tion  of  the  Apennines.      The  mountains   are 
the   home  of  a  race  of  shepherds,   who  are  j 
clothed   primitively  in   untanned    sheepskins,  I 
and  the  valleys  and  lowlands  are  very  fertile.  ] 
The  inhabitants  live  in  dirty  huts,  shared  by  I 
the  donkey  and  the  pig ;  their  chief  food  is  In-  j 
dian  meal,  boiled  in  water  and  milk ;  wheaten  j 
bread  is  a  luxury.     They  are  musical,  hospita-  j 
ble,  superstitious,  and  revengeful.     Physically  j 
they  are  a  fine  race  of  men,  and  make  excel-  [ 
lent  soldiers,  like  their  predecessors  in  Roman  j 
times,  the  Samnites.  Fierce  brigandage  has  long 
found  an  almost  impregnable  foothold  in  this  j 
wild  region.     It  is  divided  into  the  following  ] 
three  provinces :  I.  Abruzzo  Citeriorc,  bounded  X.  i 
E.  by  the  Adriatic;  area,  1,105  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  ! 
1871,  339,961.     The  mountains  of  La  Majella  j 
are  the  roughest  part  of  the  province.     The  j 
chief  productions  are  grain,  oil,  and  rice.    The 
greatest  abundance  of  wine  is  furnished  by 
Ortona ;  the  best  by  Chieti  and  Vasto.     Fruit 
and  kitchen  vegetables  are  chiefly  grown  at 
Chieti;  swine  are  reared  in  the  oak  forests, 
and  the  sea  on  the  coast  is  rich  in  fish.     The 
culture  of  silkworms  and  of  mulberry  trees  has 
of  late  made  great  progress.     The  province  is 
divided  into  the  districts  of  Chieti,  Lanciano, 
and  Vasto.     Capital,  Chieti.     IJ.  Abruzzo  llte- 
riore  I.,  bounded  S.  by  the  preceding,  and  also  j 
lying   on   the   Adriatic;    area,    1,283   sq.   in. ;  | 
pop.  245,617.     The  Pizzo  di  Sevo,  7,860  feet 
high,  is  the  chief  summit.    The  province  grows 
and  exports  a  large  quantity  of  grain.     There  i 
are  numerous  plantations  of  olives,   but  the 
product  is  of  an  inferior  quality.     The  culture 
of  wine  is  rapidly  increasing.     The  province  is 
divided  into  the  districts  of  Teramo  and  Penne.  | 
Capital,    Teramo.      III.    Abruzzo    I'ltcriore    II., 
bounded  X.  E.  by  the  two  preceding,  X.  by  j 
Umbria,  and  S.  W.  partly  by  the  former  Papal 
States;  area,  2,126  sq.  m. ;  pop.  333,791.    Three 
fourths  of  the  area  consists  of  sterile  rocks  and  ' 
mountains.     The  number  of  large   mountain 
peaks  is  no  less  than  176.     In  the  middle  of  j 
the  northern  frontier  is  the  highest  mount  of 
the  peninsula,  the  Gran  Sasso  <T Italia,  9,392 
feet  high.     Among  the  productions  are  grain, 
rice,  wine,  saffron,  olives,  and  many  kinds  of 
fruits.     The  mountains  are   covered  with  ex 
tensive   forests   of  oaks,    beeches,    and   elms,  | 
which  harbor  bears,  wolves,   and  boars.     On  ! 
the  Gran  Sasso  chamois  are  still  said  to  be  j 
found.     Madder    grows   wild   on   the   Alpine 
heights,    and   is   cultivated    in   sandy   places,  j 
Hams,  salted  beef,  and  sausages  are  exported.  • 
The  province  is  divided  into  the  districts  of  : 
Aquila  degli  Abruzzi,  Avezzano,  Cittaducale,  ; 
and  Solmona.    Capital,  Aquila. 
VOL.  i. — 3 


ABSALOM,  the  third  son  of  David,  his  only 
one  by  Maachah,  and  especially  distinguished 
for  beauty.  Instigated  possibly  by  ambition, 
but  ostensibly  by  the  rape  of  his  sister  Tamar, 
he  slew  Amnon,  his  eldest  half-brother,  and 
subsequently  raised  a  rebellion  and  obtained  a 
momentary  possession  of  the  throne.  By  thu 
adroit  management  of  Joab  he  was  overthrown 
and  slain.  With  all  his  want  of  filial  affection, 
David  loved  him,  and  mourned  his  death. 

ABSALON,  or  Axel,  a  Danish  statesman,  sol 
dier,  and  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1128,  died  in 
1201.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Paris.  He  was  related  to  the  royal  family,  and 
was  the  chief  minister  and  general  of  W aide- 
mar  I.  (1157-'82)  and  Canute  VI. ;  was  elected 
bishop  of  Roeskilde  in  1158,  and  archbishop  of 
Lund  and  primate  of  Scandinavia  in  1178  ;  and 
was  equally  distinguished  for  piety,  statesman 
ship,  and  military  skill  and  valor.  He  put 
down  the  Wendish  pirates  who  infested  the 
Baltic,  followed  them  up  to  their  island  home 
of  Rtigen,  destroyed  the  temple  of  their  god 
Svantevit  at  Arkona,  and  forced  them  to  re 
ceive  Christianity.  The  code  of  Waldemar  was 
partly  his  work,  as  also  the  ecclesiastical  code 
of  Seeland.  On  his  encouragement,  Saxo 
Grammaticus  composed  his  history  of  Den 
mark,  the  first  continuous  Scandinavian  his 
tory  ever  written.  Later  he  overcame  the 
Pomeranian  prince  Bogislas,  and  made  him  do 
homage  to  the  Danish  king.  He  constructed 
a  little  fort,  named  after  him  Axelhuus,  for  de 
fence  against  pirates,  around  which  Copen 
hagen  was  gradually  reared. 

ABSCESS  (Lat.  alacedere,  to  separate),  a  col 
lection  of  pus  in  a  circumscribed  cavity.  (See 
Pus.)  This  cavity  is  usually  of  new  formation, 
produced  by  the  separation  and  destruction  of 
the  parts  by  the  matter  effused,  the  wall  con 
sisting  of  a  layer  of  thickened  tissue.  The 
name  is  given,  however,  to  collections  of  pus  in 
some  of  the  naturally  existing  cavities ;  e.  f/., 
that  in  the  upper  jaw.  An  abscess  may  be 
acute  or  chronic  according  to  the  character  of 
the  inflammation  which  produces  it.  The  for 
mation  of  an  acute  abscess  is  indicated  by  pain, 
often  of  a  throbbing  character ;  redness,  if  it 
be  not  too  deeply  seated ;  swelling ;  and  an  in 
crease  in  the  temperature  of  the  part.  The 
patient  also  suffers  from  fever.  When  matter 
has  formed  and  is  sufficiently  near  the  surface, 
its  presence  is  made  known  by  the  feeling  of 
"fluctuation,"  produced  by  placing  the  fingers 
of  one  hand  upon  one  side  of  the  swelling  and 
with  those  of  the  other  giving  a  smart  tap 
upon  the  opposite  side.  The  pus  usually  tends 
toward  the  surface,  which  it  reaches  by  a  grad 
ual  thinning  of  the  intervening  tissues ;  but  if 
these  be  very  resisting,  it  may  travel  in  other 
directions.  It  is  in  these  latter  cases  that  an 
early  incision  by  the  surgeon  is  especially 
called  for,  before  "pointing"  has  taken  place. 
— If  an  abscess  be  threatened,  its  formation  may 
sometimes  be  prevented  by  appropriate  treat 
ment,  such  as  rest,  the  local  abstraction  of 


ABSINTH 


ABSOLUTE 


blood,  and  cold  or  warm  applications,  as  the 
case  may  demand.  Should  these  means  fail, 
poultices  must  be  used  to  promote  suppuration. 
The  matter  may  be  evacuated  by  incision,  or 
in  certain  cases  be  allowed  to  make  an  exit  for 
itself.  In  a  chronic  abscess  the  pain,  redness, 
increased  temperature,  and  fever  are  often  ab 
sent,  and  hence  it  is  also  known  as  cold  abscess. 
In  most  cases  its  progress  is  slow,  and  it  may 
remain  for  a  long  time  without  increase  in  size, 
or  any  tendency  to  open  through  the  skin. 
Indeed,  in  some  instances  it  may  disappear  by 
a  process  of  absorption.  Usually,  however, 
it  is  necessary  to  open  it,  which  may  be  done 
by  cutting  directly  into  the  cavity,  or  by  what  is 
known  as  subcutaneous  incision,  the. knife  be 
ing  passed  for  some  distance  beneath  the  skin 
before  it  enters  the  abscess.  This  latter  pro 
cedure  is  made  use  of  in  order  to  prevent  the 
admission  of  air,  which  in  some  cases  excites 
an  amount  of  suppuration  sufficient  to  exhaust 
the  patient.  Besides  acute  and  chronic,  ab 
scesses  are  spoken  of  as  being  "  by  congestion  " 
when  the  matter,  usually  dependent  on  caries, 
makes  its  appearance  at  some  distance  from 
the  diseased  part;  as  "idiopathic,"  when  the 
cause  is  not  known,  &c. 

ABSLXTH,  or  Wormwood,  the  tops  and  leaves 
of  artemisia  absinthium,  a  plant  of  the  order 
composite  and  tribe  senecionidcce.  It  contains 
a  volatile  oil  and  a  very  bitter,  resinous  sub 
stance  called  absinthine.  It  has  been  used  as 
an  aromatic,  bitter  tonic,  and  anthelmintic.  It 
derives  its  chief  importance  from  being  a  con 
stituent  of  the  French  liqueur  called  absinthe. 
This  consists  of  alcohol  holding  in  solution  the 
active  principles,  mostly  volatile  oils,  of  seve 
ral  aromatic  plants  besides  wormwood.  The 
precipitation  of  these  oils,  when  the  liqueur  is 
added  to  water,  produces  whitening  or  cloud 
ing.  The  continued  use  of  absinthe  has  been 
found  to  give  rise  in  man  to  symptoms  of  an 
epileptic  character,  riot  altogether  attributable 
to  the  alcohol  it  contains.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  the  essence  of  absinth,  in  a  single 
large  dose,  may  cause  epileptiform  convulsions 
in  animals.  The  brain  disease  produced  by 
this  drug  is  considered  incurable,  though  tem 
porary  respites  may  occur. 

ABSOLON,  John,  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London,  May  G,  1815.  lie  is  a  member  of  the 
"New  Water  Color  Society,"  to  the  annual 
exhibitions  of  which  he  is  still  a  steady  con 
tributor.  He  paints  history  and  genre  with 
equal  facility,  and  is  known  as  an  accomplished 
draughtsman  and  colorist.  He  has  attempted 
oil  painting  with  success,  but  his  special  field 
is  water-color  drawing. 

ABSOLUTE  (Lat.  abstolutus,  absolved,  freed 
from  all  extrinsic  conditions,  complete  in  itself, 
and  dependent  on  no  other  cause),  a  term 
much  used  in  modern  philosophy,  especially 
by  Schelling,  Hegel,  Cousin,  and  their  follow 
ers.  As  used  by  them  it  stands  opposed  to 
the  relative,  for  independent,  unconditioned, 
self-existent  being,  or  being  in  itself,  which 


they  contend  is  the  primitive  in  all  thought, 
and  the  ultimate  in  all  science,  and  the  object 
of  immediate  intuition.  In  their  language  the 
absolute  means,  or  is  intended  to  mean,  the 
Infinite,  God  himself,  regarded  simply  as  pure 
being,  Das  reine  Seyn.  Sir  "William  Hamilton 
denies  that  absolute  and  infinite  are  identical, 
and  that  in  the  sense  of  the  infinite — the  un 
conditioned — the  absolute  is  an  object  of  intui 
tion.  He  confines  all  philosophy,  therefore,  to 
the  finite,  the  relative,  the  conditioned.  To 
think,  he  says,  is  to  condition,  and  there  is  no 
intuition  without  thought.  The  absolute  and 
relative  can  be  thought  only  as  correlatives, 
each  connoting  the  other,  and,  therefore,  only 
as  conditioned.  He  is  answered  by  those  who 
profess  the  philosophy  of  the  absolute,  that, 
although  the  term  may  be  used  to  express  an 
idea  different  from  that  of  the  unconditioned,  or 
the  infinite,  and  although  to  think  is,  in  a  cer 
tain  sense,  to  condition,  yet  the  condition  is, 
in  the  thought  itself,  always  apprehended  as 
the  condition  of  the  subject,  never  as  the  con 
dition  of  the  object.  Certainly  the  finite  can 
apprehend  the  infinite  only  in  a  finite  mode  or 
manner,  but  to  apprehend  it  even  in  a  finite  mode 
or  manner  is  still  to  apprehend  the  infinite.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  the  reality  of  human  knowl 
edge  that  it  should  be  adequate  to  the  object, 
for  if  it  were  there  could  be  no  human  knowl 
edge  at  all.  They  reply  further,  that  the  rel 
ative  is  inconceivable  without  the  absolute. 
What  is  not,  is  not  intelligible ;  and  since  the 
relative  is  not  and  cannot  be  without  the  abso 
lute,  the  conditioned  without  the  uncondi 
tioned,  there  can  be  no  intuition  of  the  former 
without  a  simultaneous  intuition  of  the  latter, 
nor  are  they  intuitively  apprehended  precisely 
as  correlatives,  each  as  conditioned  by  the 
other ;  for  in  the  intuition  itself  the  absolute 
is  apprehended  as  the  cause  or  creator  of  the 
relative,  the  unconditioned  as  conditioning  the 
conditioned.  There  is  another  controversy 
even  among  those  who  are  termed  ontologists, 
and  who  profess  to  find  in  the  intuition  of  un 
conditioned  being  the  principle  of  philosophy— 
whether  the  pure  being,  the  absolute,  the  un 
conditioned  being,  asserted  by  Cousin  and  the 
German  school,  and  which  they  identify,  or  at 
tempt  to  identify,  with  God,  is  real  living  be 
ing,  real  living  God,  or  after  all  only  a  logical 
abstraction.  A  class  of  modern  philosophers, 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Vincenzo 
Gioberti  as  the  most  distinguished,  maintain 
that,  as  the  terms  the  absolute,  the  infinite,  the 
unconditioned  are  evidently  abstract  terms, 
the  idea  they  express  is  and  can  be  only  a  logi 
cal  abstraction,  formed  by  the  mind  operating 
upon  its  own  conception,  and  eliminating  from 
them  all  conception  of  space,  time,  bounds, 
conditions,  or  relativity.  In  this  case,  they 
say,  it  is  no  real  being,  but  a  simple  generaliza 
tion  of  psychological  phenomena,  and  as  far 
removed  from  the  ens  necessarium  et  reale,  the 
real  and  necessary  being  of  the  schoolmen,  the 
real  living  God,  in  whom  the  human  race  be- 


ABSOLUTION 


ABSORPTION 


35 


lieve,  as  zero  is  from  being  something.  Hence, 
though  for  another  reason,  they  refuse  to  con 
cede  with  Sir  William  Hamilton  that  we  have 
intuition  of  the  absolute,  the  infinite,  or  the 
unconditioned,  but  assert,  in  opposition  to  him, 
that  we  have  immediate  intuition  of  that  which 
in  reality  is  absolute,  infinite,  and  uncondi 
tioned.  To  suppose  that  we  have  intuition  of 
being,  or  God  as  the  absolute,  would  be  to 
suppose  that  we  know  the  abstract  before  the 
concrete,  the  possible  before  the  real,  and 
therefore  that  reflection  or  reasoning  precedes 
instead  of  following  intuition.  They  dissent, 
therefore,  from  Schelling,  Hegel,  and  Cousin, 
and  deny  that  we  have  immediate  intuition  of 
the  absolute,  that  is  of  God,  real  and  necessary 
being,  as  the  absolute  ;  and  maintain  that  while 
we  have  immediate  intuition  of  that  which  is 
absolute,  infinite,  unconditioned,  we  conceive 
the  intuitive  object  as  such  only  by  a  process 
of  reflective  reason — the  process  by  which  the 
human  mind  demonstrates  that  the  object  of 
its  intuition  is  God. 

ABSOLUTION,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
the  act  of  the  priest  in  pronouncing  the  pardon 
and  remission  of  the  sins  of  a  penitent.  Abso 
lution  in  foro  inter  no  is  a  part  of  the  sacra 
ment  of  penance,  in  which  the  guilt  of  mortal 
and  venial  sin  is  remitted.  Absolution  in  foro 
cxterno  is  the  remission  of  certain  ecclesiasti 
cal  penalties,  for  example,  excommunication. 
There  are  also  precatory  forms  of  absolution, 
which  are  used  during  the  divine  service. 
Short  prayers  at  the  end  of  each  nocturn  in 
the  office  of  matins  are  also  called  absolution. 
In  the  morning  and  evening  prayers  of  the 
English  and  American  Episcopal  churches,  ab 
solution  is  a  formula  of  publicly  praying  for 
or  declaring  the  remission  of  the  sins  of  the 
penitent,  used  only  by  a  priest;  also,  in  the 
'•Office  for  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick"  of  the 
church  of  England,  an  authoritative  declaration 
of  the  pardon  of  sin,  pronounced  over  a  peni 
tent  after  private  confession.  Similar  forms 
of  absolution  are  used  in  the  Lutheran  church. 

ABSORPTION  (Lat.  dbsorlere,  to  suck  up). 
I.  The  process  by  which  nutritious  and  other 
fluids  are  imbibed  by  animal  and  vege 
table  tissues,  to  be  appropriated  for  their 
growth,  activity,  or  modification.  All  the  or 
ganized  membranes  and  tissues  of  the  living 
body  have  the  property  of  absorbing,  to  a  cer 
tain  extent  and  under  favorable  circumstances, 
the  fluids  which  are  brought  in  contact  with 
them.  This  property  continues  to  belong  to 
the  tissues  in  question  even  after  the  death  of 
the  body,  or  after  they  have  been  separated 
from  all  connection  with  the  neighboring  parts, 
until  their  natural  structure  and  composition 
have  begun  to  be  altered  by  the  effects  of  de 
composition.  Thus  a  dried  ox  bladder  will 
absorb  water  in  which  it  is  immersed,  and 
again  become  moist  and  supple ;  and  even  mi 
croscopic  cells  and  fibres  will  absorb  coloring 
matters  with  which  the  vessels  of  the  tissue 
have  been  injected.  This  shows  that  the 


power  of  absorption  resides  in  the  substance 
of  the  animal  tissue  or  membrane  itself,  and 
not  in  any  property  communicated  to  it  from 
the  rest  of  the  system.  Nevertheless,  al 
though  the  capacity  for  absorption  still  exists 
in  a  separated  membrane,  it  is  much  less  ac 
tive  than  in  the  same  tissue  during  life,  for  the 
reason  that  after  death  it  soon  comes  to  an  end 
by  the  saturation  of  the  membrane  by  the  ab 
sorbed  fluid ;  while  during  life  it  is  kept  in  a 
constant  state  of  activity  by  the  incessant  re 
newal  of  the  fluids  and  the  movement  of  the 
circulating  blood.  In  the  process  of  absorp 
tion,  as  it  takes  place  in  animal  organizations, 
the  fluid  does  not  penetrate  the  tissues  me 
chanically,  by  openings  or  orifices,  however 
minute.  The  existence  of  such  orifices,  or 
open  absorbent  mouths,  was  formerly  taken 
for  granted,  as  the  most  convenient  way  of  ex 
plaining  the  phenomenon ;  but  later  and  more 
complete  microscopic  examination  has  failed 
to  show  their  existence,  and  takes  away  all 
reasonable  grounds  for  the  assumption.  So 
far  as  we  can  decide  upon  a  question  of  such 
delicacy,  absorption  consists  in  the  imbibition 
of  a  fluid  by  the  solid  tissue  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  fluid  and  its  ingredients  unite,  or  com 
bine  directly  with  the  substance  of  the  tissue  ; 
so  that  the  union  which  results  is  not  simply  a 
mechanical  entanglement,  but  rather  an  inti 
mate  and  complete  molecular  combination  of 
the  two. — It  is  found  that  different  animal  sub 
stances  have  the  power  of  absorbing  different 
liquids  in  different  proportions.  Thus  an  ani 
mal  membrane  which  will  absorb  in  a  given 
time  100  parts  by  weight  of  pure  water,  will 
absorb  only  65  parts  of  a  saline  solution  ;  and 
this  difference  will  be  greater,  within  certain 
limits,  the  stronger  the  saline  solution  is  made. 
A  tissue  which  will  absorb  100  parts  of  a  sa 
line  solution  will  take  up  under  the  same  cir 
cumstances  only  24  parts  of  an  oily  liquid. 
Thus  the  activity  of  absorption  varies  with  the 
same  membrane  for  different  liquids,  and  with 
the  same  liquid  for  different  membranes. 
Chevreul  found  the  following  results  by 
measuring  the  exact  quantities  of  different 
liquids  absorbed  by  different  membranes  and 
tissues  in  the  same  time : 


100  PAKTS  OF 

Cartilage 

Tendon  

Elastic  ligament. 
Cartilaginous  do. 

Cornea 

Dried  fibrine 


WATER.    SALIXE  SOLU'X.     OIL. 

231  parts.  125  parts. 

absorb  I  ITS   "  114   -;  8-6  parts. 

in   !  14S   "    30   "  7-2   " 

24   j  319   "  3-2   " 

hours   4G1   "  370   "  9-1   " 


301 


154 


Thus,  if  the  same  membrane  be  brought  in 
contact  with  a  liquid  containing  at  the  same 
time  a  variety  of  different  substances  in  solu 
tion,  some  of  these  substances  will  be  taken  up 
in  greater  abundance  than  the  others ;  and  the 
membrane  accordingly  will  appear  to  exercise 
a  kind  of  discriminative  power  or  selection  be 
tween  these  different  substances.  This  power 
of  selection,  however,  is  simply  the  property, 
dependent  on  the  natural  structure  and  con 
stitution  of  the  membrane,  of  absorbing  par- 


ABSORPTION 


ticnlar  substances  in  certain  fixed  proportions,  \ 
which  proportions  vary  for  different  materials. 
— The  activity  of  absorption  varies  also  with 
other  conditions.      One  of  these  is  the  fresh 
ness   of  the   animal    membrane.     While   still 
connected  with  the  neighboring:  parts,  or  but 
recently  separated  from  them,  the  activity  of 
absorption  is  great,  and  a  comparatively  large 
quantity  of  fluid  is  taken  up  in  a  short  time. 
Afterward,  when  the  natural  constitution  of 
the  membrane  is  already  impaired  by  com-  ! 
mencing   decomposition,  this   activity   diinin-  | 
ishes,  and  at  last  disappears  altogether.     An-  1 
other  condition  of  some  importance  is  that  of  • 
pressure.     An  increased  pressure  upon  the  li-  j 
quid  will  enable  the  membrane  to    absorb  it  ! 
more  rapidly.     Pressure  arid  motion  combined  j 
are   still   more   effective.      Thus   a   medicinal  j 
ointment   or  lotion    acts    more    rapidly    and 
powerfully   upon   the  parts  if  it  be  made  to 
penetrate  the  integuments  by  brisk   rubbing 
than  if  it  be  simply  laid  in  contact  with  the 
surface  of  the  skin.     Temperature  also  is  of 
considerable  importance.     A  low  temperature 
is  unfavorable  to  absorption ;  a  high  tempera 
ture,  at  least  within  moderate  limits,  is  favor 
able  to  it,  and  increases  its  activity.     A  state 
of  complete  liquefaction  or  solution  of  the  ma 
terial  to  be  absorbed  is  essential.     A  substance  j 
which  is  in  the  solid  form  cannot  be  absorbed ;  | 
it  must  first  be  dissolved  either  in  water  or  j 
some     other     appropriate    menstruum,    after 
which  the  solvent  fluid  and  the  substance  dis-  | 
solved  may  both  be  absorbed,  though  in  differ 
ent  proportions.     Even  the  gaseous  ingredients 
of  the  atmosphere,  which  are  absorbed  in  the  ! 
lungs,  are  first  dissolved  in  the  animal  fluids 
which  bathe  the  respiratory  passages,  and  are 
then  absorbed  in  the  liquid  form  by  the  pulmo 
nary  membrane.     The  last  and  most  important 
condition  of  the  continued  activity  of  absorp-  j 
tion  is  that  by  which  the  materials  already  ab 
sorbed  by  the  animal  membrane  are  constantly  | 
removed  from  it,  so  that  it  is  always  ready  to  j 
take  up  a  fresh  supply.     If  an  animal  mem-  ! 
brane  have  on  one  side  of  it  a  liquid  rich  in 
absorbable  materials,   and  on  the  other  a  li 
quid  which  is  poor  in  these  materials  or  desti 
tute  of  them,  it  will  take  up  these  substances  j 
from  the  first  liquid,  and  the  second  liquid  will 
aga;n  absorb  them  from  it.     Thus  the  mem 
brane  will  not  become  saturated,  but  will  re 
tain  its  activity  of  absorption  until  the  second 
liquid  has  approximated  in  composition  to  the  j 
first.     In  this  way  a  large  quantity  of  material 
may  pass  through  the  membrane,  from  the  first  ; 
to  the  second  liquid,  combining  with  the  sub-  ! 
stance  of  the  membrane  in  its  passage,  but  be 
ing  constantly  taken  up  by  it  on  one  side  and 
discharged  on  the  other.  'This  process  will  be  [ 
more  active  and  long  continued,  the  larger  the  j 
quantity  of  the  two  liquids  and  the  greater  the 
difference  in  composition   between  them.     It 
will  also  be  more  active,  the  greater  is  the  ex 
tent  of  surface  over  which  the  liquids  recipro 
cally  come  in   contact   with   the   membrane, 


since  it  is  the  absorptive  power  of  the  mem 
brane  itself  which  is  the  primary  condition  of 
the  interchange  of  substances  between  them. 
The  most  favorable  condition  for  continued 
and  active  absorption  would  be  that  in  which 
the  two  liquids  were  kept  in  constant  mo 
tion  and  incessantly  renewed,  so  that  the  first 
one  should  never  be  exhausted  of  its  materials, 
nor  the  second  saturated  with  the  substances- 
transmitted  to  it.  If,  at  the  same  time,  the  in 
tervening  membrane  maintained  its  freshness, 
unaltered  by  the  changes  of  decomposition, 
the  process  of  absorption  would  go  on  with  the 
most  continuous  and  uniform  activity.  These 
are  precisely  the  conditions,  in  fact,  which  are 
present  in  the  living  body.  In  the  alimentary 
canal,  for  instance,  during  digestion,  there  are 
constantly  passing  over  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  intestine  the  nutritious  fluids  which  have 
been  extracted  from  the  food.  A  portion  of 
these  are  absorbed  by  the  lining  membrane ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  immediately 
taken  up  from  it  by  the  blood  in  its  minute 
vessels.  This  blood,  in  the  incessant  move 
ment  of  the  circulation,  is  instantly  carried 
away  to  another  part  of  the  body,  its  place  be 
ing  taken  by  other  portions  of  the  current  fol 
lowing  each  other  without  intermission.  The 
living  membranes  themselves  are  maintained  at 
the  same  time  in  their  natural  condition  by  the 
nutritive  process,  the  temperature  of  the  whole 
is  constantly  at  or  about  100°  F.,  the  superflu 
ous  materials  are  decomposed  elsewhere,  or 
discharged  from  the  body  by  the  excretory 
passages,  and  new  supplies  are  incessantly 
furnished  as  the  gradual  digestion  of  the  food 
is  accomplished. — Experiments  have  shown 
that  absorption  will  take  place  in  the  living 
body  with  considerable  rapidity  even  in  non- 
vascular  tissues,  or  where  it  is  not  directly  as 
sisted  by  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  It  has 
been  shown  by  M.  Gosselin  that  if  a  watery 
solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  be  dropped 
upon  the  cornea  of  a  rabbit's  eye,  the  iodine 
passes  into  the  cornea,  aqueous  humor,  iris, 
lens,  sclerotic  coat,  and  vitreous  body,  in  the 
course  of  eleven  minutes;  that  it  will  pene 
trate  through  the  cornea  into  the  aqueous  hu 
mor  in  three  minutes,  and  into  the  substance 
of  the  cornea  in  a  minute  and  a  half.  In  the 
vascular  tissues,  however,  the  rapidity  of  ab 
sorption  is  often  much  greater  than  this.  Thus 
the  absorption  of  oxygen  by  the  blood  in  the 
lungs  is  apparently  instantaneous;  the  change 
of  its  color  from  blue  to  red,  as  soon  as  it  ar 
rives  in  the  pulmonary  vessels,  showing  the 
action  of  the  gas  which  it  has  taken  up  from 
the  atmosphere.  This  rapidity  of  absorption 
in  the  vascular  tissues  is  due  to  the  dissemina 
tion  of  the  blood  in  a  vast  number  of  minute 
channels,  by  which  the  vascular  and  absorbing 
surfaces  are  brought  into  intimate  contact  over 
a  large  surface ;  and  to  the  incessant  motion 
of  the  fluid,  by  which  its  effect  becomes  per 
ceptible  at  the  earliest  possible  time.  It  is  in 
some  of  the  glandular  organs  that  t'lis  absorp- 


ABSORPTION 


37 


tion  and  reciprocal  interchange  of  fluids  has 
been  shown  to  take  place  with  the  greatest  ac 
tivity;  for  the  capillary  hlood  vessels  here 
form  an  exceedingly  intricate  and  abundant 
network  embracing  the  adjacent  follicles  and 
ducts  of  the  glandular  tissue,  while  these  ducts 
and  follicles  themselves  are  arranged  in  a  sys 
tem  of  minute  ramifying  tubes  and  cavities, 
penetrating  everywhere  through  the  glandular 
substance.  Thus  the  union  and  interlacement 
of  the  glandular  membrane  on  the  one  hand 
and  of  the  blood  vessels  on  the  other  becomes 
exceedingly  extensive ;  and  the  ingredients  of 
the  blood  are  instantly  subjected,  over  a  very 
large  surface,  to  the  influence  of  the  glandular 
membrane,  or  the  fluids  which  it  has  absorbed. 
The  rapidity  of  transudation  under  these  condi 
tions  has  been  shown  by  the  experiments  of 
Claude  Bernard  and  other  observers.  If  a  solu 
tion  of  iodide  of  potassium  be  injected  into  the 
duct  of  the  parotid  gland  on  one  side,  in  a  liv 
ing  animal,  the  saliva  discharged  by  the  cor 
responding  gland  on  the  opposite  side  is  im 
mediately  afterward  found  to  contain  iodine. 
During  the  few  instants  required  to  perform 
this  operation,  therefore,  the  iodine  in  solution 
must  have  been  taken  up  by  the  glandular 
membrane  on  one  side,  absorbed  from  it  by 
the  blood,  carried  by  the  blood  to  the  heart, 
again  distributed  over  the  body,  absorbed  from 
the  blood  by  the  glandular  membrane  of  the 
second  gland,  and  thence  discharged  with  the 
saliva.  It  is  by  this  process  that  all  the  nutri 
tious  elements  of  the  food  and  drink  are  taken 
up  from  the  intestine  and  finally  reach  the  tis 
sues  which  they  are  to  nourish.  They  are  ab-  > 
sorbed  from  the  cavity  of  the  intestine  first  by  ! 
its  lining  membrane ;  thence  by  the  blood  ves 
sels  arid  the  blood  contained  in  them;  then 
transported  by  the  circulation  to  the  distant 
organs  and  tissues;  and  finally  absorbed  by 
these  tissues  from  the  blood,  and  united  with 
their  own  substance.  But  as  each  tissue  has  a 
special  power  of  its  own  of  absorbing  certain 
materials  in  preference  to  others,  the  same  j 
blood  will  supply  its  materials  to  each  in  dif-  I 
ferent  quantities.  Thus  the  bones  absorb  from 
the  blood  a  large  proportion  of  calcareous  mat-  | 
ter,  the  cartilages  a  smaller  quantity,  and  the  : 
muscles  still  less.  The  brain,  on  the  other  j 
hand,  takes  up  more  water  than  the  muscles,  j 
and  the  muscles  more  than  the  bones.  Thus 
every  tissue  is  enabled  to  maintain  its  own  pe 
culiar  constitution,  though  all  are  supplied  with 
the  necessary  ingredients  from  the  same  nntri-  : 
tious  fluid. — It  is  now  universally  acknowl 
edged  that  the  action  of  drugs,  medicines,  and  : 
poisons  takes  place  in  the  same  way.  This  ac-  ; 
tion  is  sometimes  said  to  be  local,  as  where  the 
ingredients  of  a  blister  are  absorbed  by  the 
skin  and  produce  an  inflammation  of  the  in 
tegument  at  that  spot  only;  or  general,  as 
where  opium  when  introduced  into  the  stom 
ach  produces  drowsiness  or  insensibility  over 
the  whole  body.  But  in  both  cases  the  pro 
cess  is  essentially  similar.  The  opium  is  dis 


solved  by  the  liquids  of  the  stomach,  absorbed 
by  its  lining  membrane,  taken  up  by  the 
blood,  and  distributed  by  the  circulation  all 
over  the  body.  In  this  way  reaching  the 
brain,  it  is  absorbed  by  the  cerebral  substance, 
and  by  its  action  upon  the  nervous  matter 
causes  the  narcotism  and  insensibility  which 

I  are  manifested  throughout  the  system.  Thus 
the  general  action  of  an  opiate  is  undoubtedly 
due  to  its  local  action  upon  the  brain,  and  to 
the  fact  that  the  brain  itself,  through  the  ner- 

1  vous  ramifications,  influences  the  condition  of 
the  whole  body.  II.  Absorption  of  Gases  by 
Solids  and  Liquids.  There  are  not  only  porous 
substances,  as  earth,  charcoal,  and  animal  mem 
branes,  which  will  absorb  gases,  but  solid  metals 

;  will  in  many  instances  do  the  same.  Thus  re 
cent  experiments  have  demonstrated  the  exist 
ence  of  gaseous  hydrogen  in  meteorites  falling 
on  the  earth,  absorbed  by  them  in  their  wan 
derings  through  space,  perhaps  while  passing 
through  some  nebula,  which  the  spectroscope 
has  shown  to  consist  of  incandescent  hydrogen  ; 

[  they  bring  thence  this  nebular  hydrogen  to  our 
earth.  The  power  to  absorb  hydrogen  is  espe 
cially  possessed  in  a  high  degree  by  palladium, 
which  takes  up  nearly  643  times  its  own  vol- 

:  nine  of  this  gas,  as  proved  by  Graham,  while 
silver  and  platinum  absorb  oxygen,  titanium 
nitrogen,  &c.  This  absorption  of  gas  by  metals 
is  called  occlusion.  Deville  and  Troost  have 
proved  the  remarkable  fact  that  red-hot  iron 
and  platinum  have  such  a  great  capacity  of 
absorbing  hydrogen,  that  it  passes  through 
these  metals  as  it  were  through  a  sieve.  The 
absorption  of  gases  by  liquids  is  still  more  strik 
ing.  Water  absorbs  different  gases  and  holds 
them  in  solution,  in  quantities  varying  in  pro 
portion  to  the  nature  of  the  gas.  Thus,  at  a 
temperature  of  a  few  degrees  above  the  freez 
ing  point,  it  contains  when  exposed  to  the  air 
4  per  cent,  in  volume  of  oxygen  and  2  per  -cent, 
of  nitrogen ;  so  that  the  air  contained  in  water 
is  much  richer  in  oxygen  than  our  atmosphere, 
having  in  six  parts  four  of  oxygen,  while  the 
atmosphere  contains  only  one  part  of  oxygen 
in  five  of  air.  The  solubility  of  hydrogen  in 
water  is  equal  to  that  of  nitrogen;  while  in 
regard  to  other  gases,  one  part  of  water  in 
bulk  dissolves  under  the  same  circumstances 
1-3  parts  of  laughing  gas,  1-8  carbonic  acid,  3 
of  chlorine,  4*4  of  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  54  of 
sulphurous  acid,  505  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
not  less  than  1,180  of  ammonia.  A  rise  of 
temperature  of  some  70°  diminishes  this  power 
of  absorption  to  about  one  half,  while  at  the 
temperature  of  the  boiling  point  of  water  most 

;  absorbed  gases  are  expelled.  With  a  dimin 
ished  pressure  of  say  half  an  atmosphere,  about 
half  the  gas  is  expelled ;  while  at  an  increased 

!  pressure  of  say  two  atmospheres,  more  gas  can 
be  absorbed.  Thus  in  respect  of  carbonic  acid, 
for  instance,  every  atmosphere  pressure  aug 
ments  the  capacity  of  water  to  absorb  this  gas 
by  1  -8  volumes,  so' that  at  five  atmospheres  it  ab 
sorbs  nine  times  its  own  volume  of  the  same. 


38 


ABSORPTION 


The  absorption  of  gases  by  other  liquids  than 
water  is  a  subject  still  open  for  investigation, 
and  has  thus  far  only  been  determined  for  a 
few  gases.  So  Dr.  Vander  Weyde  of  Ne w  York 
found  in  regard  to  laughing  gas,  that  alkaline 
solutions  absorb  more  than  pure  water,  and 
alcoholic  liquors  most,  strong  alcohol  over  five 
times  its  volume  ;  solutions  of  neutral  salts  in 
general  absorb  the  same  amount  as  water,  ex 
cept  the  sulphates,  which  absorb  much  less  of 
the  gas,  while  acids  absorb  the  least,  especially 
diluted  sulphuric  acid,  which  absorbs  only  0'8 
to  0'05  of  its  volume,  according  to  its  strength. 

III.  Absorption  of  Heat.     The  capacity  of  bodies 
to  absorb  heat  is  in  direct  proportion  to  their 
capacity  to  emit  heat.     Light-colored,  polished, 
or  smooth  surfaces  possess  this  capacity  in  the 
least  degree,  while  dark-colored  and  rough  sur 
faces  absorb  heat  very  readily.     However,  ac 
cording  to  the  late  researches  of  Melloni,  this 
effect  depends  less  upon  the   apparent  color 
than  upon  the  nature  of  the  coloring  material. 
He  also  finds  that  when  the  heat-giving  body 
is  not  luminous,  the  color  is  without  influence ; 
but  when  it  is  luminous,  the  color  has  great 
influence.      Melloni   has   also   determined   the 
capacity   of   absorption   of  heat   by   different 
transparent  substances.      He  found  that  while 
transparent  rock  salt  absorbed  only  8  per  cent, 
of  the  heat  passing   through  with  the,  light, 
fluor  spar  absorbed  from  25  to  50,  Iceland  spar 
and  glass  60,  alum  90,  and  ice  94  per  cent. ; 
while  for  heat  emitted  from  a  non-luminous 
body,  the  latter  substances  were  totally  opaque, 
absorbing  all  the  heat  and  transmitting  none. 
Recently  Tyndall  and  Magnus  have  made  re 
searches  on  the  absorbent  power  of  gases,  and 
found  that  under  the  pressure  of  one  atmos 
phere,  the  source  of  heat  being  a  copper  ball 
heated  to  518°  F.,  the  absorption  by  dry  air 
being  accepted  as  the  unit,  hydrogen  was  also  1, 
chlorine  89,  carbonic  acid  90,  nitrous  acid  355, 
marsh  gas  403,  sulphurous  oxide  710,  olefiant 
gas  970,  and  ammonia  1,195 ;  which  means  that 
the  latter  two  gases  absorb  respectively  970 
and  1,195  times  more  of  the  heat  transmitted 
through  them  than  is  the  case  with  dry  air. 

IV.  Absorption  of  Light.     The  apparent  color  of 
all  objects  is  caused  by  the  elective  absorption 
of  certain  colored  rays  in  the  white  light,  while 
the  remaining  are  reflected  and  determine  the 
color  of  the  object.     Even  the  purest  white 
and  the  most  perfectly  polished  surfaces  absorb 
some  of  the  light.     It  is  the  same  with  the 
most  transparent  substances;    they  all  absorb 
light  more  or  less.     In  many  of  these  an  elec 
tive  absorption  also  takes  place ;  colored  gems 
and  glass   or  liquid    solutions   absorb    certain 
colored  rays  and  let  others  pass ;  those  which 
pass   determine   the    color  of    the    substance. 
Sometimes,  besides  the  absorption  of  several 
colors,  a  color  is  reflected  complementary  to 
that  transmitted;    in  a  thin   layer  of  aniline 
red,  red  rays  are  transmitted,  while  green  rays 
are  reflected;  a  similar  action  takes  place  in 
a  solution   of  litmus  and   several  other  sub 


stances.  Some  crystals  possess  the  power  of 
absorbing  different  colors  when  light  passes- 
through  them  in  different  directions ;  this  is 
called  dichroism  and  polychroism.  Thus  the 
mineral  iolite,  a  gem  consisting  of  alumina, 
magnesia,  and  iron,  shows  different  colors  ac 
cording  as  the  light  falls  along  the  axis  of 
crystallization  or  in  a  transverse  direction. 
Many  artificial  crystals  exhibit  the  same  re 
markable  property ;  for  instance,  the  double 
chloride  of  platinum  and  potassium,  which  ap 
pears  either  deep  red  or  bright  green.  The 
investigation  of  this  peculiar  kind  of  absorp 
tion  of  light  has  recently  given  rise  to  the  in 
vention  of  a  new  modification  of  the  micro 
scope  by  Ilaidinger,  by  which  this  property 
may  be  examined  in  the  minutest  crystals; 
this  invention  is  called  the  dichroscope  and 
dichroic  microscope.  V.  Absorption  Spectrum. 
The  elective  absorption  of  transparent  gases, 
liquids,  and  solids  is  determined  by  means  of 
the  spectroscope.  This  instrument  proves  in 
deed  that  the  cause  of  this  absorption  is  simply 
the  incapacity  of  the  transparent  substance  to 
transmit  luminous  waves  of  a  certain  length, 
and  thus  that  it  is  opaque  for  such  waves. 
The  result  of  such  partial  opacity  is  the  for 
mation  of  the  so-called  absorption  bands,  in 
case  such  a  substance  is  placed  between  the 
light  and  the  slit  of  the  spectroscope.  The 
Fraunhofer  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum  are  in 
fact  nothing  but  absorption  bands  produced 
by  the  passage  of  the  light  through  the  solar 
atmosphere ;  our  own  atmosphere  also  pro 
duces  such  bands,  which  spectroscopists  call 
the  atmospheric  lines.  The  absorption  spec 
trum  differs  in  each  substance  which  Ave  may 
submit  to  examination.  Thus  iodine  vapor  and 
nitrous,  acid  vapor  produce  very  characteristic 
absorption  spectra  when  placed  before  the  slit 
of  the  spectroscope  (figs.  1  and  2),  while  differ- 


II  • 

1 
1! 

i  1  1  j      ; 

FIG.  1. — Absorption  Spectrum  of  Iodine  Vapor. 

ent  solutions  of  apparently  the  same  color  may 
be  unmistakably  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  the  difference  in  the  absorption  spectra 


FIG.  2.— Absorption  Spectrum  of  Nitrous  Acid  Gas. 

which  they  produce.  The  most  striking  illus 
tration  is  given  by  the  black  absorption  bands 
produced  by  a  perfectly  clear  and  colorless  so 
lution  of  any  salt  of  the  rare  metal  didymiurn, 
so  that  in  this  way  the  merest  traces  of  this 
metal  in  any  solution  may  be  detected,  as  lately 


ABSTINENCE 


39 


found  by  Gladstone  and  Bunsen.  Water,  faint 
ly  colored  yellow  with  a  few  drops  of  blood, 
may  be  distinguished  from  all  other  solutions 
of  the  same  color,  by  showing  in  the  spectro 
scope  two  characteristic  absorption  bands  (fig. 
3)  in  the  green  portion  of  the  spectrum,  not 


FIG.  3. — Absorption  Spectrum  of  Blood. 

shown  by  any  other  substance  ;  and  it  is  even 
possible  to  recognize  them  in  a  single  blood 
disk,  by  means  of  a  microscope  with  spectro- 
scopic  eye  piece.  We  add  in  fig.  4  the  absorp- 


B  C     D  E  F  G 

FIG.  4. — Solar  Absorption  Lines. 


tion  bands  of  the  solar  atmosphere  for  com 
parison  ;  they  are  used  as  landmarks  to  local 
ize  the  absorption  bands  of  other  substances. 
They  were  first  noticed  by  Wollaston,  but 
afterward  examined  with  such  philosophical 
refinement  by  Fraunhofer,  that  they  were 
named  after  him,  and  according  to  his  propo 
sition  designated  by  A,  B,  C,  D,  &c.  (See 
SPECTEOSCOPE.) 

1BSTIAEME,  the  partial  or  total  deprivation 
of  food.  The  phenomena  which  characterize 
life  are  connected  with  chemical  changes  oc 
curring  in  portions  of  the  blood  or  tissue's  of 
the  body  itself;  the  presence  of  the  substances 
resulting  from  these  changes  being  hurtful  to 
the  body,  they  are  eliminated  from  it  by  the 
various  organs  of  excretion.  This  constant 
loss  demands  an  equivalent  supply.  If  the 
supply  be  withheld,  the  chemical  changes  still 
continue  and  the  body  wastes ;  the  organism 
feeds  upon  itself,  and  when  this  is  no  longer  pos 
sible,  death  ensues.  The  period  during  which 
a  human  being  previously  in  good  health  can 
sustain  life  under  a  total  deprivation  of  food 
and  drink,  is  generally  stated  to  be  from  eight 
to  ten  days.  This  varies,  however,  under  dif 
ferent  circumstances.  Persons  of  mature  age 
support  abstinence  better  than  those  who  are 
younger;  women,  from  the  greater  develop 
ment  of  the  fatty  tissues,  and  the  less  activity 
of  the  muscular  and  nervous,  systems,  better 
than  men ;  children,  in  whom  all  the  organic 
functions  are  exceedingly  active,  worst  of  all. 
A  damp  atmosphere  which  checks  exhalation, 
a  moderate  temperature,  and  quiet  of  body 
are  favorable  to  the  prolongation  of  life ;  while 
muscular  exertion,  a  hot  dry  air,  and  a  low  tem 
perature  tend  to  shorten  the  period  during 
which  it  can  be  preserved.  Fodere  (Hcdecine 
legale)  states  that  some  workmen  buried  in  a 


damp    quarry  were    extricated    alive    after   a 
period  of  14  days ;  while  after  the  wreck  of 
I  the  Medusa,  the  sufferers  on  the  raft,  exposed 
to  a  high  temperature  and  constant  exertion, 
at  the  end  of  three  days,  although  they  still 
had  a  small  quantity  of  wine,  were  so  famished 
that    they   commenced   devouring    the    dead 
bodies    of    their    companions.     Water    alone 
tends  materially  to  prolong  life.     Dr.  Sloane 
("Medical  Gazette,"  vol.  xvii.,  p.  389)  gives  an 
account  of  a  man  05  years  of  age,  who  was 
rescued  from  a  coal  mine  after  he  had  been 
immured  23  days,  during  the  first  10  of  which 
I  he  had  a  little  muddy  water.    He  was  so  much 
I  reduced  that  he  died  three  days  after.     The 
I  cases  of  starvation  which  have  been  best  and 
most  accurately  observed,  have  been  those  in 
which  the  oesophagus  has  been  gradually  but 
at  last  completely  obstructed  by  cancerous  dis 
ease.      In  these  cases  the  deprivation  of  ali 
ment  has  been  but  partial,  the  patient  having 
been  still  imperfectly  nourished  by  nutritive 
injections,    which   have    supported   life   for   a 
period  of  five  or  six  weeks.    Mental  alienation 
has  a  marked  influence  in  prolonging  the  period 
during  which   life    can  be  sustained  without 
food.    Dr.  Willan  has  recorded  a  case  in  which, 
under   the   influence    of  religious   delusion,   a 
young  man  lived  60  days,  taking  during  that 
time  nothing  but  a  little  water  flavored  with 
1  orange    juice.      Dr.    M'Xaughton    of  Albany 
;  ("American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,"  vol. 
I  vi.,  p.  543)  gives   a   similar  instance,    during 
which  a  young  man  lived  54  days  on  water 
alone.    And  in  a  case  read  in  the  French  acad- 
j  emy    (Archives    generales   de   medecine,    torn. 
I  xxvii.,   p.    130),    a   suicide   lived    GO    days   on 
I  nothing  but  a  few  mouthfuls  of  orgeat  syrup, 
|  before  death  put  an  end  to  his  sufferings.    Hys- 
[  terical  women  often  support  abstinence  in  a 
i  wonderful  manner ;  but  there  is  in  hysteria  so 
|  much  moral  perversion,  so  great  a  tendency  to 
i  deceit  for  the  sake   of  exciting  interest  and 
j  sympathy,   that  all  such  cases  require  to  be 
I  carefully  and  closely  scrutinized.     Most  of  the 
I  instances  reported  by  the  old  authors,  in  which 
j  total  abstinence  was  endured  for  months  or 
even  years,  belong  to  this  category,   and  are 
untrustworthy. — The  first  effect  of  prolonged 
abstinence  from  food  and  drink  under  ordinary 
|  circumstances,    apart  from  the  sensations  of 
i  hunger  and  thirst,  is  pain  and  distress  in  tbe 
|  epigastrium,    which   is   relieved   by   pressure. 
I  This  subsides  after  a  day  or  two,  and  is  suc- 
|  ceeded  by  a  sense  of  sinking  and  weakness  in 
the  same  region ;  the  thirst  at  the  same  time 
becomes  more  intense,  and  is  thenceforth  the 
principal  source  of  suffering.    Emaciation  soon 
|  begins  to  make  rapid  progress,  the  eye  has  a 
|  wild  glistening  stare,  the  senses  are  dulled,  and 
I  the  intellect  enfeebled ;  the  excretions  become 
|  rare,  scanty,  and  fetid;  the  urine  is  high-color- 
I  ed,  often  causing  a  burning  pain  when  passed ; 
!  often   toward   the   end    diarrhoea    comes   on. 
j  The  sufferer  becomes  exceedingly  weak,  the 
i  voice  is  low  and  hoarse,  the  gait  slow  and  tot- 


40 


ABSTINENCE 


tering,  and  at  length  all  exertion  is  impossible ; 
the  breath  is  offensive;  the  skin  is  covered 
with  a  dirty-looking  secretion  and  exhales  a 
putrid  odor.  Maniacal  delirium  often  super 
venes,  and  death  is  sometimes  preceded  by  con 
vulsions.  When  persons  are  immured  by  the 
falling  in  of  a  mine,  quarry,  &c.,  they  seem 
subdued  by  the  darkness;  but  in  cases  of  star 
vation  after  shipwreck,  or  in  travelling  through 
an  uncultivated  country,  the  worst  passions 
are  aroused,  and  suspicion  and  ferocity  add  to 
the  torments  of  hunger.  A  high  temperature 
seems  to  aggravate  these  passions.  "It  is  im 
possible  to  imagine,"  says  M.  Savigny,  in  speak 
ing  of  the  wreck  of  the  Medusa,  "to  what  a 
degree  the  circulation  is  quickened  under  ex 
posure  to  the  burning  sun  of  the  equator. 
The  pain  of  my  head  was  intolerable ;  I  could 
scarcely  master  the  impetuosity  of  my  move 
ment  ;  to  use  a  well-known  phrase,  the  blood 
boiled  in  my  veins ;  all  my  companions  suffered 
from  the  same  excitement;"  and  the  terrible 
scenes  of  blood  and  crime  which  passed  upon 
the  raft  were  doubtless  owing  largely  to  this 
cause. — On  examination  after  death  the  bodies 
of  those  dying  of  starvation  are  found  to  be 
almost  bloodless,  except  the  brain  which  con 
tains  its  usual  quantity,  and  completely  desti 
tute  of  fat.  The  various  organs,  with  the  ex 
ception  of  the  brain,  are  all  reduced  in  bulk, 
and  the  coats  of  the  intestinal  canal  especially 
are  rendered  thinner.  M.  Chossat  (RecliercJies 
cxperimentales  sur  V inanition)  deprived  a  num 
ber  of  animals  (birds  and  small  mammals)  of 
all  sustenance,  and  carefully  observed  the  phe 
nomena  that  followed,  and  his  experiments 
throw  much  light  upon  the  subject  of  starva 
tion.  The  temperature  in  all  the  animals  wTas 
maintained  at  nearly  the  normal  standard  until 
the  hist  day  of  life,  when  it  began  rapidly  to 
fall.  The  animals,  previously  restless,  now 
became  quiet,  as  if  stupefied;  they  fell  over 
on  their  side,  unable  to  stand;  the  breathing 
became  slower  and  slower,  the  pupils  dilated, 
the  insensibility  grew  more  profound,  and  death 
took  place  either  quietly  or  attended  with  con 
vulsions.  If,  when  these  phenomena  were  fully 
developed,  external  warmth  was  applied,  the 
animals  revived,  their  muscular  force  returned, 
they  moved  or  flew  about  the  room,  and  took 
greedily  the  food  that  was  presented  to  them. 
If  now  they  were  again  left  to  themselves, 
they  speedily  perished ;  but  if  the  external  tem 
perature  was  maintained  until  the  food  taken 
was  digested  (and  from  the  feeble  condition  of 
their  digestive  organs  this  often  took  many 
hours),  they  recovered.  The  immediate  cause  of 
death  seemed  to  be  cold  rather  than  starvation. 
The  average  loss  of  weight  in  the  animals 
experimented  upon  was  40  per  cent,,  varying 
considerably  in  different  cases,  the  variation 
depending  chiefly  on  the  relative  amount  of 
fat.  Weighing  the  different  tissues  separately, 
and  arranging  them  in  two  parallel  columns, 
according  as  they  lost  more  or  less  than  40  per 
cent.,  gave  the  following  results : 


Parts  losing  more  than  Parts  losing  less  than 

40  per  cent.  40  per  cent. 

(  Fat 93-3  Muscular  coat  of  stomach  39 -T 

Blood 75  Pharynx  and  oesophagus.  84'2 

i   Spleen 71'4  Skin 33  -3 

Pancreas C4'l  Kidneys 31-9 

i  Liver 52  Respiratory  organs 22'2 

Heart 44'8  Bones 16'7 

Intestines 42-4  Eyes 10 

Muscles  of  voluntary  mo-  Nervous  system. ..         .     1-9 

tion 42-3 

Among  the  most  noteworthy  phenomena 
1  caused  by  starvation  are  the  offensive  effluvia 
exhaled  from  the  sufferers,  the  fetor  of  their 
I  discharges,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
j  body  passes  into  a  state  of  putrescence.  Such 
a  condition  of  things  is  peculiarly  favorable  to 
the  reception  of  fever  and  other  contagious 
diseases,  and  they  acquire  •  in  such  cases  an 
intensity  and  virulence  rarely  seen  under  other 
circumstances.  Thus,  as  was  fearfully  seen  in 
Ireland  in  1847,  pestilence  follows  in  the  train 
of  famine.  The  effects  of  the  prolonged  em 
ployment  of  an  insufficient  diet  alone  are  rarely 
seen ;  they  are  commonly  complicated  with 
those  of  unwholesome  air  and  over-exertion. 
Of  such  complication,  prisons,  work-houses, 
and  charitable  institutions  have  afforded  abun 
dant  examples  on  a  large  scale.  One  of  the 
most  noted  of  these  occurred  at  the  Milbank 
penitentiary,  near  London,  in  1828.  The  prison 
is  situated  on  marshy  ground,  which  is  below 
the  level  of  the  adjacent  river,  but  it  had  pre 
viously  been  reputed  healthy.  A  few  months 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  epidemic,  the  amount 
of  dry  nutriment  allowed  each  prisoner  daily 
had  been  reduced  from  between  31  and  33  oz. 
to  21  oz.,  and  animal  food  was  almost  wholly 
withheld.  The  prisoners  were  at  the  same 
time  subjected  to  a  low  temperature,  and  to 
considerable  muscular  exertion.  In  a  short 
time  they  became  paler,  weaker,  and  thinner ; 
subsequently,  scurvy,  diarrhoea,  and  dysentery 
made  their  appearance,  and  finally  low  fevers, 
or  headache,  vertigo,  convulsions,  maniacal 
delirium,  and  apoplexy.  The  smallest  loss  of 
blood  caused  fainting.  Of  860  prisoners,  437, 
or  52  per  cent.,  were  attacked.  Those  who  had 
been  longest  confined  suffered  in  the  greatest 
proportion.  The  prisoners  who  were  employed 
in  the  kitchen,  who  had  an  addition  of  8  oz. 
of  bread  to  their  daily  allowance,  were  not  af 
fected.  Another  well-marked  epidemic,  owing 
to  a  similar  cause,  occurred  in  the  establish 
ment  for  the  destitute  children  of  New  York, 
at  what  was  termed  the  Long  Island  farms,  in 
!  the  winter  of  1839-MO.  The  diet  of  the  chil 
dren  consisted  of  bread  of  an  inferior  quality, 
with  tea  sweetened  with  molasses,  night  and 
morning,  and  soup  made  from  coarse  beef, 
alternately  with  the  beef  itself  at  noon  ;  in  acl- 
I  dition  the  dormitories  of  the  children  were 
|  crowded  and  ill  ventilated,  and  they  had  scarce- 
!  ly  any  outdoor  exercise.  "About  the  middle 
1  of  December,  1839,"  says  Dr.  Morrell,  the  at 
tending  physician  of  the  asylum  (New  York 
"Journal  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,"  vol.  hi.), 
"evidences  of  a  constitutional  change  in  many 
of  the  children  were  apparent ;  they  were  dull 


ABSTINENCE 


ABYDOS 


and  inactive,  their  eyes  lacked  lustre,  and  their 
skins  exhaled  an  offensive  odor."    Next,  many 
of  them  were  attacked  with  slight  cholera  mor-  I 
bus,  and  afterward  an  incurable  diarrhrea  set  j 
in,  attended  with  gangrene  about  the  cheeks, 
the  anus,  or  vagina.     In  most  of  these  cases 
sloughing  of  the  cornea  took  place  and  the  eye 
was  destroyed.    When  for  a  length  of  time  the 
allowance  of  food,  either  from  its  indigestibility 
or  from  its  limited  amount,  has  been  insuffi 
cient  for  the  wants  of  the  system,  the  digestive 
organs  are  weakened ;  the  appetite  is  lost,  and 
the  person  often  loathes  food  while  he  is  suf-  j 
feriug  from  starvation.     In  the  experiments  of  j 
Chossat,  when  turtle  doves  were  placed  upon  a  | 
limited  allowance  of  corn,  but  with  access  to 
water,  part  of  the  corn  was  either  rejected  by 
vomiting,  accumulated  in  the  crop,  or  passed 
unchanged  through  the  bowels. 
ABSTINENCE,  Total.     See  TOTAL  ABSTINENCE,  j 
ABT,  Franz,   a   German   composer,    born    at  j 
Eilenburg,   Saxony,  Dec.  22,  1819.     His  early 
studies   were   theological,  but  he   abandoned  ! 
divinity  for  music,  and  at  the  age  of  22  became 
musical  director  at  Zurich.    He  remained  there 
eleven  years,  when  he  became  second  musical 
director  at  the  Brunswick  court  theatre,  and 
was  promoted  to  be  first  by  the  grand  duke 
in    1855.      He   has   composed    for    orchestra,  | 
piano,  and  voice ;    but  it  is  mainly  as  a  song 
writer   that   he   has  attained   his   reputation, 
having   composed    a    great   number   of  songs 
that  have  become  well  known  throughout  the  j 
world.     He  has  also  been  very  successful  as  a  j 
composer  of  two-part  songs,  and  of  four-part  | 
songs  for  male  voices.     He  visited  the  United  j 
States  in  1872. 

ABl'BEKR,  the  first  caliph,   born  at  Mecca 
about    573,    died   in    634.       Abubekr    means 
''father  of  the  virgin,"   and  this   name   was 
given  to  him  when  his  daughter  Ayesha  be 
came  the  favorite  wife   of  Mohammed.     His 
real  name   was   Abd-el-Caaba.     He  was  Mo-  I 
hammed's  most  trusted   adherent,  and  in  632  i 
succeeded  his  master  in  the  supreme  authority, 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  prophet's  son-in-law  I 
Ali.     At   the    commencement   his   reign    was  ! 
troubled,  first  by  the  relapse  of  several  tribes  ! 
to  idolatry,  and  then  by  the  springing  up  of  a 
new  sect  under  Mosseilama.     Assisted  by  the  ' 
hero  Khaled,  Abubekr  compelled  the  backsli-  j 
ders  to  return,  and  suppressed  the  rival  creed,  : 
Mosseilama  himself  being  slain  in  a  battle.    He 
now  led  his  followers  to  conquest.     His  gen 
erals  fell  upon  the  frontiers  of  the  Roman  and 
Persian  empires,  and  their  easy  success  excited 
the  warrior  population  of  Arabia  to  pour  forth. 
The  emperor  Heraclius  vainly  opposed  them. 
Syria  and  the  provinces  of  the  Euphrates  were 
soon  overrun  and  Damascus  besieged.     Abu-  j 
bekr  died  in  the  full  tide   of  conquest,  after  ! 
a  brief  reign  of  two  years  and  three  months.  ! 
His  tomb  is  shown  by  the  side  of  that  of  the 
prophet  at   Mecca.     Abubekr   was  surnamed  • 
the  Just.     His  charity  was  unbounded,  while 
his  manner  of  living  was  so  strict  that  he  pos 


sessed  at  his  death  only  the  one  robe  he  wore, 
one  camel,  and  an  Ethiopian  slave.  These  he 
bequeathed  to  Omar,  his  successor.  Abubekr 
collected  the  scattered  writings  and  the  oral 
doctrines  of  Mohammed  forming  the  Koran. 
ABUL-CASIM.  See  ALBUCASIS. 
ABULFARAGUS,  or  Abnlfaraj,  Mar  Grejrorins, 
surnamed,  on  account  of  his  Jewish  descent, 
Bar-Hebrreus,  a  Syriac  and  Arabic  writer, 
born  in  1226,  died  in  1286.  He  was  a  native  of 
Armenia,  and  the  son  of  a  converted  Jew.  By 
his  knowledge  and  virtues  he  rose  to  the  dig 
nity  of  bishop  of  Aleppo,  and  in  1266  to  that  of 
primate  of  the  Jacobite  Christians.  His  best 
known  work  is  the  "  History  of  the  Dynasties," 
treating  of  the  different  kingdoms  of  the  world, 
Jewish,  Chaldean,  Persian,  Greek,  Roman, 
Mohammedan,  and  Mongol.  An  edition  in 
Arabic  and  Latin  was  published  by  Edward 
Pococke  at  Oxford,  1663,  and  one  in  Syriac  and 
Latin  at  Leipsic,  1789. 

ABILFEDA,  Ismail   ibn  Ali,  a  Moslem  prince 
and  writer,  born  at  Damascus  about  1273,  died 
in  October,  1331.    He  was  a  descendant  of  Eyub 
(or  Ayub),  the  founder  of  the  Kurdish  dynasty 
in  Egypt ;  fought  in  the  campaigns  of  Sultan 
Nasir,  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  against  the  Tartars ; 
was  by  him  appointed  governor  of  Ham  ah  in 
Syria,  which  his  ancestors  had  held  in  fief,  and 
subsequently  acknowledged  as  sultan  of  that 
principality.     He  was  a  man  of  eminent  tal 
ents  as  a  warrior,  a  ruler,  and  a  writer.     lie 
is  chiefly  renowned  as  the  author  of  an  exten 
sive  historical  compilation,  in  Arabic,  embra 
cing  both  ancient  history  and  the  annals  of  the 
Moslems,  from  the  time  of  Mohammed  to  the 
year  1328  ;  and  of  a  geographical  work,  mainly 
descriptive  of  Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Persia, 
considered  the  best  of  its  kind  in  eastern  litera 
ture.     Both  have  appeared  in  various  editions, 
in  the  original  as  well  as  in  Latin  and  other 
occidental  translations.     Abulfeda  also  wrote 
scientific  treatises,  which  have  been  lost. 
ABU  SAMBUL.     See  IPSAMBUL. 
ABU  SHEHR.     See  BUSHIEE. 
ABU  TEMAM,  one  of  the  greatest  Arabic  poets, 
born  in  Syria  about  806,  died  at  Mosul  in  845 
or  846.     His  poems  are  said  to  have  procured 
him  the  favor  of  the  Moslem  courts  and  many 
thousand  pieces  of  gold,  and  the  Arabs  say  of 
I  him  that  "no  one  could  ever  die  whose  name 
had  been  praised  in  the  verses  of  Abu  Ternain." 
I  He  was  also  the  compiler  of  three  collections  of 
j  select  pieces  of  eastern  poetry,  the  most  es 
teemed  of  which,  called  the  Hamasa,  is  praised 
I  by  Sir  William  Jones. 

ABYDOS.     I.  An  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
I  on  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Hellespont,  oppo- 
;  site  Sestos,   originally    the   possession   of  the 
Trojan  prince  Asius,  and  later  occupied  by  the 
Thracians  and  Milesians.     It  is  celebrated  in 
connection  with  the  army  of  Xerxes  and  the 
immense  bridge  built  by  him  at  this  spot.  480 
B.  C.     Here  the  tragedy  of  Hero  and  Leander 
took  place,  according  to  the  poetical  legend, 
and  here  Lord  Bvron  swam  across  in  imitation 


ABYLA 


ABYSSINIA 


Bass-Belief  at  Abydos,  Egypt.    (From  a  Photograph.) 


of  that  luckless  lover.  II.  An  ancient  city 
(originally  This,  now  Ararat  el-Matfoon)  of 
Upper  Egypt,  on  the  canal  called  the  Bahr 
Yusuf,  G  in.  AV.  of  the  Nile  and  about  GO  m. 
below  Thebes.  It  was  anciently  the  second 
city  of  the  Thebaid,  the  birthplace  of  Menes, 
and  the  reputed  burial  place  of  Osiris,  and 
hence  a  great  necropolis.  There  are  numerous 
very  ancient  tombs  cut  in  the  adjacent  hills, 
but  its  most  remarkable  remains  are  the  palace 
of  Memnon  and  the  temple  of  Osiris.  In  the 
latter  was  discovered  in  1818  the  celebrated 
"tablet  of  Abydos,"  or  Ramses  table,  at  pres 
ent  in  the  British  museum,  upon  which  is  in 
scribed  in  hieroglyphics  a  genealogy  of  the  18th 
dynasty  of  the  Pharaohs.  Diimichen,  in  his 
explorations  (18G4-'5)  of  the  interior  of  the 
temple  of  Osiris,  found  a  new  Egyptian  table, 
which  Lepsius  calls  the  Sethos  fable.  It  is 
more  complete  than  that  of  Ramses,  contains 
65  shields  and  an  uninterrupted  record  of  the 
kings  of  the  first  three  dynasties,  beginning 
with  Menes,  corresponding  with  the  account 
of  Manetho,  and  is  regarded  as  more  perfect 
than  the  table  of  Sakkarah.  This  discovery  is 
believed  to  be  important  in  respect  to  the  re 
searches  into  the  most  remote  eras  of  Egypt. 
^  ABYLA,  one  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  at  the 
N.  W.  extremity  of  Africa,  opposite  Calpe 
(now  Gibraltar)  in  Spain,  the  other  pillar.  It 
was  believed  by  the  ancients  to  have  been  for 
merly  joined  with  Calpe,  but  separated  by 
Hercules,  giving  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean. 
ABYSSINIA  (Arab.  Hdbesh,  signifying  a  mix 
ture  of  peoples),  a  country  of  eastern  Africa, 
lying  S.  W.  of  the  Red  sea,  Its  boundaries 
are  not  very  accurately  denned,  especially  as 
the  name  is  frequently  applied  to  a  much 
greater  extent  of  territory  than  that  included 
in  Abyssinia  proper,  which  was  formerly  said 


to  comprise  the  three  important  states  of  Tigre, 
Amhara,  and  Shoa,  but  from  which  Shoa  ha's 
been  excluded  by  some  modern  geographers. 
According  to  Keith  Johnston,  however,  it  ex 
tends  from  lat,  7°  40'  to  16°  40'  1ST.,  and  from 
Ion.  34°  20'  to  43°  20'  E.  On  the  N.  and  N. 
"W.  it  is  bordered  by  Nubia  and  Sennaar,  while 
southward  and  eastward  lie  the  Galla  and  So 
mali  countries  and  Adal.  The  Samhara  land 
separates  Abyssinia  proper  from  the  Red  sea, 
which  is  nowhere  less  than  90  m.  distant  from 
the  frontier.  According  to  M.  d'Abbadie,  the 
country  is  called  Ethiopia  by  the  natives,  who 
properly  employ  the  word  Abyssinia  to  denote 
that  portion  of  the  population,  for  the  most 
I  part  professedly  Christian,  who  have  lost  all 
idea  of  tribal  differences.  Its  maximum  length 
is  upward  of  600  m.  and  maximum  breadth 
nearly  as  much ;  but  these  estimates  are  prob 
ably  approximate,  and  as  the  area  of  the  coun 
try  depends  upon  them,  it  cannot  be  accurately 
stated.  The  population  is  believed  to  be  from 
j  3,000,000  to  5,000,000.— Considered  with  ref- 
I  erence  to  its  physical  geography,  Abyssinia  is 
j  an  extensive,  elevated,  and  irregular  table  land, 
!  consisting  of  a  series  of  plateaux  of  various 
altitudes,  which  rise  into  isolated  groups  and 
ranges  of  flat-topped  mountains.  This  table 
land  runs  nearly  due  N.  and  S.,  and  slopes  from 
its  highest  ridge  toward  the  Red  sea  on  one 
side  and  the  interior  of  the  continent  on  the 
other,  so  as  to  form  an  eastern  and  a  western 
watershed.  Toward  the  swamps  and  plains 
of  Sennaar  and  Nubia  the  descent  from  this 
!  high  region  is  gradual,  but  it  is  very  abrupt  on 
the  east,  the  seaward  slope  being  about  twelve 
times  greater  than  the  opposite  slope  toward 
the  Nile.  The  average  elevation  of  the  pla 
teaux,  which  rise  terrace-like  and  with  grad 
ually  increasing  elevation  from  N.  to  S.,  is 


ABYSSINIA 


between  7,000  and  8,000  ft.  Among  them, 
forming  river  beds  sometimes  thousands  of  feet 
below  the  general  surface  of  the  surrounding 
territory,  wind  ravines  and  gorges  of  extreme 
depth,  which  are  among  the  most  striking 
natural  features  of  the  country.  Mr.  Clements 
R.  Markham,  who  accompanied  the  British 
military  expedition  to  Magdala,  classifies  the 
Abyssinian  highlands  as  follows:  1,  the  region 
drained  by  the  affluents  of  the  river  Mareb  ;  2, 
the  region  drained  by  those  of  the  Tacazze  and 
Atbara ;  3,  the  region  drained  by  those  of  the 
Abai.  The  first  of  these  is  in  Tigre,  and  in 
cludes  a  considerable  portion  of  northern  Abys 
sinia.  Here  the  average  altitude  of  the  plateaux 
is  9,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They 
enclose  numerous  extensive  valleys,  which,  al 
though  many  hundred  feet  lower,  are  none  of 
them  at  an  elevation  of  less  than  7,000  ft.  A 
peculiarity  of  the  valleys  here  is  that  valley  hills 


rise  from  their  level  tracts,  just  as  mountains 
rise  from  the  plateaux  above.  The  principal 
summits  of  this  region  are  Mt.  Sowayra,  10,328 
ft.,  and  Arabi  Tereeki,  near  Senate,  8,560  ft. 
The  next  great  physical  division  of  the  table 
land  comprises  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Ta 
cazze  and  Atbara  rivers.  The  loftiest  dis 
trict  of  this  region  is  the  rich  agricultural 
plain  of  Haramat,  8,000  ft.  above  the  ocean 
level.  In  the  N.  W.  part,  of  Amhara,  which 
is  included  in  this  division  of  the  highlands, 
the  country  is  lower,  not  exceeding  6,000  ft. 
of  average  elevation;  but  the  province  of  Sem- 
yen  contains  the  highest  mountains  in  Abys 
sinia,  of  which  the  most  important  peaks  are 
the  Abba  Jarrat,  in  lat,  13°  10'  X.,  15,088  ft., 
and  Mt.  Buahat,  in  lat.  13°  12'  N.,  14,362  ft.  E. 
of  these  are  the  Harat  hills  and  Wadjerat  range. 
The  third  clearly  defined  region  is  that  watered 
by  the  tributaries  of  the  Blue  Nile,  comprising 


View  in  the  Mountains  near  Magdala. 


the  greater  portion  of  Amhara  or  the  former 
kingdom  of  Gondar,  with  an  altitude  varying 
in  different  districts  from  5,000  to  7,000  ft.  on 
the  plateaux,  and  attaining  a  height  of  11,000 
ft.  in  the  Talba-Waha  mountains.  The  Wadela 
and  Dalanta  plateaux,  near  Magdala,  with  an 
elevation  exceeding  9,000  ft.,  are  in  the  "W. 
portion  of  this  region,  the  river  bed  of  the 
Jitta,  3,500  ft.  deep,  running  between  them. 
The  steep  scarped  rock  of  Magdala  itself  rises 
to  a  height  of  9,050  ft.,  its  summit  being  a  flat 
plain  2£  m.  long  and  half  a  mile  wide. — The 
only  important  rivers  of  the  country  which 
flow  toward  the  Red  sea  are  the  Ragolay,  in 
the  north,  a  perennial  stream  which  loses  itself 
in  the  sand  before  reaching  the  coast,  and  the 
Hawash  in  the  south,  which  forms  a  portion 
of  the  boundary  between  Abyssinia  and  Adal, 


and  is  likewise  absorbed  in  the  swamps  or 
deserts  on  its  path  to  the  ocean.  All  the  great 
Abyssinian  rivers  belong  to  the  Nile  basin. 
Of  these  the  Mareb  is  the  most  northern.  It 
rises  in  the  district  of  Hamasen,  flows  S.  and 
"W.  around  Serawe,  and  thence  in  a  N.  W.  di 
rection  through  the  Nubian  province  of  Taka. 
In  the  rainy  season  its  waters  reach  the  At 
bara,  but  during  the  remainder  of  the  year  they 
disappear  in  the  sand.  The  Tacazze  rises  in 
Lasta  from  a  spring  which  was  first  caused  to 
gush  forth  from  the  rock,  according  to  tradition, 
by  a  blow  from  the  hand  of  Menilek,  son  of  the 
queen  of  Sheba.  Its  name  signifies  "the  terri 
ble."  Flowing  northwesterly,  it  enters,  or  prop 
erly  receives,  the  Atbara  at  Tomat,  in  Nubian 
territory.  It  is  a  rapid  and  impetuous  stream, 
dashing  down  rocky  falls  and  between  lofty  pre- 


4:4: 


ABYSSINIA 


cipices  with  a  turbulence  well  denoted  by  its 
name.  Further  S.  is  the  Abai,  the  celebrated 
Nile  of  Bruce,  although  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  or 
true  Blue  river  rises  in  the  Galla  country  under 
the  name  of  the  Dedhesa,  and  the  Abai  is  in 
reality  only  its  largest  tributary.  The  latter 
rises  S.  of  the  Tzana  lake,  and  making  a  north 
ward  circle  through  it,  turns  southward  and 
joins  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  near  lat.  11°  N.  This 
lake,  also  called  the  Dembea,  is  situated  in  a 
grain-producing  region  of  great  fertility,  at  a 
height  of  6,110  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
It  is  about  50  in.  long  by  25  m.  wide,  and  its 
depth  in  some  places  is  said  to  be  600  ft.  There 
are  many  other  lakes,  among  which  Ashangi, 
4  m.  long  and  3  m.  broad,  in  the  country  of  the 
Azebo-Gallas,  is  the  most  noteworthy  as  being 
a  fresh- water  lake  without  any  visible  outlet. 
Thermal  springs  occur  in  many  districts. — The 
characteristic  feature  of  the  climate  of  the 
Abyssinian  highlands  —  including  Tigre,  Am- 
hara,  and  Shoa — is  the  occurrence  of  a  tropical 
monsoon  or  rainy  season  from  the  middle  of 
June  to  the  end  of  September.  Otherwise,  the 
climate  is  strictly  temperate.  There  is  a  cold 
season  extending  from  October  to  February, 
with  an  estimated  mean  temperature  of  58-3°, 
during  which  the  days  are  pleasant  and  the 
nights  cold  with  heavy  falls  of  dew.  The  hot 
weather  begins  about  March  1,  and  lasts  until 
the  monsoon  sets  in,  April  being  the  warmest 
month.  The  mean  temperature  of  this  season 
at  Magdala  is  65*5°,  and  of  the  wet  season 
about  5°  lower.  The  rainfall  of  the  monsoon 
extends  over  all  of  Abyssinia  proper,  but  is 
greater  in  the  south  and  west  than  in  the 
north  and  east.  The  prevailing  winds  during 
the  rainy  season  are  easterly  and  southeasterly. 
Thunder  storms  are  of  frequent  occurrence. — 
The  chief  agricultural  productions  are  barley 
and  oats  on  the  elevated  plains,  and  wheat, 
maize,  millet,  rice,  cotton,  coffee,  and  a  small 
native  grain  called  teff,  in  the  lower  districts. 
Sugar  cane,  flax,  and  beans  are  raised  in  small 
quantities,  and  lemons,  oranges,  and  figs  are  oc 
casionally  produced.  The  grape  thrives  in 
some  parts  of  Tigre,  but  no  good  wine  is  made. 
—Volcanic  rocks  constitute  the  principal  for 
mation  in  the  geological  structure  of  Abys 
sinia,  and  cover  almost  the  entire  table  land. 
The  trapnean  series  appears  to  be  divisible 
into  at  least  two  distinct  groups.  The  lower 
of  these  is  largely  composed  of  red  basalts,  on 
which  the  disintegrating  effects  of  atmospheric 
action  are  plainly  marked.  Blanford  names 
this  the  Ashangi  group,  and  that  above  it  the 
Magdala  group;  which  last  comprises  trachytic 
rocks  containing  many  feldspar  crystals,  and 
is  distinguished  by  the  scarped  and  precipitous 
forms  which  it  assumes  under  the  influence  of 
the  weather.  These  forms  are  characteristic 
of  Abyssinian  scenery,  and  the  ambas  or  hill 
forts,  the  great  strongholds  of  the  country,,  are 
rendered  almost  inaccessible  to  an  enemy  by 
their  situation  on  the  horizontal  beds  of  this 
rock  which  surmount  the  summits  usually  se 


lected  for  military  stations.  In  the  N.  E.  prov 
inces,  however,  metamorphic  rocks  occupy  the 
whole  surface,  except  in  several  districts  of 


Hill  Fort  between  Mai  and  Abaca. 

limited  extent  where  they  are  overlaid  by  sand 
stones,  limestones,  or  igneous  formations.  They 
extend  150  m.  along  the  meridian  of  39°  SO7, 
between  lat.  15°  55'  and  13°  50'  N.  At  Tchelga 
coal  deposits  are  found,  which  geologists  are 
disposed  to  group  with  these  sandstones  of 
Adigerat.  Further  S.,  in  the  Antalo  district, 
a  considerable  number  of  fossils  have  been  ob 
tained  from  the  limestones  which  predominate 
there,  whereby  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
formation  belongs  to  the  oolitic  period.  The 
present  geological  aspect  of  Abyssinia,  with 
its  weather-worn  battlements  of  rock  and  its 
deeply  scored  river  beds,  must  be  attributed  to 
fresh-water  denudation.  There  is  no  evidence 
of  marine  action  anywhere  in  the  interior, 
although  it  is  believed  that  at  an  early  epoch 
the  waters  of  the  Red  sea  and  the  Indian 
ocean  may  have  washed  the  foot  hills  of  the 
eastern  slope.  The  volcanic  formations  along 
the  coast  belong  to  an  age  much  more  recent 
than  that  which  gave  rise  to  those  of  the  table 
land  which  have  already  been  described. 
There  are  no  volcanoes  in  the  country.  The 
only  metallic  products  are  gold,  which  occurs 
rarely  and  is  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  iron,  of 
which  the  yield  is  consumed  at  home.  Exten 
sive  deposits  of  salt  occur  on  several  plains  in 
Tigre. — The  distribution  of  Abyssinian  animals 
seems  to  be  regulated  by  the  altitude  of  the 


ABYSSINIA 


various  portions  of  the  table  land  above  the 
sea,  each  zone  of  elevation  being  characterized 
to  some  extent  by  its  own  particular  fauna. 
It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  many  of  the 
mammals  common  to  other  countries  are  here 
distinguished  by  a  much  bolder  demeanor  | 
toward  man  than  that  which  they  exhibit 
elsewhere.  Elephants  are  numerous  near  the  j 
coast,  and  go  up  to  the  highlands,  even  8,000 
ft.  above  the  sea,  in  the  summer  months; 
though  the  rhinoceros,  only  one  variety  of 
which  (P.  keitloa)  is  met  with,  does  not  range 
higher  than  5,000  ft.  Many  of  the  elephants 
are  tuskless,  but  they  are  all  active  and  sav 
age.  The  rhinoceros  is  the  black,  two-horned 
species,  and  feeds  on  foliage,  seldom  eating  j 
grass.  Of  the  cat  tribe,  there  are  at  least 
three  species  in  addition  to  the  Abyssinian  lion. 
The  spotted  hyaana  (H.  crocuta)  and  two  spe 
cies  of  jackal  are  exceedingly  common.  Of 
the  quadrumana,  the  great  dog-faced  baboon 
(cynocephalus  hamadryas)  is  found  almost 
everywhere.  That  peculiar  little  pachyderm, 
the  hyrax,  inhabits  its  favorite  haunts  among 
the  rocks  at  almost  every  elevation  in  Abys 
sinia  from  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea  upward. 
The  ornithology  of  Abyssinia  is  rich  in  species, 
no  fewer  than  293  having  been  described  by 
Blanford.  Among  the  birds  of  prey  are  found 
the  eagle,  the  vulture,  and  the  handsome  Abys 
sinian  lammergeyer,  as  well  as  numerous  fal 
cons  and  kestrels.  Honey  birds,  starlings  of 
beautiful  plumage,  crows,  pigeons,  several 
varieties  of  the  cuckoo,  swallows,  larks,  par 
tridges,  geese,  ducks,  and  guinea  fowls  abound. 
With  the  exception  of  lizards,  there  do  not  seem 
to  be  many  reptiles  in  the  highlands.  A  tree 
snake,  a  viper,  and  several  other  species  of  ser 
pent  occur ;  two  species  of  tortoise,  and  frogs  , 
and  toads  in  large  numbers,  are  also  met  with,  j 
The  crocodile  and  python  inhabit  the  trop 
ical  districts. — The  agricultural  products  of  the 
country  have  already  been  enumerated.  The 
vegetation  of  the  coast  lowlands  consists  prin 
cipally  of  acacias,  which  are  replaced  by  syca 
mores,  dahros  (Jicus  religiosa),  and  mimosa, 
in  ascending  toward  the  interior.  In  the  pass 
es,  the  beautiful  candelabra  tree  (euphorbia 
Abyssimca)  is  found.  At  an  elevation  of 
6,000  ft.  occur  juniper  trees,  which  here  grow 
tall  and  large,  the  jujube,  wild  olives,  and  sev 
eral  trees  of  the  tig  tribe.  This  vegetation  is 
sub-alpine,  and  common  to  the  plateaux.  The 
flora  of  the  higher  regions  is  characteristic  of 
the  temperate  zone,  the  only  tree  being  the 
juniper,  which  grows  merely  as  a  bush  on  the 
loftier  mountain  sides  and  summits,  together 
with  lavender,  thyme,  gentian,  and  the  wild 
rose.  Large  dahro  trees  are  generally  found 
about  the  villages,  and  a  variety  of  willow  oc  - 
curs  near  streams  and  in  damp  places ;  but 
though  there  are  some  trees  on  the  plains  be 
low  the  plateaux,  low  bushes  form  the  greater 
proportion  of  their  vegetation.  In  fact,  the 
only  thickly  wooded  localities  are  the  gorges 
arid  ravines. — Each  of  the  three  principal  polit 


ical  divisions  of  Abyssinia,  Tigre,  Amhara,  and 
Shoa,  is  subdivided  into  numerous  smaller 
provinces.  Formerly  the  rulers  of  these  three 
sovereignties  were  subject  to  the  monarch  of 
the  country,  but  on  the  decline  of  the  central 
power  in  the  last  century  they  became  practi 
cally  independent.  The  town  of  Adowa,  with 
about  8,000  inhabitants,  is  the  metropolis  of 
Tigre.  Gondar,  the  seat  of  government  in  Am 
hara,  and  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Abys 
sinian  kings,  is  situated  in  the  district  of  Dem- 
bea,  N.  of  the  Tzana  lake,  and  has  a  population 
estimated  at  50,000.  Ankobar,  a  town  con 
taining  about  12,000  people,  is  the  present 
capital  of  Shoa.  The  inhabitants  of  Abyssinia 
are  usually  classed  into :  1,  the  Ethiopia  people 
of  Tigre,  speaking  a  corrupt  form  of  the  ancient 
Geez  language ;  2,  the  Amharic  tribes,  living 
in  Amhara  and  Shoa ;  3,  the  Agows,  of  Wag, 
Lasta,  and  other  provinces,  who  are  by  some 
conjectured  to  be  of  Phoenician  origin.  Be 
sides  these  are  the  Gallas  who  have  settled  in 
Amhara  and  Shoa.  Coptic  Christianity  is  the 
prevailing  faith,  but  there  are  many  Moham 
medan  and  Jewish  communities.  (See  ABYS 
SINIAN  CHURCH.)  In  point  of  morality,  the 
latter  are  generally  superior  to  the  Christians. 
Education  is  confined  almost  solely  to  those 
intended  for  the  church.  Superstition  is  widely 
prevalent,  and  the  people  are  strongly  addicted 
to  sensuality  and  bloodshed.  Many  peculiar 
customs  prevail,  and  something  of  a  literature 
once  existed ;  but  the  effect  of  the  long  series 
of  civil  wars  has  been  to  render  Abyssinian  civ 
ilization  unworthy  of  the  name.  Latterly  the 
rule  of  the  lesser  chiefs  throughout  the  country 
has  been  the  only  government  of  any  stability. 
—The  history  of  Abyssinia  surpasses  in  inter 
est  that  of  any  other  country  of  Africa  except 
Egypt.  Its  earliest  traditions  concern  the 
queen  of  Sheba,  who  is  said  to  have  ruled  over 
the  powerful  kingdom  of  Axiim,  holding  her 
court  at  the  town  of  that  name,  whence  she 
proceeded  on  her  celebrated  visit  to  Solomon. 
All  subsequent  legitimate  rulers  of  the  nation 
or  of  the  larger  states  have  claimed  to  be  de 
scended  from  her.  About  A.  D.  320  the  pa 
triarch  of  Alexandria  consecrated  Frumentius 
bishop  of  Abyssinia.  Through  his  efforts  and 
those  of  his  successors,  all  of  whom  bore  the 
title  of  abuna  salamah  (our  father  of  peace), 
the  Coptic  church  was  firmly  established.  In 
522  Caleb,  then  the  reigning  sovereign  of  Axum, 
led  an  army  into  Arabia  and  •subjugated  the 
kingdom  of  Yemen.  The  reign  of  Caleb  is 
described  as  the  golden  age  of  Abyssinian  his 
tory,  during  which  a  high  degree  of  internal 
and  commercial  prosperity  was  attained  ;  but 
i  the  Mohammedan  invasion  of  Egypt  in  the  7th 
century  checked  the  inflow  of  civilization  from 
the  outer  world,  and  brought  the  progress  of 
the  country  to  a  standstill.  For  nearly  1,000 
years  Ethiopia  was  isolated  by  the  surrounding 
I  barriers  of  Islam.  About  1492  Pedro  do  Covil- 
'  ham,  who  had  been  sent  to  the  East  by  King 
i  JoLu  II.  of  Portugal  in  search  of  the  land  of 


46 


ABYSSINIA 


Prester  John,  arrived  at  the  court  of  Alexan 
der,  who  then  occupied  the  throne  under  the 
title  of  negus  (king).  On  the  death  of  Alexan 
der,  his  successor,  Negus  David,  was  so  young 
that  his  grandmother  Helena  acted  for  a  while 
as  regent,  and  through  a  mission  to  Portugal 
she  secured  the  visit  of  an  embassy  from  Lisbon 
to  Abyssinia  about  1520,  an  event  which  led  to 
the  subsequent  active  interference  of  the  Portu 
guese  in  the  affairs  of  the  country.  Estevan 
da  Gama,  the  Portuguese  viceroy  in  India  and 
a  grandson  of  the  celebrated  navigator,  was  or 
dered  to  aid  the  Abyssinians  with  a  small  armed 
force  in  their  war  against  the  Mohammedans 
of  Adal,  which  had  broken  out  about  1528,  and 
had  already  lasted  12  years.  Accordingly,  in 
1541,  the  first  European  military  expedition  into 
Abyssinia,  numbering  only  450  soldiers,  with 
six  cannon,  landed  at  Massowa  under  the  com 
mand  of  Cristoforo  da  Gama,  the  viceroy's  broth 
er.  He  defeated  the  Turkish  forces  under  Mo-, 
hammed  Gran  in  many  engagements,  but  finally 


Abyssinian  Warriors. 


his  army  was  routed  and  he  was  killed  in  an 
important  battle  fought  in  1542,  probably  near 
the  Senafe  pass.  At  this  period  began  the 
barbarian  incursions  of  the  Galla  tribes  from 
the  south,  which  occasioned  a  long  series  of 
wars  between  the  Abyssinians  and  the  more 
savage  but  fairer  invaders,  who  finally  suc 
ceeded  in  establishing  themselves  on  a  strip 
of  territory,  which  they  still  occupy,  separat 
ing  Shoa  from  the  rest  of  the  country.  The 
Jesuits  never  wielded  a  paramount  influence 
in  the  state  except  in  the  early  part  of  the 
17th  century.  The  authority  of  the  negus  ap 
pears  to  have  been  maintained  unimpaired 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
The  Gallas  had  by  this  time  become  of  im 
portance  as  prospective  allies  in  intestinal 
quarrels;  and  to  propitiate  them,  Yasous  II. 
married  a  Galla  woman.  This  act  so  incensed 
the  native  Christians  that  they  practically 
withdrew  their  allegiance  from  the  negus,  who 


lived  but  a  few  years  after  his  marriage,  and. 
gave  it  to  Kas  Michael  Suhul,  the  hereditary 
chief  of  Salowa  in  Tigre,  who  then  became  in 
fact  the  ruler  of  the  country  and  governed  it 
as  long  as  he  lived,  although  a  nominal  negus 
was  placed  upon  the  throne  after  the  death  of 
Yasous.  It  was  during  the  administration  of 
Has  Michael  that  the  English  traveller  Bruce 
visited  Gondar,  in  17TO.  The  authority  of  the 
negus  had  already  become  a  nullity,  the  ras, 
who  was  ostensibly  his  minister,  being  in  real 
ity  the  ruler  of  the  state.  Soon  the  indepen 
dent  chiefs  of  the  other  provinces  refused  to 
acknowledge  his  sway.  Shoa,  Tigre,  and  God- 
jam,  the  S.  W.  province  of  Amhara,  were  vir 
tually  separate  sovereignties  for  many  years. 
A  line  of  chiefs  descended  from  a  female  rep 
resentative  of  the  ancient  royal  house  ruled 
over  Shoa;  while  Tigre  was  governed  from 
1790  to  1816  by  Ras  Walda  Selassye,  who  was 
visited  at  Antalo,  his  capital,  in  1804,  by  Mr. 
Salt,  the  first  Englishman  to  enter  Abyssinia  in 
an  official  character.  Ras  Ali  of  Amhara  was 
I  the  de  facto  governor  of  central  Abyssinia  from 
j  1831  to  1855,  although  two  princes,  to  whom 
I  he  was  minister,  nominally  ruled  the  country 
j  during  this  period.  Between  these  dates  the 
I  visits  of  numerous  explorers  made  extensive 
I  additions  to  European  knowledge  of  Abys- 
1  sinia.  In  1848  Mr.  Walter  Plowden,  who 
j  had  previously  visited  the  court  of  Ras  Ali  at 
Debra  Tabor  in  Tigre,  was  appointed  British 
consul  to  Abyssinia.  Li]  Kasa,  subsequently 
so  famous  as  King  Theodore,  now  appeared 
as  an  important  character  in  Abyssinian  poli 
tics.  Born  in  1818,  he  had  been  educated  in  a 
convent,  as  a  scribe,  whence  a  chance  foray 
turned  his  thoughts  to  military  affairs,  and  he 
became  the  leader  of  a  predatory  band  of  dis 
contented  soldiery,  which  grew  to  such  dimen 
sions  as  soon  to  be  a  power  in  the  state.  He 
then  attacked  the  army  of  the  mother  of  Ras 
Ali,  who  governed  the  district  of  Dembea  for 
her  son,  and  being  successful  was  himself  ap 
pointed  to  rule  over  it  by  the  ras,  who  also 
bestowed  upon  the  young  chieftain  the  hand 
of  his  daughter  in  marriage.  But  this  friend 
ship  was  short-lived.  Kasa  recommenced  war 
against  his  father-in-law,  drove  him  from  his 
dominions,  subjugated  the  chief  of  Godjam  and 
Dadjatch  Ubye  of  Tigre,  and  in  1855  found 
himself  master  of  Abyssinia.  He  now  caused 
the  abuna  to  crown  him  king  of  the  kings  of 
Ethiopia  under  the  name  of  Theodore.  Plow- 
den  entered  into  official  relations  with  the 
new  government,  and  both  he  and  his  friend 
Bell,  an  Englishman  in  the  emperor's  service, 
resided  in  the  country  till  1860,  when  they 
were  killed  by  insurgents.  Up  to  this  time 
Theodore  had  reigned  tolerantly  and  with  dis 
cretion;  but  the  death  of  Bell  and  Plowden, 
to  whom  he  was  devotedly  attached,  together 
with  the  loss  of  his  first  wife,  the  daughter  of 
-Ras  Ali,  whose  influence  over  him  had  always 
been  excellent,  wrought  a  great  change  in  his 
character.  His  new  wife,  the  daughter  of  a  hos- 


ABYSSINIA 


tile  chief,  in  reality  hated  him,  and  henceforth 
he  became  morose,  bloodthirsty,  and  tyrannical. 
Capt.  Cameron,  Plowden's  successor  in  the  con 
sulate,  arrived  at  Massowa  in  1862  with  pres 
ents  from  the  queen  for  Theodore,  which  he  de 
livered  in  October  of  that  year.  Theodore  re 
sponded  in  a  letter  to  the  queen,  proposing  to 
send  an  embassy  to  England,  which  he  trans 
mitted  through  Capt.  Cameron.  To  this  the 
foreign  office  paid  no  attention,  and  the  arrival 
of  a  messenger  from  England  in  1864,  with  de 
spatches  for  the  consul  but  no  answer  to  his 
letter,  greatly  incensed  the  king,  who  was  al 
ready  indignant  at  the  refusal  of  the  French 
government  to  recognize  one  M.  Bardel,  whom 
he  had  sent  to  Paris  with  a  similar  message 
to  the  emperor.  In  November,  1863,  the  Ger 
man  Scripture  readers  residing  near  the  court 
and  the  missionaries  in  Dembea  were  thrown 


into  prison,  heavily  ironed;  and  on  Jan.  4, 
1864,  Capt.  Cameron  and  his  suite  were  seized 
and  placed  in  close  confinement  at  Gondar, 
whence,  after  having  been  subjected  to  brutal 
tortures,  all  the  captives  were  removed  to 
Magdala.  News  of  their  imprisonment  reached 
England  in  the  spring,  and  a  communication  in 
response  to  his  letter  was  at  once  despatched 
to  Theodore  in  charge  of  Mr.  Hormuzd  Ras- 
sam,  a  Mesopotamian  holding  the  office  of  as 
sistant  to  the  British  political  resident  at  Aden. 
He  landed  at  Massowa  on  July  23,  1864,  but 
owing  to  various  obstacles  did  not  succeed  in  de 
livering  the  letter  to  the  king  till  Jan.  25,  1866. 
It  induced  Theodore  to  set  the  prisoners  at 
liberty  and  to  promise  that  they  should  meet 
Mr.  Rassarn  near  the  N.  "W.  extremity  of  Lake 
Tzana  and  travel  with  him  to  the  coast.  He 
was  anxious,  however,  that  Mr.  Rassam  should 


The  Burning  of  Magdala  during  the  Attack  by  the  British. 


write  to  England  for  workmen  and  await  their  : 
arrival  in  Abyssinia ;  and  this  desire  not  being 
acceded  to,  he  remanded  the  captives  to  pris-  j 
on,  accompanied  by  Mr.  Rassam  and  his  com-  < 
rades,  who  were  violently  taken  into  custody  at 
an  audience  held  in  the  king's  tent  just  prior  to  • 
their  intended  departure.  Theodore  then  dictat-  j 
ed  a  letter  to  Lord  Clarendon  asking  for  military  | 
stores,  workmen,  and  an  instructor  in  artillery,  I 
and  sent  it  to  London  by  Mr.  Flad,  who  reached  ; 
that  city  on  July  10,  1866.  The  other  Euro-  ; 
peans  remained  captives  in  Abyssinia.  As  a  ' 
communication  from  the  queen,  forwarded  by  ; 
Mr.  Flad,  and  demanding  the  release  of  the  ! 
prisoners,  met  with  no  response,  the  British  : 
government  determined  to  attempt  their  rescue  ! 
by  force.  A  military  expedition  was  organized  : 
at  Bombay,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Robert  j 
Napier,  consisting  of  4,000  British  and  8,000  ! 


sepoy  troops.  Annesley  bay  having  been  cho 
sen  as  a  landing  place,  the  army  was  debarked 
there,  and  in  January,  1868,  commenced  the 
march  to  the  interior  through  the  Senate  pass, 
and  proceeded  southward  toward  Magdala, 
about  400  m.  from  the  coast,  whither  Theo 
dore  had  retreated,  and  where  the  European 
prisoners  were  confined.  On  April  9  the 
English  force  arrived  in  front  of  the  fortress, 
and  on  the  following  day  were  attacked  by 
the  Abyssinians,  whom  they  repulsed  with 
a  loss  of  700  killed  and  1,200  wounded,  hav 
ing  themselves  but  20  wounded.  This  en 
gagement  is  known  as  the  action  at  Arogi, 
and  its  result  so  discouraged  the  king  that  he 
immediately  released  all  the  captives.  Mag 
dala  was  stormed  on  April  13,  and  captured 
with  a  loss  of  15  British  wounded.  As  soon 
as  the  outer  gate  fell,  Theodore,  determined 


ABYSSINIAN   CHURCH 


not  to  be  taken  prisoner,  placed  the  muzzle 
of  his  pistol  in  his  mouth,  fired,  and  fell  in 
stantly  dead.  The  complete  success  of  the  un 
dertaking  led  the  government  to  raise  Gen. 
Napier  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord 
Napier  of  Magdala.  The  departure  of  the  ex 
pedition  left  the  country  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 
At  the  latest  accounts  a  chief  of  Tigre  named 
Kasa  had  succeeded  in  establishing  his  suprem 
acy  over  a  considerable  region.  He  is  said  to 
be  a  weak  man. — A  tolerably  complete  bibli 
ography  of  works  relating  to  Abyssinia  is  given 
in  Hotten's  "Abyssinia  and  its  People"  (Lon 
don,  1808).  The  more  accessible  English  books 
on  the  subject  comprise  "Bruce's  Travels,"  of 
which  many  editions  have  been  published  since 
the  first  in  1790 ;  "The  Highlands  of  Ethiopia," 
by  Major  W.  C.  Harris  (London,  1844);  "Life 
in  Abyssinia,"  by  Mansfield  Parkyns  (London, 
1853);  Hozier's  "British  Expedition  to  Abys 
sinia"  andMarkham's  "Abyssinian  Expedition" 
(London,  1869)  ;  and  W.  T.  Blanford's  "  Geolo 
gy  and  Zoology  of  Abyssinia  "  (London,  1870). 
ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH.  According  to  the 
Chronicles  of  Axum,  a  work  probably  written 
by  a  Christian  Abyssinian  in  the  4th  century, 
the  first  apostle  of  Christianity  in  Abyssinia 
was  the  chamberlain  of  the  Queen  Candace 
of  Ethiopia  whose  baptism  is  recorded  in  Acts 
vii.  27.  But  the  actual  origin  of  the  Abys 
sinian  church  dates  from  about  316,  when 
there  landed  on  the  coast  of  Abyssinia  an  ex 
ploring  expedition  sent  out  by  Meropius  of 
Tyre.  Its  members  were  all  murdered  except 
the  two  nephews  of  Meropius,  Frumentius  and 
^Edesius,  who  were  presented  to  the  king  as 
slaves.  After  the  death  of  the  king,  Frumen 
tius  became  the  instructor  of  the  hereditary 
prince  and  actually  regent  of  the  country. 
When  the  prince  became  of  age,  ^desius  re 
turned  to  Tyre ;  but  Frumentius,  who  had 
previously  organized  the  Roman  and  Greek 
merchants  residing  in  Abyssinia  into  a  Chris 
tian  church,  went  to  Alexandria  and  was  con 
secrated  by  Athanasius  bishop  of  Abyssinia. 
As  the  king  himself  with  a  large  portion  of  the 
people  was  baptized,  Axum  soon  became  the 
see  of  a  metropolitan  (abuna),  with  seven  suf 
fragans.  The  emperor  Constantino  vainly  en 
deavored  to  prevail  upon  Frumentius  and  the 
Abyssinian  prince  to  adopt  Arianism.  When 
in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  the  Monophysites 
obtained  control  of  the  patriarchal  see  of  Alex 
andria,  the  whole  Abyssinian  church  joined 
this  sect.  In  the  6th  century  the  Mono- 
physite  priest  Julianus  spread  Christianity  in 
Nubia,  which  for  several  centuries  was  a 
wholly  Christian  country,  until  in  the  16th 
century  Mohammedanism  became  predomi 
nant.  Others  of  the  sect  gradually  Chris 
tianized  large  tracts  of  the  country.  When 
the  Portuguese  in  the  16th  century  opened  a 
passage  into  the  country,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  Abyssin 
ian  church  with  Rome.  A  Roman  Catholic 
patriarch  of  Ethiopia  was  appointed,  but  his 


efforts  were  unsuccessful.  The  Jesuit  mission 
aries,  who  first  established  themselves  in  the 
country  in  1555,  succeeded  in  1624  in  inducing 
the  heads  of  the  church  to  submit  to  the  pope ; 
but  the  union  lasted  only  a  few  years,  and  the 
subsequent  labors  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  prop 
aganda  in  this  direction  were  equally  fruit 
less.  Since  1841  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
of  the  order  of  Lazarists  have  renewed  the 
effort  to  establish  a  union  between  the  Abys 
sinian  and  the  Roman  churches,  and  in  1859 
King  Uby6  of  Tigre  sent  an  embassy  to  make 
his  submission  to  the  pope ;  but  the  hopes 
raised  by  this  event  were  disappointed,  though 
several  villages  have  been  gained  for  the  Cath 
olic  church,  and  placed  under  a  vicar  apos 
tolic.  In  1830  the  first  Protestant  missiona 
ries,  Gobat  (subsequently  Anglican  bishop  of 
Jerusalem)  and  Kugler,  arrived  in  Abyssinia ; 
they  were  soon  followed  by  others,  among 
whom  Isenberg  and  Krapf  have  become  best 
known.  They  obtained  political  influence, 
and  in  1841  a  pupil  of  the  English  Protestant 
mission  school  in  Cairo,  Andraos,  was  conse 
crated,  under  the  name  of  Abba  Salama,  abu- 
na  of  Abyssinia  by  the  Coptic  patriarch  of 
Alexandria.  Through  him  they  hoped  to  gain 
the  Abyssinian  church  for  an  evangelical  refor 
mation,  and  the  hope  was  strengthened  when 
a  prince  apparently  devoted  to  them  became, 
under  the  name  of  Theodore,  ruler  over  all 
Abyssinia.  But  Theodore,  when  his  power  was 
fully  established,  banished  or  imprisoned  the 
missionaries ;  and  the  abuna,  who  remained 
friendly  to  the  Protestants,  though  he  did  not 
like  to  hear  of  conversions,  died  a  prisoner  in 
1867. — Having  always  been  Monophysitic,  dis 
putes  about  the  nature  of  Christ  have  not  torn 
the  Abyssinian  church  into  factions ;  but  it  is 
agitated  by  discussions  on  what  are  termed  the 
several  nativities  of  Christ,  of  which  the  lead 
ing  party  at  present  reckons  three.  Recently 
controversies  have  arisen  as  to  whether  Christ 
possessed  consciousness  and  a  knowledge  of 
good  and  evil  while  yet  in  the  Avomb  of  the 
Virgin,  and  whether  Christ  is  now  equal  or 
inferior  to  the  Father  in  authority  and  power. 
But  the  most  virulent  dispute  is  whether  the 
Virgin  Mary  is  the  mother  of  God,  or  only  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  and  therefore  whether  she  is 
entitled  to  equal  honors  with  her  Son.  Cir 
cumcision  is  used  in  the  Abyssinian  church  for 
both  sexes,  and  precedes  baptism.  The  Jew 
ish  sabbath  is  still  observed  as  well  as  the  Chris 
tian  Sunday,  and  dancing  still  forms  part  of 
the  ritual,  as  it  did  in  the  Jewish  temple. 
Children  are  baptized  by  immersion  and  adults 
by  copious  affusion.  The  Nicene  creed  is  used, 
the  Apostles'  being  unknown.  Communion  is 
administered  daily  to  the  laity  in  both  kinds. 
Confession  is  rigidly  practised.  Candidates 
for  the  priesthood  must  be  able  to  read,  to 
sing,  and  grow  a  beard,  and  they  pay  two 
pieces  of  rock  salt  as  the  price  of  being 
breathed  upon  by  the  abuna,  and  having  the 
sign  of  the  cross  made  over  them.  The  orders 


ACACIA 


ACADEMY 


in  church  government  are  abuna,  bishops  (Ico- 
mur),  alaka,  who  has  charge  of  the  revenues, 
and  priests  arid  deacons,  who  prepare  the  com 
munion  bread.  The  bishops  now  have  only 
the  duty  of  keeping  the  churches  and  church 
utensils  sacred ;  the  seven  dioceses  into  which 
the  church  was  formerly  divided  have  become 
extinct.  Priests  and  monks  are  very  abun 
dant.  It  requires  20  priests  and  deacons  to 
do  the  full  duties  of  one  church.  The  nu 
merous  monks  are  all  placed  under  the  jurisdic 
tion  of  the  etshege,  the  superior  of  the  convent 
Debra  Libanos  in  Shoa.  He  ranks  next  to  the 
abuna,  and  his  authority  is  greatly  respected 
in  all  matters  of  faith.  He  governs  not  only 
the  numerous  convents  of  his  own  order,  but 
also  those  of  the  second  order  of  the  country, 
that  of  St.  Eustathius.  The  most  celebrated 
convents  are  Debra  Libanos  in  Shoa,  St. 
Stephen  on  Lake  Haik  in  the  Yesbu  country, 
Debra  Damo  and  Axum  Thion  in  Tigre,  and 
Lalibela  in  Lasta.  The  secular  priests  are,  as 
in  the  other  oriental  churches,  allowed  to  be 
once  married,  but  the  monks,  take  the  vow  of 
celibacy.  The  churches  are  small,  and  their 
walls  are  covered  with  hideous  pictures  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  the  saints,  the  angels,  and  the 
devil.  Each  church  has  a  tabot  or  ark  of  the 
covenant,  on  which  its  sanctity  wholly  depends ; 
it  contains  a  parchment  bearing  the  name  of 
the  patron  saint,  and  stands  behind  a  curtain 
in  the  holy  of  holies,  which  only  the  alaka 
and  the  priest  who  consecrates  the  elements 
are  allowed  to  enter.  If  a  man  has  had 
four  wives  and  outlives  them  all,  he  must  go 
into  a  monastery  or  be  excommunicated.  The 
husband  can  break  the  marriage  tie  at  any 
time  by  becoming  a  monk,  and  leave  his  wife 
to  take  care  of  the  children.  The  priests  have 
the  power  of  granting  divorces. — There  is  a 
version  of  the  Bible  in  the  ancient  language  of 
the  empire  of  Axum,  usually  called  the  Ethio- 
pjan,  but  by  the  natives  the  Geez  language. 
It  was  probably  made  from  the  Greek  in  the 
4th  or  5th  century,  and  is  still  the  only  one 
used  in  the  church  services,  though  the  an 
cient  Ethiopian  language  is  no  longer  spoken. 
The  Ethiopian  Bible  contains  all  the  books 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  canon,  with  several 
others,  the  best  known  of  which  is  the  book 
of  Enoch.  The  total  number  of  books  is  81. 
A  translation  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
in  the  living  Amharic  language  was  made  by 
Meeka,  an  Abyssinian,  the  companion  of 
Bruce. — See  Gobat,  "  Three  Years'  Residence 
in  Abyssinia  "  ;  Isenberg's  and  Krapf 's  mission 
ary  journals  in  Abyssinia;  Volz,  Die  Chrut- 
liche  KircJic  Aethiopiem  (in  Studien  und 
Kritilcen,  1809,  giving  a  review  of  all  the 
information  to  be  obtained  from  the  recent 
literature  on  Abyssinia) ;  Stanley,  "The  East 
ern  Church,"  pp.  96-99. 

ACACIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  legu- 
minosce,  widely  diffused  over  the  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  regions  of  the  earth ;  most  abun 
dant  in  Africa  and  Australia.     They  are  trees 
VOL.  i — 4 


j  or  shrubs,  rarely  herbs,  with  small,  usually 
j  inconspicuous  petals  and  sepals,  but  with  many 
j  (10-400)  long  stamens,  which  give  to  the 
:  heads  or  spikes  of  flowers  great  beauty.  The 
pods  are  two-valved,  jointless  and  woody, 
i  containing  seeds  of  which  some  species  are 
!  edible.  The  leaves  are  either  pinnate  in  vari- 
I  ous  degrees,  or  simply  distended  leaf  stalks 
|  (phyllodid).  In  nearly  all  the  species  the 
j  leaves  are  pinnate  at  first,  and  as  the  plant 
i  grows  gradually  give  place  to  the  phyllodia, 
j  often  showing  all  gradations  between  the  two 
forms.  The  stems  and  branches  are  often 
|  armed  with  spines.  The  acacias  are  not  only 
!  most  ornamental  trees,  with  slender  branches, 
!  delicate  foliage,  and  attractive  flowers,  but  the 
I  timber  is  often  of  great  value,  as  that  of  A,  Ara- 
j  lica,  which  is  much  used  in  India  for  wheels ; 
i  and  the  A.  Koa  has  a  line,  hard,  and  varie- 
!  gated  grain.  The  bark  contains  much  tannin. 
j  A.  Verek  yields  gum  Senegal,  and  A.  Nilotica, 
\  and  Seyal  gum  arabic.  Other  valuable  gums 
j  of  a  similar  nature  are  obtained  from  other 
I  species.  The  flowers  of  A.  Farnesiana  yield 
I  by  distillation  a  delicious  perfume,  much  prized 
I  in  the  East.  Many  species  are  easily  culti- 
!  vated  under  glass.  Little  is  known  of  the  uses 
|  of  most  of  the  420  species  that  have  been  de- 
I  scribed. 

ACADEMY    (Gr.     AKadq/isia),    originally    the 
i  name   of    a    public   pleasure    ground    situate 
;  in   the    Ceramicus    (tile   field),    a   suburb    of 
I  Athens,  on  the  Cephissus,  said  to   have  be- 
j  longed  in  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war  to  Acade- 
|  mus,  a  local  hero.     In  the  5th  century  B.  0. 
this  land  belonged  to  Cimon  the  son  of  Miltia- 
des,  who  beautified  the  grounds,  gave  free  ad 
mission   to   the   public,  and  at  his  death  be 
queathed  them  to  his  fellow  citizens.     They 
naturally  became  a  favorite  resort  for  all  the 
loungers  of  the  city,  and  Socrates  was  wont  to 
hold  forth  in  this  delightful  place.    Plato  taught 
his  philosophy  in  its  groves,  and  his  school  was 
hence  named  the  Academic.    As  the  Platonists 
!  were  also  called  academists,   so  wherever  an 
\  acadernist   started    a    school,    he   called   that 
school   an    academy.     The    word   academy  is 
used  in  English  in  two  senses.     In  its  unam 
bitious  acceptation  it  means  a  place  of  higher 
instruction  for  youths,  ranking  with  the  gym 
nasia  of  Germany.     The  name  is  also  given  to 
national  military    and  naval  high    schools   in 
England  and  America.      But  the  word  acad 
emy,  in  its  larger  acceptation,  is  employed  to 
designate  a  society  of  learned  men,  established 
for  the  improvement  of  science,  literature,  or 
!  the  arts.     The  first  association  of  this  sort  re- 
j  corded  in  history  was  called  Musaeon  or  Mu- 
j  seurn,    and   was    founded    in   Alexandria   by 
Ptolemy  Soter,  one  of  the  generals  and  succes 
sors  of  Alexander  the  Great.     This  soldier,  af 
ter  he  had  got  possession  of  Egypt,  restricted 
his  energies  to  maintaining  a  defensive  balance 
of  power  and  to  the  cultivation  of  letters  and 
science.     Gathering   around   him  scholars  of 
various  attainments,  he  sought  to  attach  them. 


50 


ACADEMY 


permanently  to  his  court  by  collecting  books  ' 
and  treasures  of  art.     Rome  had  no  academies.  | 
The  Alexandrian  example,  if  lost  upon  the  Ro-  | 
mans,  was  imitated  by  the  Jews  in  Palestine  and  | 
Babylonia,  and  to  a  degree  also  by  the  Nes-  | 
torian  Christians.     The  Arabian  caliphs  profit-  j 
ed  by  the  lessons  taught  them  by  their  Jewish 
and  Christian  subjects,  and  improved  upon  them 
by  founding  establishments  for  the  preservation 
and  increase  of  learning  from  Cordova  to  Samar-  j 
cand.     Charlemagne,  following  the  suggestion  j 
of  the  learned  Alcuin,  encouraged  men  of  cul-  | 
ture  to  assemble  in  his  palace ;  but  after  his  i 
death  nothing  wTas  heard  of  academies  until  to-  j 
ward  the  end  of  the  13th  and  beginning  of  the  j 
14th  century,  when  institutions  of  the  kind 
were  established   at  Florence,    Palermo,    and 
Toulouse,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
poetry.     It  was  not  till  after  the  downfall  of  , 
the  Byzantine  empire  in  the  15th  century,  and 
the  revival  of  classical  culture  in  western  Eu 
rope,  that  academies  of  a  more  comprehensive 
kind  were  established  in  Italy.     The  Accademia 
Pontaniana,  so  called  after  its  principal  bene 
factor  Pontano,  was   founded    at  Palermo  in 
1433  by  Antonio  Bcccadella.     The  Accademia 
Platonic  a,  founded  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  in 
1474,  lasted  till  1521,  counting  among  its  mem 
bers  Machiavelli  and  other  illustrious  men,  who  j 
devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  Plato  and  | 
of  Dante,  and  to  the  improvement  of  the  Ital-  t 
ian  language  and  letters.     This  institution  be-  | 
came  the  model  of  many  others.     Rome  had  • 
its  Lincei,  Naples  its  Ardenti,   Parma  its  In- 
scnsati,    and    Genoa    its    Addormentati.      In 
other  towns  were  the  academies  of  the  Con 
fused,  of  the   Unstable,    of  the   Drowsy,   the 
Dead,    the    Nocturnal,    the    Thunderers,   the 
Smoky,   and  the  Vagabonds.     Most  of  these  \ 
academies  were  endowed  by  the  state  or  by 
some  wealthy  patron  of  learning.     All  those 
learned  associations  which  are  in  point  of  fact 
academies,  but  which  bear  the  name  of  soci-  I 
eties,  will  be  treated  under  that  title.      We  j 
shall  now  proceed  to  notice  some  of  the  most 
celebrated    academies   of    the   world,    ranged 
according    to    their  nationalities.      I.    Italian 
Academies.      Italy  is  the   mother    country   of 
modern    academies.      Jakeius,    who    in    1725 
published  at  Leipsic  an  account  of  them,  enu 
merates  nearly  600  as  then  existing.     We  have 
already  mentioned  the  first  two ;  they  did  not  \ 
live  long.     The  most  enduring  and  influential  \ 
of  all  was  the  Accademia  della  Crusca  (liter-  I 
ally,  academy  of  bran  or  chaff),  so  called  in  al- 
lusion  to  its  chief  object  of  purifying  and  win 
nowing  the  national  tongue.     It  was  founded 
in  1582  at  Florence  by  the  poet  Grazzini.    The  ! 
dictionary  of  the  Academy  della  Crusca  was  ' 
first  published  in  1612,  and  in  its  augmented 
form   (Florence,    1729-'38)   is  considered   the 
standard  authority  for  the  Italian   language. 
The  Delia    Crusca  is  now  incorporated  with 
two  still  older  societies,,  and  thus  united  they  j 
are  called  the  royal  Florentine  academy.     The  i 
Academia  Secretorum  Nature  was  established  ; 


at  Naples  in  1560  for  the  cultivation  of 
physical  science,  but  was  speedily  abolished. 
This  was  succeeded  by  the  Accademia  de"1  Lin 
ed  (of  the  Lynx-eyed)  at  Rome,  founded  by 
Prince  Federico  Cesi  in  1609,  and  dissolved  af 
ter  his  death  in  1632;  but  the  name  was  re 
vived  in  1847  by  Pius  IX.  in  the  Accademia 
Pontificia  de?  nuovi  Lincei,  a  scientific  associa 
tion  of  resident  and  foreign  members,  which 
publishes  its  transactions.  The  Accademia  del 
Cimento,  or  of  experiment,  was  also  insti 
tuted  for  the  prosecution  of  inquiries  in 
physical  science,  under  the  protection  of  Prince 
Leopold,  brother  of  the  grand  duke  of  Tus 
cany.  A  collection  of  experiments  was  pub 
lished  in  Italian  by  this  academy  in  1667,  of 
which  a  Latin  translation  was  made  with  valu 
able  notes.  The  Accademia  degli  Arcadi,  or 
of  the  Arcadians,  at  Rome,  originated  in  1690 
from  the  social  gatherings  at  the  palace  of 
Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  and  met  in  the 
open  air,  poets  and  poetesses  only  being  ad 
mitted,  and  each  member  assuming  the  name 
of  a  shepherd.  Its  scope  was  afterward  en 
larged,  and  since  1726  it  has  met  in  sum 
mer  in  the  Posco  Parrasio  of  Mount  Jani- 
culurn,  in  winter  in  the  Serbatojo.  It  pub 
lishes  a  monthly  collection  of  pieces,  called  the 
Giornale  Arcadico,  which  frequently  contains 
curious  archaeological  information.  Pope  Leo 
XII.  was  elected  a  member  in  1824,  and  Louis 
Napoleon,  then  president  of  the  French  repub 
lic,  in  1850.  At  Naples  the  Reale  Accademia 
delle  Scicnze  e  Belle  Lettere  was  established  in 
1749,  and  the  Accademia  Ercolanea  in  1755. 
The  purpose  of  the  latter  was  to  explain  the 
remains  which  were  exhumed  at  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii.  Its  first  volume  appeared  in 
1775.  Further  volumes  have  since  been  pub 
lished  under  the  title  of  Antichita  di  Ercolano. 
Another  existing  academy  is  the  Accademia 
Etrusca  at  Cortona,  founded  in  1726.  The 
royal  academy  of  Turin,  in  whose  volumes  of 
transactions  Lagrange  first  made  himself 
known,  is  chiefly  remarkable  on  that  account. 
Padua,  Milan,  Siena,  "Verona,  Genoa,  all  have 
academies  which  publish  transactions  from 
time  to  time.  The  earliest  academies  of  fine 
arts  are  also  Italian.  That  of  San  Luc  a  at 
Rome  was  established  in  1593  by  Federico 
Zucchero,  who  erected  a  building  for  it  at  his 
own  expense.  Academies  of  fine  arts  also  ex 
ist  in  the  principal  cities  of  Italy.  II.  French 
Academies.  The  earliest  and  greatest  of  the 
French  academies,  the  AcademAe  franfaise, 
was  instituted  in  1635  by  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
for  the  improvement  and  regulation  of  the  na 
tional  tongue.  The  number  of  its  members 
was  limited  to  40.  They  met  three  times  a 
week  at  the  Louvre.  The  most  remarkable 
claim  of  this  academy  to  fame  is  the  dictionary 
of  the  French  language  published  in  1694,  after 
50  years  consumed  in  debate  upon  the  words 
to  be  inserted  as  good  French.  Many  addi 
tions  have  been  made  to  this  in  successive  edi 
tions,  the  6th  and  latest  of  which  was  published 


ACADEMY 


in  1835.  Tliis  academy  was  ridiculed  by  the 
French  wits  on  account  of  its  subserviency  to 
the  court  and  its  personal  jealousies  against 
rising  men  of  genius.  Moliere,  for  instance, 
was  passed  over.  Boileau  and  Labruyere  were 
only  elected  on  the  absolute  command  of  Louis 
XIV.  The  witty  Piron  wrote  his  epitaph  thus: 

Ci-frft  Piron,  qui  no  ftit  rien, 
Pas  rncroe  acadcmicieo. 

The  Academic  frangaise  survived  until  it  was 
abolished  by  the  republican  convention  in  1793. 
The  next  of  the  French  academies  in  date  is 
the  Academie  de  peinture  et  de  sculpture, 
which  was  founded  in  1648,  received  letters 
patent  from  Mazarin  in  1055,  and  was  abol 
ished  by  the  convention  in  1793.  The  Aca 
demie  royale  des  inscriptions  et  belles-lettres 
was  instituted  by  Colbert  under  the  patron 
age  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1 663.  At  first  it  was 
called  the  Academie  des  inscriptions  et  me- 
dailles,  consisted  of  four  members  of  the 
Academie  francaise,  and  was  charged  with 
drawing  up  inscriptions  for  the  monuments 
erected  by  Louis  XIV.  and  for  the  medals 
struck  in  his  honor.  It  was  remodelled  and 
enlarged  under  its  present  name  in  1701,  and 
temporarily  suppressed  an  1793.  The  Acade 
mie  royale  des  sciences  was  the  last  in  date. 
It  was  organized  in  1666  and  entirely  remod 
elled  in  1699.  In  1795  all  these  academies 
were  revived  in  a  new  form  by  the  directory, 
under  the  name  of  Institut  national.  Napo 
leon  gave  it  a  new  organization  in  1803,  and 
called  it  the  imperial  institute  of  France.  Louis 
XVIIL,  at  the  restoration,  maintained  the 
name  Institut  de  France,  but  revived  the  old 
title  academy  for  the  component  parts  of  the 
institute.  The  institute  consisted  then  of 
four  academies:  1,  V Academie  franchise;  2, 
r Academie  des  inscriptions  et  belles-lettres; 
3,  V Academie  des  sciences;  4,  r Academie  des 
beaux  arts.  A  fifth  academy,  V Academie  des 
sciences  morales  et  politiques,  founded  in 
1795,  was  suppressed  at  this  time,  but  re 
established  in  1832.  As  these  five  academies 
are  the  most  important  of  the  kind  in  the 
world  at  present,  we  add  a  particular  descrip 
tion  of  their  constitution.  The  institute  num 
bers  233  fall  members,  together  with  7  secre 
taries  ;  each  of  the  members  has  a  yearly  sal 
ary  of  1,500  francs,  and  the  secretaries  have 
6,000  francs  each.  There  arc  also  43  honorary 
academicians,  who  receive  no  pay,  32  associates, 
and  215  correspondents.  The  five  academies 
bear  the  same  relation  to  the  institute  that  col 
leges  do  to  a  university.  The  Academie  fran- 
faise  consists  of  40  members,  elected  after  per 
sonal  application,  and  submission  of  their  nomi 
nation  to  the  head  of  the  state.  It  meets  twice 
a  week,  and  is  the  highest  authority  on  every 
thing  appertaining  to  the  niceties  of  the  French 
language,  to  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  poetry, 
and  the  publication  of  the  French  classics.  It 
distributes  two  annual  prizes  of  10,000  francs 
on  the  foundation  of  Count  de  Monthyon,  one 


to  the  author  of  the  best  work  on  public 
morals,  the  other  to  the  individual  of  the  work 
ing  classes  who  in  the  course  of  the  year  has 
performed  the  most  virtuous  action ;  an  an 
nual  prize  of  2,000  francs  on  the  foundation  of 
Baron  Gobert,  for  the  most  eloquent  work  on 
the  history  of  France ;  and  every  second  year 
a  present  of  1,500  francs  to  a  poor  rising 
genius  who  needs  encouragement.  This  last 
is  a  bequest  of  the  marquis  Maille-Latour  Lan- 
dry.  The  Academie  des  inscriptions  et  belles- 
lettres  consists  of  40  members,  10  honor 
ary  academicians,  and  8  foreign  associates;  it 
has  50  corresponding  members  at  home  and 
abroad.  It  meets  once  a  week.  Its  con 
cern  is  with  general  history,  the  condition 
of  peoples,  laws,  and  manners,  religious 
and  philosophical  systems ;  the  study  of  chro 
nology  and  geography,  medals,  inscriptions, 
and  monuments  of  all  sorts ;  and  comparative 
philology,  and  explanation  of  ancient  docu 
ments.  This  academy  bestows  a  yearly  prize 
of  2,000  francs  for  the  best  memoir  contributed 
to  its  transactions,  and  another  yearly  prize  for 
numismatics.  It  superintends  the  publication 
of  the  following  works  :  Memoir e-s  de  V academic 
des  inscriptions  et  belles-lettres,  the  collection 
of  the  papers  which  have  been  sent  to  it  by 
learned  investigators ;  Collection  de  notices  et 
extraits  des  manuscrits  de  la  bibliothegue  royale 
et  autres  bibliotheques  publiques  ;  Memoir es 
sur  les  antiquites  de  la  France  ;  the  continua 
tion  of  the  Histoire  litter  air  e  de  France  begun 
by  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur;  the  Collection 
des  Jiistoires  de  France ;  the  collection  of  the 
Histoires  des  croisades  orientales,  grecques  et 
If  dines  ;  edition  of  the  Ordonnances  des  rois  de 
France,  also  begun  by  the  Benedictines ;  col 
lection  of  the  charters  and  documents  relating 
to  the  history  of  France,  the  letters  of  the  kings 
of  France,  and  the  catalogue  of  the  charters. 
The  conduct  of  the  Journal  des  savants  devolves 
chiefly  upon  this  academy,  although  every 
member  of  all  the  academies  can  contribute. 
The  Academie  des  sciences  numbers  63  mem 
bers,  8  foreign  associates,  and  100  correspond 
ing  members.  It  bestows  an  annual  prize  of 
3,000  francs  for  productions  on  natural  science; 
three  yearly  prizes  on  Monthyon's  foundation, 
for  statistics,  mechanics,  and  experimental 
physiology;  a  prize  of  10,000  francs,  founded 
by  Lalande,  for  the  most  important  astronom 
ical  discovery  or  observation,  and  another  by 
the  widow  of  the  astronomer  Laplace,  for  the 
best  scholar  of  the  polytechnic  school.  Many 
other  rewards  are  in  its  gift,  for  scientific  and 
industrial  inventions,  discoveries,  and  improve 
ments.  This  academy  publishes  three  series  of 
Memoires,  and,  what  is  peculiar,  holds  its  ses 
sions  in  public,  which  are  much  frequented  by 
the  residents  of  Paris.  The  Academie  des 
beaux  arts  consists  of  40  members,  10  honor 
ary  academicians,  and  10  foreign  associates. 
It  meets  once  a  week.  It  superintends  the 
competitive  examinations  for  the  yearly  prizes^ 
in  reward  of  the  best  achievements  in  paint- 


52 


ACADEMY 


ing,  sculpture,  architecture,  engraving  in  cop 
per,  and  musical  composition.  It  has  its 
memoirs  and  transactions,  and  is  busied  in  the 
discussion  of  the  Dictionnaire  general  dcs 
beaux  arts.  The  Academic  dcs  sciences  morales 
et  politiques  numbers  50  members,  5  foreign 
associates,  and  40  corresponding  members.  Its 
five  sections  are :  philosophy ;  moral  philoso 
phy ;  legislation,  public  law,  and  jurisprudence; 
political  economy  and  statistics;  and  general 
history  and  philosophy.  The  whole  institute 
has  one  regular  session  in  common,  on  the  2d 
of  May  of  each  year.  By  an  imperial  decree  of 
April,  1855,  an  annual  prize  of  10,000  francs  is 
placed  by  the  government  at  the  disposal  of 
the  institute,  for  the  most  useful  invention  of 
the  last  five  years. — Academies  also  exist  in 
many  of  the  provincial  cities  of  France,  as  at 
Soissons  since  1075,  Ximes  (1082),  Angers 
(1G85),  Lyons  (1700),  Bordeaux  (1703),  Caen 
(1705),  Marseilles  (1726),  Rouen  (1736),  Dijon 
(1740),  Montauban  (1744),  Amiens  (1750), 
Toulouse  (the  first  volume  of  whoso  transac 
tions  is  dated  1782),  and  so  on.  There  was  also 
at  Paris  the  Academie  celtique,  founded  in 
1807,  for  the  elucidation  of  the  history,  cus 
toms,  antiquities,  manners,  and  monuments  of 
the  Celts,  particularly  in  France;  also  for  phi 
lological  researches  by  means  of  the  Breton, 
Welsh,  and  Erse  dialects,  and  for  investigation 
into  Druidism.  This  is  now  merged  in  the 
Societe  des  antiquaires  de  France,  and  has 
published  several  volumes  of  interesting  me 
moirs.  The  French  Opera  is  styled  the 
Academie  de  musique.  III.  Spanish  Academics. 
A  society  for  the  cultivation  of  physical  science, 
called  the  Academia  Natures  Curiosorum,  was 
established  at  Madrid  in  1652,  on  the  model 
of  the  Neapolitan  Academia  Secretorum  Natu 
res,  before  described.  Of  those  now  existing, 
three  are  specially  noteworthy,  viz. :  1.  The 
royal  academy  at  Madrid,  founded  in  1714,  on 
the  model  of  the  Delia  Crusca  and  the 
Academie  francaise.  It  published  the  first 
edition  of  its  dictionary  in  l726-'39.  2.  The 
royal  academy  of  Spanish  history.  This  com 
menced  as  a  private  association  at  Madrid,  but 
was  taken  under  royal  protection  in  1738. 
3.  The  academy  of  painting  and  sculpture,  at 
Madrid,  dates  from  1753.  An  academy  of 
sciences  was  founded  in  1847.  IV.  Portn- 
gnesc  Academics.  An  academy  of  Portuguese 
history  was  established  at  Lisbon  in  1720,  by 
King  John  V.  A  still  more  flourishing  though 
more  recent  institution  is  the  academy  of 
science,  agriculture,  arts,  commerce,  and  gen 
eral  economy,  founded  by  Queen  Maria  in 
1779.  It  is  liberally  endowed  by  the  state, 
and  is  divided  into  three  sections :  1,  natural 
science ;  2,  mathematics ;  3,  Portuguese  litera 
ture.  The  geographical  academy  at  Lisbon 
has  published  a  map  of  Portugal  since  the 
beginning  of  this  century.  V.  German  Acad 
emics.  The  royal  academy  of  sciences  and 
belles-lettres  at  Berlin  was  founded  in  1700, 
by  the  elector  Frederick,  partly  on  the  model 


of  the  royal  society  of  England,  but  not  opened 
till  1711.  Leibnitz  was  its  first  president.  In 
1744  Frederick  the  Great  gave  it  a  new  organ 
ization;  the  king  invited  to  Berlin  many  dis 
tinguished  foreigners,  and  placed  Maupertuis 
at  the  head  of  the  institution.  Formerly  the 
transactions  were  published  in  French,  but 
since  the  revolution  they  have  appeared  in 
German.  A  yearly  medal  worth  50  Prussian 
ducats  is  distributed.  The  other  noteworthy 
German  associations  of  the  kind  are  the  acade 
mies  of  Gottingen  (founded  in  1750),  Munich 
(1759),  Leipsic  (1846),  and  Vienna  (1846), 
chiefly  devoted  to  historical  studies  and  gen 
eral  scholarship.  Prague,  Cracow,  and  Pesth 
also  possess  creditable  academies.  VI.  In 
Switzerland,  there  is  an  academy  of  medicine 
at  Geneva,  founded  in  1715.  VII.  In  Belgium, 
the  academy  of  sciences  and  belles-lettres  at 
Brussels  was  founded  by  Maria  Theresa  in  1772, 
suspended  during  the  French  revolution,  re 
vived  in  1816,  and  reorganized  in  1845  as  the 
Academie  royale  des  sciences,  des  lettrcs  et 
des  leaux  arts.  VIII.  Holland.  The  Academia, 
Lugduno-Batava,  at  Leyden,  was  founded 
June  18,  1766,  and  publishes  Annales.  The 
academy  of  Amsterdam,  founded  in  1808,  was 
devoted  to  fine  arts  only,  but  was  converted  in 
1852  into  an  academy  of  sciences,  literature, 
and  fine  arts.  Rotterdam,  Haarlem,  Utrecht, 
and  Middelburg  have  also  learned  associa 
tions.  IX.  Scandinavian  Academics.  The  royal 
academy  of  sciences  at  Stockholm  was  in 
stituted  by  six  men  of  science,  among  whom 
was  Linnreus.  Their  first  meeting  was  on 
June  2,  1739;  in  that  year  the  first  volume  of 
memoirs  appeared.  On  March  31,  1741,  they 
were  incorporated  under  the  name  of  the  royal 
Swedish  academy.  It  is  not  supported  by 
public  patronage  like  the  academies  of  France, 
Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany.  It  has,  however, 
a  large  fund,  the  fruit  of  legacies  by  private 
individuals.  The  transactions  are  written  in 
the  Swedish  language,  but  have  also  been 
translated  into  German.  Annual  premiums 
for  the  encouragement  of  agriculture  and  inland 
trade  are  distributed  by  the  academy.  The 
prize  fund  is  indebted  for  its  existence  to  volun 
tary  contributions.  Stockholm  contains  also  an 
academy  of  belles-lettres,  established  in  1753 ; 
and  the  literary  academy  of  Sweden,  founded 
in  1786,  whose  object  is  the  cultivation  of  the 
national  language.  There  is  an  academy  of 
northern  antiquities  at  Upsal,  whose  researches 
have  done  much  toward  elucidating  the  early 
condition  and  creeds  of  the  Gothic  race.  The 
royal  academy  of  sciences  at  Copenhagen  owes 
its  origin  to  six  individuals.  The  count  of  Hoi- 
stein  was  its  first  president,  and  the  king  of 
Denmark  extended  to  it  his  patronage  in  1743. 
It  has  published  15  volumes  in  the  Danish 
language,  which  have  been  in  part  translated 
into  Latin.  The  academy  of  the  fine  arts  was 
established  in  1733  at  Stockholm,  by  the  exer 
tions  of  Charles  Gustavus,  count  of  Tessin; 
and  that  of  Copenhagen,  founded  in  1738, 


ACADEMY 


53 


was  incorporated  in  1754.  X.  Russian  Acadc-  ! 
rnics.  The  imperial  academy  of  sciences  at  j 
St.  Petersburg  was  projected  by  Peter  the 
Great.  He  took  the  advice  of  Wolf  and  Leib 
nitz.  Learned  foreigners  were  invited  to  be 
come  members.  The  death  of  Peter  left  the 
execution  of  this  project  to  his  successor, 
Catharine  I.  The  academy  held  its  first  ses 
sions  in  December,  1725.  A  large  annual  sum 
was  appropriated  for  the  support  of  the  mem 
bers.  The  most  distinguished  of  the  professors 
were  Bulfinger,  a  German  naturalist,  Nicolas 
and  Daniel  Bernoulli,  Wolf,  and  the  two  De 
Lisles.  "  The  academy  suffered  many  vicissi 
tudes  until  the  accession  of  the  empress  Eliza 
beth  in  1741,  when  new  life  was  infused  into 
it.  The  first  transactions  of  this  academy  were 
published  in  1728,  and  entitled  Commentarii 
Academics  Scientiarum  Imperial-is  Petropoli- 
tance  ad  Annum  1726,  with  a  dedication  to 
Peter  II.  Until  1777  the  papers  were  pub 
lished  in  the  Latin  language  only ;  they  are 
now  written  sometimes  in  French  and  some 
times  in  German.  Several  volumes  are  published 
every  year.  Each  professor  has  a  house  and 
an  annual  stipend  of  from  $1,000  to  $3,000. 
The  celebrated  mathematician  Euler  contrib 
uted  largely  to  the  mathematical  papers  of  this 
body.  In  1783  an  institution  on  the  model  of 
the  Academie  francaise  was  established  at  St. 
Petersburg,  for  the  cultivation  of  the  national 
language,  but  it  was  soon  amalgamated  with 
the  imperial  academy.  The  Academie  imperiale 
des  beaux  arts  of  St.  Petersburg  was  founded 
in  1765  by  Catharine  II.,  who  endowed  it 
richly.  It  now  sends  out  pupils  to  Germany 
and  Italy  for  education  in  the  fine  arts,  and 
supports  them  during  their  studies.  Mr.  Al 
bert  Bierstadt,  chosen  in  1871,  was  the  first 
American  honorary  member  of  this  acad 
emy.  XI.  British  and  Irish  Academies.  In 
Britain  proper,  the  term  society  or  association 
is  the  designation  in  use  for  bodies  of  learned 
men  united  in  pursuit  of  some  common  object. 
They  will  be  found  enumerated  under  the  head 
of  SOCIETIES.  The  word  academy  in  Britain  is 
reserved  for  institutions  devoted  to  the  cultiva 
tion  of  the  fine  arts.  In  Ireland  the  conti 
nental  name  has  been  adopted.  The  royal 
Irish  academy,  founded  in  1782,  at  Dublin,  has 
published  transactions  from  time  to  time  since 
1788.  The  present  royal  academy  of  arts  in 
London  originated  in  a  society  of  painters,  who 
obtained  a  charter  in  1765,  under  the  title  of 
the  "  Incorporated  Society  of  Artists  of  Great 
Britain."  This  society  took  a  new  form  in 
1768,  and  became  the  royal  academy  of  arts.  ! 
It  consists  of  40  artists,  bearing  the  title  of 
royal  academicians,  of  18  associates,  6  associate 
engravers,  and  3  or  4  honorary  members. 
There  is  an  annual  exhibition  of  paintings, 
sculptures,  and  designs,  open  to  all  artists. 
This  exhibition  is  so  well  frequented  that  the 
royal  academy  draws  almost  all  its  funds  from 
the  money  paid  by  the  public  for  tickets  of 
entry.  The  Edinburgh  royal  academy  of  paint 


ing  was  founded  in  1754.  A  similar  institution, 
called  the  royal  Hibernian  academy,  was  estab 
lished  in  Dublin  about  1832.  An  academy  of 
ancient  music  was  established  in  London  so 
early  as  the  year  1710;  but  a  disagreement 
among  its  members  finally  broke  it  up.  Soon 
afterward  the  royal  academy  of  music  was 
formed  for  the  performance  of  operas  com 
posed  by  Handel.  Another  disagreement  broke 
this  up  in  1729.  The  present  royal  academy 
of  music  was  established  in  1822.  It  is  of  great 
utility  as  a  school  of  vocal  and  instrumental 
music.  XII.  Turkish  Empire.  The  academy 
established  in  1851  at  Constantinople  is  still 
feeble.  That  founded  at  Alexandria  in  1859 
has  published  memoirs  and  bulletins  since 
1862.  XIII.  The  principal  Australian  acad 
emy  is  located  at  Victoria.  XIV.  Asia.  There 
are  learned  associations  in  all  the  impor 
tant  British  colonies  of  Asia,  and  an  acad 
emy  at  Batavia  (Java),  devoted  to  sciences. 
XV.  American  Academies.  In  America,  as  in 
Britain,  the  term  academy  is  not  generally 
used  for  learned  societies.  The  American 
academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  at  Boston, 
founded  in  1780,  has  published  several  volumes 
of  transactions.  The  Connecticut  academy  of 
arts  and  sciences  was  founded  in  1799.  The 
academy  of  natural  science,  at  Philadelphia, 
founded  in  1818,  is  a  flourishing  institution, 
and  has  splendid  collections  of  fossils,  stuffed 
animals,  birds,  and  Dr.  Morton's  collection  of 
skulls,  the  finest  on  the  American  continent. 
The  national  academy  of  sciences  was  incor 
porated  by  congress  March  3,  1863.  It  is 
provided  that  "  the  academy  shall  consist  of 
not  more  than  50  ordinary  members,  shall 
have  power  to  make  its  own  organization,  in 
cluding  its  constitution,  by-laws,  and  rules  and 
regulations ;  to  provide  for  the  election  of  for 
eign  and  domestic  members,  the  division  into 
classes,  and  all  other  matters  needful  or  useful 
in  such  institution,  and  to  report  the  same  to 
congress."  Fifty  members  were  named  in  the 
original  act,  a  majority  of  whom  met  for  or 
ganization  in  New  York,  April  22,  1863.  The 
academy  receives  no  support  from  the  govern 
ment,  and,  being  destitute  of  funds  beyond  a 
legacy  left  by  the  late  Alexander  Dallas  Bache, 
is  not  in  condition  to  publish  its  proceedings  ; 
hence  the  public  hear  very  little  of  its  activity. 
The  Pennsylvania  academy  of  fine  arts,  estab 
lished  in  1807,  holds  annual  exhibitions  at  Phil 
adelphia.  The  national  academy  of  design,  at 
New  York,  was  founded  in  1828^  chiefly  by  the 
exertions  of  Mr.  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  its  first  presi 
dent.  It  is  composed  exclusively  of  artists, 
has  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  buildings  in 
the  city,  maintains  a  flourishing  school  of  design, 
and  has  annual  exhibitions.  The  medical  acad 
emy  of  New  York  is  in  a  flourishing  condition; 
its  meetings  are  well  attended,  and  attract 
much  public  interest.  New  York,  following 
the  -Parisian  example,  called  her  principal 
opera  house  the  academy  of  music.  This 
spacious  building,  erected  by  an  incorporated 


ACADIA 


AOAPULCO 


society,  and  capable  of  containing  4,500  persons, 
was  opened  in  the  autumn  of  1854;  it  was 
burned  in  1807,  and  replaced  by  one  of  con 
siderably  smaller  dimensions.  Philadelphia 
followed  with  a  similar  construction  for  similar 
purposes ;  it  was  inaugurated  as  the  American 
academy  of  music  in  the  winter  of  185 6-' 7. 
Other  opera  houses  with  the  same  designation 
have  since  been  erected  in  Brooklyn,  Chicago 
(burned  in  1871),  and  other  cities.  XVI.  At  Rio 
Janeiro  and  in  other  South  American  capitals 
are  also  academies  of  learning  and  of  fine  arts. 
ACADIA,  or  Acadic,  the  name  of  the  peninsula 
now  called  Nova  Scotia,  from  its  first  settle 
ment  by  the  French  in  1604  till  its  final  cession 
to  the  English  in  1718.  In  the  original  com 
mission  of  the  king  of  France,  New  Brunswick 
and  a  part  of  Maine  were  included  in  Cadie, 
but  practically  the  colony  was  restricted  to  the 
peninsula.  The  English  claimed  the  territory 
by  right  of  discovery.  In  1621  it  was  granted 
by  royal  charter  under  the  name  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  its  possession  was  obstinately  dis 
puted.  (See  NOVA  SCOTIA.)  The  quarrels  be 
tween  the  two  nations  were  embittered  by  the 
desire  for  exclusive  possession  of  the  fisheries. 
After  the  final  cession  the  Acadians  generally 
remained  in  Nova  Scotia,  though  they  had  the 
privilege  of  leaving  within  two  years,  and, 
refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  took 
the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  British  king.  They 
were  exempted  from  bearing  arms  against 
their  countrymen,  whence  they  were  known 
in  the  colonies  as  the  neutral  French.  They 
were  allowed  to  enjoy  their  religion,  and  to 
have  magistrates  of  their  own  selection.  The 
French,  having  lost  Acadia,  settled  the  island 
of  Cape  Breton  and  built  Louisburg.  There 
they  carried  on  intrigues  with  the  Indians, 
who  kept  up  an  irregular  warfare  with  the 
English,  the  blame  whereof  was  thrown  upon 
the  neutral  French,  who  in  1755,  a  few  years 
after  the  English  turned  their  attention  to  the 
colonization  of  Nova  Scotia,  suffered  for  the 
offences  of  their  countrymen,  of  which  they 
were  doubtless  innocent,  since  they  were  a 
simple  agricultural  people.  Because  they  still 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  or  to 
bear  arms  against  the  French  or  their  Indian 
allies,  to  whom  they  were  suspected  of  lending 
aid,  and  because  by  their  peculiar  position 
they  embarrassed  the  local  government,  it  was 
determined  at  a  consultation  of  the  governor 
and  his  council  to  remove  this  whole  people, 
18,000  souls,  and  disperse  them  among  the 
other  British  provinces.  For  this  harsh  meas 
ure  itself  there  may  have  been  some  excuse ; 
for  the  manner  in  which  it  was  carried  out 
there  was  none.  The  inhabitants  were  com 
pelled  to  give  up  all  their  property,  their 
nouses  and  crops  were  burned  before  their 
eyes,  and  themselves  shipped  in  such  haste 
that  few  families  or  friends  remained  together. 
In  a  few  towns  the  Acadians  discovered  and 
escaped  the  plot,  but  most  of  them  were  scat 
tered  over  the  continent. 


ACALEPILE  (Gr.  aKatyfa  nettle),  a  class  of 
animals  living  in  sea  water,  some  species  of 
which  possess  the  nettle-like  property  of  irri 
tating  and  inflaming  the  skin.  The  "animals 
are  invertebrate,  gelatinous,  of  circular  form, 

I  often  shaped  like  an  umbrella,  and  all  included 
in  the  division  of  radiata.  (See  JELLY  FISH.) 
ACANTHI'S.  Under  this  name  have  been 
described  by  the  classical  writers  three  differ 
ent  plants:  1.  A  prickly  tree,  with  smooth 
evergreen  leaves  and  saffron -colored  berries, 
believed  to  be  the  common  holly.  2.  A  prick 
ly  Egyptian  tree,  with  a  pod  like  a  bean,  sup 
posed  to  be  the  acacia  Arabica,  or  gum  arabic 
tree.  3.  An  herb  with  broad  prickly  leaves, 
which  dies  in  the  winter,  but  shoots  out  afresh 

!  in  the  spring.     The  idea  of  the  beautiful  Co- 

j  rinthian  capitals  of  the  Greek  columns  is  said 
to  have  been  derived  from  a  basket  filled  with 
the  roots  of  this  plant,  set  down  carelessly  by 
a  girl,  and  covered  with  a  tile ;  when  the 
leaves,  forcing  their  way  through  the  crevices, 

j  and  rising  toward  the  light,  until  met  by  the 
under  side  of  the  cover,  presented  the  effect 
of  the  foliage  and  volutes  simulated  by  the 
Grecian  chisel.  In  modern  botany  acanthus 


Acanthus    mollis. 

is  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  found  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  and  India,  the 
commonest  species  of  which  is  the  acanthus 
mollis,  a  native  of  moist,  shady  places  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  It  has  pretty  foliage  and 
large  white  flowers  tinged  with  pale  yellow. 
This  was  long  supposed  to  be  the  classic  plant 
of  antiquity ;  but  it  has  been  shown  that  it 
does  not  exist  either  in  the  Peloponnesus  or  in 
the  isles  of  Greece,  and  the  honor  of  having 
furnished  the  idea  of  the  Corinthian  capital  is 
now  attributed  to  the  acanthus  spinosus,  which 
has  deeply  cleft  prickly  leaves,  and  flowers 
tinged  with  pink  instead  of  yellow.  In  Eng 
land  they  are  both  half-hardy  perennials,  need 
ing  protection  from  frost,  and  propagated  by 
subdivision  of  the  roots.  In  America  they 
would  probably  endure  the  winter  south  of 
Maryland;  northward  they  would  be  green 
house  plants. — The  word  acanthus  also  signifies 
thorn,  as  in  acanihopterygious,  thorny-finned, 
applied  to  an  order  of  fishes. 

ACAPULCO,  a  seaport  town  of  Mexico,  on  the 
Pacific,  in  the  state  of  Guerrero,  180  m.  S.  by 
W.  of  Mexico;  lat.  16°  50'  N.,  Ion.  99°  48 
W. ;  pop.  about  4,000.  It  has  one  of  the  best 


ACARXAXIA 


ACCELERATION 


55 


harbors  on  the  W.  coast,  and  during  the  Span 
ish  dominion  in  Mexico  was  the  focus  of  the 
trade  from  China  and  the  East  Indies,  and  a 
place  of  considerable  importance.  It  has  since 
relapsed  into  insignificance,  although  previous 
to  the  opening  of  the  Pacific  railroad  the  Cali 
fornia  trade  imbued  it  with  a  transitory  com 
mercial  life,  in  consequence  of  its  having  been 
made  the  coaling  station  for  the  steamers  be 
tween  Panama  and  San  Francisco. 

ACAR\A\IA,  a  province  of  ancient  Greece, 
bounded  X.  by  the  Ambracian  gulf  and  Am- 
philochia,  which  is  by  some  included  in  Acar- 
nania,  E.  by  JStolia,  and  S.  W.  and  W.  by 
the  Ionian  sea.  It  is  mountainous,  with  nu 
merous  lakes  and  tracts  of  pasture,  and  its 
hills  are  still  well  wooded.  Among  its  earliest 
inhabitants  were  Leleges,  Curetes,  and  colo 
nists  from  Argos.  The  Acarnanians  were  more 
akin  in  character  and  manners  to  their  savage 
neighbors  of  Epirus  than  to  the  Greeks  proper. 
Up  to  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  they 
were  a  race  of  shepherds,  continually  fighting, 
but  faithful  and  steadfast.  They  also  figure  as 
pirates.  Though  possessing  several  good  har 
bors,  the  Acarnanians  paid  little  attention  to 
commercial  pursuits. — At  the  present  day  it 
forms  with  ^Etolia  a  nomarchy  or  province  of 
the  kingdom  of  Greece;  area,  3,024  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  121,693.  .The  country  is  thin 
ly  inhabited,  and  little  cultivated,  notwith 
standing  its  fertile  soil  and  treasures  of  sul 
phur  and  coal.  Besides  the  Greek  popula 
tion,  there  are  bands  of  nomadic  Kutzo-  \Val- 
lachs,  here  called  Karagunis  (black  cloaks), 
who  in  the  winter  descend  from  the  north 
ern  mountains  of  Agraphi  and  encamp  with 
their  herds  at  the  edge  of  the  woods.  They 
speak  a  dialect  akin  to  the  Latin.  Different 
from  them  are  the  nomadic  Sarakatzanes, 
who  are  of  Greek  origin.  A  band  of  the 
Karagunis  embraces  from  50  to  100  families, 
constituting  a  stani,  and  is  commanded  by 
the  most  wealthy  member  as  chief  (tcheliiiga), 
who  farms  the  pastures  and  fixes  the  time  of 
departure.  They  are  skilled  in  making  cotton 
goods.  Capital,  Missolonghi. 

ACARUS,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  insects, 
commonly  called  mites.  They  belong  to  the 
spider  family.  They  are  all  extremely  minute, 
and  mostly  microscopic  insects.  Some  are 
parasitic,  as  the  itch  insect,  acarus  scabiei. 
The  different  species  infest  brown  sugars, 
meal,  cheese,  &c.  To  collections  of  insects 
and  stuffed  birds  they  do  much  injury.  Cam 
phor  tends  to  keep  them  off,  and  corrosive 
sublimate  is  a  still  more  effectual  protection. 
(See  EPIZOA,  and  ITCH.) 

ACASTUS,  in  mythology,  son  of  Pelias,  king 
of  lolcus.  lie  took  part  in  the  Calydonian 
hunt  and  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts. 
He  revenged  the  murder  of  his  father,  in 
which  his  sisters  were  the  instruments  of 
Medea,  by  driving  Jason  and  Medea  out  of 
lolcus,  and  instituted  funeral  games  in  honor 
of  Pelias. 


ACCAD,  one  of  the  four  cities  in  the  "  land  of 
Shinar ''  or  Babylonia,  which,  according  to  Geri. 
x.  10,  were  the  beginning  of  Nimrod's  king 
dom.  Among  other  places,  it  has  been  iden 
tified  with  Nisibis.  Rawlinson  sees  in  Accad 
the  name  of  "  the  great  primitive  Hamite 
race  "  in  Babylonia. 

ACCELERATION,  an  increase  in  velocity  of 
a  moving  body,  either  constant  and  uniform 
or  variable.  When  the  velocity  receives  equal 
increments  in  equal  times,  it  is  uniform.  This 
is  the  case  with  bodies  falling  in  a  vacuum,  the 
increase  of  which  is  in  every  second  about 
32i  feet,  but  varies  with  the  latitude  of  the 
place  and  the  height  above  the  ocean,  or  the 
depth  under  the  surface  of  the  earth.  As 
gravitation  is  the  cause  of  this  acceleration, 
scientists  have  accepted  the  letter  g  for  it  as  a 
symbol,  meaning  31  or  32  or  any  other  number 
of  feet,  as  the  case  may  be.  At  the  distance 
of  the  moon  the  acceleration  is  3,600  times 
smaller,  and  g  is  thus  equal  to  about  \  inch ; 
while  at  the  surface  of  the  sun  and  large 
planets  it  is  much  greater  by  reason  of  the 
greater  attraction  of  large  masses.  Acceleration 
is  variable  when  its  velocity  increases  at  one 
instant  in  a  greater  or  lesser  ratio  than  in  an 
other.  This  is  the  case  with  a  body  falling 
from  a  great  height  toward  the  earth  through 
the  air ;  the  resistance  of  the  latter  increasing 
with  the  velocity,  the  ratio  of  increase  must 
diminish  till  the  accelerating  force,  that  is, 
gravitation  (g\  balances  the  resistance  of  the 
air,  wheri  the  body  will  continue  to  fall  with 
uniform  motion,  which  motion  may  then  be 
come  retarded  if  the  body  in  its  downward 
course  enters  strata  of  air  of  greater  density 
and  thus  at  greater  resistance.  The  motions  of 
the  planets,  and  especially  of  the  comets,  in 
their  orbits  around  the  sun,  offer  other  illus 
trations  of  variable  acceleration. — Acceleration 
of  the  Moon.  Halley  noticed  that  the  compar 
ison  of  ancient  eclipses  with  modern  shows 
that  the  moon  moves  faster  now  than  formerly, 
and  the  solution  of  the  problem  as  to  the  cause 
of  this  acceleration  was  first  given  by  Laplace, 
who  showed  that  the  slow  diminution  of  the 
eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  must  produce 
an  acceleration  of  the  moon's  motion  and  a 
decrease  in  the  period  of  its  revolution. 
Adams  has  recently  shown  that  Laplace  over 
estimated  the  effect  of  the  change  of  the 
earth's  orbit  on  the  moon  by  one  half,  and  that 
his  demonstration  therefore  only  accounts  for 
half  of  the  moon's  acceleration.  The  cause  of 
the  other  half  remains  to  be  found  out.  De- 
launy  ascribes  it  to  a  retardation  in  the  earth's 
motion  of  rotation  by  the  influence  of  the  tidal 
wave  raised  by  the  moon,  and  reacting  on  the 
latter.  The  earth's  daily  rotation,  however,  ap 
pears  to  undergo  neither  acceleration  nor  re 
tardation  ;  therefore  others  ascribe  it  to  a 
resisting  medium,  filling  the  interplanetary 
space  and  revolving  round  the  sun  with  the 
planets,  and  which  thus  only  can  affect  their 
moons,  which  at  every  half  revolution  move 


ACCEPTANCE 


in  opposite  direction  to  the  general  motion, 
and  thus  having  their  centrifugal  force  checked 
are  drawn  nearer  to  the  planet,  hy  which  their 
apparent  or  angular  velocity  is  increased. — Ac 
celeration  of  the  Stars.  The  so-called  stellar  ac 
celeration  is  no  acceleration  in  the  true  sense, 
but  means  only  the  amount  that  the  apparent 
daily  revolution  of  the  stars  gains  on  that  of 
the  sun.  It  is  easily  calculated  by  considering 
the  fact  that  the  starry  heavens  make  per  year 
one  revolution  more  than  the  sun ;  therefore 
the  daily  gain  must  be  yfa  part  of  24  hours, 
which  is  very  near  3  minutes  and  56  seconds. 

ACCEPTANCE,  an  agreement  to  pay  a  bill 
when  due  according  to  the  tenor  of  the  obli 
gation  assumed.  A  bill  of  exchange  or  draft 
is  a  written  instrument  by  which  A  requests  B 
to  pay  C  a  sum  of  money  at  a  certain  time,  un 
conditionally.  A  is  the  drawer,  C  the  payee, 
and  B  the  drawee ;  and  if  B  assents  to  the  re 
quest,  or  in  other  words  accepts  the  bill,  he  is 
the  acceptor,  and  his  agreement  is  the  accept 
ance.  The  bill  is  usually  drawn  on  the  drawee 
B  because  he  has  funds  of  A  in  his  hands,  or 
is  indebted  to  hjm  to  the  amount  covered  by 
the  bill.  But  the  bill  does  not  ordinarily  of 
itself  work  an  assignment  of  the  fund  or  the 
debt  so  that  C  can  claim  that  specifically  of  B. 
An  order  drawn  on  B  for  the  payment  to  C  of 
any  particular  fund  amounts  to  an  assignment 
of  that  fund,  and  B  is  .bound  by  mere  notice 
of  the  order  to  make  the  payment,  and  his  ac 
ceptance  or  assent  to  the  arrangement  is  not 
essential.  But  a  bill  of  exchange  is  not  an  as 
signment  of  nor  an  order  on  any  special  fund, 
but  is  intended  to  raise  a  contract  by  the 
drawee  which  he  may  satisfy  out  of  any  money 
which  he  has.  This  contract,  however,  does 
not  arise,  and  the  drawee  owes  no  duty  to  the 
payee  of  the  bill,  until  he  accepts  it.  It  is 
therefore  the  duty  of  the  holder  to  present  the 
bill  for  acceptance.  This  is  fairly  implied  from 
the  form  of  the  instrument ;  and  if  the  acceptor 
is  not  called  upon,  as  the  bill  directs  that  he 
shall  be,  and  then  fails,  the  drawer  will  be  dis 
charged.  In  some  countries,  as  for  example  in 
France,  acceptance  must  be  demanded  within 
limits  defined  by  positive  laws.  But  by  our 
law,  Chough  there  is  no  fixed  time  prescribed 
within  which  the  presentation  for  acceptance 
must  be  made,  it  ought  obviously  to  be  within 
a  reasonable  time,  considering  all  the  circum 
stances.  What  is  or  is  not  such  a  reasonable 
time  is  a  question  of  law,  and  depends,  for  ex 
ample,  upon  the  character  of  the  bill,  whether 
payable  a  certain  time  after  sight,  or  at  a  pre 
cise  date,  or  whether  domestic  or  foreign; 
upon  the  place  where  it  is  drawn  regarded 
in  connection  with  the  place  on  which  it  is 
drawn ;  or  upon  the  legitimate  commercial  ne 
gotiation  or  use  which  may  be  made  of  the 
bill.  If  the  bill  is  payable  at  sight,  or  so  many 
days  or  months  after  sight  or  after  demand, 
the  presentation  is  necessary  in  order  to  fix 
the  time  of  payment,  and  it  ought  to  be  made 
with  diligence ;  though  if  it  is  payable  at  a  | 


!  fixed  period  after  its  date,  or  at  a  day  certain, 
j  the  holder  need  not  offer  it  for  acceptance  until 
its  maturity.  Again,  what  is  reasonable  time 
for  presentation  in  the  case  of  a  bill  drawn  in 
Boston  on  New  York  would  not  be  reasonable 
time  in  case  of  one  drawn  in  New  York  on 
Calcutta.  So  delay  to  present  the  bill  may  be 
excused  when  an  inevitable  accident  prevents 
the  holder  from  doing  it,  such  as  his  illness,  or 
the  outbreak  of  a  war  which  forbids  commer 
cial  intercourse.  The  usual  course  of  negotia 
tion  of  the  bill  may  also  justifiably  delay  its 
presentation  for  acceptance,  so  that  what 
would  be  reasonable  time  in  the  case  of  a  ne 
gotiated  bill  would  be  unreasonable  in  the  case 
of  one  which  had  never  been  yet  transferred. 
The  principle  of  the  rules  respecting  presen 
tation  for  acceptance  being  that  the  drawer 
and  other  parties  may  be  injured  by  delaying 
it,  an  entire,  omission  to  present  the  bill  to  the 
acceptor  may  be  excused  when  it  appears  that 
the  drawer  had  no  funds  in  his  hands  and  had 
no  right  to  Suppose  that  he  had,  or  when  for 
any  other  reason  it  is  certain  that  the  omission 
was  not  prejudicial  to  the  drawer  or  other  par 
ties.  In  certain  cases  no  acceptance  and  there 
fore  no  presentation  is  necessary  to  charge  the 
drawee ;  as  where  a  bill  is  drawn  by  a  person 
upon  himself,  or  by  a  partner  upon  his  firm,  or 
by  one  officer  of  a  corporation  on  another  offi 
cer  of  it  or  on  the  corporation  itself. — When  the 
bill  is  addressed  to  the  drawee  at  a  particular 
place,  the  demand  for  acceptance  should  be 
made  at  that  place ;  and  if  the  drawee,  though 
not  at  the  very  place  named,  is  within  the 
same  town,  and  perhaps  within  the  same  state, 
he  should  be  sought  out.  But  if  he  never 
lived  in  the  place  named,  or  has  removed  to  a 
distant  place,  especially  if  it  is  out  of  the  state, 
or  his  house  is  shut  up  and  no  one  is  there  to 
answer  for  him,  presentation  is  excused  and 
the  bill  may  be  treated  as  dishonored.  When 
the  bill  is  drawn  on  a  firm,  it  is  enough  to  pre 
sent  it  to  one  of  the  partners.  If  the  presen 
tation  is  required  by  the  bill  to  be  made  at  a 
bank,  it  must  be  made  within  the  usual  bank 
hours ;  or  if  at  the  drawee's  place  of  business, 
then  within  the  usual  hours  of  business ;  but 
if  it  is  to  be  made  at  his  home,  it  may  be  made 
within  any  reasonable  hours  of  the  day ;  and 
in  all  cases  the  drawee  is  entitled  to  have  pos 
session  of  the  bill  for  a  day  if  he  require  it,  in 
order  to  decide,  on  examining  his  accounts 
with  the  drawer,  whether  to  accept  or  not. 
—The  acceptance  may  be  absolute  or  qualified 
or  conditional,  though  the  holder  is  not  bound 
to  receive  anything  but  an  absolute  acceptance. 
It  may  be  written,  or,  if  no  statute  interferes, 
it  may  be  oral.  It  may  be  before  the  drawing 
of  the  bill  or  after  it  is  drawn,  or  even  after 
its  maturity;  and  it  may  be  by  the  drawee, 
or  by  some  one  else,  for  honor  of  the  drawer  or 
other  parties  to  the  paper.  But  the  acceptance 
is  usually  absolute,  in  writing,  and  on  the 
bill  itself;  and  any  form  is  sufficient  which  in 
dicates  the  purpose  of  the  drawee  to  honor  the 


ACCEPTANCE 


57 


draft.  The  usual  forms  are,  "Accepted"  or 
"Honored,"  or  the  mere  signature  of  the  ac 
ceptor  written  across  the  face  of  the  bill.  In 
New  York,  by  special  statute,  the  holder  may 
require  that  the  acceptance  be  written  on  the 
bill,  and  a  refusal  to  comply  with  such  request 
may  be  regarded  as  a  refusal  to  accept,  and 
the  bill  may  be  protested  for  non-acceptance. 
By  the  same  statute,  if  the  drawee  receives 
the  bill  and  then  destroys  it,  or  refuses  to  re 
turn  it  within  24  hours,  accepted  or  not  ac 
cepted,  he  is  deemed  to  have  accepted  it. 
This  is  only  a  positive  enactment  of  a  rule,  the 
principle  at  least  of  which  is  pretty  firmly  es 
tablished  in  the  general  commercial  law.  For, 
though  the  detention  of  a  bill  is  not  essentially 
an  acceptance  of  it,  yet  when  it  takes  place 
under  such  circumstances  as  fairly  justify  the 
holder  in  supposing  that  an  acceptance  is  in 
tended,,  or  if  any  other  construction  of  the 
drawee's  act  would  prejudice  the  holder  with 
out  any  fault  on  his  part,  it  is  fair  enough  to 
fix  upon  the  former  the  same  liability  which 
he  would  have  incurred  by  an  actual  accept 
ance. — The  acceptance  may  be  qualified  or  con 
ditional  ;  as  for  a  part  of  the  amount  which  the 
draft  calls  for ;  or  to  pay  at  a  different  time  or 
place,  or  in  a  different  manner  from  that  re 
quired  ;  or  when  the  drawee  is  in  funds,  or 
when  certain  goods  in  h\s  hands  are  sold.  If 
the  holder  accepts  any  of  these  variations  from 
the  tenor  of  the  bill,  he  is  bound  by  them. 
But,  as  already  said,  he  cannot  safely  assent  to 
them  if  they  are  at  all  substantial  variations, 
unless  he  has  the  consent  of  the  other  parties ; 
for  their  liability  is  founded  on  the  very  terms 
of  the  instrument,  and  they  are  not  bound  by 
any  new  conditions  which  the  acceptor  may 
propose,  unless  they  expressly  agree  to  them. 
—The  acceptance  need  not  be  in  writing  unless 
positive  statutes  require  it.  But  for  the  pur 
pose  of  preventing  the  inconveniences  which 
result  from  an  opposite  rule,  there  are  in  many 
of  the  states  positive  statutes  to  that  effect, 
and  the  best  illustration  of  them  is  furnished 
by  the  statute  of  New  York.  It  is  provided 
there  that  no  person  shall  be  charged  as  an  ac 
ceptor  on  a  bill  unless  his  acceptance  is  in  writ 
ing  and  signed  by  himself  or  his  lawful  agent. 
But  it  is  also  provided  for  the  benefit  of  a  draw 
er,  that  this  and  the  other  provisions  of  the  act 
shall  not  impair  any  of  his  rights  against  a 
drawee,  on  the  faith  of  whose  promise  to  accept 
the  bill  the  drawer  drew  and  negotiated  it. 
By  the  same  statute  it  is  declared,  as  indeed 
it  is  well  established  by  the  general  commer 
cial  law,  that  any  unconditional  promise  in 
writing  to  accept  a  bill,  though  made  before  it 
is  drawn,  amounts  to  an  actual  acceptance  of 
the  bill  in  favor  of  any  person  who  took  the 
bill  for  valuable  consideration  on  the  faith  of 
such  promise  in  writing.  Neither  of  these  last 
rules  of  the  statute,  it  will  be  seen,  takes  away 
or  affects  at  all  a  drawer's  undoubted  right  to 
damages  against  a  drawee  for  breach  of  an 
agreement,  made  on  good  consideration  with 


the  drawer,  to  accept  his  bills.  Under  the  last 
cited  provision  of  the  statute  it  has  been  held 
in  New  York  that  an  unqualified  authority  in 
writing  or  by  telegraph  to  draw  on  one  is 
equivalent  to  his  unconditional  promise  to  ac 
cept  the  bill  drawn ;  and  that  a  letter  of  credit 
which  confers  an  absolute  authority  on  the 
holder  to  draw  bills  upon  the  author  of  the 
letter  is  also  an  unconditional  promise  in 
writing  to  accept  the  bills  drawn,  within  the 
same  section  of  the  statute;  and  in  both 
cases  the  liability  is  enforced  in  favor  of  the 
persons  who  took  the  bills  on  the  faith  of  the 
written  authority.  With  the  qualification,  per 
haps  necessary,  that  the  written  promise  to 
accept,  or  authority  to  draw  be  given  within 
a  reasonable  time  before  or  after  the  date  of 
the  bill,  or  contemplate  or  in  some  way  fairly 
include  the  bills  actually  drawn,  the  rule  or 
principle  just  stated  is  the  general  rule  of  the 
law. — If  the  original  drawee  refuses  to  accept 
or  cannot  be  found,  and  the  bill  has  been  duly 
protested,  any  other  person  may  accept  for 
honor,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  said,  supnt,  pro 
test.  It  may  be  for  the  honor  of  the  drawer 
or  an  indorser,  or  for  the  honor  of  the  bill 
generally ;  and  if  it  is  intended  to  be  for  the 
benefit  of  any  one  especially,  the  acceptance 
ought  to  point  him  out.  It  is  a  conditional 
agreement  by  a  volunteer  to  pay  the  bill  at 
maturity  if  the  original  drawee  does  not. 
When  one  has  paid  a  bill  for  the  honor  of  the 
drawer,  for  example,  he  may  recover  against 
him  after  proving  presentation  to  the  original 
drawee,  non-acceptance  or  non-payment  by 
him,  and  notice  to  the  drawer;  in  short,  by 
doing  just  what  the  payee  must  have  done  to 
sustain  an  action.  This  rule  of  the  commercial 
law  is  well  established,  though  it  is  utterly 
anomalous,  and  forms  perhaps  the  only  excep 
tion  to  the  principle  that  no  one  can  make 
another  his  debtor  without  his  consent.  The 
holder  of  a  bill  is  of  course  not  bound  to  re 
ceive  such  an  acceptance ;  but  if  he  does,  he  is 
bound  to  conform  to  the  new  condition  of 
things,  so  that  in  order  to  hold  the  acceptor 
for  honor  he  must  call  on  the  original  drawee 
before  applying  to  him ;  and  if  he  wishes  to 
hold  the  drawee  or  other  party,  to  whose  ben 
efit  the  acceptance  for  honor  accrues  in  case 
of  non-payment  by  the  acceptor  for  honor,  he 
must  not  only  call  on  the  original  drawee,  but 
also  on  the  acceptor  for  honor,  protest  in  both 
cases,  and  notify  the  prior  parties. — Every  ac 
ceptance  admits  the  signature  of  the  drawer; 
so  that  an  acceptor  is  liable  to  an  innocent 
holder  for  value  even  though  the  drawer's  sig 
nature  is  forged.  So  also  the  acceptor  admits 
the  authority  of  one  who  has  drawn  as  the 
agent  of  another. — In  case  of  non-acceptance 
of  a  bill,  the  holder  is  bound  to  give  notice  of 
the  fact  to  the  drawer  or  iridorsers  if  he  wishes 
to  hold  them.  Mere  failure  to  notify  them  will 
not  be  fatal  to  the  holder's  action  against  them, 
if  he  can  show  that  they  have  sustained  no  in 
jury  from  his  omission;  but  the  presumption 


5S 


ACCESSORY 


of  injury  is  in  their  favor,  and  the  burden  of 
proof  is  on  him  to  overset  it.  The  mere  fact 
that  the  drawer  had  no  funds  in  the  hands  of 
the  drawee  is  probably  not  sufficient  excuse 
for  failure  to  give  him  notice  of  the  dishonor 
of  the  paper.  Perhaps  he  ought  to  have  had 
funds  if  the  drawee  had  kept  his  account  prop 
erly,  or  at  all  events  he  may  be  prejudiced  in 
some  way  by  want  of  notice,  and  it  is  not  safe 
to  assume  anything1  against  his  right  to  have 
it,  in  case  of  non-acceptance.  Foreign  bills 
should  be  protested  in  full  form.  It  is  cus 
tomary  to  protest  as  to  inland  bills  also,  but  it 
is  not  necessary,  unless  positive  statutes  re 
quire  it.  Indeed,  where  they  do  not  require 
or  authorize  it,  protest  of  inland  bills  is  an 
empty  form,  of  no  use  whatever. 

ACCESSORY,  properly,  with  reference  to  a 
felony,  one  who  takes  part  in  the  act,  but  not 
such  part  as  to  be  a  principal.  The  law  rec 
ognizes  no  accessory  in  treason,  the  highest  of 
crimes,  nor  in  misdemeanors,  the  lowest  class 
of  offences;  in  the  former  case,  because  the 
crime  is  so  great  that  it  will  hold  all  partici 
pants  equally  guilty ;  and  in  the  latter  case, 
because  the  crime  is  comparatively  so  small 
that  it  will  not  trouble  itself  to  distinguish  be 
tween  the  degrees  of  guilt.  In  offences  of 
these  degrees  all  are  principals.  Accessories 
are  familiarly  designated  as  those  before  the 
fact  and  those  after  the  fact.  An  accessory 
before  the  fact  is  one  who  participates  in  the 
very  criminal  act  of  the  principal;  but  an  ac 
cessory  after  the  fact  is  guilty  of  a  crime  of 
his  own,  which  is  independent  of  that  of  the 
principal,  and  in  which  the  latter  properly  has 
no  share.  To  call  him  an  accessory,  therefore, 
is  not  quite  accurate ;  at  least  the  word  has 
not  the  same  propriety  of  meaning  that  it  has 
when  applied  to  the  accessory  before  the  fact. 
But  the  description  is  fixed  in  the  law  and 
cannot  be  disturbed. — When  a  crime  is  com 
mitted,  he  who  actually  does  the  specified  act 
is  the  principal,  and,  as  it  is  said  sometimes, 
lie  is  the  principal  in  the  first  degree  ;  and  he 
who  is  present,  and  aids  and  abets  the  princi 
pal  in  doing  the  act,  is  called  the  principal  in 
the  second  degree.  But  he  who,  though  not 
present  at  the  commission  of  the  act  of  the 
principal,  yet  commands,  counsels,  or  pro 
cures  it  to  be  done  by  him,  is  an  accessory 
before  the  fact.  Here  absence  is  essential; 
for  the  same  act  of  instigation  and  procure 
ment,  if  done  in  the  presence  of  the  actual 
offender,  and  at  his  perpetration  of  the  of 
fence,  would  make  the  participant  a  principal. 
Thus  in  the  case  of  a  murder,  those  who  are 
present,  and  intelligently  aid  and  abet  the 
killing,  are  all  principals.  But  if  two  men 
meet  in  the  presence  of  others  and  fall  to 
blows,  and  either  have  a  deliberate,  malicious 
intent  to  kill  the  other,  but  the  by-standers, 
being  ignorant  of  this,  aid  and  abet  the  fight 
ing  merely,  they  are  not  guilty  of  murder  if 
one  be  killed.  But  again,  as  to  presence,  there 
may  be  a  constructive  presence  as  well  as  an 


actual  presence ;  so  that  mere  physical  ab- 
!  sence  from  the  scene  of  the  offence  will  riot  ne- 
:  cessarily  save  the  participant  from  the  guilt  of 
I  a  principal  and  make  him  a  mere  accessory. 
|  Thus  he  is  a  principal  who  conspires  with" a 
murderer  for  the  doing  of  the  act,  but  stands 
i  at  a  distance  and  is  absent  from  it  in  order  to 
I  watch  against  surprise  or  discovery,  or  to  pre 
vent  the  escape  of  the  victim.  But  if  A  sim 
ply  command  B  to  beat  C,  and  he  does  beat 
l  him  so  that  he  dies,  B  is  the  principal  in  the 
'murder  and  A  is  the  accessory  before  the  fact. 
If  A,  however,  command  B  to  commit  a  cer 
tain  crime,  and  B,  of  his  own  will  and  design, 
commit  a  different  one,  A  is  riot  an  accessory 
to  the  offence  committed,  because  he  is  not 
guilty  of  setting  in  motion  the  criminal  intent 
which  executed  the  act.  But  it  will  be  other 
wise  if  B,  in  attempting  to  execute  A's  design, 
execute  it  on  the  wrong  person ;  for  in  that 
case  A  is  guilty  of  setting  in  motion  the  very 
criminal  intent  which  resulted  in  the  crime 
actually  committed. — In  an  old  phrase  of  the 
law  the  accessory  is  said  to  attend  and  follow 
the  principal,  as  the  shadow  does  the  sub 
stance;  and  at  common  law,  and  where  no 
statutes  have  intervened  to  change  the  rules 
on  this  subject,  the  accessory  cannot  be  guilty 
of  any  other,  and  at  all  events  of  no  higher  of 
fence  than  his  principal ;  nor  is  he  guilty  at 
all  if  his  principal  is  not  guilty ;  if  the  prin 
cipal  is  acquitted,  so  is  the  accessory ;  he  can 
not  be  convicted,  except  jointly  with  the  prin 
cipal,  or  after  his  conviction;  and  formerly, 
and  until  a  remedial  statute  to  the  contrary,  if 
after  conviction  of  the  principal  sentence  upon 
him  was  stayed  for  any  reason,  the  accessory 
could  not  be  held.  But  recent  statutes  in 
England  and  in  almost  all  of  the  United  States 
have  very  materially  changed  the  law  in  these 
respects.  For  example,  the  statutes  of  Massa 
chusetts  and  New  York  provide  that  any  per 
son  who,  by  counselling,  hiring,  or  otherwise 
procuring  the  commission  of  a  felony,  becomes 
an  accessory  before  the  fact,  shall  be  punished 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  principal  felon. 
In  New  York  it  is  also  provided  that  the 
accessory  before  or  after  the  fact  may  be  in 
dicted,  tried,  convicted,  and  punished,  not 
withstanding  that  the  principal  felon  has  been 
pardoned  or  otherwise  discharged  before  con 
viction  ;  and  in  Massachusetts,  if  for  any  rea 
son  the  principal  is  not  amenable  to  justice. 
In  that  state,  too,  the  aider  and  abettor,  who 
at  common  law  would  have  been  but  a  mere 
accessory,  may  be  indicted  and  convicted  of  a 
substantive  felony,  without  any  regard  to 
the  indictment  or  conviction  of  the  principal. 
There  are  similar  statutory  provisions  in  Penn 
sylvania;  and,  indeed,  proba-bly  all  the  states 
have  statutes  of  the  same  character. — An  ac 
cessory  after  the  fact  is  one  who,  knowing  the 
guilt  of  the  felon,  whether  principal  or  acces 
sory  before  the  fact,  receives  or  assists  him, 
but,  it  should  probably  be  added,  with  intent 
to  hinder  his  trial,  conviction,  or  punishment ; 


ACCLIMATION 


59 


as,  for  example,  by  concealing  him  or  shutting 
out  the  officers  of  the  law,  or  resisting  them, 
or  attempting  to  take  him   or  rescuing  him 
from    their   custody,    or   providing   him    with 
money  or  other  means  of  flight,  or  bribing  a 
jailer  to  permit  his  escape  from  prison.     But 
merely  suffering  the  felon  to  escape,  or  simply 
ministering  to  his  physical  necessities,  will  not 
make    one   an   accessory  after   the   fact.     At 
common  law  the  guilt  of  assisting  the  felon  in 
these  unlawful  ways  was  not  excused  even  to 
those  of  his  own  family,  so  that  a  father  might 
not   thus   protect    his   son,    nor   the    son   ins  • 
father,  nor  a  brother  his  brother,  nor  a  hus 
band  his  wife.     The  single  exception  was  in  ! 
favor   of  the  wife  who  sought  thus  to  save  ; 
her  husband,    and  probably  this  was  on  the 
ground,  in  part  at  least,  that  she  was  supposed  ' 
to  be  under  the  control  of  her  husband,  and 
to  have  no  choice  to  do  otherwise.     But  in  J 
this  respect  the  modern  statutory  law  has  in-  ! 
terposed   benignantly.     In  Massachusetts,  for  j 
example,  it  exempts  those  who  stand  in  the  re-  ] 
lation  of  parent  or  grandparent,  child  or  grand-  ' 
child,  brother  or  sister  to  the  offender;    and 
there  are  similar  statutes  in  other  states. 

ACCLDIATIOA,    or    Acclimatization,    the    pro 
cess  by  which  an  individual  or  a  species,  on  | 
being  removed  to  a  different  climate,  becomes  ; 
modified  in   constitution  and  adapted  to   the 
changed    conditions.     The   two  words,    how-  i 
ever,  are  not  strictly  synonymous.     Acclima-  | 
tion  is  generally  used  in  speaking  of  particular  ! 
individuals,  and  more  especially  of  those  be 
longing  to  the  human  species,   and  refers  to  ; 
the  alterations  which    the  system  undergoes  , 
spontaneously  in  a  foreign  climate,  by  which  ; 
it  at   last   becomes  no  longer  subject  to  the  \ 
maladies  peculiar  to  new-comers.     Acclimati 
zation,  on  the  contrary,  expresses  the  artificial 
care  by  which  man  succeeds  in  naturalizing,  : 
under  his  own  supervision,  a  species  of  animals  ; 
or   vegetables   of  exotic   origin.  —  Acclimation,  i 
Man  inhabits  all  the  zones  and  nearly  every  i 
region  of  the  earth,  and  has  been  enabled  in  i 
repeated   migrations  to  change  the  place  of  | 
his  habitation  and  to  occupy  new  countries,  j 
The  human  species  is  therefore  regarded  as  i 
cosmopolitan ;    and   yet  two  facts  are  impor-  I 
tant  to  notice  in  this  respect :  First,  most  of  the  j 
great  migrations,  historic  or  traditional,  have  j 
been  made  in  the  direction  of  longitude  and  I 
not  in  that  of  latitude ;  the  migrating  tribes  I 
instinctively  or  intentionally   keeping   nearly  ! 
within  the  same  parallels  of  latitude,  and  con-  i 
sequently  not  suffering  very  great  alterations  ! 
of    temperature,    nor    meeting    in   their   new  j 
homes  with  a  flora  and  fauna  very  dissimilar  | 
to  those  of  their  native  country.     Secondly,  at  I 
the  present  day,  although  an'  individual  may 
migrate  either  westward  or  eastward,  as  a  gen 
eral  rule,  without  suffering  from  the  chanee,  a 
removal  into  a  different  latitude  is  almost  al 
ways  accompanied  with  peculiar  dangers  dur-  I 
ing  the  first  few  years  of  his  residence  in  the  | 
new  locality.     The  most  marked  instance  of  ! 


this  kind  is  when  a  person  from  the  temperate 
zone  visits  for  the  first  time  a  tropical  or  sub 
tropical  region.  The  dangers  that  first  beset 
him  are  fevers,  which  are  so  marked  in  type  and 
so  ready  to  attack  newly  arrived  immigrants, 
that  they  are  sometimes  called  the  a  strangers' 
fever. ""  The  yellow  fever  of  the  West  Indies  and 
the  southern  United  States,  and  the  coast  fever 
of  western  Africa,  are  well  known  examples  of 
these  aifections.  They  are  not  absolutely  re 
stricted  to  new-comers,  the  natives  being  also 
subject  to  them ;  but  the  recent  immigrant  is  so 
much  more  likely  to  be  affected,  and  is  attacked 
by  the  disease  in  so  much  larger  proportion,  it 
is  evident  that  his  system  has  in  it  something 
which  offers  a  peculiar  attraction  for  the  fe 
brile  poison,  and  which  does  not  exist,  at  least 
to  the  same  extent,  in  that  of  the  native  or  the 
old  resident.  After  passing  through  a  period  of 
general  ill  health  and  debility,  extending  over 
some  years,  and  perhaps  one  or  more  severe  at 
tacks  of  illness,  the  immigrant  approximates  in 
his  appearance  and  habit  of  body  to  the  older 
denizens  of  the  place,  and  is  no  longer  peculiar 
ly  liable  to  the  disorders  which  affected  him  on 
his  arrival.  He  is  then  said  to  be  acclimated. 
No  doubt,  part  of  the  immunity  enjoyed  by 
old  settlers  in  a  tropical  or  sub-tropical  cli 
mate  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  learned 
prudence  in  regard  to  exposure,  and  have  come 
to  regulate  habitually  their  mode  of  life  to  cor 
respond  with  the  climate  of  the  country.  Re 
cent  immigrants  often  neglect  these  essential 
precautions,  because  they  have  not  found  them 
necessary  in  a  temperate  climate ;  and  it  is  only 
after  repeated  experience  of  their  value  that 
they  come  to  adopt  them  habitually  and  as 
a  constant  protection. — Acclimatization.  Many 
of  the  useful  animals  and  plants  have  been 
successfully  transferred  from  their  original  lo 
cality  and  made  to  thrive  in  new  and  unaccus 
tomed  places.  The  horse,  the  ass,  the  ox,  the 
sheep,  the  goat,  and  the  cat  have  accompanied 
man  nearly  everywhere  within  the  temperate 
and  tropical  regions,  and  the  dog  is  his  com 
panion  even  within  the  arctic  circle.  This 
fact  has  given  rise  to  the  hope  that  acclimati 
zation  might  be  successfully  extended  to  still 
other  species,  and  the  societe  (Facclimata- 
tion  at  Paris  has  been  established  with  a 
view  of  experimental  investigation  in  this  di 
rection.  Their  endeavors  have  in  many  in 
stances  proved  successful,  at  least  in  so  far 
that  tropical  animals  are  found,  when  well 
cared  for,  to  support  the  cold  of  a  European 
winter  without  injury  or  even  inconvenience. 
The  zebra  from  Africa  may  be  seen  quietly 
resting  upon  the  snow,  and  the  tapir  from 
Guiana  swimming  for  his  amusement  in  the 
stream  which  runs  through  his  enclosure, 
when  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  hardly 
above  the  freezing  point.  This,  however,  by 
no  means  indicates  a  completely  successful  ac 
climatization.  It  is  successful  so  far  as  the 
individual  is  concerned;  but  acclimatization 
means  the  survival  and  prosperity  of  the  spe- 


GO 


ACCOLTI 


ACCUSATION 


cies.  In  order  to  secure  this  result,  the  ani 
mals  which  have  been  imported  must  them 
selves  thrive  and  reach  their  usual  term  of 
existence,  and  produce  offspring;  the  parent 
must  willingly  take  the  natural  care  of  her 
young;  the  young  animals  must  themselves 
have  sufficient  vigor  to  arrive  at  maturity  and 
again  reproduce  their  kind.  Either  one  of 
these  conditions  may  fail,  and  in  certain  in 
stances  have  done  so,  notwithstanding  that 
all  the  preceding  ones  had  fully  succeeded. 
Finally,  in  order  that  acclimatization  may  be 
in  any  case  practically  useful,  the  animals  of 
the  naturalized  species  must,  in  addition,  be 
able  in  their  new  habitation  to  bear  the  labors 
or  produce  the  material  for  the  sake  of  which 
man  has  taken  them  under  his  care.  Plants 
may  be  acclimatized  to  a  certain  extent,  and  if 
slowly  accustomed  to  a  change  of  climate,  and 
well  cared  for,  they  will  in  their  offspring 
undergo  changes  which  will  fit  them  for  the 
new  conditions  under  which  they  live.  Ex 
periments  in  this  direction  have  in  some  in 
stances  met  with  unexpected  success  ;  and  on 
the  ground  of  this,  societies  have  been  formed 
in  some  of  the  principal  European  cities  to 
accomplish  the  acclimatization  of  sub-tropical 
and  some  tropical  plants  to  their  latitude,  and 
also  of  those  belonging  to  colder  regions. 

ACCOLTI,  Benedetto,  an  Italian  lawyer,  born 
at  Arezzo  in  1415,  died  in  1466.  He  became 
secretary  of  the  Florentine  republic  in  1459. 
He  is  said  to  have  had  so  fine  a  memory  that, 
having  heard  an  ambassador  of  Hungary  de 
liver  a  Latin  speech  before  the  senate  of  Flor 
ence,  he  repeated  it  afterward,  word  for  word. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  the  first  crusade,  from 
which  Tasso  drew  the  materials  for  his  Geru- 
salemme  liberata. 

ACCOMACK,  an  E.  county  of  Virginia,  border 
ing  on  Maryland,  and  forming  with  Northamp 


ton  county,  from  which  it  was  set  off  in  1672, 
the  peninsula  on  the  E.  side  of  Chesapeake  bay ; 
area,  480  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,409,  of  whom 
7,842  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and 
the  soil  light  and  moderately  fertile.  In  1870 
the  productions  were  530,560  bushels  of  corn, 
336,860  of  oats,  97,730  of  Irish  and  212,507  of 
sweet  potatoes,  7,991  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  40,284 
of  butter.  Capital,  Accomack  Court  House,  or 
Drumrnond  Town. 

ACCORDION,  a  musical  instrument,  invented 
by  Damian  at  Vienna  in  1829,  the  sounds  of 
which  are  produced  by  the  action  of  the  wind 
from  bellows  upon  metallic  reeds.  It  is  played 
altogether  by  the  hands,  in  which  it  is  held. 

ACC11A,  a  country  in  western  Africa,  on 
the  Gold  Coast,  over  which  England  and 
Denmark  exercise  jurisdiction.  The  British 
division  consists  of  Fort  St.  James,  in  lat.  5° 
32'  N.,  Ion.  0°  12'  W.,  and  a  very  small  terri 
tory,  with  a  negro  population  of  about  3,000. 
Crevecoeur,  situated  about  one  mile  E.  of  Fort 
St.  James,  is  an  ancient  Dutch  settlement, 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  English  in  1782, 
partially  rebuilt  in  1839,  an*d  ceded  to  Eng 
land  in  1872.  Accra  is  said  to  be  one  of  the 
most  salubrious  localities  on  the  coast. 

ACCRIKGTON,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  Eng 
land,  19  m.  N.  of  Manchester,  divided  into  Old 
and  New,  the  latter  the  larger  and  of  recent 
growth;  pop.  in  1861,  19,688;  in  1851,  9,747. 
It  is  situated  in  a  deep  valley,  is  the  centre  of 
the  Manchester  cotton-printing  business,  and 
has  besides  several  cotton  factories,  dyeing, 
bleaching,  and  chemical  works,  and  coal  mines. 
The  streets  are  well  paved  and  lighted. 

ACCCBATION,  a  table  posture,  between  sit 
ting  and  lying,  invented  by  the  Greeks  and 
adopted  by  the  Romans  and  Jews.  About 
the  low  dining  table  were  placed  two  or  three 
long  couches,  furnished  with  more  or  less 


Accubation. 


sumptuous  draperies,  on  each  of  which  lay  usu 
ally  three  persons,  on  their  left  side,  resting 
either  their  heads  or  elbows  upon  pillows,  the 
feet  of  the  first  being  behind  the  back  of  the 
seccnd,  and  those  of  the  second  behind  that  of 


the  third.  The  middle  place  was  considered 
the  most  honorable.  Though  this  posture  was 
at  first  considered  immodest  for  Roman  ladies, 
they  soon  indulged  in  it ;  but  it  was  never  per 
mitted  to  children  or  persons  of  mean  condition. 


ACCUM 


ACETIC   ACID 


61 


ACCUM,  Friedrich,  a  German  chemist,  born 
in  Biickeburg,  March  29,  1709,  died  in  Berlin, 
June  28,  1838.  In  1793  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  was  appointed  in  1801  professor  of 
chemistry  and  mineralogy  in  the  Surrey  insti 
tute.  Being  accused  of  purloining  books  and 
engravings  from  the  library  of  the  royal  insti 
tution,  he  returned  to  Germany,  and  in  1822 
was  appointed  professor  in  the  school  of  indus 
try  and  the  academy  of  architecture  in  Berlin. 
He  is  known  in  connection  with  the  introduc 
tion  of  gas  lights  in  London.  He  wrote  "A 
System  of  Chemistry  "  (2  vols.,  London,  1803), 
"A  Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  Lights"  (1815), 
and  "On  the  Adulteration  of  Food." 

ACELDAMA  (Chaldaic,  'hakal  dema,  field  of 
blood),  the  name  given  to  the  potter's  field 
which  was  purchased  with  the  money  for 
which  Judas  betrayed  Christ.  It  was  after 
ward  used  as  a  place  of  burial  for  strangers. 

ACEPHALOCYST  (Gr.  a  privative,  Keya^Ji,  head, 
and ' KvoTtc,  bladder;  literally,  a  cyst  without  a 
head),  a  vesicular  or  hydatid  growth,  some 
times  found  in  the  substance  of  the  liver,  kid 
ney,  or  other  of  the  abdominal  organs,  in  man 
and  some  of  the  lower  animals.  It  is  a  globu 
lar  bag  or  sac,  having  its  walls  composed  of  a 
condensed  albuminous  substance,  of  a  lami 
nated  texture,  and  containing  in  its  cavity  a 
clear,  colorless  fluid,  with  albuminous  or  gelat 
inous  ingredients.  The  main  cyst  produces 
smaller  secondary  cysts  by  a  process  of  bud 
ding  or  outgrowth  from  its  walls,  and  these 
secondary  cysts  are  sometimes  very  numerous. 
They  are  developed  between  the  layers  of  the 
principal  cyst  wall,  and  project  sometimes  in 
ternally  and  sometimes  externally.  Those 
species  in  which  the  young  cysts  project  in 
ternally,  and  are  thrown  off  into  the  central 
cavity,  are  called  endogenous,  and  are  found 
principally  in  the  human  subject;  those  in 
which  they  project  externally  are  called  ex 
ogenous,  and  are  found  in  the  ox  and  other 
ruminating  animals.  Acephalocysts  are  usu 
ally  regarded  as  of  a  parasitic  nature,  and  be 
longing  to  the  class  of  cestoid  worms,  of  which 
the  ordinary  tapeworm  is  the  familiar  repre 
sentative.  The  embryo  of  these  cestoid  worms 
presents  at  one  period  a  globular  body  armed 
with  six  calcareous  hooks,  which  afterward 
becomes  developed  into  a  tapeworm  head, 
enclosed  in  an  inverted  globular  membrane. 
When  one  of  these  partially  developed  tape 
worm  heads  is  found  by  itself,  surrounded  by 
a  cyst  and  imbedded  in  one  of  the  internal 
organs,  it  is  called  a  cysticercus.  When  the 
principal  cyst  enlarges  and  throws  off  a  number 
of  secondary  cysts  containing  tapeworm  heads, 
it  is  called  an  ecliinococcm.  The  acephalocyst 
is  believed  to  be  a  growth  having  the  same  ori 
gin  as  the  above,  but  in  which  for  some  reason 
the  tapeworm  heads  either  have  not  been  de 
veloped  at  all,  or  have  become  disintegrated 
and  disappeared.  Hence  its  name,  indicating 
the  absence  of  the  head,  which,  if  present, 
would  be  decisive  proof  of  its  parasitic  origin. 


ACETATES,  compounds  of  which  acetic  acid 
is  one  of  the  principal  constituents.  They  are 
generally  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  and 
some  of  them  are  deliquescent ;  those  that  aro 
least  soluble  are  acetates  of  mercury,  silver, 
molybdenum,  and  tungsten.  There  are  three 
classes  of  salts,  neutral,  acid,  and  basic,  all  of 
them  destroyed  at  a  red  heat  or  by  sulphuric 
acid,  which  latter  liberates  acetic  acid,  easily 
recognized  by  its  pungent  odor.  Heated  with 
a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  alcohol,  they 
give  rise  to  acetic  ether ;  with  lime  they  fur 
nish  acetone,  which  has  a  peculiar  character 
istic  odor;  and  distilled  with  caustic  potash, 
they  (yield  marsh  gas.  Their  solutions  yield 
a  deep  yellow  color  with  ferric  chloride  (ses- 
quichloride  of  iron),  not  given  by  free  acetic 
acid.  There  are  numerous  acetates,  some 
largely  used  in  medicine  and  others  in  the  arts. 
Among  the  former  may  be  mentioned  the  fol 
lowing:  p.otassic  acetate,  employed  as  a  diu 
retic  ;  ammoniac  acetate,  used  as  a  diaphoretic ; 
plumbic  acetate  (sugar  of  lead),  used  as  an 
astringent.  Of  the  acetates  employed  in  the 
arts  the  most  important  are :  acetates  of 
alumina,  manganese,  iron,  and  zinc,  largely 
used  as  mordants  in  calico  printing;  acetate 
of  copper,  verdigris,  and  a  mixture  of  acetate 
and  arsenite  of  copper  called  Schweinfurt  green, 
employed  in  paints  and  for  wall  paper ;  acetate 
of  lime,  prepared  as  a  crude  material  in  the 
manufacture  of  acetic  acid  from  the  distilla 
tion  of  wood.  Many  modern  chemists  divide 
the  acetates  into  tAvo  classes:  1.  Metallic  ace 
tates,  in  which  the  basic  hydrogen  of  the 
acetic  acid  is  replaced  by  a  metal  or  group ;  2. 
Acetic  ethers  or  organic  acetates,  in  which  the 
hydrogen  is  replaced  by  an  alcoholic  radical. 

ACETIC  ACID  (Lat.  acetum,  vinegar,  of  which 
it  constitutes  about  6  per  cent.)  has  been  known 
in  a  dilute  form  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 
It  can  be  prepared  in  two  conditions:  acetic 
anhydride,  or  anhydrous  acetic  acid,  and  acetic 
acid.  Anhydrous  acetic  acid,  as  obtained  by 
Gerhardt,  is  a  colorless,  very  mobile  liquid,  of 
high  refracting  power,  having  a  very  pungent 
smell  and  emitting  a  vapor  which  is  extremely 
irritating  to  the  eyes.  It  gradually  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  air,  and  becomes  converted 
into  the  common  acid.  Acetic  acid  can  be 
made  in  a  great  number  of  ways :  by  treating 
aldehyde,  alcohol,  and  ethylic  ethers  with  oxi 
dizing  agents ;  by  fusing  sugar,  starch,  oxalic 
acid,  tartaric  acid,  or  citric  acid  with  potash ; 
by  submitting  wood,  sugar,  and  gums  to  dry 
distillation ;  by  distilling  gelatine,  caseine,  or 
fibrine  with  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
manganese  dioxide.  It  has  been  made  syn 
thetically  by  "Wanklyn,  by  passing  a  current 
of  carbonic  acid  into  a  solution  of  sodium 
methyl,  and  appears  to  exist  ready  formed  in 
the  juices  of  certain  plants,  such  as  tbe  sap  of 
the  oak,  and  in  some  animal  fluids.  The  pro- 
duet  of  the  fermentation  of  wine  and  other 
spirituous  liquids  is  vinegar,  formed  essentially 
of  acetic  acid  diluted  with  water.  (See  VINE- 


ACETIC  ACID 


ACILEAN  LEAGUE 


GAR.)  The  acetic  acid  employed  in  commerce 
is  chiefly  derived  from  the  dry  distillation  of 
wood.  The  process,  as  described  by  the  late 
William  Allen  Miller,  is  substantially  as  fol 
lows  :  Harder  kinds  of  wood,  particularly  the 
oak,  beech,  birch,  and  ash,  are  subjected  to 
destructive  distillation  in  iron  retorts  by  means 
of  a  heat  gradually  raised  to  low  redness.  The 
wood  is  usually  placed  in  these  retorts  in  loose 
iron  cases,  by  which  means  the  charge  can  be 
rapidly  introduced  without  loss  while  the  re 
tort  is  still  hot,  and  the  charcoal  can  be  with 
drawn  when  the  distillation  is  complete.  The 
quantity  of  acid  obtained  varies  from  1£  to  3|- 
per  cent,,  and  in  the  crude  state  is  called  pyro- 
ligneons  acid,  in  allusion  to  the  mode  of  its 
formation  (Gr.  irvp,  fire,  and  Lat.  lignum, 
wood).  During  the  operation  a  large  quan 
tity  of  tarry  matter  comes  over,  accompanied 
also  by  volatile  and  inflammable  bodies,  among 
which  wood  spirit,  methyl  acetate,  and  acetone 
predominate.  These  bodies  are  condensed  in 
suitable  receivers,  while,  in  addition  to  car 
bonic  anhydride,  a  considerable  quantity  of 
combustible  gases,  composed  chiefly  of  hydro 
gen  and  carbonic  oxide,  is  directed  into  the 
furnace,  where  they  serve  as  fuel,  and  aid  in 
heating  the  retorts.  In  about  24  hours,  or  as 
soon  as  the  gases  cease  to  escape,  the  loose 
iron  cylinders  containing  the  wood  are  with 
drawn,  and  immediately  closed  with  an  air 
tight  cover,  so  as  to  allow  the  charcoal  to  cool 
excluded  from  the  atmosphere.  The  crude 
acid  liquid  which  has  been  collected  in  the 
condenser  is  decanted  from  the  tar,  and,  when 
submitted  to  distillation,  furnishes  wood  naph 
tha,  which  constitutes  the  more  volatile  por 
tions;  afterward  the  acetic  acid  is  collected. 
The  latter,  h'owever,  is  always  accompanied 
by  tarry  matters.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  these, 
the  liquid  is  neutralized  by  the  addition  of  the 
milk  of  lime  or  of  sodic  carbonate ;  a  quantity 
of  tar  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid  on 
standing ;  this  is  skimmed  off,  and  the  solution 
of  crude  acid  thus  obtained  is  evaporated,  and 
the  dry  residue,  if  the  sodium  salt  be  used, 
cautiously  roasted  at  a  temperature  of  about 
500°  F.  (260°  C.)  to  expel  the  tarry  matters. 
It  is  afterward  redissolved  in  water,  decanted 
from  the  carbonaceous  particles,  which  are 
allowed  to  subside,  then  recrystallized,  and 
submitted  to  distillation  with  sulphuric  or  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  the  sulphuric  being  prefer 
able  when  sodic  acetate  is  employed,  while  hy 
drochloric  acid  answers  best  when  calcic  ace 
tate  is  used. — Properties  of  Acetic  Acid.  Nor 
mal  acetic  acid,  C2  H4  0.2,  is  liquid  at  temper 
atures  above  62-6°  F.  (17°  C.) ;  below  this  point 
it  crystallizes  in  radiating  tufts  of  plates,  and 
is  called  glacial  acetic  acid.  The  concentrated 
acid  has  a  sharp  aromatic  taste  and  a  peculiar 
pungent  odor ;  it  blisters  the  skin  if  applied  to 
it  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time.  It  boils  at 
242°  F.  (117°  C.),_  and  may  he  distilled  un 
changed.  Its  maximum  density  is  1'073,  cor 
responding  to  a  mixture  of  77 '2  per  cent,  acid 


and  22-8  per  cent,  water.  The  vapor  of  acetic 
acid  is  inflammable,  burning  with  a  blue  flame 
and  producing  by  its  combustion  water  and 
carbonic  acid. 

ACETYLENE,  a  transparent  colorless  gas,  of 
a  peculiar  disagreeable  odor,  perceptible  when 
coal  gas  is  imperfectly  burned  in  the  air.  It 
burns  with  a  bright  smoky  flame.  Berthelot 
formed  it  by  transmitting  olefiant  gas  or  marsh 
gas  through  red-hot  tubes.  When  copper  ser 
vice  pipes  are  used  for  distributing  coal  gas,  a 
dark-red  copper  compound  is  sometimes  de 
posited  which  detonates  powerfully  on  the  ap 
plication  of  heat  or  on  receiving  a  sudden  blow. 
Some  serious  cases  of  explosions  in  New  York, 
where  the  pipes  were  undergoing  repairs,  were 
traced  by  Dr.  John  Torrey  to  this  cause.  When 
mixed  with  chlorine,  acetylene  explodes  spon 
taneously  ;  it  has  not  yet  been  liquefied  by  cold 
or  pressure. 

ACH.EAN  LEAGUE.     The  inhabitants  of  Achai a 
were    a   very   inconsiderable   member   of  the 
Hellenic  family  until  about  251  B.  C.     They 
formed   12  separate  self-governing  communi 
ties,    united   together   only    by    the    religious 
bond  of  a  common  temple,  common  festivals, 
j  and  common  ancestry.     In  the  repulse  of  the 
i  Persian  invaders,  in  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
j  and  in  the  resistance  to  Macedonian  conquest, 
i  they  took  little   part ;   and  it   was  not  until 
j  Athens,    Thebes,    and   Laceda3inon  had   been 
I  subdued  or  humbled  by  Macedonian  suprem- 
;  acy,    that  the  insignificant  Achaeans  became 
illustrious.     WTien  the  Macedonian  monarchy 
I  was  reeling  beneath  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls, 
I  four  Achaean  towns  formed  a  league  for  mutual 
I  protection  in   281.      Soon  afterward  ^Egium 
I  ejected   its  garrison,  and  some  others  forced 
I  their  tyrants,  who  governed  in  the  Macedonian 
i  interest,  to  lay  down  their  authority.     In  251 
Aratus,  the  Sicyonian,  brought  round  his  native 
town  to  the  Achaean  league,  and  got  himself 
elected  head  of  the  confederacy.     Corinth  was 
I  freed  from  its  garrison  in  243  by  the  aid  of  the 
i  league,  and  was  admitted  a  member.     Megara, 
Epidaurus,   Troezen,    and  the   Arcadian  cities 
joined    soon   after.      In   208   Philipoemen,    of 
Megalopolis,  succeeded  Aratus  as  general  of  the 
league.     At  this  time,  and  especially  after  the 
total  defeat  of  the   Macedonian  monarch   at 
Cynoscephalae,  it  was  the  only  powerful  state 
left  in  Greece,  and  the  only  possible  bulwark 
against  Eoman  power.     When  Sparta  joined 
I  the  league  in  191  it  included  almost  all  the 
i  cities    of    the    Peloponnesus,    together    with 
i  Athens,  and  several  cities  of  northern  Greece. 
For  50  years  the  Achaean  confederation  main 
tained  the  cause  of  Hellenic  independence,  and 
delayed  the  day  of  submission  to  Rome.     (See 
GEEECE.)     At  last  the  Roman  senate  succeeded 
!  in  getting  grounds  of  quarrel  with  the  league, 
and  sent  Mummius  over  to  complete  the  sub 
jugation  of  Hellas.     This  was  done  in  146  by 
the  defeat  of  Diseus,  the  general  of  the  con 
federates,   before  the   walls  of  Corinth.     All 
Greece  was  then  made  into  a  Roman  province, 


ACILEAXS 


ACIIEEX 


63 


under    the  name    of   Achaia. — The    Achaean 
league  is  the  best  example  of  the  federative 
system  bequeathed  to  the  world  by  the  Greeks. 
Each  state  or  citv,  whether  large  or  small,  had 
but  one  vote,  and  retained  its  power  of  inter 
nal  legislation,   as  well  as  its  separate  coins, 
weights,    and    measures,    though    the   federal  | 
government  had  also  its  coins,  weights,  and  ' 
measures,  which  were  uniform.     The  right  of 
intermarriage  without  loss   of  the    children's  : 
citizenship,  and  the  right  of  holding  property 
and  of  importing  and  exporting  on  favorable 
terms,  existed  between  the  several  cities  of  the 
federation,  until  taken  away  by  the  Romans, 
by  way  of  punishment  for  resistance  to  their  I 
policy.     The  general  assembly  was  held  twice  : 
a    year,    but    extraordinary   assemblies   wrere 
sometimes  called.     At  the  spring  meeting  the 
strategus  or  Commander-in-chief,   the  hippar-  ( 
chus  or  master  of  the  horse,   and  ten  other 
functionaries   called    demiurgi,    were   elected.  \ 
Although  every  citizen  who  could   afford   it- 
might  attend  these  assemblies,  all  the  citizens 
of  any  one  city  could  only  throw  one  vote,  a  i 
fact   which   made   the   larger   cities,   such   as 
Corinth,  discontented.     Such  a  confederation 
in  the  age  of  Philip  would  probably  have  pre-  i 
vented  the  Macedonian  conquest. 

ACH/EAXS,  in  ancient  history,  the  name  of  one 
of  the   main   divisions  of  the   Hellenic   race. 
Originally  they  dwelt  in  Thessaly,  whence  they 
migrated  to  the  Peloponnesus,  of  which  they 
were  the  ruling  nation  in  the  heroic  period.  | 
Their  name  is  therefore  mentioned  in  the  Iliad 
as  a  generic  term  for  the  Greeks.     The  well-  j 
greaved  Achseans,  the  long-haired  Achasans, 
are  terms  employed  to  designate  the   whole 
Hellenic  host  before  Troy.     Their  mythological  \ 
ancestor  was  Achaeus,    son  of   Xuthus,    and  ' 
grandson  of  Ilellen. 

ACH.EMENES.  I.  The  ancestor  and  founder 
of  the  Achaemenidae,  the  noblest  family  of  the 
Pasargadne,  and  from  the  time  of  Cyrus  (third 
in  descent  from  him,  according  to  Herodotus)  ; 
the  royal  family  of  Persia.  In  Latin  poetry, 
Achcemenius  is  often  used  as  a  svnonyme  for 
Persicus,  Persian.  II.  Son  of  Darius  I.,  and 
brother  of  Xerxes,  was  made  by  the  latter 
satrap  of  Egypt  in  484  B.  C.,  and  accompanied  , 
him  in  his  expedition  against  Greece  in  480, 
when  he  commanded  the  Egyptian  fleet.  He 
fell  in  Egypt  in  460,  in  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  quell  the  revolt  of  Inarus,  a  Libyan  chief. 

ACHAIA,  one  of  the  ancient  divisions  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  extending  along  the  coast  of  the 
gulf  of  Corinth;  greatest  length  from  E.  to  W. 
about  65  m.  ;  breadth,  12  to  20  m. .  Patras,  for-  j 
merly  Patrae,  is  the  only  Achaean  town  that  lias  ; 
preserved  any  importance.  The  country  was 
originally  called  JEgialea,  that  is,  the  coastland, 
and  inhabited  by  lonians,  who  were  dispos 
sessed  by  the  Achaeans  on  the  conquest  of  the 
Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorians.  After  the 
Roman  conquest  of  Greece  and  Macedonia,  the 
province  of  Achaia  included  all  Peloponnesus, 
with  X.  Greece  S.  of  Thessaly. — In  the  present 


kingdom  of  Greece  it  forms  a  nomarchy  or 
province  with  Elis;  area,  3,090  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in 
18YO,  140,561.  Capital,  Patras.  (See  AOII.I:- 
AN  LEAGUE,  and  ACII.EAXS.) 

A(IIAIll),  Franz  Karl,  a  Prussian  natural  phi 
losopher  and  chemist,  born  in  Berlin,  April  28, 
1753,  died  April  20,  1821.  He  devoted  himself 
to  the  development  of  the  beet  sugar  manufac 
ture,  repeating  and  improving  upon  the  experi 
ments  of  Marggraf.  The  results  of  his  investi 
gations  were  published  in  1799  and  1800,  but 
found  neither  encouragement  nor  imitation, 
upon  which  account  the  king  of  Prussia  pre 
sented  him  with  a  farm  in  Silesia  where  he 
could  continue  his  studies.  In  connection  with 
Neubeck,  he  spent  six  years  of  laborious  endea 
vor  before  he  discovered  the  true  method  of 
making  the  sugar. 

A€HARD,  Louis  Amedee  Eugene,  a  French 
novelist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  April,  1814. 
The  first  part  of  his  life  was  employed  in  com 
merce  and  provincial  administration,  and  he 
afterward  became  a  journalist  in  Paris.  In 
1846  he  accompanied  the  duke  of  Montpensier 
to  Spain  as  a  reporter.  In  1847  he  published 
Belle-Rose,  a  successful  novel  (5  vols.  8vo.), 
since  which  he  has  produced  many  others, 
besides  a  number  of  plays. 

ACHATES.  I.  The  companion  of  u^Eneas  in 
his  flight  from  Troy,  and  in  his  subsequent 
wanderings,  according  to  the  account  given  by 
Virgil.  He  is  always  termed  fidus  Achates 
(the  faithful  Achates),  whence  the  phrase  has 
passed  into  a  proverb,  applied  to  any  faithful 
confidant  in  a  subordinate  position.  II.  In 
ancient  geography,  a  river  in  the  south  of 
Sicily,  between  Camarina  and  Gela,  now 
called  Dirillo.  According  to  Pliny,  it  was  the 
place  where  the  first  agate  was  found ;  hence 
the  derivation  of  the  word  agate. 

ACHEEN,  an  independent  sovereignty,  com 
prising  the  N.  "W.  portion  of  Sumatra ;  area, 
25,500  sq.  m.  As  early  as  1509  the  Portuguese 
visited  this  country,  and  in  1602  the  English, 
in  order  to  obtain  a  continuous  supply  of  pep 
per,  entered  into  a  commercial  treaty  with  the 
king.  The  East  India  company  in  1659  estab 
lished  a  factory  at  the  capital ;  but  it  was 
eventually  removed  to  Bencoolen,  on  the  S. 
coast  of  Sumatra.  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  in 
1819  secured  to  the  East  India  company  and 
the  British  government,  by  treaty,  the  right 
of  freely  trading  to  all  the  ports  of  Acheen. 
The  government  of  Acheen  is  an  hereditary 
monarchy,  the  power  of  the  king  or  sultan 
being  limited  only  by  the  power  of  his  greater 
vassals.  The  kingdom  is  divided  into  190 
small  districts.  This  part  of  Sumatra  is  com 
paratively  healthy,  but  the  interior  is  almost 
entirely  unknown.  The  people  are  taller, 
stouter,  and  darker  than  the  other  Sumatrans. 
They  are  strict  Mohammedans,  and  write  in 
Malay  characters.  They  manufacture  a  few 
silk  goods,  and  a  good  deal  of  thick  cotton 
cloth  and  striped  and  checkered  stuffs. — 
Acheen,  the  capital,  stands  about  a  league 


ACHELOUS 


ACHILLES 


from  the  sea,  on  a  river  that  empties  at 
Acheen  head,  the  extreme  N.  W.  point  of  Su 
matra.  The  roadstead  is  good,  being  safely 
sheltered  by  several  small  islands.  A  bar  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  prevents  all  but  vessels 
of  three  or  four  feet  draught  from  entering  it. 
Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  bamboos  and 
rough  timber  raised  on  piles,  to  escape  inunda 
tion.  The  city  contains  many  line  buildings, 
among  which  are  numerous  mosques  and 
other  public  edifices,  and  the  fortified  palace 
of  the  king.  It  had  formerly  about  86,000  in 
habitants,  but  is  now  on  the  decline. 

ACHELOUS  (now  Aspropotamo},  a  river  of 
Greece,  which  rises  in  Mount  Pindus,  flows  S., 
separates  /Etolia  from  Acarnania,  and  falls  into 
the  Ionian  sea,  Homer  calls  it  the  "king  of 
rivers."  It  is  the  largest  stream  in  Greece,  its 
length  being  130  miles. 

ACIIEi\BACEI.  I.  Andreas,  a  German  land 
scape  painter,  born  in  Cassel,  Sept.  29,  1815. 
He  studied  at  Dusseldorf,  under  Schirrner  and 
Schadow,  and  at  the  age  of  18  produced  land 
scapes  of  merit.  He  afterward  travelled  over 
many  parts  of  Europe  in  search  of  subjects, 
and  took  particular  delight  in  reproducing  the 
scenery  of  Norway,  the  Alps,  and  the  Tyrol. 
His  Italian  landscapes  are  also  impressed  with 
a  fine  feeling  for  the  picturesque.  As  a  painter 
of  the  grand  and  savage  aspects  of  nature,  he 
holds  a  high  rank.  His  works  are  widety 
scattered  over  Europe,  and  a  number  are 
owned  in  the  United  States.  II.  Oswald, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  also  a  painter  of  the 
Dusseldorf  school,  born  in  that  city,  Feb.  2, 
1827.  Since  1803  he  has  been  professor  of 
landscape  painting  at  the  Dusseldorf  academy. 
His  best  pictures  are  of  Italian  scenery.  His 
"  Funeral  of  Palestrina  "  was  rewarded  with  a 
medal  at  the  Paris  exposition  of  1861. 

ACHERON,  in  antiquity,  the  name  of  several 
rivers,  all  believed  to  be  connected  with  the 
lower  world.  I.  A  river  in  Epirus,  which 
flowed  through  Acherusia  lake  into  the  Ionian 
sea.  II.  A  river  in  El  is,  an  affluent  of  the 
Alpheus.  III.  A  river  in  Bruttium,  S.  Italy. 
IV.  The  river  of  the  lower  world,  around  which 
the  shades  were  believed  to  hover.  The  name 
was  also  used  for  the  lower  world  in  general. 

ACHERUSIA,  in  antiquity,  the  name  of  several 
lakes  believed  to  be  connected  with  the  lower 
world.  The  principal  ones  were  those  in  Epi 
rus  and  Campania,  the  latter  between  Cumse 
and  Cape  Misenum.  Acherusia  was  also  the 
name  of  a  chasm  in  Bithynia,  into  which  Her 
cules  descended  to  bring  up  Cerberus. 

ACIIERY,  Doin  Jean  Lnc  d',  a  French  savant, 
born  in  1609,  died  April  24,  1685.  He  was  a 
Benedictine  monk,  librarian  of  the  abbey  of 
St.  Germain  des  Pres  at  Paris,  and  devoted  his 
life  chiefly  to  collecting  and  editing  documents 
relating  to  mediaeval  ecclesiastical  history.  His 
principal  work  was  Veterum  aliquot  Scripto- 
rum  qui  in  Gallim  Biltlwthecis  maxime  Bene- 
dictinorum  latuerant  Spicilegium  (13  vols.  4to, 
1655-'77;  afterward  reedited  by  Barre,  3  vols. 


fol.,  1723).  He  also  assisted  in  the  Acta 
Sanctorum  Ordinis  S.  Benedicti  (9  vols.  fol.). 
ACHILLES,  properly  Achilleus,  the  hero  of  the 
Iliad,  was  the  son  of  Peleus,  king  of  the  Myr 
midons  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly,  grandson  of 
^Eacus,  and  thus  third  in  descent  from  Zeus. 
His  mother  was  the  sea  goddess  Thetis, 
daughter  of  Nereus  ;  hence  he  is  often  called 
Pelides,  Pelei'ades,  and  ./Eacides.  The  story  of 
his  early  life  is  told  in  different  ways.  One 
account  is,  that  his  mother,  foreseeing  his  early 
death,  endeavored  to  save  him  by  dipping  him 
in  the  river  Styx,  whose  waters  had  the  prop 
erty  of  rendering  the  human  frame  invulner 
able.  The  heel  by  which  she  held  the  babe 
was  not  wetted,  and  remained  the  sole  vulner 
able  point  of  the  hero.  He  was  educated  by 
Phoenix,  who  taught  him  war  and  eloquence, 
and  by  Chiron  the  centaur,  who  taught  him 
the  healing  art.  To  keep  him  out  of  danger, 
Thetis  disguised  him  as  a  maiden,  and  sent  him 
to  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  king  of  Scyros. 
Here  his  real  character  was  soon  discovered  by 
the  birth  of  a  son  to  him,  named  Neoptolemus 
or  Pyrrhus,  by  Deidamia,  the  daughter  of 
Lycomedes.  The  prophecy  was  that  Troy 
would  never  be  taken  in  the  absence  of 
Achilles,  and  the  crafty  Ulysses  was  sent  to 
discover  him.  Disguised  as  a  peddler,  he  offered 
the  Scyrian  maidens  female  trinkets  and  wea 
pons  of  war  ;  all  of  them  chose  ornaments,  but 
the  disguised  hero  clutched  the  sword  and 
shield.  He  went  to  Troy,  accompanied  by  his 
tutor  Phoenix  and  his  friend  Patroclus,  and  at 
the  head  of  his  Myrmidons,  in  50  ships  of  war. 
Previous  to  his  dispute  with  Agamemnon  he 
ravaged  the  country  round  Troy,  and  took  and 
destroyed  12  towns  on  the  coast  and  11  in  the 
interior.  Brisei's  was  his  favorite  female  slave 
and  concubine,  whom  he  had  captured  at  the 
sack  of  Lyrnessus.  The  commander-in-chief, 
Agamemnon,  claimed  her  as  indemnity  for  his 
slave  Chrysei's.  Achilles  obeys  on  the  entreaty 
of  Minerva,  but  retires  to  his  tent  in  wrath  and 
resentment,  refusing  to  take  further  part  in  the 
campaign.  The  Greeks  suffer  a  myriad  of  woes 
in  his  absence,  but  no  calamity  will  change  his 
decision.  At  last  his  bosom  friend  Patroclus 
gains  his  permission  to  put  on  the  armor  of 
Achilles,  and  show  himself  to  the  Trojans. 
Believing  that  Achilles  has  come,  they  flee  in 
panic.  Patroclus  presses  on,  and  is  slain  by 
Hector.  Then  Achilles,  in  the  desire  to  avenge 
his  friend,  reconciles  himself  with  Agamemnon, 
receives  Brisei's  again,  gets  a  new  suit  of  armor 
from  Vulcan,  including  the  far-famed  shield, 
which  is  brought  to  him  by  his  mother,  and 
rushes  into  the  fight.  He  slaughters  a  great 
number  of  Trojans,  contends  with  the  river  god 
Xanthus,  whose  course  he  has  heaped  with 
corpses  and  defiled  with  blood,  and  drives  all 
the  Trojans  within  the  walls  of  their  city. 
Hector  alone  dares  to  withstand  his  course. 
Achilles  chases  him  three  times  around  the 
walls  of  Troy,  slays  him,  and,  tying  the  body 
to  his  chariot,  drags  it  into  the  camp  of  the 


ACHILLES   TATIUS 


ACHROMATIC  LENS 


C5 


Greeks.  He  institutes  games  in  honor  of  his 
friend,  and  slays  12  captive  Trojan  youths  on 
the  funeral  pyre,  to  satisfy  the  manes  of  Patro- 
clus.  Priam,  led  by  Mercury,  penetrates  to  his 
tent,  and  prevails  upon  him  to  allow  the  body 
of  Hector  to  be  ransomed.  We  hear  no  more 
of  Achilles  in  the  Iliad.  The  accounts  of  his 
death  are  various.  One  represents  him  as 
falling  by  the  arrow  of  Paris,  directed  by 
Apollo  at  the  vulnerable  heel,  when  he  was  in 
the  temple  of  that  god,  about  to  espouse  at  the 
altar  Polyxena,  the  daughter  of  Priam.  His 
remains  were  collected  in  a  golden  urn,  and  a 
cenotaph  was  erected  to  him  on  the  promontory 
of  Sigeum.  This  monument  was  always  an 
object  of  veneration  to  the  Greeks  ;  Alexander 
the  Great  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  it,  and  ran 
naked  three  times  around  it. 

ACIIILLES  TATIUS.  I.  A  Greek  astronomer, 
supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  4th  century 
of  our  era1,  and  to  be  the  author  of  a  treatise  on 
the  sphere,  a  fragment  of  which  is  extant.  II. 
A  native  of  Alexandria,  who  wrote  a  Greek 
romance  entitled  "  The  Story  of  Leucippe  and 
Clitophon,"  which  has  come  down  to  us.  He 
probably  wrote  near  the  close  of  the  5th  cen 
tury.  By  some  biographers  these  two  writers 
are  considered  identical. 

ACHMET.     See  AHMED. 

ACHMIM.     See  EKHMIN. 

ACHROMATIC  LENS  (Gr.  a,  without,  and 
^pwua,  color).  When  light  is  refracted  by  any 
transparent  medium,  dispersion  always  takes 
place ;  that  is,  the  rays  of  different  color  con 
tained  in  white  light  are  not  equally  refracted  or 
deviated  from  their  path.  It  would  seem  that 
the  amount  of  this  dispersion  must  always  be 
proportional  to  the  amount  of  refraction,  but 
experiments  have  shown  that  diverse  refracting 
substances  differ  considerably  in  ttiis  respect. 
Their  dispersing  and  refracting  properties  are 
determined  by  passing  a  ray  of  light  through 
solid  prisms  of  different  material,  or  liquid 
prisms  enclosed  between  glass  plates.-  The 
refracting  power  is  then  measured  by  the 
amount  of  deviation  of  the  ray,  and  the 
dispersive  power  by  the  length  of  the  colored 
spectrum  produced.  So  it  has  been  found  that 
if  the  relative  amounts  of  refraction  of  water, 
crown  glass,  flint  glass,  and  oil  of  cassia  are  ex 
pressed  by  the  numbers  133,  152,  162,  and  159, 
the  amounts  of  dispersion  or  the  lengths  of  their 
spectra  are  in  ratio  of  145,  203,  433,  and  1,080. 
If  the  angle  of  a  prism  is  increased,  the  refract 
ing  and  dispersing  power  both  increase  in  the 
same  ratio ;  and  it  is  evident  that  two  prisms 
of  different  material  may  be  made  at  such  an 
gles  that  they  produce  the  same  length  of  spec 
trum,  or  possess  the  same  dispersion,  but  that 
then  their  refracting  powers  will  not  be  the 
same.  In  figs.  1  and  2  two  such  prisms  are 
represented,  the  first  refracting  more  than  the 
second,  but  giving  equal  lengths  of  spectra.  If 
now  two  such  prisms  are  joined  in  opposite 
directions,  as  represented  in  fig.  3,  they  will 
cause  a  neutralization  of  the  equal  spectra,  but 
VOL.  i. — 5 


not  of  the  unequal  refraction,  and  therefore 
they  will  produce  a  deviation  or  refraction  of 


FIG.  1. 


i: 


Kefraction  and  Dispersion  by  Prisms. 

|  the  rays  without  dispersion  of  the  light  ;  no 
;  colored  spectrum  will  be  produced,  but  only 
j  a  pure  white  spot  will  be  the  result  of  such 
i  a  combination,  which  is  called  an  achromatic 
rism.  This  is  the  principle  on  which  the 
enses  in  all  our  modern  telescopes,  micro- 
!  scopes,  photographic  and  other  optical  appara- 
I  tus  are  constructed.  A  convex  lens  of  crown 
;  glass  brings  the  rays  together  to  a  number  of 
i  differently  colored  foci,  of  which  the  red  rays 
I  will  be  the  furthest  from  the  lens,  fig.  4.  (See 
|  ABERRATION,  CHROMATIC.)  A  concave  lens 
|  will  throw  the  red  rays  nearer  to  the  axis,  fig. 
i  5  ;  but  if  this  concave  lens  is  made  of  flint  glass 
I  (a  material  having  a  slightly  greater  refracting 


CROWN  GLASS 


ACHROMATIC     COMBINATION . 


Refraction  and  Dispersion  by  Lenses. 

j  but  a  much  greater  dispersive  power),  and 
ground  to  such  a  curve  as  completely  to  neu 
tralize  the  dispersion  or  coloring  of  the  first 
lens,  while  it  affects  its  refraction  only  so  far  as 
to  lengthen  its  focal  distance,  the  combina- 


G6 


ACID 


ACLAND 


tion  will  bring  the  rays  to  a  focus  without  sep 
arating  the  luminous  rays  into  their  colored  con 
stituents  ;  see  fig.  6.  Such  a  lens  is  said  to  be 
corrected  for  chromatic  aberration.  Sometimes 
the  concave  correcting  lens  of  flint  glass  does  not 
quite  accomplish  the  purpose,  and  then  the 
combination  is  said  to  be  under-corrected ;  but 
sometimes  the  opposite  is  the  case,  when  the 
combination  is  said  to  be  over-corrected.  In 
this  case  the  chromatic  aberration  will  be  the 
reverse  of  what  it  is  with  a  single  convex  lens. 
As  the  different  parts  of  the  colored  spectra 
produced  by  different  media  have  not  an  exact 
proportionality  toward  one  another,  an  abso 
lute  achromatism  is  impossible ;  but  successful 
attempts  have  been  made  to  cure  it  in  some 
degree  by  the  addition  of  a  third  lens  of  plate 
glass.  Attempts  to  make  achromatic  lenses  by 
enclosing  fluids  of  different  diffractive  powers 
between  glass  lenses  have  all  failed,  by  reason 
of  the  variability  in  such  fluids ;  in  the  course  of 
time  portions  of  higher  refractive  power  will 
accumulate  at  the  lower  sides,  and  by  changes 
of  temperature  currents  will  be  set  up  which 
disturb  the  images  seen.  As  the  manufacture 
of  flint  glass  for  large  achromatic  lenses  is  a 
very  difficult  and  uncertain  operation,  and 
therefore  very  expensive,  their  size  has  been  re 
duced  by  placing  an  over-corrected  combination 
of  half  the  size  in  the  middle  of  the  telescope ; 
such  an  instrument  is  called  a  dialitic  tele 
scope.  Recently  the  plan  of  the  elder  Her- 
schel  has  been  revived,  namely,  to  use  no  large 
achromatic  objective  lenses  at  all,  but  reflec 
tors,  which  of  course  can  have  no  chromatic 
aberration,  which  is  the  result  of  refraction. 

ACID,  a  compound  of  hydrogen,  in  which 
that  element  is  united  to  an  electro-negative 
radical.  In  common  language  the  term  is 
equivalent  to  the  Latin  word  acidus,  meaning 
anything  sour.  Oxygen  was  formerly  con 
sidered  to  be  the  element  upon  which  the 
existence  of  the  acid  character  mainly  de 
pended,  as  its  name  (signifying  generator  of 
acids)  implies;  but  later  researches  have 
brought  to  light  a  number  of  compounds 
containing  hydrogen  possessed  of  acid  proper 
ties  in  which  oxygen  is  not  present.  Hence 
hydrogen  is  now  regarded  as  more  truly  the 
generator  of  acids  than  oxygen.  The  usual 
test  for  the  presence  of  an  acid  is  its  prop 
erty  of  changing  blue  vegetable  colors  to  red. 
We  are  already  acquainted  with  several  hnn- 
dred  acids,  most  of  them  belonging  to  the 
organic  kingdom,  and  new  ones  are  con 
stantly  discovered  by  chemists.  The  juices 
of  plants  and  the  constituents  of  animal  bod 
ies  furnish  their  peculiar  acids ;  and  with  the 
changes  these  undergo  new  acids  are  gen 
erated  by  different  modes  of  combination, 
which  processes  are  now  imitated  by  art  so 
as  to  reproduce  by  synthesis  a  number  of 
organic  acids.  Some  acids,  when  uncom- 
bined,  are  gaseous,  others  fluid,  and  others 
solid.  Their  properties  also  are  as  various  as 
the  conditions  in  which  they  exist. 


|  ACILIUS  GLABRIO,  Manins,  a  Roman  general, 
who  became  consul  in  191  B.  C.  He  was  of 
|  plebeian  origin,  but  rose  by  regular  gradation. 
He  supported  Cornelius  Scipio;  commanded 
as  consul  against  Antiochus  the  Great  of  Syria, 
and  defeated  him  at  Thermopylae);  and  sub 
sequently  carried  on  the  war  against  the 
./Etolians  with  equal  success.  On  his  return 
he  had  a  triumph.  But  this  elevation  and 
success  of  a  plebeian  gave  offence  to  the  pa 
tricians  of  Rome,  who  stirred  up  annoyances 
and  accused  him  of  keeping  back  the  public 
spoils ;  but  he  was  not  condemned.  He  was 
the  first  to  whom  a  statue  of  gold  was  erected 
in  Italy.  He  wrote  the  annals  of  Rome  in 
Greek,  a  narrative  full  of  fables. 

ACI  REALE,  a  seaport  town  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Catania,  cel 
ebrated  for  its  mineral  waters;  pop.  in  1871, 
35,787.  It  is  situated  on  a  hill  of  lava  with  a 
precipice  over  650  feet  high  facing  the-  sea,  in 
the  highly  picturesque  region  between  Mount 
Etna  and  Catania,  llm.  N.  N.  E.  of  the  latter, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  small  river  Aci ;  is  well 
built,  principally  of  lava,  and  has  many 
churches,  convents,  and  towers.  Great  quan 
tities  of  diaper  are  made.  Near  the  town  are 
the  famous  cave  of  Polyphemus  and  the  grotto 
of  Galatea. 

ACIS,  in  Ovid,  son  of  Faumis  and  Symsethis, 
beloved  by  the  nereid  Galatea,  and  through 
jealousy  crushed  to  death  under  a  huge  rock 
by  Polyphemus.  Galatea  changed  his  blood 
into  the  river  Acis,  on  which  now  stands  the 
town  of  Aci  Reale,  where  the  scenes  of  the 
legend  are  still  shown. 

ACKERMAM.  I.  Ronrad  Ernst,  a  German 
comedian,  regarded  as  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  German  stage,  born  in  Schwerin  in  1710, 
died  in  Hamburg,  Nov.  13,  1771.  In  1740  he 
made  his  debut  as  an  actor  under  the  auspices 
of  Schonemann,  and  afterward  organized  a 
travelling  company,  with  which  he  performed 
in  many  places.  He  is  celebrated  as  the 
founder  of  the  Hamburg  theatre  (1765),  whose 
performances  inspired  Lessingjs  famous  com 
ments  on  dramatic  art.  II.  Sophie  Charlotte, 
wife  of  the  preceding  (1749),  previously  widow 
of  the  organist  Schroder,  born  in  Berlin  in 
1714,  died  Oct.  14,  1792.  She  was  not  only 
distinguished  as  an  accomplished  actress  both 
in  tragedy  and  comedy,  and  teacher  of  the 
histrionic  art,  but  also  as  the  mother  by  her 
first  marriage  of  Friedrich  Ludwig  Schroder 
(see  SCHEODER),  and  of  two  daughters  by  her 
second  marriage,  also  very  distinguished  :  DO 
ROTHEA,  who  retired  from  the  stage  in  1778 
on  marrying  Prof.  Unzer,  and  CHARLOTTE, 
whose  death  in  1775,  in  her  18th  year,  was 
generally  deplored  at  Hamburg. 

ACLMD.  I.  John  Dyke,  a  British  major,  son 
of  a  baronet,  commander  of  the  grenadiers  in 
the  battle  of  Stillwater  in  the  American  revo 
lution,  Oct.  7,  1777,  died  in  1778.  When 
overpowered  by  numbers  the  British  retreated 
to  their  camp,  which  was  furiously  stormed  by 


ACLIXIC   LIXE 


ACONCAGUA 


Arnold.  Major  Aoland  was  shot  through  the 
legs  and  taken  prisoner.  When  Gen.  Fraser 
was  brought  mortally  wounded  to  the  quarters 
of  the  baroness  de  Riedesel,  a  report  reached 
Lady  Harriet  Acland  (daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Ilchester),  in  a  tent  near  by,  that  her  husband 
was  also  mortally  wounded.  She  determined 
to  seek  him  in  the  American  camp,  although 
she  was  at  the  time  much  debilitated  by  want 
of  food  and  rest,  and  by  anguish  of  mind. 
She  was  received  with  kindness;  her  atten 
tions  restored  her  husband  to  health,  and  the 
bearing  of  the  Americans  toward  both  made  a 
profound  impression  on  the  mind  of  Major 
Acland.  After  his  return  to  England  the  next 
year,  he  was  provoked  to  give  the  lie  direct  at 
a  dinner  party  to  Lieut.  Lloyd  for  some  foul 
aspersions  on  the  American  name.  A  duel 
ensued,  and  Major  Acland  was  shot  through 
the  head,  a  circumstance  which  caused  Tiis 
devoted  wife  the  loss  of  her  senses  for  two 
years.  She  afterward  married  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Brudenell,  a  chaplain  in  the  British  army,  who 
had  accompanied  her  in  her  perilous  pursuit 
of  her  husband,  and  died  in  1815.  She  wrote 
a  narrative  of  the  campaigns  of  lT7G-'7. 
II.  Henry  Wcntworth,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  grand- 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1815,  phy 
sician  to  the  Radcliffe  infirmary,  and  Lee's 
reader  in  anatomy  at  Oxford,  is  distinguished 
as  a  promoter  of  sanitary  reform.  He  accom 
panied  the  prince  of  Wales  to  the  United 
States  in  18GO  as  his  medical  attendant. 

ACLINIC  LINE  (Gr.  a,  without,  and  i&iveiv,  to 
incline),  an  imaginary  line  on  the  earth's  surface 
between  the  tropics,  where  the  compass  needle 
has  no  inclination ;  that  is,  where  the  dipping 
needle  is  horizontal.  This  line  is  also  called 


the  magnetic  equator,  being  about  90°  distant 
from  the  magnetic  poles;  it  is  variable  and 
runs  quite  irregularly.  At  present  it  inter 
sects  the  geographical  equator  near  the  W. 
coast  of  Africa,  and  some  160°  E.  of  that  point 
in  the  Pacific  ocean.  In  the  western  hemi 
sphere  it  is  S.  and  in  the  eastern  X.  of  the 
equator. 

ACCEMETjE  (Gr.  a/co^rof,  sleepless),  an  order 
of  Greek  monks  who  chanted  the  divine 
service  day  and  night,  without  ceasing.  This 
they  accomplished  by  dividing  themselves  into 
three  reliefs,  succeeding  one  another  alter 
nately.  Their  centre  was  the  cloister  of 
Irenarion,  near  Constantinople.  They  flour 
ished  in  the  5th  century;  in  the  succeeding 
century  they  were  put  under  the  ban  of  the 


church,  on  account  of  their  leanings  toward 
the  Xestorian  Christians  and  their  doctrines. 

ACOLYTE  (Gr.  a/coAoutfoc:,  attending),  a  clergy 
man  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  in 
the  churches  of  the  East,  next  in  rank  to  the 
sub-deacon,  whose  principal  office  is  to  light 
the  candles  on  the  altar,  and  attend  on  the 
priest  or  other  sacred  ministers  during  mass 
and  vespers.  The  youths  who  serve  at  the 
altar  are  also  called  acolytes,  though  not  or 
dained. 

ACOMA,  a  village  of  X"ew  Mexico,  in  lat.  35° 
24'  X.,  Ion.  106°  10'  W.,  supposed  by  the  abbe" 
Domenech  to  be  the  Acuco  of  the  ancient 
Spanish  historians,  and  the  oldest  Indian  town 
in  the  territory.  It  is  built  upon  the  horizontal 
summit  of  an  isolated  and  almost  perpendicular 
rock  394  feet  in  height.  The  greater  part  of 
the  ascent  to  it  is  made  by  means  of  a  road  cut 
like  a  spiral  staircase  in  the  rock.  The  village 
consists  of  large  blocks  of  houses,  60  or  70  in 
each  block.  It  is  said  the  Spaniards  took  the 
town  from  the  Indians  in  1599. 

ACONCAGUA.  I.  A  central  province  of  Chili ; 
area,  about  6,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1868,  130,672. 
The  entire  eastern  portion  is  occupied  by 
rugged  spurs  of  the  Andes  and  very  fertile 
valleys,  watered  by  several  rivers  flowing 
through  the  province  to  the  Pacific.  This 
region  abounds  in  copper,  silver,  and  gold 
mines ;  the  last  were  at  one  time  very  famous. 
In  1862  there  were  in  working  order  8  gold, 
9  silver,  and  228  copper  mines.  The  western 
part  is  irrigated  by  innumerable  artificial 
water  courses,  supplied  from  the  rivers,  by 
means  of  which  large  crops  are  produced  of 
excellent  wheat  and  other  cereals,  as  well  as 
of  hemp  of  a  very  superior  quality.  Such 
irrigation  is  rendered  indispensable  by  the 
extraordinary  scarcity  of  rain.  The  province 
is  divided  into  the  five  departments  of  Andes, 
Ligua,  Petorca,  Patacudo,  and  San  Felipe. 
Capital,  San  Felipe  de  Aconcagua,  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Andes,  in  a  fertile  valley  2,000 
feet  above  the  Pacific,  55  m.  X.  E.  of  Valpa 
raiso;  pop.  about  7,000.  II.  A  peak  of  the 
Andes  in  the  preceding  province,  X.  E.  of 
San  Felipe,  in  lat,  32°  39'  S.,  Ion.  70°  W., 
believed  to  be  the  highest  in  this  hemisphere. 
According  to  the  measurement  of  M.  Pissis, 
to  the  results  of  whose  labors  more  credit  is 
given  than  to  those  of  any  other  scientific 
investigator  of  the  Andes,  Aconcagua  reaches 
a  height  of  6,834  metres,  or  22,422  feet,  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  being  997  feet  higher 
than  Chimborazo  and  1,138  feet  higher  than 
Sorata,  which  were  formerly  considered  the 
most  elevated  peaks  of  the  Andean  chain. 
Aconcagua  has  been  described  as  the  cone  of 
an  extinguished  volcano,  and  the  error  prob 
ably  arises  from  a  widely  published  statement 
of  Darwin,  who  asserts  that  when  in  the 
Beagle  expedition  in  1835  it  was  reported  to 
him  that  the  volcano  of  Aconcairua  was  in 
eruption.  Xeither  its  shape  nor  its  external 
features  would  indicate  an  extinguished  vol- 


68 


ACONITE 


ACONITE,  WINTER 


cano;  it  is  a  colossal,  angular,  and  serrated 
mass,  without  any  lava  or  other  vestiges  of 
volcanic  action,  and  can  only  be  seen  in  all  its 
grandeur  from  the  east,  because  the  mountains 
which  surround  it  on  the  west  impede  the 
view.  From  Valparaiso  a  view  of  the  peak 
only,  rising  far  above  the  summits  of  even 
that  gigantic  chain  of  mountains,  is  obtained. 
ACOMTE  (Or.  anovirov,  probably  from  aKovy, 
a  stone,  because  it  grows  in  stony  places),  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  order  ranunculacecB, 
one  of  the  distinguishing  marks  of  which,  the 
hooded  form  of  the  upper  sepal,  gives  the 
name  monkshood  to  a  cultivated  species.  A 
plant  of  this  name  was  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  may  have  been  one  of  the  species  now 
belonging  to  the  genus.  The  species  at 
present  in  use  as  a  medicament  is  the  aco- 
nitum  napcllus,  cultivated  in  our  gardens  under 
the  name  of  monkshood ;  but  several  other 
species  possess  similar  properties  in  at  least 
an  equal  degree.  Among  these  are  A.  lycoc- 
tonum  and  A.  fcrox.  Probably  the  latter, 
from  which  the  l>ish  root  of  Nepaul  in  India 
is  obtained,  possesses  the  most  deadly  qual 
ities.  This  was  used  by  the  natives  to  poison 
their  wells  on  the  advance  of  the  British 


Aconitum  napellus  ("Monkshood). 
army  into  thoir  territories.  Some  of  the 
cultivated  varieties  of  A.  napellus,  Laving 
leaves  of  a  lighter  shade  of  green,  with  blue 
and  white  flowers,  have  less  acridity  than  the 
darker  vai?ety,  and  would  probably,  if  used, 
be  found  to  possess  less  medicinal  power. — 
From  the  roo^s  and  leaves  of  the  officinal 
species  are  prepared  extracts  and  tinctures. 
Those  from  the  root  are  the  most  powerful, 
and  are  larcrely  used  in  medicine.  The  phys 
iological  action  of  this  drug  depends  chiefly, 
and  probably  entirely,  npon  the  alkaloid 
aconitia,  though  two  other  alkaloids,  aconella 
and  napellina,  besides  aconitic  acid,  are  ^mong 
its  constituents.  Aconitia  is  a  white  sub 
stance,  not  volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
slightly-  soluble  in  water,  and  readily  so  in 
aJcohol  etherv  and  chloroform.  It  is  probably 


not  crystallizable,  and  the  crystallized  speci 
mens  exhibited  as  such  consist  partly  of 
aconella,  which  is  crystallizable  and  inert  in 
doses  in  which  aconitia  would  be  fatally 
poisonous.  This  statement  derives  support 
from  the  fact  that  the  French  and  German 
aconitia,  which  is  partially  crystallizable,  is 
much  weaker  than  the  English.  This  alkaloid 
is  one  of  the  most  powerful  known  poisons. 
One  fiftieth  of  a  grain  has  repeatedly  proved 
fatal  to  dogs,  and  nearly  so  to  man.  Its 
effects,  which  may  be  considered  equivalent  to 
those  of  a  corresponding  dose  of  aconite  or 
its  tincture,  are  a  burning  and  swelled  feeling 
of  lips,  tongue,  and  pharynx,  nausea  and 
sometimes  vomiting,  headache,  shooting  pains 
of  the  face,  difficult  respiration,  general 
prostration,  and,  after  a  plight  preliminary 
rise,  a  marked  diminution  of  the  frequency 
and  force  of  the  heart's  pulsations.  As  the 
fatal  dose  is  approached  the  pulse  again 
becomes  rapid  and  feeble.  The  mind  is  clea*r, 
and  there  is  but  little  somnolence ;  the  pupil 
is  dilated,  but  less  so  than  by  atropia.  Fatal 
poisoning  has  taken  place,  not  only  from  the 
use  of  the  medicinal  preparations  of  the  drug, 
but  from  its  being  mistaken  for  horseradish  or 
other  edible  plants,  from  which  with  care  it 
can  be  readily  distinguished. — The  therapeutic 
action  of  aconite  is  obtained  by  doses  much 
smaller  than  those  which  give  rise  to  the 
effects  just  described.  A  slight  tingling  of  the 
lips  and  tongue  may  be  regarded  as  a  sign  that 
the  dose  is  not  to  be  increased.  Since  its 
action,  after  a  primary  slight  stimulant  effect, 
is  essentially  to  diminish  the  activity  of  the 
nervous  system,  and  secondarily  that  of  the 
heart,  it  is  used  in  medicine  for  two  objects: 
first,  to  diminish  pain,  as  in  neuralgia;  and 
secondly,  to  diminish  the  activity  of  the  heart 
in  inflammatory  diseases.  According  to  some 
observers,  aconite  possesses  a  greater  power 
in  the  reduction  of  certain  kinds  of  inflam 
matory  fever  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the 
effects  upon  the  heart  described  above ;  but  it 
is  to  be  remembered  that  some  of  the  diseases 
in  which  aconite  is  supposed  to  display 
peculiar  power,  tonsillitis  for  instance,  have 
naturally  a  very  limited  duration.  It  is  ad 
mitted  by  most  observers  that  the  curative 
effect  of  aconite  is  displayed  chiefly  in  the 
early  stages  of  inflammations.  The  list  of 
diseases  in  which  aconite  has  been  used  is 
very  large,  embracing  those  in  which  inflam 
matory  or  neuralgic  symptoms  are  prominent. 
In  poisoning  by  this  drug,  alter  evacuation  of 
the  stomach,  stimulant  remedies,  such  as 
alcohol,  wine,  and  brandy,  and  dry  heat  to 
the  surface,  should  be  used. 

ACONITE,  Winter  (er  nut  his  hycmalis),  a  small 
tuberous  and  herbaceous  plant,  growing  with 
out  stem,  and  bearing  in  early  spring  bright 
yellow  flowers  of  cup  form.  Its  leaves  are 
smooth,  pale  green,  many-cut,  and  peltate; 
and  its  scape,  only  a  few  inches  high,  is  single- 
flowered. 


ACONITIA 


ACOUSTICS 


69 


ACONITIA.     See  ACOXITK. 

ACOSTA.  I.  Jose  dc,  a  Spanish  writer,  born 
about  1530,  died  Feb.  15,  1(500.  He  entered 
the  society  of  Jesuits  at  14,  and  on  completing 
his  course  of  study  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Ocaila.  In  1571  he  was  sent 
as  a  missionary  to  South  America,  of  which, 
after  his  return  to  Spain,  he  published  a 
history  (Hixtoria  natural  y  moral  de  las 
India*,  Madrid,  1500).  This  work  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  He  also 
wrote  De  Natura  Nov.i  Orb  is,  and  some  other 
works,  chiefly  of  a  polemical  character.  II. 
Uriel,  a  Jewish  writer,  born  in  Oporto, 
Portugal,  about  1590,  died  by  his  own  hand  in 
Holland  in  April,  1047,  or,  according  to  some 
accounts,  in  1040.  He  belonged  to  a  family 
converted  to  Christianity  at  the  time  of  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Portugal,  and  was 
educated  by  Catholic  teachers,  but  soon  con 
ceived  doubts  concerning  the  Christian  doc 
trines.  He  finally  fled,  with  his  mother  and  a 
brother,  to  Amsterdam,  embraced  the  faith  of 
his  ancestors,  and  exchanged  his  original  name 
Gabriel  for  Uriel.  He  failed,  however,  to 
recognize  in  the  rabbinical  Judaism  of  his 
time  the  ideal  of  his  independent  specula 
tions,  and  became  involved  in  a  passionate 
controversy  with  the  religious  heads  of  the 
Jewish  congregation  of  Amsterdam,  in  the 
course  of  which,  having  suffered  excommu 
nication,  he  published  in  Portuguese  a  "  Criti 
cism  of  the  Pharisaic  Traditions,  compared 
with  the  Written  Law,"  in  which  he  repu 
diated  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  He  was  now  arraigned  before  the 
magistrates  and  heavily  fined.  After  many 
years  of  exclusion  from  the  synagogue  he 
signed  a  recantation  of  his  views,  but  sub 
sequently  again  provoked  the  ire  of  the 
orthodox,  among  whom  were  his  own  rela 
tives,  was  a  second  time  excommunicated,  and 
finally  submitted  to  an  ignominious  public 
chastisement.  Maddened  by  persecution,  he 
put  an  end  to  his  life  by  a  pistol  shot,  leaving 
an  autobiography,  which  was  published  in 
Latin  and  German  in  1G87.  III.  Joaqmn,  a 
South  American  historian,  colonel  of  engineers 
in  the  Colombian  service,  died  about  1862. 
In  1834  he  explored  the  valleys  of  the  So- 
corro  and  Magdalena  rivers  with  the  bota 
nist  Cespedes,  and  in  1841  made  researches 
relative  to  the  Chibchas  and  other  aboriginal 
tribes.  He  continued  these  investigations  in 
the  archives  of  Spain  and  France,  and  in  1848 
published  in  Paris  Compendia  historico  del 
descubrimiento  y  colonization  de  la  Nueva 
Granada,  en  el  siglo  decimo  sexto.  In  1849, 
in  conjunction  with  M.  A.  Laserre,  he  pub 
lished  a  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  the 
celebrated  Semenario  de  la  Nueva  Granada, 
with  a  biographical  notice  of  the  author,  the 
learned  Caldas,  who  was  shot  in  1810.  A 
series  of  archaeological  essays  were  furnished 
by  Acosta,  for  publication,  to  the  Paris 
geographical  society,  1854  et  seq. 


ACOUSTICS  (Gr.  aKobeiv,  to  hear),  that  branch 
of  physical  science  which  explains  the  phe 
nomena  and  laws  of  sound.  For  the  produc- 
I  tion  of  these  phenomena  three  conditions  are 
I  required :  1,  a  sonorous  body ;  2,  a  medium  to 
!  propagate,  and  3,  an  organism  to  perceive 
I  the  sound.  From  these  conditions  the  science 
I  of  acoustics  is  naturally  divided  into  three 
branches,  of  which  the  last  belongs  entirely 
to  the  field  of  physiology,  or  rather  biology, 
while  in  the  first  two  the  most  intricate  and 
at  the  same  time  most  successful  application 
of  mathematics  to  mechanical  science  is  to  be 
found.  A  superficial  examination  into  the 
cause  of  sound  shows  that  it  originates  in 
vibrations  of  the  sounding  body,  and  is  thus 
a  result  of  its  elasticity.  The  air,  being  very 
elastic,  is  ordinarily  the  medium  by  which 
sound  is  transmitted  to  our  ears ;  but  most 
other  bodies,  solid  as  well  as  liquid,  transmit 
sound  as  well  and  even  better  than  air,  while 
in  a  vacuum  transmission  ceases,  as  is  proved 
by  the  well-known  experiment  of  exhausting 
by  means  of  an  air  pump  the  air  from  around 
a  continuously  ringing  bell.  The  phases  of  the 
sonorous  vibrations  are  appropriately  called  un 
dulations  or  waves;  they  are  communicated  to 
the  body  transmitting  the  sound  by  one  or 
more  impulses  from  the  sonorous  body,  and 
are  transmitted  by  alternate  compressions  and 
expansions  of  the  parts.  The  velocity  of  this 
transmission  for  air  at  the  freezing  point  of 
Fahrenheit  is  1,090  feet  per  second,  and  about 
one  foot  more  for  every  degree  above.  Very 
violent  sounds,  however,  travel  faster,  as  proved 
by  Boyden  in  Boston  and  Earnshaw  in  Shef 
field,  England ;  the  cause  of  this  is  the  heat 
developed  by  strong  compression  of  the  air 
by  a  powerful  wave  of  sound.  Heavy  gases 
transmit  sound  slower  and  light  gases  faster 
than  air:  carbonic  acid  858  feet,  hydrogen 
4,164  feet  per  second.  Water  transmits  sound 
with  about  the  same  velocity  as  the  latter, 
while  alcohol,  ether,  and  turpentine  transmit 
it  slower  (3,800  feet),  and  saline  solutions  in 
water  faster  (from  5,000  to  6,500  feet  per  sec 
ond).  Through  metals  the  transmission  is  in 
round  numbers  as  follows:  lead,  4,000  feet 
per  second;  copper,  11,000;  iron  and  steel, 
16,000.  If  a  wave  is  violent  enough  to  pro 
duce  a  shock  against  the  drum  of  the  ear,  a 
sound  is  always  heard  even  if  there  be  but  a 
single  wave;  such  is  the  case  with  a  clap  of 
thunder,  the  explosion  of  a  gun,  or  the  crack 
of  a  whip.  But  if  the  waves  are  weak,  such 
as  those  produced  by  the  vibration  of  a  string, 
there  must  be  a  succession  of  them  at  a  cer 
tain  rate  of  rapidity,  in  order  to  make  the 
sound  audible.  If  these  waves  succeed  one 
another  at  regular  intervals  and  thus  have  equal 
lengths,  we  have  a  musical  tone ;  if  irregular, 
they  produce  merely  a  noise. — The  lowest  tone 
used  in  music  is  produced  by  an  organ  pipe 
nearly  32  feet  long,  in  which  the  tone  is  pro 
duced  on  the  same  principle  as  in  the  flute,  by 
blowing  a  current  of  air  against  a  sharp  edge ; 


TO 


ACOUSTICS 


the  friction  causing  a  vibration  of  the  air 
column  in  the  pipe,  on  the  same  principle  as 
the  friction  of  a  violin  bow  causes  the  vibra 
tion  of  a  string.  The  length  of  the  wave  pro 
duced  in  an  organ  pipe  is  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  pipe ;  and  as  sound  travels  through  air 
with  a  velocity  of  about  1,090  feet  per  second, 
it  must  pass  through  a  pipe  32  feet  long  in  nearly 
the  32d  part  of  a  second,  and  thus  produce  32 
waves  per  second.  If  the  pipe  is  10  feet  long, 
we  must  have,  64  waves  per  second;  for  an 
8-feet  pipe,  128  waves;  4  feet,  250;  2  feet, 
512;  1  foot,  1,024;  6  inches,  2,048;  3  inches, 
4,090;  and  1^  inch,  8,192  waves.  These  are 
the  correct  velocities  of  vibrations  of  the  tones 
represented  by  the  note  called  C,  LTt,  or  Do, 
from  octave  to  octave,  according  to  the  so- 
called  theoretical  pitch.  In  Handel's  time  the 
lower  C  corresponded  to  31  vibrations  per  sec 
ond,  and  the  Italian  opera  in  London  had  it 
in  1859  at  34  vibrations ;  while  the  pitch  re 
cently  established  by  the  French  conservatory 
of  music  and  by  a  congress  of  musicians  in 
London  agreed  to  nearly  33  vibrations,  corre 
sponding  to  the  Stuttgart  pitch.  Only  the 
eight  octaves  mentioned  above  are  used  in  mu 
sic.  The  capacity  of  the  ear,  ho\vever,  extends 
an  octave  below  the  lowest  and  more  than  two 
above  the  highest  of  these  figures,  being  be 
tween  16  and  38,000  vibrations  per  second; 
but  there  is  a  difference  in  this  regard  between 
individuals,  some  persons  being  perfectly  deaf 
for  very  low  or  very  high  tones  distinctly  heard 
by  others.  The  seven  different  tones  of  the  so- 
called  diatonic  scale  are  interpolated  between 
the  octaves  given  above,  and  expressed  by  the 
customary  notes  and  staff  of  five  lines  with  clef, 
or  by  the  letters  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  B,  C.  They 
correspond  for  the  lower  octave  with  the  ve 
locity  of  vibrations  32,  30,  40,  42f,  48,  54,  60, 
and  04  vibrations  per  second  respectively ;  by 
multiplying  either  of  these  numbers  by  2,  4,  8, 
16,  &c.,  we  obtain  the  velocities  of  any  other 
octave.  It  is  seen  that  some  of  these  numbers 
bear  simple  ratios  to  one  another,  as  C :  C  — 
1:2,  C:G  =  2:3,  C  :  F  =  3  :  4,  C:E  =  4:5, 
E :  G  =  5 :  6  ;  these  tones  harmonize,  the  others 
are  discordant.  The  further  comparison  of  the 
numbers  shows  that  the  differences  between 
the  3d  and  4th  and  between  the  7th  and  8th 
of  the  scale  are  less  than  those  preceding  or 
following.  This  has  given  reason  for  the  in 
terpolation  of  five  other  tones  between  those 
of  which  the  differences  are  greater,  so  as  ap 
proximately  to  equalize  these  differences;  in 
this  way  12  tones  in  each  octave  have  been 
obtained,  forming  a  scale  called  chromatic. 
These  interpolated  tones  are  inappropriately 
called  semitones,  and  designated  with  the  same 
sign  as  the  next  note,  but  preceded  by  a  % 
(sharp)  or  [,  (fiat).  This  scale  is  represented  in 
the  velocity  of  vibrations  and  in  name  as  follows : 

34     33          45     51     57 
82     36     40   42%     48     54     60   64 

Ci|       D#  Fj|       G|f       Ajf 

C         D         EF          G         ABC 


The  keyed  instruments  give  a  material  repre 
sentation  of  this  scale.  The  relation  of  pro 
gression  between  its  tones,  when  tuned  accord 
ing  to  the  proportions  given  here,  is  so  irregu 
lar,  that  when  transposing  the  diatonic  scale, 
that  is,  when  commencing  it  at  another  tone 
than  C,  very  impure  harmonies  are  obtained. 
This  is  corrected,  or  rather  compromised,  by 
making  the  mutual  proportions  of  the  12  num 
bers  representing  the  chromatic  scale  such  as 
to  obtain  a  regular  geometrical  series  ;  this  is 
the  so-called  equal  temperament.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this  with  strict  mathematical  accu 
racy,  we  have  only  to  interpolate  11  terms  of 
such  a  series  between  the  numbers  1  and  2, 
which  express  the  relations  between  a  tone 
and  its  octave  ;  this  is  mathematically  ex 
pressed  by  the  series 

2°,  2TX  2TX  2TX  2TX  &c.,  to  2^; 

or  by  logarithms  :  log.  jf  ,  log.  ||,  log.  |-|,  &c., 
to  log.  ff,  which  by  calculation  gives  the"  series 
1-000,  1-0594,  1-1225,  M892,  1-2599,  1-3348, 
1-4142,  1-4983,  1-5874,  1-0818,  1-7818,  1-8877, 
2  '000.  Multiplying  each  of  these  numbers  by  32, 
we  obtain  the  velocity  of  vibration  for  the  low 
er  octave,  for  the  absolute  equal  temperament  : 

33-8903  38-0544 

32-000  85-9200  40-3168   42-718G 


C 

45-2544 


D  E  F 

50-7963        57'0176 
47-9456        53-8176        60-4064  64-000 


G 


B 


C 


It  is  seen,  by  comparison  with   the  numbers 
.mentioned  before,  that  this  series  gives  Cif,  D, 
G,  and  G$  too  low,  while  the  other  eighth  tones 
are  too  high.     However,  this  is  only  the  case 
when  considering  the  interpolated  semitones  as 
sharps;    but  as  we  must  use  C$  for  D\,,  D$ 
for  Ejj,  &c.,  and  the  calculation  for  the  tones 
|  corresponding  with  these  fiats  gives  us  differ- 
!  ent  figures,  between  which  and  the  former  the 
equal  temperament  is  a  compromise,  the  ad 
vantages  are  acknowledged  to  be  with  the  lat 
ter,  and  it  is  now  therefore  universally  adopted. 
(See  Music.)    A  column  of  air  in  a  pipe  will  not 
necessarily  vibrate  in  such  a  way  that  each  wave 
will  be  equal  to  the  length  of  the  pipe.    By  modi 
fying  the  manner  of  admitting  the  air,  either  by 
increased  pressure  or  changing  the  aperture, 
the  waves  may  be  made  one  half,  one  third, 
•  one  fourth,  one  fifth,  &c.,  of  the  length  of  the 
|  pipe.     In   this  way   the   so-called    harmonics 
j  and  the  tones  of  the  French  horn   are   pro 
duced.      They   are    called    over-tones,    if    the 
fundamental   vibration   producing   the    lowest 
tone   is   still    heard    at    the    same    time.      In 
order  to  produce  all  kinds  of  shorter  waves 
by  means  of  the  same  pipe,  holes  may  be  made 
in  its  sides,  closed  by  the  fingers  or  by  proper 
valves.     The  opening  of  these  holes  is  nearly 
equivalent  to  a  shortening  of  the  pipe.     Thus 
the  different  tones  of  the  flute,  clarinet,  haut- 
:  bois,  bassoon,  and  several  other  wind  instru- 


ACOUSTICS 


71 


ments,  are  produced.  In  the  trombone,  the 
length  of  the  tube  is  increased  and  diminished 
by  a  sliding  arrangement ;  while  in  the  cornet 
a  piston  and  similar  brass  instruments,  the 
same  elongation  and  shortening  is  produced  by 
piston  valves  admitting  or  shutting  off  the  air 
from  side  channels  of  greater  or  lesser  length. 
In  stringed  instruments  the  same  results  are 
accomplished  by  different  length  of  strings. 
As  in  the  organ  every  pipe  produces  only  a 
single  tone,  so  in  the  pianoforte  every  string  is 
intended  for  one  tone;  while  in  the  harp,  by 
a  slight  shortening,  the  pitch  of  each  string 
may  be  raised  a  so-called  semitone.  In  all 
the  other  stringed  instruments,  as  the  violin, 
violoncello,  and  guitar,  the  different  tones  are 
produced  by  the  use  of  very  few  strings  only, 
which,  however,  by  proper  manipulation  with 
the  fingers,  may  be  shortened  so  as  to  produce 
tones  of  which  the  vibrations  become  faster  in 
proportion  as  the  sounding  portion  of  the  string 
is  shortened.  In  regard  to  the  law  governing 
their  vibration,  it  is  the  same  for  strings  as 
for  pipes.  Other  circumstances  being  equal, 
their  velocity  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
length  of  the  pipe  or  string.  The  tone  of 
strings  also  changes  by  change  of  tension,  and 
the  velocity  of  their  vibration  is  in  the  ratio 
of  the  square  root  of  the  weights  which  pro 
duce  this  tension.  Further,  the  tone  depends 
upon  the  thickness  of  the  string,  its  rigidity, 
weight,  and  nature  of  material.  When  a  string 
is  subdivided  into  a  number  of  equal  parts, 
these  parts  will  vibrate  simultaneously,  leaving 
the  points  of  division  at  rest,  and  produce  the 
harmonic  tones,  after  the  same  law  as  in  the 
case  of  a  column  of  air  in  the  French  horn. 
The  subjoined  five  figures  give  the  manner  of 
vibration  of  a  string  as  a  whole,  half,  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  parts,  producing  different 


|  On  the  violin  these  subdivisions  may  be  effect- 
j  ed  by  slightly  touching  the  string  on  one  of 
j  the  points  dividing  it  into  equal  parts,  and  tho 
j  harmonic  upper  tones  thus  produced  are  called 
i  the  flageolet  tones.  In  the  ^Eolian  harp,  in 
I  which  the  strings  are  put  into  vibration  by  the 
friction  of  a  current  of  air,  these  divisions  are 
incidentally  and  continually  changing,  and  thus 
a  variety  of  harmonic  tones  is  produced.  The 
division  points,  where  the  string  happens  to 
be  at  rest,  are  called  nodal  points.  An  elastic 
plate  of  glass,  brass,  steel,  or  other  suitable 
material,  may  also  be  made  to  vibrate  and 
emit  tones ;  and  when  fixed  at  one  point  and 
excited  at  one  of  its  edges  by  a  violin  bow,  it 
may  be  made  to  produce  a  considerable  variety 
of  tones,  by  the  fact  that  it  may  be  subdivided 
into  various  systems  of  nodal  lines ;  the  spaces 
between  these  lines  are  the  sounding  portions, 
and  the  vibrations  are  more  rapid  or  the  tones 
sharper  in  proportion  as  these  spaces  are  small 
er.  These  nodal  lines  may  be  made  visible  by 
scattering  dry  sand  over  the  plate,  and  when 
it  is  put  into  vibration  with  the  violin  bow, 
the  grains  of  the  sand  which  are  not  on  the 
nodal  lines  will  be  thrown  aside,  and  not  come 
to  rest  until  they  are  accumulated  upon  the 
nodal  lines.  Thus  many  kinds  of  regular  and 
almost  geometrical  figures  may  be  formed, 
which  are  called,  after  the  inventor  of  this 
method,  Chladni's  nodal  sound  figures.  With 
different  forms  of  plates,  many  hundreds  of  such 
figures  have  been  obtained.  Our  figures  illus 
trate  only  a  few  of  the  most  remarkable.  The 
first  and  most  simple  is  produced  by  the  lowest 


FUND  A  MENTAL    TOME, 


OCT  A  V  E. 


DOUBLE   OCTAVE. 


Harmonic  Sound  Waves  of  a  String. 


TT1  j  ICXX)1 

Chladni's  Nodal  Sound  Figures. 

tone  which  can  be  obtained  from  the  disk  ;  the 
others  belong  to  higher  and  higher  tones,  while 
the  last  and  most  complicated  is  produced  by 
,  the  highest  tone ;  in  this  case  the  smallest 
tones,  the  harmonics  of  the  fundamental  tone,  !  parts  of  the  glass  disk  vibrate  for  themselves, 
its  octave,  fifth  above  or  twelfth,  its  double  ,  and  produce  then  the  most  rapid  vibrations, 
octave,  and  third  above  that,  or  seventeenth.  It  is  thus  seen  that  every  tone  which  may  be 


ACOUSTICS 


ACRE 


drawn  out  of  a  disk  produces  its  own  charac 
teristic  nodal  lines  or  figures.  (See  Chlad- 
ni's  "Acoustics.") — Tones  may  differ  not  only 
in  the  velocity  of  their  succeeding  waves,  but 
also  in  the  form  of  these  waves;  this  deter 
mines  the  character  of  the  tone  which  the 
French  call  timbre.  By  it  we  distinguish  the 
sounds  of  different  instruments,  the  voices  of 
different  persons,  &c.  Comparative  physiology 
has  determined  which  special  portions  of  the 
interior  structure  of  the  ear  are  intended  for 
the  different  functions  in  the  act  of  hearing, 
by  finding  some  parts  more  or  less  developed 
in  proportion  as  the  animal  possesses  the  ca 
pacity  of  distinguishing  variations  of  sound. 
So  the  dog,  with  no  musical  ear,  distinguishes 
the  voice  of  his  master  better  than  those  sing 
ing  birds  which  can  learn  a  tune  and  thus  have 
a  musical  ear.  (See  EAE.)  Recently  experi 
menters  have  succeeded  in  causing  sounds  to 
draw  waving  lines  on  slips  of  moving  paper, 
these  waves  representing  not  only  the  pitch  or 
velocity  of  vibrations,  but  by  their  different 
forms  also  the  nature  of  the  sounds.  In  our 
figures  are  represented  a  few  illustrations  of 


Bound  Lines  traced  on  Paper  by  the  Phonautograpk. 

the  waved  lines  produced  by  this  method  of 
registering  the  nature  of  diverse  vibrations  of 
the  same  length  and  pitch.  The  apparatus  with 
which  this  is  performed  is  called  a  phonauto- 
graph. — In  regard  to  the  application  of  acoustics 
to  architecture,  and  the  construction  of  build 
ings  intended  for  music  or  public  speaking,  much 
learning  has  been  erroneously  applied.  The 
elliptical  and  parabolic  forms  given  to  walls 
or  ceilings  have  not  answered  expectation,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  they  concentrate  the 
sound  at  single  points  at  the  expense  of  others. 
Experience  has  however  taught  a  few  facts, 
of  which  the  most  important  is  that  an  echo 
is  the  greatest  disturbing  influence,  and  that 
large  smooth  walls  and  ceilings  at  a  distance 
from  the  speaker  make  this  disturbance  a 
maximum.  Speakers,  singers,  or  musical  in 
struments  must  therefore  be  placed  as  near  to 
such  a  wall  as  practicable ;  and  when  a  high 
flat  or  arched  ceiling  causes  reflection  or  re 


verberation  of  sound,  as  is  often  the  case  in 
large  churches,  a  horizontal  sounding  board 
of  some  20  or  more  feet  in  diameter,  thus  pro 
jecting  far  beyond  the  pulpit,  and  placed  as 
low  as  p'ossible,  only  a  few  feet  above  the 
speaker's  head,  has  been  found  the  only  effec 
tive  remedy.  It  is  seen  in  most  of  the  cathe 
drals  and  large  churches  on  the  European  con 
tinent. — Among  the  earlier  writers  and  inves 
tigators  must  be  mentioned  Euler,  Newton,  La 
place,  Chladni,  and  Savart;  and  among  the 
later,  Helmholtz,  Weber,  Konig,  Herschel, 
Wulner,  and  Tyndall.  See  especially  Helm 
holtz,  Die  Lelire  von  den  Tonempfindungen 
(Brunswick,  2d  ed.,  1865);  Tyndall,  *u  Lectures 
on  Sound;"  Peirce,  "  On  Sound,"  prepared 
from  Herschel's  writings;  and  Wulner,  Ex- 
perimentalphysik  (Leipsic,  1871,  vol.  i.). 

ACQIAVIVA,  Claudio  de,  a  general  of  the  Jes 
uits,  born  in  Italy  in  1542,  died  in  1615.  He 
regulated  the  studies  of  the  order  of  Jesuits 
in  an  ordinance  promulgated  at  Rome  in  1580, 
which  became  famous  under  the  title  of  Ratio 
Studio-rum.  He  prohibited  discussions  on  the 
subject  of  tyrannicide,  and  his  opinions  are 
still  regarded  as  authoritative  bv  the  order. 

ACQUAVIVA  DELLE  FOMTI,  a  town  of  S.  Italy, 
province  of  Terra  di  Bari,  18  m.  S.  of  Bari; 
pop.  in  1861,  6,517.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls, 
and  has  a  handsome  parish  church. 

ACQUI  (anc.  Aqua  Statiella>),  a  town  of 
Italy,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  Piedmontese  province  of  Alessandria,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Bormida,  18  m.  S.  of  Alessan 
dria;  pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  much  frequented 
by  invalids  for  its  famous  hot  sulphur  springs, 
which  were  well  known  to  the  ancient  Ro 
mans.  The  remains  of  a  Roman  aqueduct  are 
among  its  curiosities.  It  contains  many  hand 
some  buildings,  among  them  a  cathedral,  con 
vents,  a  college,  and  a  theological  seminary. 

ACRE  (Lat.  agcr,  Ger.  acker,  a  cultiva 
ted  field),  a  standard  measure  of  land,  con 
sisting  in  England  and  the  United  States  of 
4,840  square  yards,  or  48,564  square  feet.  In 
surveying,  it  is  composed  of  10  square  chains, 
the  measuring  chain  being  66  feet  long.  There 
are  640  acres  in  an  English  statute  square  mile. 
The  Scotch  acre  is  1-27  of  the  English,  and  the 
Irish  1-62;  the  French  and  Belgian  hectare, 
2-47,  and  the  arpent  0*99  (Geneva,  1-27); 
the  Swiss  faux,  1-62;  the  Spanish  fanegada, 
1-06;  the  Portuguese  gueira,  1'43;  the  Aus 
trian  joch,  1*42;  the  Danish  toende,  5*50;  the 
Swedish  tunn eland,  1'13;  the  Russian  desia- 
tina,  2*70.  The  morgen  of  Germany  is  gen 
erally  about  0-65  of  an  acre,  but  it  has  hereto 
fore  varied  in  the  different  states  from  0*63  to 
2-40 ;  in  Holland  it  is  2-10,  and  in  Poland  1-38. 
The  moggia  of  Naples  is  0'83  of  an  acre  ;  the 
giornate  of  Sardinia,  0'93  ;  the  saccata  of  Tus 
cany,  1*22.  The  ancient  Roman  jugerum  was 
0-66  of  an  acre,  and  the  Greek  plethron  0*23. 

ACRE,  or  St.  Jean  d'Acre  (called  Acca  by  the 
Turks,  Acelw  in  Scripture,  and  Ace  and  Ptole- 
mais  by  the  Greeks),  a  seaport  town  of  Syria, 


ACRELIUS 


AOTA  DIURNA 


73 


St.  Jean  d'Acre. 


N.  of  Mt.  Oarmel,  64  m.  S.  of  Beyront,  in  lat. 
32°  54'  K,  Ion.  35°  4'  E. ;  pop.  about  5,000.  It 
is  on  an  almost  triangular  peninsula,  and  on  the 
land  side  is  surrounded  with  beautiful  new  forti 
fications  ;  remains  of  the  old  fortifications  still 
project  from  the  sea.  Its  harbor  is  the  best 
on  that  part  of  the  coast,  although  very  shal 
low.  The  place  is  of  the  highest  antiquity, 
mentioned  in  the  history  of  the  Jews,  Per 
sians,  and  Ptolemies,  and  is  renowned  for  its 
desperate  sieges  and  defences.  In  1104  it  was 
taken  by  the  Genoese,  from  whom  Saladin  re 
took  it  in  1187.  The  assault  upon  it  by  Rich 
ard  Co3ur  de  Lion  in  1191  was  one  of  the  most 
daring  feats  in  the  crusades.  After  its  cap 
ture  by  the  Christians  in  that  year,  it  remained 
in  the  custody  of  the  knights  of  St.  John,  who 
fortified  it  strongly,  till  1291,  when  they  were 
compelled  to  evacuate  it  by  the  sultan  of 
Egypt.  The  Turks  occupied  it  early  in  the 
16th  century.  In  1799,  supported  by  Sidney 
Smith  and  a  few  British  sailors,  they  kept  Bona 
parte  and  the  French  army  at  bay  for  60  days, 
when  he  raised  the  siege  and  retreated.  In 
1832,  when  Mehemet  Ali  revolted  from  the 
Porte  and  seized  upon  Syria,  Ibrahim  Pasha, 
after  a  long  siege,  took  Acre  by  storm.  In 
1839  Syria  was  restored  to  Turkey,  but  Ibrahim 
refused  to  evacuate  Acre  till  after  a  bombard 
ment  by  the  combined  British,  Austrian,  and 
Turkish  squadrons,  Xov.  4,  1840. 

ACRELIUS,  Israel,  a  Swedish  clergyman,  born 
Dec.  25,  1714,  died  April  25,  1800.  He  studied 
in  Upsal,  and  was  ordained  in  1743.  In  1749 
he  was  appointed  provost  of  the  Swedish  con 
gregations  on  the  Delaware,  and  pastor  of  Rac 
coon  and  Pensneck,  and  subsequently  of  Chris 
tiana.  He  managed  the  ecclesiastical  affairs 
of  the  Swedish  colonists,  which  he  found 


in  great  disorder,  with  zeal  and  prudence. 
Ill  health,  however,  compelled  him  to  resign 
his  situation  in  1756,  and  return  to  Sweden. 
The  king  bestowed  upon  him  a  large  pension, 
and  the  lucrative  living  of  Fellingsbro.  Be 
sides  some  articles  on  American  affairs  in 
the  Swedish  journals,  and  numerous  religious 
works,  Acrelius  published  a  description  of  the 
Swedish  colonies  in  America  (4to,  1759). 

ACROCERAUNIA  (Gr.  anpov,  peak,  and  nepawde, 
thunderbolt),  in  ancient  geography,  the  N.  W. 
extremity  (now  Cape  Linguetta)  of  the  Cerau- 
nian  mountains  in  E  pirns,  so  called  from  its 
being  often  struck  by  lightning.  The  name  is 
sometimes  improperly  applied  to  the  whole* 
range.  (See  CERAUNIAN  MOUNTAINS.) 

ACROPOLIS  (Gr.),  the  highest  point  of  a  city, 
or  its  citadel,  usually  on  a  rock  or  hill.  The 
ruins  of  the  most  celebrated,  that  of  Athens, 
still  exist  for  the  delight  of  travellers.  It  had 
five  gates,  the  principal  a  splendid  structure  of 
Pentelican  marble,  and  within  its  bounds  still 
stands  the  Parthenon  or  temple  of  Minerva. 

ACT.     See  BILL. 

ACTA  DIURNA  (Lat.,  daily  doings),  the  name 
of  daily  reports  issued  in  ancient  Rome,  chiefly 
under  the  empire.  They  were  published  by 
authority,  and  contained  a  brief  chronicle  of 
the  proceedings  at  public  assemblies,  and  in 
the  tribunals  both  civil  and  criminal,  together 
with  a  register  of  births,  deaths,  marriages, 
and  some  other  interesting  matter.  Divorces, 
being  matter  of  scandal,  were  a  staple  item  of 
domestic  intelligence  in  an  age  when  printing 
was  unknown.  The  circulation  must  have  been 
very  limited,  and  the  transcripts  chiefly  for  the 
use  of  the  patricians.  Reporters  (actuarU) 
were  employed  to  procure  interesting  news  not 
to  be  found  in  official  registers. 


74: 


ACTION 


ACTINIA 


ACT/EON,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  hunter, 
grandson  of  Cadmus,  who,  for  the  crime  of 
watching  Diana  while  bathing1,  was  trans 
formed  into  a  stag,  and  devoured  by  his  own 
hounds. 

ACT!  ERUDITORUM  (the  transactions  of  the 
learned),  the  title  of  the  first  literary  journal 
of  Germany,  founded  in  1682  by  Otto  Mencke, 
professor  in  the  university  of  Leipsic,  and  sev 
eral  associates,  and  published  monthly  in  Latin. 
It  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Mencke  family 
and  preserved  its  reputation  until,  in  1754,  it 
fell  under  the  charge  of  Professor  Bel,  who  man 
aged  it  so  negligently  that  it  lost  character  arid 
circulation.  The  calamities  of  the  seven  years' 
war  also  operated  against  it,  and  it  languished 
till  1782,  when  the  last  volume  appeared, 
which,  however,  only  brought  up  the  review 
to  1776.  The  whole  collection  is  contained  in 
117  vols.  4to.  In  1732  the  title  was  changed 
to  Nora  Acta  Eruditorum.  The  work  having 
met  the  approbation  of  the  critics  of  foreign 
countries,  and  its  convenience  being  undenia 
ble,  a  numerous  race  of  imitators  soon  sprung 
up  in  France,  Germany,  and  England. 

ACTA  SAACTORUM,  Acta  Martyrum,  Martyrology. 
The  ancient  church  gave  the  name  Acta  Mar 
tyrum,  or  "Acts  of  the  Martyrs,"  to  the  records 
of  the  lives  and  sufferings  of  the  martyrs  which 
were  kept  for  the  edification  of  the  faithful. 
The  oldest  acts  extant  are  those  referring  to 
the  death  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  (107). 
When  to  the  lives  of  the  martyrs  those  of 
other  pious  men  were  added,  the  collections  re 
ceived  the  name  Acta  Sanctorum,  "  Acts  of  the 
Saints."  The  deaths  of  pious  men,  and  the  cir 
cumstances  attending  their  death,  being  com 
municated  by  the  various  Christian  congrega 
tions  to  each  other,  an  alphabetical  list  was  oc 
casionally  hung  up  in  the  churches  to  keep 
their  names  fresh  in  the  recollection  of  the 
brethren.  These  lists  grew  into  brief  biogra 
phies,  and  at  length  the  institution  of  canoniza 
tion  and  the  dedication  of  particular  days  to  the 
memory  of  the  saints  introduced  their  names 
and  histories  into  the  breviary  and  missal.  The 
oldest  collection  of  the  acts  of  the  martyrs  was 
compiled  by  the  church  historian  Eusebius  in 
his  two  works  De  MartyrHbus  Palestine  and 
Synagoge  Marty  riorum.  Collections  of  the 
most  important  lives  were  made  in  the  6th  cen 
tury  by  Gregory  of  Tours,  and  in  the  10th  by 
Simeon  Metaphrastes.  A  more  critical  treat 
ment  is  found  in  the  Sanctuarium  of  Boninus 
Mombritius,  and  particularly  in  Ruinart's  Acta 
Martyrum  Sincera  (fol.,  Paris,  1689).  By 
far  the  most  celebrated  collection  of  the  lives 
of  saints  is  that  commenced  by  the  Jesuit 
Bolland  (died  1665),  and  still  continued  by  a 
society  of  Jesuits,  called  Bollandists.  In  fact, 
this  collection  is  so  much  more  important  than 
any  other  work  of  the  kind,  that  in  the  history 
of  literature  it  alone  is  understood  by  the  name 
Acta  Sanctorum.  (See  BOLLAXD.) 

ACTIAIV  GAMES,  in  Itornan  antiquity,  solemn 
games  instituted  by  Augustus  in  memory  of 


his  victory  over  Mark  Antony  at  Actium,  31 
B.  C.,  held  every  fifth  year,  and  celebrated  in 
honor  of  Apollo,  surnamed  Actius. 

ACTINIA  (Gr.  a/cri'f,  ray),  a  genus  of  marine 
radiated  animals,  commonly  called  sea  anem 
ones,  from  their  resemblance  to  flowers. 
They  are  fleshy  polyps,  termed  zoanthoria  by 
De  Blainville,  and  zoophyta  helianthoidca  by 
Dr.  Johnston.  The  body  is  regular  and  some 
what  like  a  flower  in  form,  more  or  less  elon 
gated  and  very  contractile,  enabling  it  to  as 
sume  a  great  variety  ot  shapes.  It  has  a  sac- 
shaped  digestive  apparatus,  with  an  oval  ori 
fice,  surrounded  by  tubular  tentacles  of  vari 
ous  forms.  In  many  species  the  base  of  the 
body  acts  as  a  sucker,  by  means  of  which  they 
adhere  to  rocks,  stones,  &c.,  while  the  opposite 


Metridium  marginatum  (Fringed  Actinia),  expanded. 


Metridium  marginaturn,   closed. 

extremity  presents  a  disk  with  a  central  ori 
fice.  This  is  surrounded  by  tentacles  either  in 
a  single  row  or  in  several  rows,  which  act  as 
so  many  arms  by  which  the  animal  seizes  its 
prey  and  drags  it  into  his  mouth.  Its  only  or 
gan,  the  stomach,  performs  almost  all  the 
functions  of  animal  life;  this  has,  besides  its 
opening  from  the  mouth,  one  at  the  bottom 
communicating  with  the  general  cavity  of  the 
body,  which  may  be  shut  at  will,  making  a 
closed  sac  where  digestion  is  rapidly  perform 
ed  by  means  of  active  secretions.  The  lower 
cavity  is  divided  by  folds  running  from  the  cir 
cumference  toward  the  centre,  from  top  to 
bottom  of  the  animal,  the  food  circulating 
freely  among  these  partitions  by  the  action  of 
vibratory  cilia  on  their  walls.  Digestion  is 


ACTINIA 


ACTINISM 


75 


here  combined  with  a  kind  of  circulation ;  they 
have  no  blood,  no  vessels,  no  respiration  other 
than  that  effected  by  the  currents  of  water  in 
the  interior,  doubtless  accompanied  by  a 
change  of  substance.  The  surface  of  the  ten 
tacles  is  thickly  studded  with  microscopic  vi- 
bratile  cilia  in  constant  motion,  causing  cur 
rents  which  bring  to  them  their  microscopic 
food,  sweeping  a  space  of  several  inches. 
Each  tentacle  is  a  tube,  with  longitudinal  and 
circular  fibres,  by  which  it  can  be  shortened, 
lengthened,  and  moved  in  all  directions.  Upon 
the  tentacles  are  great  numbers  of  microscopic 
so-called  "lasso  cells,"  each  containing  a  long 
hollow  thread  coiled  spirally  within  it,  which 
can  be  suddenly  thrust  out,  benumbing  and 
arresting  shrimps  and  small  fish  incautiously 
venturing  too  near  these  innumerable  and  in 
visible  threads,  and  enabling  the  tentacles  to 
seize  and  convey  them  to  the  central  mouth. 
Similarly  armed  threads  may  also  be  projected 
from  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  eggs  are  very 
numerous,  being  in  bunches  on  the  inside  of 
the  partitions  until  ready  to  be  hatched,  when 
they  escape  through  the  stomach  and  mouth, 
or  through  the  tentacles,  into  the  water,  giving 


Anthea  Cereus  (Opelet). 

rise  to  creatures  like  themselves,  only  with 
fewer  tentacles,  which  are  in  multiples  of  five. 
The  young  one  has  only  five,  one  in  the  line  of 
the  mouth  and  the  others  in  two  pairs  later 
ally  ;  so  that  even  here  there  is  an  indication 
of  bilateral  symmetry,  with  definition  of  an 
terior  and  posterior  regions.  The  actinia  is 
the  type  of  the  single  polyp,  as  distinguished 
from  the  compound  coral  polyps.  It  preys 
voraciously  on  small  crabs  and  mollusks,  and 
when  waiting  for  its  victims  these  arms  are 
expanded  like  the  petals  of  a  flower,  and,  being 
tinted  with  very  brilliant  colors,  they  present 
an  elegant  appearance.  The  actinia  seizes 
animals  apparently  superior  in  strength  and 
bulk,  engulfs  them  in  its  sac  or  stomach,  and 
distending  itself  to  a  great  degree,  digests  them 
rapidly,  disgorging  the  shells  and  harder  parts 
of  the  victim  when  the  softer  parts  have  been 
consumed.  Some  actiniae  are  fixed,  and  others 
are  free.  The  external  tunic  of  the  body  pre 
sents  both  longitudinal  and  transverse  muscular 
fibres,  covered  by  a  layer  of  skin  or  mucous 
membrane.  Nervous  fibres  have  also  been  de 
tected,  and  the  sensibility  of  the  animal  is  ex 
treme  ;  they  contract  even  when  a  dark  cloud 


passes  over  them.  They  may  be  seen  at  low 
water,  clustered  upon  rocks  and  masses  of 
stone,  which  they  cover,  as  with  flowers. 
There  they  remain  tenaciously  adhering  by 
their  base.  They  are,  however,  capable  of 
moving  from  one  spot  to  another  ;  and  in  win 
ter  they  seek  deeper  water,  where  the  changes 
of  temperature  do  not  affect  them. — The  sea 
anemone  is  very  common  on  the  southern 
shores  of  England  and  on  the  New  England 
coasts ;  and  one  species  (actinia  Jordaica),  on 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  esteemed  a 
j  great  delicacy  by  the  Italians.  The  fringed 
actinia  (metndium\  the  most  common  on  the 
N.  E.  coast  of  North  America,  is,  in  large 
specimens,  about  4  inches  high  and  3  inches 
across  the  expanded  disk.  They  are  found  of  va 
rious  colors,  pink,  brown,  purple,  whitish,  and 
orange,  in  pools  among  the  rocks,  flooded  at 
high  tide,  and  overhung  by  seaweeds.  In  an- 
thea  cereus,  of  the  British  coast,  there  is  no 
power  of  retracting  the  long  tentacles  within 
the  body  ;  the  body  is  of  a  light  chestnut  color, 
and  the  numerous  tentacles  usually  sea-green 
tipped  with  red.  It  is  of  about  the  size  of  our 
fringed  actinia.  —  See  "  British  Sea  Anem 
ones,"  by  Philip  Henry  Gosse  (London,  1860), 
and  u  Coral  and  Coral  Islands,"  by  James  D. 
Dana  (New  York,  1872). 

ACTINISM  (Gr.  burls,  a  ray  of  light),  the  pe^ 
culiar  property  or  force  of  that  portion  of  the 
sun's  rays  which  produces  the  chemical  effects 
shown  in  photography.  That  the  actinic  rays 
are  different  from  those  which  produce  heat  and 
light  was  shown  as  far  back  as  1842  by  Prof. 
J.  W.  Draper  of  New  York,  who  recognized 
in  them  a  new  principle  or  force,  for  which  he 
proposed  the  name  of  tithonicity,  and  for  the 
rays  that  of  tithonic.  The  name  now  adopted 
was  given  by  Mr.  K.  Hunt  of  England.  It  is 
found  that  actinism  does  not  exist  in  the  most 
luminous  rays  of  light,  and  that  these  rays  ac 
tually  tend  to  prevent  the  peculiar  effects  of 
this  force  upon  inorganic  matter.  The  quan 
tity  of  actinism  in  the  sun's  rays  varies  with 
the  time  of  day  and  with  the  seasons.  It 
is  intercepted  by  red,  orange,  and  yellow  glass ; 
hence  photographers  now  use  glass  of  these 
colors  to  admit  light  to  their  so-called  dark 
rooms.  Such  glass  transmits  the  solar  heat, 
while  blue  and  violet  glass,  which  transmit  lit 
tle  or  nothing  of  this  heat,  transmit  the  actinic 
rays.  The  reason  of  this  has  been  explained 
by  experiments  in  taking  photographs  of  the 
solar  spectrum ;  they  proved  that  no  actinism 
exists  in  the  red,  orange,  and  yellow  rays,  that 
it  commences  feebly  in  the  green,  becomes 
stronger  in  the  blue,  and  is  strongest  in  the 
violet ;  but  what  is  remarkable,  it  is  also  found 
to  extend  far  beyond  the  latter  color,  in  the 
dark  space  entirely  outside  the  visible  spec 
trum.  In  photographing  the  spectroscopic 
lines,  it  is  found  that  this  dark  space  contains 
scores  of  them  as  well  as  the  visible  part  of 
the  spectrum,  and  it  appears  that  the  only  rea 
son  that  we  do  not  see  these  ultra-actinic  rays 


76 


ACTINISM 


ACTION" 


is  that  the  liquids  in  our  eyes  cannot  transmit 
waves  of  such  great  velocity ;  when  this  velo 
city  is  decreased  by  throwing  the  spectrum  on 
some  fluorescent  substance,  as  paper,  painted 
with  a  solution  of  quinine,  or  on  uranium  glass, 
the  lines  may  be  rendered  visible.  The  so- 
called  fluorescent  substances  reduce  the  ve 
locity*  of  the  luminous  waves  falling  on  them; 
in  fact,  they  emit  luminous  waves  of  a  less  ve 
locity  than  those  by  which  they  arc  illuminated. 
Mr.  Rutherfurd  of  New  York  has  made  the 
most  elaborate  photographs  of  all  the  lines  in 
the  actinic  portion  of  the  solar  spectrum,  the 
invisible  as  well  as  the  visible,  to  the  number 
of  several  thousand.  A  few  of  these  lines  are 
represented  in  the  spectrum  given  here,  of 


VISIBLE     LINES 


I  N  V  t  S  I  13 1.  E    LIMES 


l| 

I 

ABCD          EF              G            HIKLMNOP 

BED.                             GREEN".                              VIOLET.                                 DARK   SPACE. 

Prismatic  Spectrum  of  Solar  Light 


M 


LUMINOUS    RAYS  ACTINIC     RAYS 

Curves  representing  the  comparative  intensity  of  the  luminous 
and  actinic  rays  in  different  parts  of  the  solar  spectrum. 

which  only  the  portion  from  A  to  H  is  visible, 
while  that  from  II  to  P  is  invisible,  but  may 
be  photographed,  even  to  a  further  extent  than 
is  here  represented.  The  height  of  the  un 
shaded  curve  below  represents  the  intensity  of 
the  light  in  the  corresponding  portion  above, 
while  the  height  of  the  shaded  curve  represents 
the  intensity  of  the  actinic  action.  It  is  seen 
that  while  the  strongest  light  is  in  the  yellow 
between  the  lines  I)  and  E,  there  is  a  total  ab 
sence  of  actinism  here  ;  the  strongest  actinism 
is  founTl  near  the  lines  H,  where  there  is  scarcely 
any  light  left,  so  that  the  spectrum  dwindles 
down  in  darkness  at  that  spot,  while  this  ac 
tinism  extends  about  twice  the  length  of  the 
visible  spectrum. — In  regard  to  the  asserted 
action  of  the  actinic  rays  on  germination  and 
the  growth  of  plants,  the  most  conscientious 
experiments  have  proved  that  only  darkness 
promotes  germination,  and  that  plants  want  for 
their  growth  not  that  light  alone  from  which 
the  heated  rays  have  been  eliminated  by  pass 
ing  it  through  blue  or  violet  glass.  Such  glass 
cannot  increase  the  actinic  power,  but  only  de 
crease  the  light  and  heat,  and  experience  has 
shown  that  most  plants  suffer  decidedly  by  such 
treatment ;  that  the  green  coloring  matter  of 
the  leaves,  of  which  the  chlorophyline  is  the 
most  important,  needs  the  red  rays  for  its  pro 
motion  ;  and  that  all  plants  must,  in  order  to 


prosper,  have  the  benefit  of  the  full  unadulte 
rated  solar  light. 

ACTINOMETER,  the  name  generally  but  im 
properly  applied  to  a  thermometer  intended  to 
measure  the  heat  of  the  solar  rays.  The  first 
so-called  actinometer  was  made  by  Sir  John 
Ilerschel  in  1825,  and  consisted  of  a  thermom 
eter  with  a  large  bulb  filled  with  the  blue 
solution  of  the  ammonia  sulphate  of  copper, 
enclosed  in  a  box  with  plate  glass  on  top. 
When  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  the  expansion 
of  the  liquid  indicates  their  intensity.  The 
instrument  is  nearly  identical  in  its  results 
with  that  of  Pouillet,  which  he  calls  pyrheli- 
ometer.  Recently  an  ordinary  mercurial  ther 
mometer  enclosed  in  a  box,  and  used  alter 
nately  in  the  shade  and  in  sunshine,  was  de 
scribed  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Ilodgkinson  under  the 
name  of  actinometer. — A  true  actinometer  is 
an  instrument  to  measure  the  actinic  or  chemi 
cal  power  of  the  solar  rays.  The  first  contri 
vance  to  effect  this  object  was  the  darkening  of 
a  surface  sensitized  by  chloride  of  silver.  The 
difficulty  here  was  to  make  a  preparation 
which  was  always  uniformly  sensitive.  Dr. 
John  W.  Draper  of  New  York  discovered  the 
important  fact  that  of  a  mixture  of  equal  vol 
umes  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen,  the  amount 
combining  to  form  chlorhydric  acid  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  actinic  intensity  of  the 
light  and  the  time  of  exposure.  lie  made  use 
of  this  property  for  the  purpose  of  practical 
actinornetry;  while  recently  Bunsen  and  Ros- 
coe  have  devised  an  actinometer  based  on  the 
very  same  principle,  and  giving  results  of  the 
most  absolute  scientific  accuracy.  There  are, 
however,  many  other  actions  of  this  kind 
known  in  chemistry  which  may  be  more  con 
veniently  employed.  A  solution  of  chloride 
of  gold  and  oxalic  acid  will  remain  clear  in  the 
dark,  while  gold  is  precipitated  by  exposure  to 
actinic  rays,  the  amount  of  gold  being  propor 
tional  to  the  intensity  of  the  rays  and  the  time 
of  exposure.  See  "  Philosophical  Transactions," 
1859,  p.  879;  1852,  p.  139. 

ACTION,  the  formal  demand  of  one's  right 
from  another  in  a  court.  In  the  Roman  law 
action  is  defined  to  be  either  the  right  which 
one  has  of  seeking  in  a  judicial  tribunal  that 
which  is  his  due,  or  the  pursuit  itself,  or  the 
exercise  of  the  right.  In  our  law  the  pursuit 
of  the  remedy  is  properly  the  action,  and  the 
right  on  which  it  rests  is  the  cause  of  action. 
In  its  usual  sense  the  word  describes  all  the 
proceedings  incident  to  the  demand  of  the 
right,  including  the  adjudication  of  the  court 
upon  it. — As  actions  are  appeals  to  the  supreme 
power  of  the  state,  to  decide  upon  the  matters 
in  controversy  between  the  parties,  they  are, 
except  where  recent  reforms  in  procedure  have 
changed  the  practice,  commenced  by  writs  is 
sued  out  of  courts,  in  the  name  of  the  sov 
ereign,  or  of  the  judges  as  his  representatives, 
calling  upon  the  defendant  to  come  into  court 
and  answer.  Such  writs  still  remain  in  many 
of  the  states  and  in  most  of  the  courts  of  the 


ACTION 


ACTON 


77 


United  States.  But  in  New  York,  and  other 
states  which  have  imitated  its  procedure,  the 
action  is  commenced  by  a  simple  notice  or  sum 
mons  signed  by  the  plaintiff  or  his  attorneys; 
though  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  theory 
of  the  action,  as  invoking  or  setting  in  motion 
the  sovereign  power  of  the  state,  is  in  any  re 
spect  changed. — The  Xew  York  code  defines  an 
action  as  an  ordinary  proceeding  in  a  court  of 
justice,  by  which  one  party  prosecutes  another 
party  for  the  enforcement  or  protection  of  a 
right,  the  redress  or  prevention  of  a  wrong,  or 
the  punishment  of  a  public  offence.  This  def 
inition  suggests  the  chief  division  of  actions, 
namely,  into  civil  and  criminal  actions.  A 
civil  action  may  be  brought  by  a  private  per 
son;  but  in  criminal  actions  in  the  proper 
sense,  namely,  proceedings  for  the  punishment 
of  crimes,  the  state  or  the  people,  that  is,  the 
sovereign  power,  is  the  plaintiff  or  prosecutor. 
An  individual  can  sustain  an  action  which  re 
lates  to  a  criminal  offence  only  when  he  has 
suffered  from  it  some  injury  peculiar  to  him 
self.  Thus  no  private  person,  but  only  the 
people,  can  bring  an  action  for  a  public  nui 
sance  ;  but  if  the  public  wrong  inflicts  a  special 
injury  on  the  individual,  he  may  have  his  pri 
vate  action  for  that.  In  respect  to  the  higher 
grades  of  criminal  offences,  it  is  the  general 
principle  at  least  of  the  law,  though  no  very 
certain  rule  about  the  matter  can  be  given,  es 
pecially  with  reference  to  the  American  law, 
that  the  private  remedy  for  the  especial  injury 
must  be  postponed  until  after  the  individual 
has  done  his  duty  to  the  public  by  setting  afoot 
a  public  prosecution  of  the  crime. — It  is  said, 
in  general  terms,  that  for  every  wrong  the  law 
provides  a  remedy  by  action ;  and,  rightly  un 
derstood,  this  is  true.  But  there  is  not  a 
remedy  or  action  for  every  injury.  It  is  only 
for  those  acts  which  are  injuries  in  the  es 
timation  of  the  law,  or,  in  other  words,  which 
are  wrongs  in  a  legal  sense,  that  the  law  gives 
redress  by  actions.  As  the  Latin  phrase  is, 
there  may  be  damnum  absque  injuria,  that  is 
to  say,  damage  or  injury,  hut  yet  no  legal 
wrong.  So  where  the  harmful  act  is  done  by 
one  in  the  exercise  of  a  function  or  authority 
conferred  by  the  sovereign  power,  and  within 
its  limits^  and  without  any  fault  on  his  part  or 
for  his  personal  benefit,  no  action  lies  against 
him  for  the  injury.  Thus  no  action  will  lie 
against  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  for  an  act 
done  by  him  in  the  exercise  of  his  judicial  of-, 
fice;  and  this  is  true  even  if  he  acts  without 
jurisdiction  in  fact,  unless  he  knew,  or  had  the 
means  of  knowing  and  so  ought  to  have  known, 
the  defect  of  jurisdiction;  and  it  lies  upon 
the  plaintiff  in  any  such  case  to  prove  these  es 
sential  facts.  This  principle  applies  to  the  case 
of  all  persons  intrusted  with  the  performance 
of  public  duties  or  functions,  and  exercising 
them  without  any  personal  emolument,  who, 
without  malice,  negligence,  or  other  fault  in 
the  exercise  of  such  duties,  inflict  injury  upon 
individuals. — No  action  can  be  maintained  by 


a  citizen  against  a  sovereign  without  its  ex 
press  consent ;  therefore,  as  a  rule,  no  suit 
can  be  brought  by  an  individual  against  the 
state  or  the  United  States.  Causes  of  action 
against  these  must  be  presented  by  petition  or 
some  proceeding  of  that '  character.  The 
United  States  receives  demands  of  this  charac 
ter  in  its  court  of  claims.  Nor  will  the  courts 
of  a  state  ordinarily  entertain  actions  against 
foreign  states  or  sovereigns,  for  anything  done 
or  omitted  by  them  in  their  public  character. 
Claims  of  this  sort  are  properly  the  province 
of  diplomatic  negotiation. — As  injuries  are  nu 
merous  and  various,  so  the  character  and  forms 
of  actions  ar-e  manifold.  Many  of  the  old- 
fashioned  forms,  which  made  certain  technical 
tests  essential  to  their  maintenance,  have  been 
wisely  abolished.  It  has  been  attempted  in 
New  York  to  get  rid  of  all  distinctive  forms. 
There,  every  other  than  a  criminal  action  is  a 
civil  action.  There  is  no  other  or  specific 
name  for  it,  and  the  design  of  the  code  is  to 
give  by  this  single  action  every  kind  of  remed) 
or  relief  which  can  be  sought  in  civil  causes 
But  the  characteristics  of  the  old  forms  of  ac 
tions  remain,  nevertheless,  and  as  they  must, 
they  still  determine  the  forms  of  the  one  ac 
tion  ;  so  that  its  characteristic  shapes  are  almost 
as  numerous  as  the  old  forms  of  which  it  has 
extinguished  the  names. 

ACTIOI  (now  La  Punta),  a  promontory  and 
village  in  Acarnania,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Ambracian  gulf,  near  which  Octavius,  afterward 
Augustus,  vanquished  Mark  Antony,  Sept.  2, 
31  B.  C.,  in  a  great  naval  engagement  which 
decided  the  question  of  universal  dominion, 
and  made  the  victor  emperor.  The  generals 
had  nearly  equal  armies  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  bay,  but  these  took  no  part  in  the  combat. 
Octavius  had  200  ships,  Antony  220.  Cleo 
patra  reinforced  Antony  with  GO  ships,  and  he 
imprudently  offered  a  naval  battle  to  Octavius. 
Agrippa,  the  admiral  of  Octavius,  by  a  rapid 
manoevre,  soon  put  to  flight  Cleopatra  with  her 
galleys.  The  voluptuous  Antony  followed  her 
with  a  few  ships.  His  fleet,  deserted  by  its 
leader,  surrendered,  and  his  army  did  the  like 
after  waiting  seven  days  for  his  return. 

ACTON,  Sir  John  Frauds  Edward,  Neapolitan 
prime  minister,  born  in  1736,  died  in  Palermo, 
Aug.  12,  1811.  Ho  has  been  often  erroneously 
called  Joseph,  the  name  of  his  brother.  His 
immediate  ancestors  were  London  merchants, 
descendants  of  an  English  country  gentleman, 
Edward  Acton,  who  was  created  a  baronet  on 
account  of  his  fidelity  to  Charles  I.  Sir  John, 
who  inherited  the  title  in  1791,  was  in  the  naval 
service  successively  of  France,  Tuscany,  and 
Naples,  where  he  became  a  favorite  of  Queen 
Caroline,  and  rose  rapidly  to  the  post  of  pre 
mier  of  King  Ferdinand.  lie  had  intimate 
relations  with  the  English  ambassador  and  his 
wife,  Sir  William  and  Lady  Hamilton,  and  was 
an  inveterate  enemy  of  the  French  revolution. 
His  administration  was  despotic  and  cruel. 
In  1798  he  accompanied  King  Ferdiniiud  in 


78 


ACTON  BURNELL 


ACTS   OF  THE  APOSTLES 


the  expedition  of  the  Austrian  General  Mack 
against  the  French.  He  lost  his  prestige  after 
the  disastrous  result  of  the  campaign,  and  was 
finally  in  1806  ousted  from  power. — His  second 
son,  CHAELES  JAXUARIUS  EDWAKD  (1803-'47), 
became  a  cardinal  in  1842.  Sir  John's  brother, 
JOSEPH  EDWAKD,  was  a  lieutenant  general  in 
the  Neapolitan  service,  and  became  the  pro 
genitor  of  several  distinguished  naval  officers; 
and  the  Italian  minister  of  marine  in  1869-'70, 
Rear  Admiral  GEORGE  ACTON,  and  several  other 
officers  of  the  present  day,  residents  of  Naples, 
are  members  of  the  same  family.  Sir  John 
Francis  Edward  Acton  was  succeeded  as  7th 
baronet  by  his  son  FERDINAND  RICHAKD  EDWARD 
(1801-'37),  who  married  in  Paris  in  1832  the 
only  child  of  the  duke  of  Dalberg,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Dalberg-Acton.  His  widow  be 
came  in  1840  the  wife  of  the  present  Earl 
Granville,  and  died  in  I860. — Sir  JOHN  EME- 
RIO  EDWAKD  DALBERG- ACTON,  born  Jan.  10, 
1834,  studied  from  1850  to  1854  at  the  univer 
sity  of  Munich,  made  then  with  his  stepfather 
Lord  Granville  a  tour  through  the  United 
States,  and  married  in  1865  a  daughter  of 
Count  Arco-Valley  of  Munich,  lie  founded 
in  1861  the  "Home  and  Foreign  Review,"  an 
organ  of  the  liberal  Catholics,  and  edited  in 
1863  Matinees  royales,  a  work  ascribed  to 
Frederick  the  Great,  in  regard  to  which  there 
has  been  much  controversy  in  Germany.  In 
1870  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  Old  Catholic 
movement,  and  has  published  in  its  support, 
in  the  German  language,  Zur  GescliicJite  des 
vaticanischen  Concils  (Munich,  1871).  He  was 
in  1860  elected  member  of  parliament  for  Car- 
low,  Ireland ;  and  again,  as  candidate  of  the 
liberal  party,  in  1865  for  Bridgnorth,  England. 
In  1869  he  w^as  made  a  peer  as  Baron  Acton. 

ACTON  BIRKELL,  an  English  statute,  so 
named  because  the  parliament  at  which  it  was 
passed  was  held  at  Acton  Burnell,  a  little  vil 
lage  in  Shropshire.  The  date  of  the  statute  is 
Oct.  12,  1283.  It  is  the  first  statute  passed 
in  England  enabling  merchants  to  recover 
debts  due  to  them,  and  is  therefore  often  called 
Statutum  Mcrca-torum,  or  statute  of  the  mer 
chants.  By  it  the  mayor  or  the  sheriff  might 
seize  and  sell  the  chattels  and  lands  of  the 
debtor,  or,  if  he  had  no  effects,  might  detain 
him  in  prison  until  the  debt  was  paid,  feeding 
him  meanwhile  on  bread  and  water  if  he  was 
too  poor  to  support  himself,  maintenance 
money  to  be  added  to  the  original  debt.  The 
statute  of  Acton  Burnell  met  with  much  oppo 
sition  from  the  sheriffs.  The  Jews  were  ex 
cluded  from  the  benefits  of  this  liberal  statute, 
which  was  passed  to  encourage  the  settlement 
of  foreign  merchants  in  England.  Barrington 
states  that  a  similar  ordinance  was  not  passed 
in  France  till  1536,  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I. 
The  statute  of  merchants  is  considered  an 
epoch  in  the  social  history  of  the  middle  class 
of  England,  and  indicated  their  growing  power. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  the  fifth  book  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  the  last  of  those  prop 


erly  historical.  It  is  recognized  on  all  sides 
that  the  Acts  were  written  by  the  same  author 
as  the  third  Gospel,  and  the  early  tradition  of 
the  church  was  firm  and  constant  in  ascribing 
them  to  Luke.  Schleiermacher  regarded  the 
book  as  an  aggregate  of  various  reports  by  dif 
ferent  writers,  and  ascribed  the  most  important 
of  these  works,  the  writer  of  which  is  charac 
terized  by  the  use  of  the  word  we,  to  Timo 
thy.  This  view  was  supported  by  De  Wette, 
Bleek,  and  other  critics.  Mayrhoff  (1835)  as 
cribed  the  whole  book  to  Timothy,  while 
Schwanbeck  ( Ueber  die  QueUen  der  Schriften 
des  Lukas,  1847)  assumed  Silas  to  be  the  au 
thor.  The  authenticity  and  canonical  charac 
ter  of  the  book  was  in  the  ancient  church  only 
denied  by  a  few  heretical  sects,  such  as  the 
Ebionites  and  Manichseans,  whose  objections 
were  entirely  of  a  dogmatical,  not  of  an  histor 
ical  character.  Chrysostom,  however,  com 
plains  that  even  in  his  time  the  book  was  not 
so  much  as  known.  In  modern  times  the  crit 
ics  of  the  Tubingen  school,  in  particular  Baur, 
Zeller,  and  Schwegler,  assumed  the  book  to 
have  been  written  in  the  course  of  the  2d  cen 
tury.  Those  who  assert  the  authorship  of  Luke, 
including  Renan,  variously  fix  the  time  of  writ 
ing  between  58  and  80.  The  author  clearly 
indicates  that  for  the  materials  of  the  lat 
ter  part  of  the  book  (xvi.  11  to  xxviii.  31)  he 
has  drawn  upon  his  own  recollection  or  upon 
that  of  the  apostle  Paul.  For  the  first  part 
the  author  is  believed  by  some  writers  of  the 
critical  school  to  have  made  use  of  older  writ 
ings,  and  in  particular  of  the  apocryphal  book 
entitled  "Preaching  of  Peter." — As  regards 
the  design  of  the  Acts,  it  has  long  been  a  prev 
alent  opinion  that  Luke  intended  to  follow  up 
his  history  of  the  life  of  Christ  by  a  narrative 
of  the  establishment  and  early  progress  of  the 
Christian  religion.  The  opinion  of  Hugo  Gro- 
tius  that  this  book  was  intended  to  trace  the 
lives  of  the  two  chief  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul, 
has  found  many  supporters  among  the  theolo 
gians.  According  to  Schneckenburger,  whose 
Ueber  den  Zweck  der  Apostelgcscliiclite  (1841)  is 
the  first  important  work  on  the  subject  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  critical  German  school, 
the  author  wished  to  write  an  apology  of  Paul 
against  his  Judaizing  opponents,  and  to  prove 
that  he  was  in  no  point  interior  to  any  of 
the  other  apostles,  and  in  particular  to  Peter. 
This  theory  was  somewhat  modified  by  Baur, 
the  chief  of  the  Tubingen  school,  who  under 
took  to  show  that  the  Acts  had  been  compiled 
in  the  2d  century  for  the  purpose  of  effecting 
a  reconciliation  of  Petrine  and  Pauline  Christi 
anity.  The  most  important  work  of  the  Tu 
bingen  school  on  the  subject  is  that  of  Zeller, 
Die  Apostelgeschichte  nacli  ihrem  InJialt  und 
Ursprung  kritisch  untersiiclit  (1854),  which 
regards  the  Acts  as  a  book  proceeding  from 
the  Pagan-Christian  party,  and  intended  to 
purchase  the  peace  of  the  church  by  some  con 
cessions  to  tho  Judaizing  Christians.  The  in 
spired  character  of  the  book  has  been  defended 


ACUNA 


ADAL 


TO 


against  the  Tubingen  school  by  Lange,  Thiersch, 
Ebrard,  Schatf,  and  others ;  and  even  writers 
like  Bleek,  Do  Wette,  and  Renan  defend  the 
trustworthy  character  of  the  Acts  as  a  work 
of  history.  The  style  is  purer  than  that  of 
most  other  books  of  the  New  Testament ;  the 
first  part,  however,  contains  a  considerable 
number  of  Hebraisms.  The  Acts  include  the 
history  of  the  Christian  church  from  the  day  of 
Pentecost  to  the  imprisonment  of  Paul  at  Rome. 
With  regard  to  the  dates  of  the  principal 
events  recorded,  there  is  a  wide  difference  of 
opinion.  (See  PAUL.)  Besides  the  works  on 
the  Acts  already  mentioned,  those  by  Leke- 
busch  (Die  Composition  und  EntateJmng  der 
Apostelgeschichte,  1854)  and  by  Trip  (Paulus 
nach  der  ApostelgescTiichte,  1866)  are  of  special 
importance. 

ACUXA,  Cristobal  dc,  a  Spanish  Jesuit  mission 
ary  in  Chili  and  Peru,  born  at  Burgos  in  1597. 
He  was  one  of  the  early  explorers  of  the  Ama 
zons,  being  attached  to  Texeira's  expedition  to 
that  river  (1639-'41),  with  the  special  object 
of  reporting  the  incidents  of  the  explora 
tion.  Acuna  returned  to  Spain  with  an  inter 
esting  narrative  of  it.  which  he  published  at 
Madrid ;  but  the  distraction  of  the  country 
prevented  the  government  from  taking  any  in 
terest  in  the  colonization  of  the  region  to  which 
so  much  energy  and  talent  had  been  devoted. 
He  once  more  went  to  South  America,  and 
died  on  a  journey  from  Panama  to  Lima. 

ACUPUNCTURE  (Lat.  acw,  a  needle,  &n(\.pun- 
gere,  to  prick),  an  operation  introduced  by  the 
Chinese,  who  imagine  that  it  gives  vent  to 
acrid  vapors.  The  needles  employed  by  them 
are  of  gold  or  silver,  manufactured  under  spe 
cial  license  from  the  emperor,  and  their  use 
forms  a  distinct  branch  of  medical  practice. 
Introduced  into  Europe  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century,  the  operation  is  now  but  seldom 
performed  except  to  give  issue  to  fluids  in 
dropsy,  &c.  It  is  advocated  by  some  in  the 
treatment  of  neuralgia,  especially  sciatic,  and  in 
muscular  rheumatism,  acting  in  these  cases  as 
a  counter-irritant.  The  needles  used  are  of 
steel,  2  to  4  inches  long.  Usually  but  one  is 
inserted,  though  sometimes  as  many  as  20  or 
30.  They  are  introduced  to  a  depth  of  one  to 
two  inches  by  simple  pressure,  by  pressure 
with  rotation,  or  by  percussion.  The  length 
of  time  during  which  they  are  allowed  to  re 
main  varies  from  a  minute  to  several  days. 
Instances  are  known  where  they  have  been 
passed  with  impunity  through  vital  organs. 
Infanticide  by  acupuncture  of  the  brain  or  spi 
nal  cord  is  a  well  recognized  crime. 

ADA,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Idaho,  separated 
from  Oregon  by  the  Snake  river  (here  also 
called  the  Saptin) ;  area,  about  2,800  sq.  in.; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,075.  The  county  was  organ 
ized  in  1864.  Mining  is  the  principal  occupa 
tion  of  the  people.  The  total  value  of  prop 
erty  in  1869  was  $1,014,185.  There  are  three 
newspapers.  Capital,  Boise"  City,  which  is 
also  the  capital  of  the  territory. 


AD  AIR.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Kentucky,  inter 
sected  by  Green  river;  area,  450  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  11,065,  of  whom  1,836  wore  colored. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  abounds  in  good  tim 
ber,  and  the  soil  is  moderately  fertile.  The 
productions  in  I860  were  29,513  bushels  of 
wheat,  413,205  of  corn,  24,195  of  oats,  and 
767,395  Ibs.  of  tobacco.  Water  power  is  abun 
dant  and  several  manufactories  are  in  oper 
ation.  Capital,  Columbia.  II.  A  N".  N.  E. 
county  of  Missouri,  intersected  by  Chariton 
river;  area,  570  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,448, 
of  whom  143  were  colored.  The  land  is  undu 
lating  prairie,  suited  to  the  production  of  grass 
and  grain.  In  1860,  554,835  bushels  of  corn 
and  84,353  Ibs.  of  tobacco  were  produced. 
Capital,  Kirksville.  III.  A  S.  W.  county  of 
Iowa;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3.982. 
Middle  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Des  Moines, 
and  the  head  streams  of  Nodaway  river,  run 
through  it.  The  state  road  from  Fort  Des 
Moines  to  Council  Bluffs  also  traverses  the 
county.  Capital,  Fontanelle. 

ADAIR,  Sir  Robert,  a  British  diplomatist,  born 
in  London,  May  24,  1763,  died  Oct.  3,  1855. 
His  father,  Robert  Adair,  was  sergeant-surgeon 
to  George  III.  He  was  distantly  related  to 
Charles  James  Fox,  and  was  early  destined  for 
a  political  career.  He  entered  parliament  in 
1802,  and  w^as  a  strenuous  supporter  of  whig 
politics.  In  1806  Mr.  Fox  sent  him  as  ambas 
sador  to  Vienna,  and  in  1808  Mr.  Canning, 
although  opposed  to  him  in  politics,  sent  him 
on  a  special  mission  to  Turkey,  where  he  nego 
tiated  the  treaty  of  the  Dardanelles,  concluded 
in  1809.  He  remained  at  Constantinople  till 
1811,  having  been  appointed  ambassador  in 
1809.  .  Sir  Robert  Adair  afterward  remained 
out  of  office  till  1831,  when  Lord  Grey  sent 
him  to  Belgium,  soon  after  the  erection  of  that 
country  into  a  kingdom,  and  he  was  prominent 
in  negotiating  peace.  He  retired  from  this  mis 
sion  with  the  rank  of  privy  councillor  in  1835. 
He  left  memoirs  of  his  residence  at  St.  Peters 
burg  and  Vienna,  written  at  the  age  of  82. 

ADAL,  or  Adel,  a  portion  of  the  E.  coast  of 
Africa,  between  the  Abyssinian  highlands  and 
the  Red  sea,  and  extending  from  the  bay  of 
Tajurra  to  Cape  Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  from 
thence  300  m.  along  the  shore  of  the  Red  sea 
to  the  town  and  harbor  of  Massowah;  lat.  11° 
30'  to  15°  40'  N".  It  is  inhabited  by  the  Dana- 
kil  or  Affar,  a  Mohammedan  nation,  from  the 
most  famous  tribe  of  which,  Ad  Alii  or  Adaiel, 
its  name  is  derived.  The  territory  of  Ada! 
varies  from  120  m.  wide  at  the  bay  of  Tajurra, 
to  only  40  m.  opposite  Annesley  bay.  There 
is  a  low  tract  along  the  coast,  which  rises 
gradually  to  a  height  of  2,000  feet  above  the 
sea  in  a  'distance  of  25  or  30  m.,  and  then  the 
ascent  is  very  rapid  to  the  table  land  of  Tigre. 
On  the  highest  terraces  durra  and  barley  are 
cultivated  in  small  patches.  Camels,  mules, 
asses,  goats,  and  sheep  abound,  the  pasturage 
is  generally  good,  and  large  quantities  of  but 
ter  are  annually  sent  to  Massowah,  and  thence 


80 


ADALBERT 


ADAM 


to  Arabia.  Wild  animals  are  numerous,  and 
even  the  lion  and  elephant  are  occasionally 
seen.  A  largo  plain,  called  Ilarho,  is  covered 
with  salt  three  feet  thick,  which  is  not  only 
used  for  culinary  purposes,  but  in  Abyssinia 
as  a  currency.  Adal  is  peopled  by  many  tribes, 
which  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  stock. 
They  are  of  a  dark  brown  color,  muscular  and 
full  in  body,  with  roundish  face,  thick  crisp 
black  hair,  lively  eyes,  lips  thinner  than  those 
of  the  negroes,  and  short  straight  nose,  di 
vided  from  the  forehead  by  an  indentation. 
They  all  live  a  nomadic  life,  travelling  with 
their  flocks  and  herds  from  pasture  to  pasture. 
The  sultan  of  the  Adaicl  resides  at  Tajurra, 
and  the  sultan  of  the  Mudaito  Danakil  at  Aussa, 
near  the  Ilawash,  80  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Tajurra. 
Salt  is  the  onlv  commodity  exported. 

ADALBERT. *  I.  Or  Aldcbert,  a  Frankish  bishop 
and  missionary  to  the  German  pagans  before 
the  middle  of  the  8th  century.  He  was  ac 
cused  of  heresy  by  St.  Boniface,  who  charged 
him  among  other  things  with  collecting  his 
o\vn  hair  and  nails  as  relics.  He  was  con 
demned  by  a  synod  held  in  745,  and  died  in 
prison.  His  disciples  were  styled  Adalbertines, 
or  Aldcbertines.  II.  Saint,  of  Prague,  "  the 
apostle  of  the  Prussians,"  died  in  997.  He 
was  educated  by  the  celebrated  Otherich  at 
Magdeburg.  In  983  he  was  chosen  bishop  of 
Prague.  Discouraged  at  his  failure  to  convert 
the  Bohemians,  he  repaired  to  the  monastery  of 
St.  Alexius  at  Koine.  In  993  he  was  recalled 
to  his  bishopric,  but  after  two  years  became 
again  disgusted  and  left.  In  995  he  baptized 
the  future  St.  Stephen  and  first  king  of  the 
Hungarians  at  Gran.  He  subsequently  went 
to  Poland,  and  thence  to  Prussia,  to  concert 
the  heathen,  by  whom  he  was  murdered.  III. 
Archbishop  of  Bremen  and  Hamburg,  died  at 
Goslar,  March  17,  1072.  He  received  his  office 
in  1043  from  Henry  III.,  whom  in  1046  he  ac 
companied  to  Rome.  There  he  was  a  candi 
date  for  the  papal  throne,  and  barely  failed  in 
the  election.  Pope  Leo  IX.,  in  whose  behalf 
he  had  spoken  in  the  synod  at  Mayence  in  1049, 
made  him  in  1050  his  legate  in  the  north. 
During  the  minority  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV. 
he  usurped,  together  with  Archbishop  llanno 
of  Cologne,  the  administration  of  the  empire. 
He  became  so  obnoxious  to  the  German 
princes,  that  in  1006  they  forcibly  separated 
him  from  the  emperor;  but  in  1069  he  re 
gained  his  power,  and  kept  it  till  his  death. 

ADALBERT,  Hoinrieh  Wilhclm,  a  Prussian 
prince,  first  cousin  of  the  emperor  William, 
commander-in-chief  of  the  German  navy,  born 
Oct.  29,  1811.  He  travelled  in  Europe,  the 
East,  and  Brazil,  and  printed  privately  Ans 
meinem  Peisetafjelmch  (Berlin,  1847),  which 
lias  been  translated  and  published  in  English 
(London,  1848).  He  holds  high  military  rank, 
but  has  devoted  himself  to  naval  affairs,  and 
in  1854  was  made  admiral.  In  1856  he  com 
manded  the  Prussian  corvette  Danzig  on  the 
expedition  against  the  Riff  pirates ;  but  as  the 


Prussians  numbered  only  90  and  the  pirates 
500,  he  was  obliged  to  retire,  losing  24  killed 
and  wounded,  and  being  himself  shot  through 
the  thigh.  In  1864,  during  the  Danish  war, 
he  cruised  with  his  fleet  in  the  Baltic,  and  at 
its  close  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  national  navy.  In  1870  he  visited  the 
English  seaports  with  a  squadron.  During  the 
Franco-German  war  his  ships  took  refuge  in 
Wilhelmshaven,  and  he  observed  the  war  at 
the  German  headquarters. — His  wife,  TIIEEESA 
ELSSLEK,  sister  of  the  celebrated  Fanny,  and 
herself  a  skilful  dancer,  received  the  title  of 
baroness  von  Barnim  on  his  morganatic  mar 
riage  with  her  in  1850.  The  only  offspring  of 
this  union,  Baron  ADALBERT  VON  BAENIM, 
born  in  1841,  died  July  12,  1860,  in  Egypt. 
The  scientific  observations  made  during  his 
journey  to  that  country  were  published  after 
his  death  by  Dr.  Hartrnann,  his  physician 
(Iieise  des  Freinerrn  A.  Ton  Barnim  durch 
NOT dost- Afrika,  Berlin,  1863). 

ADALIA,  or  Sattalieh  (anc.  Attalia  in  Pam- 
phylia),  a  seaport  and  the  largest  town  on  the 
S.  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  gulf  of  Adalia, 
250  m.  S.  E.  of  Smyrna;  pop.  about  12,000,  of 
whom  3,000  are  Greeks.  It  is  the  capital  of 
a  pashalic.  The  town  is  built  in  the  form  of 
an  amphitheatre,  the  ground  rising  to  the 
height  of  about  70  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  double  wrall  with  square  tow 
ers  about  50  yards  apart.  The  chief  trade  is 
in  wool,  cotton,  and  opium.  There  are  some 
important  ancient  remains. 

ADAM,  the  first  man,  the  husband  of  Eve, 
and  father  of  Cain,  Abel,  and  Seth,  and  of 
unnamed  "sons  and  daughters."  Various 
meanings  have  been  ascribed  to  the  name ; 
the  most  generally  recognized  is  earth-born. 
The  history  of  Adam,  in  common  with  that  of 
the  whole  antediluvian  world,  as  contained  in 
Genesis,  is  by  some  treated  as  an  allegory, 
intended  to  convey  to  an  uncultured  people  an 
intelligible  idea  of  the  world's  creation,  and  to 
explain  some  of  the  momentous  questions  in 
volved  in  this  earthly  being.  Others  contend 
for  a  literal  interpretation  of  the  narrative. 
For  Swedenborg's  doctrine  on  the  subject,  see 
XEW  JERUSALEM  CHUECII. 

ADAM,  Adolphc  Charles,  a  French  composer, 
born  in  Paris,  July  24,  1803,  died  May  3,  1856. 
In  1817  he  entered  the  conservatory  in  Paris, 
became  a  skilful  pianist,  and  studied  compo 
sition  under  Reicha  and  Boieldicu.  His  earli 
est  compositions  were  fantasias  and  variations 
for  the  pianoforte.  He  wrote  the  opera  of 
Pierre  et  Catherine  (1829),  and  in  1832  com 
posed  a  ballet  for  London.  His  most  impor 
tant  work  is  the  opera  Le  Postilion  dc  Long- 
jumeciu  (1836).  His  Souvenirs  cPun  musicicn, 
with  his  autobiography,  was  published  in  1857. 

ADAM,  Albrecht,  a  German  painter  of  battle 

pieces,   born   at   Nordlingen,    April   16,   1786, 

died  in  Munich,  Aug.  28,    1862.     He  studied 

painting  at  Nuremberg  under  Conrad  Zweiger. 

!  lie  was  engaged  in  the  Austrian  campaigns 


ADAM 


ADAMS 


81 


against  Napoleon,  and  subsequently  entered  ! 
the  service  of  Eugene  Beauharnais,  viceroy  of  ; 
Italy,  and  painted  the  battle  scene  of  Lobau.  | 
lie  accompanied  Eugene  in  the  campaign  of  j 
1812  as  far  as  Moscow.  After  the  peace  he  pre-  j 
pared  a  series  of  drawings  illustrative  of  Eu-  ; 
gene's  military  career,  now  in  the  Leuchten-  j 
berg  gallery,  St.  Petersburg.  He  also  painted  \ 
several  grand  battle  pieces,  besides  his  Voyage  \ 
pittoresque  militaire  in  120  lithographs,  illus-  j 
trating*the  Russian  campaign.  He  finally  set-  j 
tied  in  Munich,  under  King  Louis,  for  whom  j 
he  painted  the  battle  of  the  Moskva. 

ADAM,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  teacher  and  gram-  , 
marian,  born  in  Murray  shire  in  June,  1741,  died  • 
Dec.   18,  1809.      He  acquired  learning   amid 
difficulties,  and  in  1768  was  appointed  rector 
of  the  high  school  of  Edinburgh,  which  office 
he  filled  for  40  years.     H*  wrote  "Principles 
of  Latin  and  English  Grammar,"  "Roman  An-  } 
tiquities,"  "Summary  of  Geography  and  His 
tory,  both  Ancient  and  Modern,"  and  "Clas 
sical  Biography,"  all  of  which  were  long  in  j 
general  use  in  Europe  and  America. 

ADAM  OF  BREMEN,  a  German  missionary  and  j 
chronicler,  from  1007  canon  and  schoolmaster  ! 
•it  Bremen,  died  there  about  1076.     He  is  the  j 
.utlior  of  Historia  Eeclcsiastica,  which  is  the  | 
principal  literary  authority  respecting  the  north 
ern  nations  of  that  period.     It  is  also  called  j 
Gesta   Hammaburgensis  Ecclesice  Pontificum,  \ 
from  containing  a  chronological  record  of  the 
episcopal  see  of  Hamburg  from  788  to  1072.  j 
A  part  of  his  materials  was  furnished  by  King  j 
Sweyn    Estrithson    (1047-'76)    of    Denmark.  ; 
His  MS.  was  first  discovered  in  a  Danish  mon 
astery,  and  published  at  Copenhagen  in  1579. 
An  improved  and  enlarged  edition  forms  the 
9th  volume  of  Pertz's  Monumenta  Germanics  \ 
Historica,  and  this  became  the  basis  of  Lau-  | 
rent's  German  translation  (Berlin,  1850).  Adam  | 
also  wrote  De  Situ  Danice  (Stockholm,  1615;  j 
Hamburg,  1706;  German,  Bremen,  1825).    As-  j 
mussen  published  at  Kiel,  in  1834,  De  Fontibus 
Adami  Breinemis. 

ADAM  DE  LA  HALLE,  a  trouvere  of  the  13th 
century,  died  at  Naples  about  1286.     He  was  j 
born  at  Arras,  a  town  celebrated  for  its  poets 
and  minstrels,  and  was  surnamed  the  Hunch-  I 
back  of  Arras.     He  went  to  Naples  in  the  suite  i 
of  Robert  II.,  count  of  Artois,  in  1282.     His  \ 
pieces  were  not  merely  songs,  but  of  a  dramatic 
character,  and  he  may  be  considered  one  of  ' 
the  founders  of  the  French  drama.     His  works 
have  been  published  in  various  collections. 

ADAMAWA,  the  Mohammedan  name,  while 
Fumbina  is  the  pagan  one,  of  a  country  of  cen 
tral  Africa  visited  and  described  for  the  first 
time  by  Dr.  Barth  in  the  summer  of  1851.  It 
lies  between  lat.  6°  30'  and  11°  30'  N.,  and 
Ion.  11°  and  16°  E.  It  is  about  200  m.  long 
from  S.W.  to  N.  E. ;  its  breadth  seldom  exceeds 
70  m.  Its  capital  is  Yola,  near  the  N.W.  bor 
der,  a  city  of  about  12,000  inhabitants,  where 
the  governor,  who  owes  allegiance  to  the  Foo- 
lah  sultan  of  Sackatoo,  resides.  It  is  a  Moham- 
VOL.  i. — 6 


medan  sub-kingdom  engrafted  upon  a  mixed 
stock  of  pagan  tribes,  the  conquest  of  the 
valorous  and  fanatic  Foolah  chieftain  Adama 
(whence  the  name  Adamawa)  over  the  great 
pagan  kingdom  of  Fumbina.  The  governor  at 
the  time  of  Barth's  visit  was  Adama's  son. 
The  native  inhabitants  were,  however,  far  from 
being  wholly  subdued,  several  districts  (espe 
cially  that  about  Mount  Alantika,  40  m.  S.  of 
Yola)  being  still  quite  independent  and  con 
stantly  at  war.  It  is  one  of  the  finest  countries 
of  central  Africa,  irrigated  by  numerous  rivers, 
such  as  the  Benuwe,  or  left  branch  of  the 
Quorra  or  Niger,  and  the  Faro,  and  diversified 
with  hill  and  dale.  In  general  it  is  flat,  rising 
gradually  toward  the  south  to  1,500  feet  or 
more,  and  broken  by  separate  hills  or  extensive 
groups  of  mountains.  The  grain  commonly 
grown  in  the  country  is  the  holcus  sorghum. 
Meat  is  so  dear  that  a  goat  will  often  bring 
the  price  of  a  female  slave.  Ground  nuts  are 
plentiful.  The  elephant  is  exceedingly  frequent. 
The  most  singular  animal  is  the  ayu,  a  mammal 
resembling  a  seal,  living  in  the  river,  and  feed 
ing  by  night  on  the  fresh  grass  on  the  river 
banks.  There  is  an  indigenous  variety  of  ox, 
but  quite  a  distinct  species,  not  three  feet  high, 
of  a  dark  gray  color,  called  muturu.  Excel 
lent  iron  is  found.  The  standard  of  value  is 
the  native  cotton,  woven  in  narrow  strips  called 
leppi,  of  about  2^  inches  in  width.  Soap  is  a 
very  important  article  in  any  country  inhab 
ited  by  the  Foolahs,  and  it  is  prepared  in  every 
household.  The  Mohammedan  population  dress 
both  well  and  decently.  The  pagans  wear 
simply  a  narrow  leathern  strap  between  their 
legs  and  fastened  on  their  loins.  There  are 
several  Arab  colonies,  and  Arab  architects  are 
employed  by  the  governor.  Slavery  exists  on 
an  immense  scale,  and  many  private  individu 
als  own  more  than  1,000  slaves.  The  governor 
of  Yola,  who  calls  himself  a  sultan,  receives 
every  year  in  tribute,  besides  horses  and  cattle, 
5,000  slaves.  (See  FOOLAHS.) 

ADAMITES,  a  sect  of  the  second  century,  who 
held  that  the  merits  of  Christ  restored  them 
to  Adamic  innocence.     Consequently,  they  ap- 
|  peared  naked  in  their  assemblies,  and  rejected 
marriage.     They  soon  disappeared,   but  were 
i  revived  in  the  12th  century  by  Tanchelin  at 
!  Antwerp,  who   taught    that    fornication  and 
adultery  were  meritorious,  and  indulged  in  the 
!  most  disgusting  brutalities  in  open  day.     One 
Picard  also  revived  the  sect  in  Germany  at  the 
i  beginning  of  the  15th  century.     It  took  root 
i  in  Bohemia,  where,  in  spite  of  many  persecu- 
1  tions,  it  has  from  time  to  time  reappeared. 

ADAMS,   the  name  of  eight  counties  in  the 
United   States.      I.  A  S.  county  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  on  the  Maryland  border ;  area,  530  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  30,315.     The  head  waters  of 
Monocacy  river  take  their  rise  in  this  county, 
;  and  small  creeks  abound.     Along  the  S.  bor 
der  a  ridge  called  South   Mountain   extends, 
:  and  the  general  surface  of  the  county  is  un- 
j  even.     In  the   South  Mountain,    copper  and 


82 


ADAMS 


Potomac  marble  are  found,  and  the  copper 
mines  have  been  worked  with  some  success. 
In  1870  the  personal  property  was  valued  at 
$1,287,541.  The  crops  in  1870  amounted  to 
494,346  bushels  of  wheat,  757,019  of  corn, 
636,828  of  oats,  33,425  of  rye,  and  1,005,303 
of  potatoes.  The  value  of  animals  slaughtered 
was  $498,545.  The  county  has  numerous  man 
ufacturing  establishments.  Capital,  Gettys 
burg.  II.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Mississippi,  bound 
ed  W.  by  the  Mississippi  river,  which  separates 
it  from  Louisiana,  and  S.  by  the  river  Homo- 
chitto;  area,  440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,084, 
of  whom  14,287  were  colored.  Tlie  land  is 
highly  productive.  The  productions  in  1870 
were  177,307  bushels  of  corn,  26,469  of  sweet 
potatoes,  20,140  bales  of  cotton,  and  3,144 
tons  of  hay.  Capital,  Natchez.  III.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Ohio,  separated  from  Kentucky  by 
the  Ohio  river;  area,  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
20,750.  The  surface  is  hilly  and  well  timbered, 
and  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  especially  adapted 
to  fruit  culture.  The  productions  in  1870  were 
162,677  bushels  of  wheat,  156,073  of  oats,  4,376 
of  barley,  2,123  of  rye,  772,899  of  corn,  39,542 
of  potatoes,  54,208  Ibs.  of  wool,  434,664  of 
butter,  and  $100,828  worth  of  orchard  prod 
ucts.  There  were  16,333  sheep  and  20,352 
hogs,  and  the  value  of  animals  slaughtered  was 
$308,181).  In  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  county, 
near  the  river,  are  valuable  quarries  and  iron 
mines.  Capital,  West  Union.  IV.  An  E. 
county  of  Indiana,  bordering  on  Ohio ;  area, 
324  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,382.  It  is  drained 
by  the  Wabash  and  St.  Mary's  rivers.  Forests 
of  oak,  beech,  ash,  hickory,  and  elm  cover  a 
large  portion  of  the  county.  The  soil  is  pro 
ductive  and  the  surface  nearly  level.  The  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  172,331  bushels  of  wheat, 
96,168of  corn,  88,697of  oats,  12,408  tons  of  hay, 
227,303  Ibs.  of  butter,  32,847  of  cheese,  and  62,- 
957  of  wool.  Capital,  Decatur.  V.  A  W.  county 
of  Illinois,  separated  from  Missouri  by  the  Mis 
sissippi  river;  area,  760  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
56,862.  The  Quincy  and  Eastern  and  the 
Quincy  and  Chicago  railroads  run  through  the 
county,  and  the  Illinois  and  Southern  Iowa 
railroad  forms  a  junction  with  the  Quincy  and 
Eastern  within  its  limits.  Bear  creek,  an  afflu 
ent  of  the  Mississippi,  drains  the  N.  W.  part. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  covered  with 
forests,  the  soil  rich  and  to  a  great  extent  cul 
tivated.  The  products  in  1870  were  1,452,905 
.bushels  of  corn,  963,807  of  wheat,  759,074  of 
.oats,  and  104,855  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were 
26,949  sheep  and  56,442  hogs.  Value  of  animals 
slaughtered,  $1,103,518.  there  are  many  manu 
facturing  establishments.  Capital,  Quincy.  VI. 
A  S.  W.  county  of  Iowa ;  area,  432  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  4,614.  It  is  drained  by  the  Nodaway 
river  and  several  of  its  head  "streams.  The 
Burlington  and  Missouri  River  railroad  runs 
through  it.  In  1870  the  county  produced 
60,716  bushels  of  wheat,  253,261  of  corn,  40,- 
327  of  oats,  and  16,905  Ibs.  of  wool.  Capital, 
'Quincy.  VII.  A  S.  central  county  of  Wiscon 


sin,  bounded  W.  and  S.  W.  by  the  Wisconsin 
river,  and  drained  by  its  affluents;  area,  050 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,601.  Large  forests 
cover  the  county,  and  large  quantities  of  lum 
ber  are  cut  and  rafted  down  the  Wisconsin. 
Water  power  is  abundant.  The  products  in 
1870  were  123,454  bushels  of  wheat,  114,320 
of  corn,  88,831  of  oats,  and  60,701  of  rye. 
Capital,  Quincy.  VIII.  A  new  county  in  S. 
Nebraska,  bounded  1ST.  by  the  Platte  river  and 
drained  by  the  Little  Blue;  pop.  in  1870,  19. 

ADAMS,  a  township  of  Berkshire  county, 
Mass.,  on  both  sides  of  the  Hoosac  river ; 
pop.  in  1870,  12,090.  There  are  four  villages 
in  the  town :  North  Adams,  South  Adams, 
Maple  Grove,  and  Blackington.  In  its  vicinity 
are  a  notable  natural  bridge  across  Hudson's 
brook,  and  Saddle  mountain  or  Mt.  Greylock, 
which  has  an  elevation  of  3,600  feet,  and  is 
the  highest  point  in  Massachusetts.  The  west 
ern  terminus  of  the  Iloosac  tunnel  is  at  North 
Adams,  and  the  Troy  and  Boston  and  Pitts- 
field  and  North  Adams  railroads  terminate 
here.  Manufactures  form  the  leading  interest. 
In  1865  there  were  in  the  town  11  cotton 
mills,  with  45,072  spindles,  employing  332 
males  and  429  females;  6  woollen  mills,  with 
44  sets  of  machinery,  employing  440  males  and 
392  females;  2  print  works,  printing  8,925,- 
000  yards  of  calico  yearly,  and  employing  150 
males  and  21  females;  4  balmoral-skirt  facto 
ries,  and  2  paper  mills.  Two  weekly  news 
papers  and  a  semi-monthly  are  published  in 
North  Adams.  The  experiment  of  Chinese 
labor  has  recently  been  successfully  made  in 
North  Adams.  In  1870  there  were  75  China 
men  employed  in  that  village  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  boots  and  shoes.  By  the  contract 
made  in  San  Francisco,  the  Chinamen  were 
engaged  for  three  years.  They  are  represented 
as  being  of  quiet  habits,  industrious,  skilful, 
and  eager  to  learn  in  the  evening  schools  pro 
vided  for  them.  The  town  contains  35  schools, 
of  which  two  are  high  schools. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Baker,  an  American  chem 
ist  and  zoologist,  born  in  Dorchester,  Mass., 
Jan.  11,  1814,  died  in  St.  Thomas,  Jan. 
19,  1853.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  college, 
and  was  associated  with  Professor  Edward 
Hitchcock  in  a  geological  survey  of  New  York. 
In  1837  he  became  tutor  in  Amherst  college, 
and  in  1838  was  chosen  professor  of  chemistry 
and  natural  history  in  Middlebury  college,  Yt., 
but  in  1847  returned  to  be  a  professor  at  Am 
herst.  In  1845,  1846,  and  1847  he  was  en 
gaged  in  a  geological  survey  of  Vermont.  Be 
tween  1844  and  1851  he  made  journeys  to  Ja 
maica  and  other  parts  of  the  West  Indies,  for 
scientific  purposes.  He  wrote  "  Contributions 
to  Conchology,"  "Monograpbs  of  Several  Spe 
cies  of  Shells,"  and  other  treatises.  Not  long 

|  before  his  death  he  published  a  useful  work  OD 

|  elementary  geology,  in  which  he  was  assisted 

I  by  Professor  Gray  of  Brooklyn. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis,  an  American  states- 

:  man,  the  only  child  of  John  Quincy  Adams 


CHARLES   FRANCIS   ADAMS 


83 


who  survived  him,  born  in  Boston,  Aug.  18, 
1807.  At  the  age  of  two  years  he  was  taken 
by  his  father  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he 
passed  the  next  six  years  and  learned  to  speak 
Russian,  German,  and  French.  In  February, 
1815,  he  made  the  journey  with  his  mother  in 
a  private  carriage  from  St.  Petersburg  to 
Paris,  to  meet  his  father  there — in  the  then 
disturbed  state  of  Europe  no  slight  under 
taking.  He  accompanied  his  father  on  his 
mission  to  England,  and  being  placed  at  a 
boarding  school,  according  to  the  fisticuff 
usages  then  if  not  still  in  vogue  in  English 
schools,  he  was  obliged  to  fight  his  English 
schoolfellows  in  defence  of  the  honor  of  Amer 
ica.  In  1817  he  returned  with  his  father  to 
America,  and  was  placed  in  the  Boston  Latin 
school,  whence  he  entered  Harvard  college, 
where  he  graduated  in  1825.  The  next  two 
years  he  passed  at  Washington  with  his  father, 
who  was  then  president,  but  in  1827  returned 
to  Massachusetts  and  pursued  the  study  of  the 
law  in  the  office  of  Daniel  Webster.  In  1828 
he  was  admitted  to  the  Boston  bar,  but  never 
has  engaged  actively  in  practice.  In  1829  he 
married  the  youngest  daughter  of  Peter  C. 
Brooks,  a  Boston  merchant — a  connection 
which  also  made  him  a  brother-in-law  of  Ed 
ward  Everett.  The  next  year  he  was  nomi 
nated  a  representative  from  Boston  to  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  but  declined.  This 
did  not  please  his  father,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  accepted  the  nomination  the  next 
year,  and  served  in  the  house  for  the  succeed 
ing  three  years,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the 
senate,  in  which  he  served  two  years.  By 
this  time  Mr.  Adams  began  to  differ  on  several 
points  with  the  leaders  of  the  whig  party,  with 
which  he  had  hitherto  acted.  In  1848  he  was 
selected  by  the  newly  organized  free-soil  party 
as  their  candidate  for  the  vice-presidency, 
along  with  ex-president  Van  Buren  as  candi 
date  for  the  presidency.  In  the  autumn  of 
1858  he  was  chosen  a  representative  to  Con 
gress  by  the  third  district  of  Massachusetts, 
and  took  his  seat  in  December,  1859.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  joint  committee  on  the  li 
brary,  and  chairman  of  the  house  committee 
on  manufactures,  which  latter  had  but  little 
to  do,  the  time  and  thoughts  of  members  being 
occupied  with  more  exciting  subjects.  Mr. 
Adams  watched  with  careful  attention  the 
course  of  events,  and  on  the  last  day  of  May, 
1860,  addressed  the  house  in  a  forcible  speech, 
vindicating  the  policy  of  the  republican  party. 
In  the  interval  between  the  two  sessions  of  his 
congressional  service,  Mr.  Adams,  in  company 
with  Mr.  Seward,  made  a  journey  in  some  of 
the  northwestern  states,  and  made  several 
speeches  in  support  of  Mr.  Lincoln  for  the 
presidency.  On  the  day  after  the  meeting  of 
the  second  session  of  the  thirty-sixth  congress, 
so  much  of  the  president's  message  as  related 
to  the  condition  of  the  country  was  referred  to 
a  special  committee  of  one  from  each  state. 
Mr.  Adams  was  the  member  for  Massachu 


setts.  This  committee  finally  reported  a  scries 
of  resolves  disavowing  on  the  part  of  the  free 
states  any  right  to  interfere  with  slavery  in 
the  slave  states;  a  bill  for  the  admission  of 
New  Mexico,  leaving  it  to  the  inhabitants  to 
allow  or  exclude  slavery  as  they  might  decide ; 
and  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  forbid 
ding  all  interference  on  the  part  of  congress 
with  slavery  in  these  states.  The  bill  for  the 
admission  of  New  Mexico  was  rejected,  but 
the  other  two  measures  were  passed  in  the 
house  by  large  majorities.  Mr.  Adams  sup 
ported  them  all,  and  gave  his  reasons  for  so 
doing  in  a  speech  delivered  Jan.  31,  1861.  In 
1861  he  was  appointed  by  President  Lincoln 
minister  to  England,  in  place  of  Mr.  Dallas. 
Mr.  Adams  arrived  in  London  and  assumed  his 
duties  about  the  middle  of  May.  These  duties 
were  most  arduous.  With  a  few  exceptions, 
the  feeling  alike  of  the  ruling  and  the  commer 
cial  classes  of  England  was  either  unfriendly  to 
us  or  indifferent.  Mr.  Adams  had  to  maintain 
the  rights  of  his  country  with  unbending  firm 
ness,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  his  spirit 
under  perfect  rule,  as  any  explosion  of  ill 
temper  or  any  expression  of  irritation  would 
have  been  turned  to  the  disadvantage  alike  of 
himself  and  his  country.  In  the  many  discus 
sions  he  had  with  the  British  ministry  he 
showed  a  complete  knowledge  alike  of  inter 
national  law  and  of  the  history  of  his  own 
country,  as  well  as  discretion,  tact,  and  good 
temper.  His  influence  as  a  public  man  was  in 
creased  by  his  social  qualities,  his  agreeable 
conversation,  and  his  familiarity  with  the 
whole  range  of  English  literature.  When  in 
1868,  after  an  absence  of  seven  years,  he  re 
turned  home,  Mr.  Adams  left  England  with  the 
respect  of  every  man  who  had  been  brought 
into  official  relations  with  him,  and  with  a 
large  amount  of  warm  personal  regard.  In 
December.  1870,  he  pronounced  before  the 
New  York  historical  society  a  discourse  on 
American  neutrality,  which  has  been  printed. 
Upon  the  ratification  by  England  and  America 
of  the  treaty  of  Washington  for  the  settlement 
of  the  claims  of  each  country  against  the  other 
growing  out  of  the  civil  war,  Mr.  Adams  was 
selected  by  the  president  as  the  American  ar 
bitrator,  and  upon  that  duty  sailed  for  Europe 
in  November,  1S71. — Mr.  Adams  has  been  a 
contributor  to  the  "North  American  Review" 
and  the  "Christian  Examiner,7' and  between 
1845  and  1848  vras  the  editor  of  a  political 
daily  paper  at  Boston,  by  which  he  contributed 
to  prepare  the  way  for  the  present  republican 
party.  He  is  principally  known,  however,  as 
the  editor  of  his  grandfather's  collected  writ 
ings,  published  in  ten  volumes,  the  ilrst  volume 
containing  a  life  of  "John  Adams  written  by 
him.  The  same  duty  which  Mr.  Adams  has 
performed  for  his  grandfather,  he  intends  to 
perform  for  his  father,  for  the  execution  of 
which  he  possesses  abundant  and  most  val 
uable  materials. — Jo'in  Qnincy,  eldest  son  of 
the  preceding,  a  lawyer  and  politician,  born  in 


84: 


EDWIN  ADAMS 


JOHN  ADAMS 


Boston,  Sept.  22,  1833.  He  was  fitted  for  col-  | 
lege  at  the  Latin  school,  and  graduated  at  liar-  j 
vard  college  in  1853.  In  1855  he  was  admitted  j 
to  the  bar,  and  has  ever  since  had  a  moderate  j 
professional  practice,  principally  in  Quincy,  his 

El  ace  of  residence.  lie  was  an  earnest  repub- 
can  during  the  civil  war,  and  served  on  Gov. 
Andrews's  staff.  In  1866  he  was  chosen  repre 
sentative  to  the  legislature  from  the  town  of 
Quincy.  In  1867,  having  avowed  his  adhesion 
to  the  policy  of  President  Johnson,  he  was 
nominated  for  reelection  by  the  democrats  and 
defeated.  The  same  year  he  was  also  the  demo 
cratic  candidate  for  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
with  the  same  result.  In  1869  he  was  again 
chosen  to  the  legislature,  and  for  the  third 
time  in  1870.  In  the  autumn  of  1871  he  was 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  offices  of 
governor  and  representative.  In  the  course 
of  his  public  career  Mr.  Adams  has  had  occa 
sion  to  make  many  speeches,  which  were  re 
markable  for  manly  independence  and  vigorous 
statement.  In  the  Massachusetts  house  of 
representatives,  as  leader  of  a  hopeless  minor 
ity,  he  secured  in  a  high  degree  the  respect 
of  his  political  opponents.  —  Charles  Francis, 
Jr.,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Boston, 
May  27,  1835,  graduated  at  Harvard  college 
in  1856,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
practice  in  1858.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  of  secession  he  obtained  a  commission 
in  the  first  regiment  of  Massachusetts  cavalry, 
and  served  throughout  the  war.  He  was  suc 
cessively  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain,  lieu 
tenant  colonel,  and  colonel,  and  led  his  regi 
ment,  the  fifth  Massachusetts  cavalry  (colored), 
into  Richmond,  April  3,  1865,  when  that  city 
was  occupied  by  the  United  States  troops.  In 
July,  1865,  he  was  mustered  out  of  service 
with  the  brevet  rank  of  brigadier  general. 
Upon  his  return  to  civil  life  he  became  an  ac 
tive  contributor  to  the  "  North  American  Re 
view,"  writing  chiefly  on  topics  connected  with 
the  development  of  the  railroad  system.  In 
1869  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  board 
of  railroad  commissioners  of  Massachusetts. 
In  1871,  in  connection  with  his  brother,  Prof. 
Henry  Brooks  Adams,  he  published  a  collected 
volume  of  writings  under  the  title  of  "  Chap 
ters  of  Erie,  and  other  Essays.'1  —  Henry 
Brooks,  brother  of  the  preceding,  and  third 
son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams,  born  in  Boston, 
Feb.  16,  1838,  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1858.  He  resided  in  London  as  his  father's 
private  secretary  during  the  latter's  term  of 
service  as  minister  to  England.  In  1870  he 
was  appointed  assistant  professor  of  history  in 
Harvard  college  and  became  editor  of  the 
"North  American  Review." 

ADAMS,  Edwin,  an  American  actor,  born  in 
Medford,  Mass.,  Feb.  3,  1834.  Since  1853, 
when  he  made  his  first  appearance  upon  the 
stage  in  Boston,  he  has  acted  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States,  acquiring  a  consid 
erable  reputation  both  as  a  light  comedian 
and  a  personator  of  serious  characters.  Dur 


ing  the  season  of  1869-'70  he  acted  in  con 
junction  with  Edwin  Booth  in  New  York  in 
several  of  Shakespeare's  plays. 

ADAMS,  Hannah,  one  of  the  earliest  female 
writers  in  America,  born  at  Medfield,  near 
Boston,  in  1755,  died  at  Brookline,  Mass., 
Nov.  15,  1832.  She  showed  at  an  early  age  a 
fondness  for  study,  and  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  Greek  and  Latin  from  some  divinity  stu 
dents  boarding  with  her  father.  During  the 
revolutionary  war  she  supported  herself  by 
making  lace,  and  afterward  by  teaching.  Her 
"View  of  Religious  Opinions  "  (1784)  and  her 
"  History  of  New  England"  (1799)  were  both 
successful.  Her  next  work  was  u  Evidences 
of  Christianity  "  (1801).  Her  writings  brought 
her  little  pecuniary  profit;  yet  they  secured 
her  many  friends,  among  them  the  Abbe  Gre- 
goire,  with  whom  she  carried  on  a  correspon 
dence,  through  which  he  aided  Her  in  prepar 
ing  her  "History  of  the  Jews"  (1812).  Dur 
ing  the  closing  years  of  her  life  she  enjoyed  an 
annuity  provided  by  some  friends  in  Boston. 
She  was  the  first  person  whose  remains  were 
interred  in  Mt.  Auburn  cemetery. 

ADAMS,  John,  second  president  of  the  United 
States,  born  Oct.  19,  1735  (O.  S.),  in  that  part 
of  the  town  of  Braintree,  Mass.,  on  the  S.  shore 
of  Boston  harbor,  and  some  ten  miles  distant 
from  Boston,  which  has  since  been  erected 
into  the  town  of  Quincy,  where  he  died,  July 
4,  1826.  He  was  great-grandson  of  Henry 
Adams,  who  emigrated  from  England  about 
1640,  with  a  family  of  eight  sons,  becoming 
one  of  the  early  settlers  in  Braintree,  where  he 
had  a  grant  of  40  acres  of  land.  The  father  of 
John  Adams,  a  deacon  of  the  church  and  se 
lectman,  was  a  farmer  of  limited  means,  to 
which  he  added  the  business  of  shoemaking. 
He  was  enabled,  however,  to  give  a  classical 
education  to  his  eldest  son  John,  who  gradu 
ated  at  Harvard  college  in  1755,  and  at  once 
took  charge  of  the  grammar  school  in  Worces 
ter,  Mass.  The  war  with  France  for  the  pos 
session  of  the  western  country  was  then  at  its 
height ;  and  in  a  remarkable  letter  to  a  young 
friend,  which  contains  some  curious  prognos 
tications  as  to  what  would  be  in  a  hundred 
years  the  relative  population  and  commerce 
of  England  and  her  colonies,  young  Adams 
describes  himself  as  having  turned  politician. 
His  school  he  found  but  "a  school  of  afflic 
tion,"  from  which  he  endeavored  to  gain  re 
lief  by  devoting  himself,  in  addition,  to  the 
study  of  the  law.  For  this  purpose  he  placed 
himself  under  the  tuition  of  the  only  lawyer 
of  whom  Worcester,  though  the  shire  town 
of  the  county,  could  then  boast.  He  had 
thought  seriously  of  the  clerical  profession,  but, 
according  to  his  own  expressions  in  a  contem 
porary  letter,  "  the  frightful  engines  of  eccle 
siastical  councils,  of  diabolical  malice,  and 
Calvinistic  good  nature,"  of  the  operation  of 
which  he  had  been  a  witness  in  some  church 
controversies  in  his  native  town  of  Braintree, 
had  "terrified  him  out  of  it."  Already  he 


JOHN  ADAMS 


85 


had   longings   for   distinction.      Nothing   but  ' 
want  of  interest  and  patronage  prevented  him 
from   enlisting  in  the  army.     Could  he  have 
obtained   a  troop  of  horse,  or  a  company  of 
foot,  he  would,  so  one  of  his  published  letters 
declares,  infallibly  have  been  a  soldier.     After 
two  years'  study  at  Worcester  he  returned  to 
his  father's  house  in  Braintree,   and  in    1758 
commenced  life  in  Suffolk   county,  of  which 
Boston  was  the  shire  town.     He  gradually  in 
troduced   himself  into  practice,   and  in    1764 
married  Abigail  Smith,  a  daughter  of  the  min-  ; 
ister  of  the  neighboring  town  of  Weymouth,  ' 
and  whose  connections  occupied  a  social  posi-  ! 
tion  superior  to  that  of  Mr.  Adams's  own  fam 
ily.     What  was  still  more  to  the  purpose,  she  • 
was  a  lady  of  superior  abilities  and  good  sense,  ; 
and  admirably  adapted  to  make  him  happy.  ! 
Very  shortly  after  his  marriage,  the  attempt 
at  parliamentary  taxation  diverted  him  from 
law  to  politics.      He  promoted  the  call  of  a 
to\vn   meeting   in  Braintree,  to  instruct   the  I 
representatives  of  the  town  on  the  subject  of 
the  stamp  act ;  and  the  resolutions  which  he 
presented  at  this  meeting  were  not  only  voted 
by  the  town,  but   attracted   great   attention 
throughout   the  province,   and  were    adopted  i 
word  for  word  by  more   than   forty  different 
towns.     Yet  Adam^,  as  appears  by  his  pub-  | 
lished    diary,  was  somewhat  alarmed  at  the  \ 
violence  of  the  mob  in  destroying  the  furniture 
of  Oliver,  the  stamp  distributor,  and  of  Gov-  '' 
ernor  Hutchinson,  and  not  a  little  vexed,  as 
well  as  alarmed,  at  the  interruption  to  his  own 
business  caused  by  the  refusal  of  the  judges  to  ; 
go  on  without  stamps.     He  was  somewhat  con 
soled,    however,    by   an  unexpected   appoint 
ment  on  the  part  of  the  town  of  Boston  to  be  \ 
one  of  their  counsel  along  with  Jeremiah  Grid-  | 
ley,  the  king's  attorney  and  head  of  the  bar,  ! 
and  James  Otis,  the  celebrated  orator,  to  sup-  I 
port   a   memorial    addressed  to  the  governor  ; 
and   council   that   the   courts  might   proceed  | 
with  business,  though  no  stamps  were  to  be 
had.     It  fell  to  Adams,  as  junior  counsel,  to  | 
open  the  case  for  the  petitioners,  and  he  bold 
ly  took  the  ground — in  which  his  two  seniors,  ! 
the  one  from  his  position,  the  other  from  his  ' 
committals  in  his  recently  published  book  on  ! 
the  "Rights  of  the  Colonies,"  were  prevented 
from  following  him — that  the  stamp  act  was  ! 
absolutely  void,  parliament  having  no  right  to  j 
tax  the  colonies.     Nothing,  however,  came  of 
this  application ;  the  governor  and  council  de-  j 
clined  to  act,  on  the  ground  that  it  belonged 
to  the  judges,  not  to  them,  to  decide.     The 
repeal  of  the  stamp  act  soon  put  an  end  to  the  ' 
suspension  of  business,  which  indeed  had  only 
extended   to   the  superior  court,  the  inferior 
courts  going  on  without  stamps.     It  was  on 
this  same  occasion  that  Mr.  Adams  first  made 
his  appearance  as  a  writer  in  the  "  Boston  Ga 
zette."     Among  other  papers  of  his  was  a  se 
ries  of  four  articles,  which  were  republished  in 
a  London  newspaper,  and  subsequently  in  a 
collection  of  documents  relating  to  the  taxa 


tion  controversy,  printed  together  in  a  vol 
ume.  The  papers  as  originally  published  had 
no  title;  in  the  printed  volume  they  were 
called  an  "Essay  on  the  Canon  and  Feudal 
Law."  They  began  indeed  with  some  refer 
ence  to  these  subjects,  but  might  with  much 
more  propriety  have  been  entitled  an  "Essay 
on  the  Government  and  Rights  of  New  Eng 
land."  Mr.  Adams's  style  was  formed,  as  is 
evident  from  these  pieces,  from  the  moment 
he  began  to  write.  They  may  be  found  in  his 
collected  works,  edited  by  his  grandson.  Mr. 
Adams's  law  business  continued  gradually  to 
increase,  and  in  1768  he  removed  to  Boston. 
In  that  and  the  next  year  he  was  one  of  the 
committee  to  draft  instructions  to  the  repre 
sentatives  of  the  town — a  duty  which  the  com 
mittee  intrusted  to  him,  though  he  refused  to 
attend  and  speak  at  town  meetings.  In  1770 
he  was  chosen  a  representative  to  the  general 
court,  notwithstanding  he  had  just  before  ac 
cepted  a  retainer  to  defend  Captain  Preston 
and  his  soldiers  for  their  share  in  what  was 
known  as  the  "Boston  Massacre" — a  defence 
conducted  with  success,  in  spite  of  the  strong 
prejudices  which  it  had  to  encounter.  Adams's 
duties  as  representative  interfered  greatly  with 
his  business  as  a  lawyer,  on  which  he  depended 
for  support,  and  which  by  this  time  had  grown 
to  be  greater  than  that  of  any  other  lawyer  in 
the  province.  But  he  entered  with  his  cus 
tomary  energy  upon  his  new  office,  becoming 
the  chief  legal  adviser  of  the  patriot  party,  and 
now  for  the  first  time  an  active  and  conspicu 
ous  leader  among  them.  Partly  perhaps  to 
escape  this  leadership,  and  the  loss  of  time,  the 
labor,  and  responsibilities  which  it  imposed,  as 
well  as  to  regain  his  health,  which  began  to 
suffer,  Mr.  Adams  removed  his  residence  back 
to  Braintree,  resigning  his  seat  in  the  legisla 
ture,  but  still  retaining  his  law  office  in  Boston. 
A  comparative  lull  in  politics  for  two  or  three 
years  made  his  presence  in  the  legislature  less 
indispensable,  but  still  as  to  all  the  most  im 
portant  matters  of  controversy  with  Governor 
Hutchinson  he  was  consulted  and  gave  his  aid. 
Indeed,  it  was  not  long  before  he  again  moved 
back  to  Boston,  though  still  resolving  to  avoid 
politics  and  to  devote  himself  to  his  profession. 
He  wrote  soon  after  a  series  of  letters  in  a 
newspaper  (republished  in  his  collected  works, 
vol.  iii.)  on  the  then  mooted  question  of  the 
independence  of  the  judiciary,  and  the  payment 
by  the  crown  of  the  salaries  of  the  judges. 
Soon  afterward  he  was  elected  by  the  general 
court  to  the  provincial  council,  but  was  nega- 
'  tived  by  Governor  Hutchinson.  The  destruc 
tion  of  the  tea  and  the  Boston  port  bill,  that 
followed,  soon  brought  matters  to  a  crisis. 
These  events  produced  tjie  congress  of  1774. 
'  Mr.  Adams  was  chosen  one  of  the  five  dele- 
:  gates  from  Massachusetts,  and  his  visit  to  Phil- 
|  adelphia  on  this  business  was  the  first  occasion 
:  of  his  going  beyond  the  limits  of  New  England. 
;  In  the  discussions  in  the  committee  on  the  dec- 
!  laration  of  colonial  rights,  he  took  an  acti  ve  part 


8G 


JOUST  ADAMS 


in  favor  of  resting  those  rights  upon  the  law  of 
nature  as  well  as  the  law  of  England ;  and 
after  the  substance  of  the  resolutions  had  been 
agreed  upon,  he  was  appointed  to  put  them 
into  shape.  In  his  diary,  published  in  the 
second  volume  of  his  collected  works,  and  his 
contemporaneous  letters  written  to  his  wife 
and  published  by  his  grandson,  the  most  trust 
worthy  and  graphic  descriptions  are  to  be 
found  of  the  members  and  doings  of  that  famous 
but  little  known  body.  The  session  concluded, 
Mr.  Adams  left  Philadelphia  with  no  expec 
tation,  as  he  said  at  the  time,  of  ever  seeing 
it  again.  Immediately  on  his  return  to  Mas 
sachusetts  he  was  chosen  by  the  town  of 
Braintree  a  member  of  the  provincial  con 
gress  then  in  session.  That  congress  had 
already  appointed  a  committee  of  safety,  vest 
ed  with  general  executive  powers;  had  seized 
the  provincial  revenues;  had  appointed  gen 
eral  officers,  collected  military  stores,  and 
taken  steps  toward  organizing  an  army  of  vol 
unteer  minutemen.  Governor  Gage  had  issued 
a  proclamation  denouncing  these  proceedings, 
but  no  attention  was  paid  to  it.  Gage  had  no 
support  except  in  the  live  or  six  regiments 
which  formed  the  garrison  of  Boston,  a  few 
trembling  officials,  and  a  small  minority  of 
timid  adherents;  while  the  recommendations 
of  the  provincial  congress  had,  by  the  common 
consent  of  the  people,  all  the  force  of  law. 
Shortly  after  the  adjournment  of  this  congress, 
Adams  applied  himself  to  answering  through 
the  newspapers  a  champion  of  the  mother 
country's  claim,  who,  under  the  nom  de  plume 
of  "Massachusettensis,"  had  commenced  a  se 
ries  of  able  and  effective  papers  in  a  Boston 
journal,  and  to  whom  Adams  replied  under  the 
signature  of  "Novanglus."  These  essays  ap 
peared  weekly  during  the  winter  of  1774-'o,  but 
were  cut  short  by  the  battle  of  Lexington.  An 
abridgment  of  them  was  published  in  Almon's 
"Remembrancer"  for  1775,  under  the  title  of 
"  A  History  of  the  Dispute  with  America,"  and 
afterward  in  a  separate  pamphlet.  They  have 
also  been  twice  reprinted  entire  in  America, 
and  are  given  in  the  4th  volume  of  Adams's 
collected  works.  Their  value  consists  in  the 
strong  contemporaneous  view  which  they  pre 
sent  of  the  origin  of  the  struggle  between  the 
colonies  and  the  mother  country,  and  of  the 
policy  of  Bernard  and  Ilutchinsoii  as.  governors 
of  Massachusetts,  which  did  so  much  to  bring 
that  struggle  on.  Like  all  Mr.  Adams's  writ 
ings,  they  are  distinguished  by  a  bold  tone  of 
investigation,  a  resort  to  first  principles,  and  a 
pointed  style ;  but,  like  all  his  other  writings, 
having  been  produced  piecemeal  and  on  the 
spur  of  the  moment,  they  lack  order,  system, 
polish,  and  precision.  .  In  the  midst  of  the  ex 
citement  produced  by  the  battle  of  Lexington — 
which  at  once  brought  up  the  spirit  even  of  the 
most  hesitating  patriots  to  the  fighting  pitch, 
and  which  was  speedily  followed  by  the  seizure 
of  the  fortresses  of  ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point,  and  bj  other  similar  seizures  in  other 


colonies — Adams  set  out  for  Philadelphia  to 
attend  the  continental  congress  of  1775,  of 
which  he  had  been  appointed  a  member.  This 
second  congress,  though  made  up  for  the  most 
part  of  the  same  men,  was  a  wholly  different 
body  from  its  predecessor.  That  was  a  mere 
consulting  convention.  The  new  congress 
speedily  assumed,  or  rather  had  thrust  upon  it 
by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  patriots,  the 
exercise  of  a  comprehensive  authority,  in  which 
supreme  executive,  legislative,  and  in  some 
cases  judicial  functions  were  united.  In  this 
busy  scene  the  active  and  untiring  Adams,  one 
of  whose  distinguishing  characteristics  was  his 
capacity  and  fondness  for  business,  found  am 
ple  employment,  while  his  bold  and  pugnacious 
spirit  was  not  a  little  excited  by  the  hazards 
and  dignity  of  the  great  game  in  which  he  had 
come  to  hold  so  deep  a  stake.  Adams  had 
made  up  his  mind  that  any  reconciliation  with 
the  mother  country  was  hopeless.  The  ma 
jority  of  congress  were  not  yet  of  that  opinion. 
Under  the  lead  of  John  Dickinson,  though 
against  the  strenuous  resistance  of  Adams  and 
others,  that  body  voted  still  another  and  final 
petition  to  the  king.  Adams  succeeded,  how 
ever,  in  joining  with  this  vote  one  to  put  the 
colonies  into  a  state  of  defence,  though  with 
protestations  that  the  war  on  their  part  was 
defensive  only,  and  without  any  intention  to 
throw  off  their  allegiance.  Not  long  alter,  con 
gress  was  brought  up  to  the  point  of  assuming 
the  responsibility  and  control  of  the  military 
operations  which  New  England  had  commenced 
by  laying  siege  to  Boston,  in  which  town  Gage 
and  his  troops  were  shut  up,  and  before  which 
lay  encamped  an  impromptu  New  England 
army  of  15,000  men,  drawn  together  immedi 
ately  after  the  battle  of  Lexington.  Urged  by 
the  New  England  delegates,  congress  agreed  to 
assume  the  expense  and  control  of  this  army. 
Adams,  in  his  autobiography,  claims  the  honor 
of  having  first  proposed  Washington  for  the 
chief  command,  a  concession  intended  to  secure 
the  good  will  and  firm  cooperation  of  Virginia 
and  the  southern  colonies.  Those  colonies 
urged  Gen.  Lee  for  the  second  place  in  the 
army,  but  Adams  insisted  on  giving  that  to 
Artemas  Ward,  then  commanding  the  New 
England  army  belore  Boston,  lie  supported 
Lee,  however,  for  the  third  place.  Having 
assumed  the  direction  of  this  army,  provided 
for  its  reorganization,  and  issued  bills  of  credit 
to  support  it,  congress  took  a  short  recess. 
Adams,  returning  home,  sat  in  the  interval  as 
a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  council,  which, 
treating  the  office  of  governor  as  vacant,  had, 
under  a  clause  of  the  provincial  charter  in 
tended  to  meet  such  cases,  assumed  the  ex 
ecutive  authority.  On  returning  to  Phila 
delphia  in  September,  Adams  found  himself 
in  hot  water.  Two  confidential  letters  of 
his,  written  during  the  previous  session,  had 
been  intercepted  by  the  British  in  crossing 
Hudson  river,  and  had  been  published  in  the 
Boston  papers.  Not  only  did  these  letters 


JOHN  ADAMS 


87 


evince  a  zeal  for  decisive  measures  which  made  ! 
the  writer  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  more  j 
conservative  of  his  fellow  members  of  con-  j 
gress,  but  his  reference  in  one  of  them  to  u  the 
whims,  the  caprice,  the  vanity,  the  superstition,  i 
the  irritability  "  of  some  of  his  colleagues,  and  j 
in  particular  to  John  Dickinson  as  ''  a  certain 
great  fortune  but  piddling  genius,"  made  him  j 
personal  enemies  who  never  forgave  him.  But  j 
though  for  the  moment  an  object  of  distrust  to  j 
some  of  his  colleagues,  this  did  not  save  him  j 
from  hard  work.  k'  I  am  engaged  in  constant  j 
business,"  so  he  wrote  about  this  time,  "  from  j 
seven  to  ten  in  the  morning  in  committee,  from  j 
ten  to  four  in  congress,  and  from  six  to  ten  again  | 
in  committee.  Our  assembly  is  scarcely  numer 
ous  enough  for  the  business ;  everybody  is  en-  i 
gaged  all  day  in  congress,  and  all  the  morning  I 
and  evening  in  committees."  The  committee  ! 
which  chiefly  engaged  Mr.  Adams's  attention  at  j 
this  time  was  one  on  fitting  out  cruisers,  and  ! 
on  naval  affairs  generally.  This  committee  i 
laid  the  first  foundation  of  an  American  navy,  j 
a  body  of  rules  and  regulations  for  which — the  j 
basis  of  our  existing  naval  code — was  drawn  i 
up  by  Adams.  Governor  Wentworth  having  i 
fled  from  New  Hampshire,  the  people  of  that  i 
province  applied  to  congress  for  advice  as  to  ; 
the  method  of  administration  they  should 
adopt.  Adams  seized  the  opportunity  to  urge  j 
the  necessity  of  advising  all  the  provinces  to  j 
proceed  at  once  to  institute  governments  of  j 
their  own.  Tiie  news  which  soon  arrived  of  j 
the  supercilious  treatment  of  the  petition  of  j 
congress  to  the  king  added  strength  to  his  | 
views,  and  the  matter  being  referred  to  a  com-  j 
mittee  on  which  Adams  was  placed,  a  report  ; 
in  partial  conformity  to  his  ideas  was  made  and  j 
adopted.  Having  been  offered  the  post  of  chief  j 
justice  of  Massachusetts,  Adams  toward  the  j 
end  of  the  year  returned  home  to  consult  on  | 
that  and  other  important  subjects.  He  took  i 
his  seat  in  the  council,  of  which  he  had  been  ! 
chosen  a  member  immediately  on  his  arrival,  j 
and  was  consulted  by  Washington  both  as  to'  i 
sending  Gen.  Lee  to  New  York,  and  as  to  the  i 
expedition  against  Canada.  It  was  finally  ar 
ranged  that  while  Adams  should  accept  the 
appointment  of  chief  justice,  he  should  still  ! 
remain  a  delegate  in  congress,  and  till  more  ! 
quiet  times  should  be  excused  from  acting  as  ; 
judge.  Under  this  arrangement  he  returned  to  i 
Philadelphia  early  in  1776.  He  never  took  his  ; 
seat  as  chief  justice,  but  resigned  that  office  i 
the  next  year. — Advice  similar  to  that  to  New  i 
Hampshire,  on  the  subject  of  assuming  govern-  '< 
ment,  as  it  was  called,  had  been  shortly  after  ! 
given  upon  similar  applications  to  congress  ! 
from  South  Carolina  and  Virginia.  Adams  was  j 
much  consulted  by  members  of  the  southern  j 
delegation  (as  being  better  versed  than  them-  j 
selves  in  the  subject  of  republicanism,  both  by  | 
study  and  experience,  coming  as  he  did  from  I 
the  most  thoroughly  republican  section  of  the  i 
country)  concerning  the  form  of  government  ! 
which  they  should  adopt.  Of  several  letters  i 


which  he  wrrote  on  this  subject,  one  more  elab 
orate  than  the  others  was  printed,  under  the 
title  of  u  Thoughts  on  Government  applicable 
to  the  Present  State  of  the  American  Colo 
nies."  This  pamphlet,  largely  circulated  in 
Virginia,  as  a  preliminary  to  the  adoption  of  a 
form  of  government  by  that  State,  was  to  a 
certain  extent  a  rejoinder  to  that  part  of  Paine's 
famous  pamphlet  of  ik  Common  Sense"  which 
advocated  government  by  a  single  assembly. 
It  was  also  intended  to  controvert  the  aristo 
cratic  views,  somewhat  prevalent  in  Virginia, 
of  those  who  advocated  a  governor  and  senate 
for  life.  Adams's  system  of  policy  embraced 
the  adoption  of  self-government  by  each  of  the 
colonies,  a  confederation,  and  treaties  with 
foreign  powers.  This  system  he  continued  to 
urge  with  zeal  and  increasing  success,  till  finally, 
on  May  13,  he  carried  a  resolution  through 
congress,  by  which  so  much  of  his  plan  was 
indorsed  by  that  body  as  related  to  the  as 
sumption  of  self-government  by  the  several 
colonies.  The  first  step  thus  taken,  the  others 
soon  followed.  A  resolution  that  the  United 
States  "are  and  ought  to  be  free  and  indepen 
dent,"  introduced  by  R.  H.  Lee,  under  instruc 
tions  from  the  Virginia  convention,  was  very 
warmly  supported  by  Adams,  and  carried,  seven 
states  to  six.  Three  committees,  one  on  a  dec 
laration  of  independence,  another  on  confed 
eration,  and  a  third  on  foreign  relations,  were 
shortly  after  appointed.  Of  the  first  and  third 
of  these  committees  Adams  was  a  member. 
The  declaration  of  independence  was  drawn 
up  by  Jefferson,  but  on  Adams  devolved  the 
task  of  battling  it  through  congress  in  a  three 
days'  debate,  during  which  it  underwent  some 
curtailment.  The  plan  of  a  treaty  reported  by 
the  third  committee,  and  adopted  by  congress, 
was  drawn  up  by  Adams.  His  views  did  not 
extend  beyond  merely  commercial  treaties.  He 
was  opposed  to  seeking  any  political  connection 
with  France,  or  any  military  or  even  naval  as 
sistance  from  her  or  any  foreign  power.  On 
June  12  congress  had  established  a  board  of 
war  and  ordnance,  to  consist  of  five  members, 
with  a  secretary,  clerk,  &c. — in  fact,  a  war  de 
partment.  As  originally  constituted,  the  mem 
bers  of  this  board  were  taken  from  congress, 
and  John  Adams  was  made  its  chairman  or 
president.  This  position,  which  was  one  of 
great  labor  and  responsibility,  as  the  chief  bur 
den  of  the  duties  fell  upon  him,  he  continued 
to  hold  for  the  next  eighteen  months,  with  the 
exception  of  a  necessary  absence  at  the  close  of 
the  year  1776,  to  recruit  his  health.  The  busi 
ness  of  preparing  articles  of  war  for  the  govern 
ment  of  the  army  was  deputed  to  a  committee 
composed  of  Adams  and  Jefferson ;  but  Jeffer 
son,  according  to  Adams's  account,  threw  upon 
him  the  whole  burden,  not  only  of  drawing  up 
the  articles — which  he  borrowed  mostly  from 
those  of  Great  Britain — but  of  arguing  them 
through  congress,  which  was  no  small  task. 
Adams  strongly  opposed  Lord  Howe's  invita 
tion  to  a  conference,  sent  to  congress  after  the 


88 


JOHN"  ADAMS 


battle  of  Long  Island,  through  his  prisoner, 
Gen.  Sullivan,  lie  was,  however,  appointed 
one  of  the  committee  for  that  purpose,  along 
with  Franklin  and  Rutledge,  and  his  autobiog 
raphy  contains  some  curious  anecdotes  of  the 
visit.  Besides  his  presidency  of  the  board  of 
war,  Adams  was  also  chairman  of  the  commit 
tee  upon  which  devolved  the  decision  of  appeals 
in  admiralty  cases  from  the  state  courts. — 
Having  thus  occupied  for  nearly  two  years  a 
position  which  gained  him  the  reputation 
among  at  least  a  portion  of  his  colleagues  of 
having  "the  clearest  head  and  firmest  heart  of 
any  man  in  congress,1'  he  was  appointed  near 
the  end  of  the  year  1777  a  commissioner  to 
France  to  supersede  Deane,  whom  congress  had 
determined  to  recall.  He  embarked  at  Boston, 
in  the  frigate  Boston,  on  Feb.  12,  1778,  reached 
Bordeaux  after  a  stormy  passage,  and  arrived 
on  April  8  at  Paris.  Already  before  his  arrival 
the  alliance  with  France  had  been  completed, 
and  his  stay  was  not  long.  He  found  that  a 
very  great  antagonism  of  views  and  feeling  had 
arisen  between  the  three  commissioners,  Frank 
lin,  Deane,  and  Arthur  Lee,  of  whom  the  em 
bassy  to  France  had  been  originally  composed  ; 
and  as  the  recall  of  Deane  had  not  reconciled 
the  other  two,  Adams  advised,  as  the  only 
means  of  giving  unity  and  energy  to  the  mis 
sion,  that  it  should  be  intrusted  to  a  single 
person.  This  suggestion  was  adopted,  and  in 
consequence  of  it,  Franklin  having  been  ap 
pointed  sole  ambassador  in  France,  Adams 
returned  home  in  the  same  French  frigate 
which  took  out  the  new  French  minister,  the 
chevalier  de  la  Luzerne.  He  arrived  at  Boston 
just  as  a  convention  was  about  to  meet  to  form 
a  state  constitution  for  Massachusetts;  and 
being  chosen  a  delegate  from  Braintree,  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  its  formation.  Before  this 
convention  had  finished  its  business,  he  was 
appointed  by  congress  minister  to  treat  with 
Great  Britain  for  peace  and  commerce,  under 
which  appointment  lie  sailed  again  for  France 
in  1779,  in  the  same  French  frigate  in  which  he 
had  returned.  Very  contrary  to  his  own  in 
clinations,  Mr.  Adams  was  prevented  by  Ver- 
gennes,  the  French  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
from  making  to  Great  Britain  any  communi 
cation  of  his  powers.  In  fact,  Vergennes  and 
Adams  already  were  and  continued  to  be  to 
each  other  objects  of  serious  distrust,  in  both 
cases  quite  unfounded.  Vergennes  feared 
lest  advances  toward  treating  with  England 
might  lead  to  some  sort  of  reconciliation  with 
her  short  of  the  independence  of  the  colo 
nies,  which  was  contrary  to  his  ideas  of  the  in 
terest  of  France.  The  communications  made  to 
him  by  Gerard,  the  first  French  minister  in 
America,  and  Adams's  connection  with  the 
Lees,  whom  Vergennes  suspected,  though  un 
justly,  of  a  secret  communication  through  Ar 
thur  Lee  with  the  British  ministry,  led  him  to 
regard  Mr.  Adams  as  the  representative  of  a 
party  in  congress  desirous  of  such  a  reconcilia 
tion  ;  nor  did  he  rest  till  he  had  obtained  from 


!  congress,  some  two  years  after,  the  recall  of 
I  Mr.  Adams's  powers  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of 
'  commerce,  and  the  conjunction  with  him  of 
•  several  colleagues  to  treat  for  peace,  of  whom 
!  Franklin,  who  enjoyed  his  entire  confidence, 
j  was  one.  Adams,  on  the  other  hand,  not  en 
tirely  free  from  hereditary  English  prejudices 
against  the  French,  vehemently  suspected  Ver- 
i  gennes  of  a  design  to  sacrifice  the  interests  of 
the  United  States,  especially  the  fisheries  and 
the  western  lands,  to  the  advancement  of  the 
1  Spanish  house  of  Bourbon.  While  lingering  at 
i  Paris,  with  nothing  to  do  except  to  nurse  these 
!  suspicions,  Adams  busied  himself  in  furnishing 
I  communications  on  American  affairs  to  a  semi 
official  gazette,  the  Ncrcure  de  France,  con 
ducted  by  M.  Genet,  chief  secretary  in  the  for 
eign  bureau,  and  father  of  the  French  minis 
ter  in  America,  who  subsequently  rendered 
that  name  so  notorious.  Finding  his  position 
at  Paris  not  very  comfortable,  he  proceeded 
to  Holland  in  July,  1780,  his  object  being  to 
form  an  opinion  as  to  the  probability  of  bor 
rowing  money  there.  Just  about  the  same 
time  he  was  appointed  by  congress  to  nego 
tiate  a  Dutch  loan,  Laurens,  who  had  been  se 
lected  for  that  purpose,  being  not  yet  ready 
to  leave  home.  By  way  of  enlightening  the 
Dutch  as  to  American  affairs,  Adams  published 
in  the  "  Gazette  "  of  Leyden,  and  in  a  mag 
azine  called  Politique  hollandaise,  a  number 
of  papers  and  extracts,  including  several  which, 
through  a  friend,  he  procured  to  be  first  pub 
lished  in  a  London  journal,  to  give  to  them  an 
English  character.  To  these  he  added  a  direct 
publication  of  his  own,  afterward  many  times 
reprinted,  and  to  be  found  in  the  7th  volume 
of  his  collected  works,  under  the  title  of 
"Twenty-six  Letters  upon  Interesting  Sub 
jects,  respecting  the  Revolution  in  America." 
He  had  commenced  negotiations  for  a  loan, 
when  his  labors  in  that  direction  were  inter 
rupted  by  the  sudden  breach  between  England 
and  Holland,  consequent  upon  the  capture  of 
Laurens,  and  the  discovery  of  the  secret  nego 
tiation  carried  on  between  him  and  Van  Ber- 
kel  of  Amsterdam,  which,  though  it  had  been 
entered  upon  without  authority  from  the  Dutch 
states,  the  British  made  the  pretence  for  a 
speedy  declaration  of  war.  Adams  was  soon 
after  appointed  minister  to  Holland  in  place 
of  the  captured  Laurens,  and  at  the  same  time 
was  commissioned  to  sign  the  articles  of  armed 
neutrality,  which  had  just  made  their  appear 
ance  on  the  political  scene.  Adams  presented 
memorials  to  the  Dutch  government,  setting 
forth  his  powers  in  both  respects ;  but  before 
he  could  procure  any  recognition,  he  was  re 
called  in  July,  1781,  to  Paris,  by  a  notice  that 
he  was  needed  there  in  his  character  of  minis 
ter,  to  treat  of  peace.  Adams's  suspicions  of 
Vergennes  had,  meanwhile,  been  not  a  little 
increased  by  the  neglect  of  France  to  second 
his  applications  to  Holland.  With  Vergennes 
the  great  object  was  peace.  The  finances  of 
France  were  sadly  embarrassed.  Vergennes 


JOHN  ADAMS 


89 


wished  no  further  complications  to  the  war, 
and,  provided  tha  English  colonies  should  be 
definitely  separated  from  the  mother  country, 
which  he  considered  indispensable  to  the  in 
terest  of  France,  he  was  not  disposed  to  insist 
on  anything  else.  It  was  for  this  reason  that 
he  had  urged  upon  congress,  through  the 
French  minister  at  Philadelphia,  and  just 
about  this  time  had  succeeded  in  obtaining 
from  congress— though  the  information  had 
not  yet  reached  Paris — not  only  the  with 
drawal  of  Adams's  commission  to  treat  of 
commerce,  and  the  enlargement  to  five  of  the 
number  of  commissioners  to  treat  of  peace,  but 
an  absolute  discretion  intrusted  to  the  nego 
tiators  as  to  everything  except  independence 
and  the  additional* direction  that  in  the  last  re 
sort  they  were  to  be  governed  by  Vergennes's 
advice.  The  cause  of  sending  for  Adams,  who 
still  occupied,  so  tar  as  was  known  at  Paris, 
the  position  of  sole  negotiator  for  peace,  was 
the  offer  of  a  mediation  on  the  part  of  Russia 
and  the  German  empire.  But  this  offer  led  to 
nothing.  Great  Britain  haughtily  rejected  it 
on  the  ground  that  she  would  not  allow  France 
to  stand  between  her  and  her  colonies. — Re 
turning  to  Holland,  Mr.  Adams,  though  still 
unsupported  by  Vergennes,  pushed  with  great 
energy  his  reception  as  ambassador  by  the 
states  general,  which  at  length,  April  19,  1782, 
h3  succeeded  in  accomplishing.  Following  up 
this  success  with  his  customary  perseverance, 
he  succeeded  before  the  end  of  the  year  in  ne 
gotiating  a  Dutch  loan  of  two  millions  of  dol- 
1  irs,  the  first  of  a  series  which  proved  a  chief 
financial  resource  of  the  continental  congress 
i.i  its  later  days.  He  also  succeeded  in  nego 
tiating  a  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce.  His 
success  in  these  negotiations,  considering  the 
obstacles  he  had  to  encounter,  and  the  want 
of  support  from  Vergennes,  he  was  accustomed 
to  regard  as  the  greatest  triumph  of  his  life. — 
Before  this  business  was  completed,  Mr.  Adams 
received  urgent  calls  to  come  to  Paris,  where 
Jay  and  Franklin,  two  of  the  new  commission 
ers,  were  already  treating  for  peace,  and  where 
hs  arrived  Oct.  28.  Though  Mr.  Jay  had  been 
put  into  ths  diplomatic  service  by  the  procure 
ment  of  the  party  in  congress  in  the  French 
interest,  his  diplomatic  experience  in  Spain 
had  led  him  to  entertain  doubts  also  as  to  the 
sincere  good  will  of  Vergennes.  A  confiden 
tial  despatch  from  M.  Marbois,  French  secre 
tary  of  legation  in  America,  intercepted  by  the 
British,  and  which  Oswald,  the  British  nego 
tiator  at  Paris,  communicated  to  Franklin  and 
Jay,  with  a  view  to  make  bad  feeling  between 
them  and  the  French  minister,  had,  along  with 
other  circumstances,  induced  Franklin  and  Jay 
to  disregard  their  instructions,  and  to  proceed 
to  treat  with  Oswald  without  communicating 
that  fact  to  Vergennes,  or  taking  his  advice  as 
to  the  terms  of  the  treaty — a  procedure  in 
which  Adams,  after  his  arrival,  fully  con 
curred.  It  was  chiefly  through  his  energy  and 
persistence  that  the  participation  of  America 


in  the  fisheries  was  secured  by  the  treaty,  not 
as  a  favor  or  privilege,  but  as  a  right — a  matter 
of  much  greater  importance  then  than  now,  the 
fisheries  being  at  that  time  a  more  important 
branch  than  now  of  American  maritime  indus 
try. — Immediately  upon  the  signature  of  the 
preliminary  articles  of  peace,  Adams  asked 
leave  to  resign  all  his  commissions  and  to  re 
turn  home,  to  which  congress  responded  by 
appointing  him  a  commissioner  jointly  with 
Franklin  and  Jay  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  com 
merce  with  Great  Britain.  His  first  visit  to 
England  was,  however,  in  a  private  character, 
to  recruit  his  health,  after  a  violent  fever  with 
which  he  had  been  attacked,  shortly  after  sign 
ing  the  treaty  of  peace.'  He  spent  some  time 
first  at  London,  and  afterward  at  Bath ;  but 
while  still  an  invalid  he  was  recalled,  in 
the  dead  of  winter,  to  Holland,  which  he 
reached  only  after  a  very  stormy  and  uncom 
fortable  passage,  there  to  negotiate  a  new 
loan,  as  the  means  of  meeting  government  bills 
drawn  in  America,  which  were  in  danger  of 
protest  from  want  of  funds — a  business  in 
which  he  succeeded,  though  not  without  pay 
ing  a  pretty  high  premium.  Adams  was  in 
cluded,  along  with  Franklin  and  Jefferson,  the 
latter  sent  out  to  take  the  place  of  Jay,  in  a 
new  commission  to  form  treaties  with  foreign 
powers;  and  his  being  joined  by  Mrs.  Adams 
and  their  only  daughter  and  youngest  son,  his 
other  two  sons  being  already  with  him,  recon 
ciled  him  to  the  idea  of  remaining  abroad. 
With  his  family  about  him  he  fixed  his  resi 
dence  at  Auteuil,  near  Paris,  where  he  had 
an  interval  of  comparative  leisure  and  enjoy 
ment.  The  chief  business  of  the  new  commis 
sion  was  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty  with 
Prussia,  advances  toward  which  had  first  been 
been  made  to  Adams  while  at  the  Hague,  ne 
gotiating  the  Dutch  loan.  But  before  that 
treaty  was  ready  for  signature,  Adams  was 
appointed  by  congress  minister  to  the  court 
of  St.  James's,  where  he  arrived  in  May,  1785. 
The  English  government,  of  which  the  feel 
ings  were  well  represented  by  those  of  the 
king,  had  neither  the  magnanimity  nor  the 
policy  to  treat  the  new  American  states  with 
generosity,  nor  hardly  with  justice.  Adams 
was  received  with  civility,  but  no  commercial 
arrangements  could  be  made,  and  his  chief 
employment  was  that  of  complaining  of  the 
non-execution  of  the  treaty  .  of  peace,  es 
pecially  in  relation  to  the  non-surrender  of  the 
western  posts,  and  in  attempting  to  meet 
similar  complaints  urged  not  without  strong 
grounds  on  the  part  of  the  British,  more  par 
ticularly  as  to  the  obstacles  put  in  the  way  of 
the  collection  of  British  debts,  which  were 
made  an  excuse  for  the  detention  of  the  west 
ern  posts.  Made  sensible  in  many  ways  of  the 
aggravation  of  British  feelings  toward  the  new 
republic,  whose  condition  immediately  after 
the  peace  was  somewhat  embarrassing,  and 
not  so  flattering  as  it  might  have  been  to  the 
advocates  and  promoters  of  the  revolution, 


90 


JOHX  ADAMS 


the  situation  of  Adams  was  rather  mortifying  J 
than  agreeable.  Meanwhile  he  was  obliged  to  j 
pay  a  new  visit  to  Holland  to  negotiate  a  new  ' 
loan  as  a  means  of  paying  the  interest  on  the  j 
Dutch  debt.  He  was  also  engaged  in  a  corre-  ! 
spondence  with  his  fellow  commissioner,  Mr.  j 
Jefferson,  then  at  Paris,  on  the  subject  of  a  j 
treaty  with  the  Barbary  powers  and  the  return  i 
of  the  Americans  held  captive  by  them.  But 
his  most  engrossing  occupation  at  this  time 
was  the  preparation  of  his  "Defence  of  the 
American  Constitutions,"  of  which  the  object  j 
was  the  justification  of  balanced  governments  i 
and  a  division  of  powers,  especially  the  legis 
lative,  against  the  idea  of  a  single  assembly 
and  a  pure  democracy,  which  had  begun  to 
find  many  ardent  advocates,  especially  on  the 
continent.  The  greater  part,  however,  of  this 
book — the  most  voluminous  of  his  publications 
— consists  of  summaries  of  the  histories  of  the 
Italian  republics,  by  no  means  essential  to  the 
argument,  and  rather  an  excrescence.  Though 
it  afterward  subjected  the  author  to  charges 
of  monarchical  and  anti-republican  tendencies, 
this  book  was  not  without  its  influence  on  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  during  the 
discussion  upon  which  the  first  volume  of  it 
appeared. — Great  Britain  not  having  recipro 
cated  the  compliment  by  appointing  a  minister 
to  the  United  States,  and  there  being  no 
prospect  of  his  being  able  to  accomplish  any 
of  the  objects  of  his  mission,  Adams  had 
solicited  a  recall,  which  was  sent  out  to  him  in 
February,  1788,  accompanied  by  a  resolution  of 
congress  conveying  the  thanks  of  that  body 
for  "the  patriotism,  perseverance,  integrity, 
and  diligence  "  which  he  had  displayed  in  his 
ten  years'  service  abroad.  Immediately  on  his 
arrival  home,  Mr.  Adams  was  reappointed  a 
delegate  from  Massachusetts  to  the  continental 
congress;  but  he  never  resumed  his  seat  in 
that  body,  which  was  now  just  about  to 
expire. — When  the  new  government  came  to 
be  organized  under  the  newly  adopted  federal 
constitution,  as  all  were  agreed  to  make  Wash 
ington  president,  attention  was  turned  to  ISTew 
England  for  a  vice  president.  This  office  was 
then  regarded  as  of  much  higher  consequence 
than  now.  In  fact,  as  the  constitution 
originally  stood,  the  candidates  for  the  presi 
dency  and  vice  presidency  were  voted  for 
without  any  distinct  specification,  the  second 
office  falling  to  the  person  who  had  the  second 
highest  vote.  Out  of  69  electors,  John.  Adams 
had  the  votes  of  34 ;  and  this  being  the  second 
highest  number,  he  was  declared  vice  presi 
dent.  The  other  35  votes  were  scattered 
upon  no  less  than  10  candidates.  By  virtue 
of  his  new  office  he  became  president  of  the 
senate,  a  position  not  very  agreeable  to  his 
active  and  leading  temperament,  better  fitted 
for  debate,  but  one  in  which  the  close  division 
in  the  senate,  resulting  often  in  a  tie  between 
the  supporters  and  the  opponents  of  the  new 
system,  gave  him  many  times  a  controlling 
voice.  In  the  first  congress  he  gave  no  few- 


er  than  20  casting  votes,  always  upon  im 
portant  organic  laws,  and  always  in  support  of 
Washington's  policy. — Down  to  this  period 
Adarns  had  sympathized  in  political  feeling 
and  sentiment  with  Jefferson,  with  whom  he 
had  served  both  in  the  continental  congress 
and  abroad.  On  the  question  of  the  French 
revolution,  which  now  burst  upon  the  world, 
a  difference  of  opinion  arose  between  them. 
From  the  very  beginning  Adams,  then  almost 
alone,  had  augured  no  good  from  that  move 
ment.  As  the  revolution  went  on  and  began 
to  break  out  in  excesses,  others  began  to  be  of 
this  opinion.  Adams  then  gave  public  ex 
pression  to  some  of  his  ideas  on  that  subject 
in  a  series  of  u  Discourses  on  Davila,"  fur 
nished  to  a  Philadelphia  newspaper  and  after 
ward  collected  into  a  volume.  Taking  the 
history  of  nations,  particularly  Davila's 
account  of  the  French  civil  wars,  and  the 
general  aspects  of  human  society  as  his  text, 
Adams  pointed  out  as  the  great  springs  of 
human  activity,  at  least  in  all  that  related  to 
politics,  the  love  of  superiority,  the  desire  of 
distinction,  admiration,  and  applause  ;  nor  in 
his  opinion  could  any  government  be  perma 
nent  or  secure  which  did  not  provide  as  well 
for  the  reasonable  gratification  as  for  the  due 
restraint  of  this  powerful  passion.  Repudi 
ating  that  democracy  pure  and  simple  then 
coming  into  vogue,  and  of  which  Jefferson  was 
the  advocate,  he  insisted  that  a  certain 
mixture  of  aristocracy  and  monarchy  was 
necessary  to  that  balance  of  interests  and 
sentiments  without  which,  as  lie  maintained, 
free  governments  could  not  exist.  This  work, 
which  reproduced  more  at  length  and  in  a 
more  obnoxious  form  the  fundamental  ideas  of 
his  "  Defence  of  the  American  Constitutions," 
made  Adams  a  great  bugbear  to  the  ultra- 
democratic  supporters  of  the  principles  and 
policy  of  the  French  revolutionists;  and  at  the 
second  presidential  election  in  1792,  they  set 
up  as  a  candidate  against  him  George  Clinton 
of  New  York.  But  Mr.  Adams  was  reflected 
by  a  decided  vote.  The  wise  policy  of  neu 
trality  adopted  by  Washington  received  the 
hearty  concurrence  of  Adams.  While  Jeffer 
son  left  the  cabinet  to  become  in  nominal 
retirement  the  leader  of  the  opposition,  Adams 
continued  as  vice  president  to  give  Wash  ing- 
ton's  administration  the  benefit  of  his  casting 
vote.  It  was  only  by  this  means  that  a  neu 
trality  act  was  carried  through  the  senate,  and 
that  the  progress  was  stopped  of  certain 
resolutions  which  had  previously  passed  in  the 
house  of  representatives,  embodying  restrictive 
measures  against  Great  Britain,  intended  or  at 
least  calculated  to  counterwork  the  mission  to 
England  on  which  Mr.  Jay  had  already  been 
sent. — Washington  being  firmly  resolved  to 
retire  at  the  close  of  his  second  presidential 
term,  the  question  of  the  successorship  now 
presented  itself.  Jefferson  was  the  leader  of 
the  opposition,  who  called  themselves  repub 
licans,  the  name  democrat  being  yet  in  bad 


JOHN  ADAMS 


91 


odor,  and,  though  often  imposed  as  a  term  of 
reproach,  not  yet  voluntarily  assumed  except 
by  a  few  more  ultra  partisans.  Hamilton  was 
the  leader  of  the  federal  party,  as  the  sup 
porters  of  Washington's  administration  had 
christened  themselves.  But  thougli  Ham 
ilton's  zeal  and  energy  had  made  him,  even 
while  like  Jefferson  in  nominal  retirement,  the 
leader  of  the  federalists,  he  could  hardly  be 
said  to  hold  the  same  place  with  them  that 
Jefferson  did  with  the  republicans,  whose 
presidential  candidate  he  was,  a  position 
among  the  federalists  which  belonged  less  to 
Hamilton  than  to  Adams  or  Jay,  whose  greater 
age  and  longer  public  service  placed  them 
more  conspicuously  in  the  public  eye.  Ham 
ilton,  though  he  had  always  spoken  of  Adams 
as  a  man  of  unconquerable  intrepidity  and 
incorruptible  integrity,  and  as  such  had  al 
ready  twice  supported  him  for  vice  president, 
would  yet  have  much  preferred  Jay.  The  po 
sition  of  Adams  was,  however,  such  as  to 
render  his  election  more  probable  than  that  of 
Jay,  and  to  determine  bis  selection  as  the 
candidate  of  the  federalists.  Jay,  by  his  nego 
tiation  of  the4  famous  treaty  which  bore  his 
name,  had  for  the  moment  drawn  down  upon 
himself  a  strong  feeling  of  hostility  on  the 
part  of  its  numerous  and  bitter  opponents. 
Adams  stood,  moreover,  as  vice  president  in 
the  line  of  promotion,  and  was  more  sure  of 
the  New  England  vote,  which  was  absolutely 
indispensable  to  the  success  of  either.  One  of 
the  candidates  being  taken  from  the  North,  it 
seemed  politic  to  select  the  other  from 
the  South,  and  the  federalist  leaders  pitched 
for  that  purpose  upon  Thomas  Pinckney 
of  South  Carolina.  Indeed,  there  were 
some,  and  Hamilton  was  among  the  num 
ber,  who  secretly  wished  that  Pinckney  might 
receive  the  larger  vote,  and  so  be  chosen  presi 
dent  over  Adams's  head — a  result,  from  the 
likelihood  of  Pinckney *s  obtaining  more  votes 
than  Adams  at  the  South  (as  he  really  did),  al 
most  sure  to  happen  could  the  northern  federal 
electors  be  persuaded  to  vote  equally  for 
Adams  and  for  Pinckney,  which  Hamilton  la 
bored  to  effect.  The  fear,  however,  that  Pinck 
ney  might  be  chosen  over  Adams,  led  to  the 
withholding  from  Pinckney  of  eighteen  New 
England  votes,  so  that  the  result  was  not  only 
to  make  Jefferson  vice  president,  as  having 
more  votes  than  Pinckney,  but  also  to  excite 
prejudices  and  suspicions  in  the  mind  of  Adams 
against  Hamilton,  which,  being  reciprocated 
by  him,  led  speedily  to  the  disruption  and  final 
overthrow  of  the  federal  party.  It  had  almost 
happened,  such  was  the  equal  division  of  par 
ties,  that  Jefferson  had  this  time  been  chosen 
president,  the  election  of  Adams,  who  had 
71  votes  to  Jefferson's  69,  being  only  secured 
by  two  stray  votes  cast  for  him,  one  in  Vir 
ginia  and  the  other  in  North  Carolina,  trib 
utes  of  revolutionary  reminiscences  and  per 
sonal  esteem.  Chosen  by  this  slender  major 
ity,  Mr.  Adams  succeeded  to  office  (March  4, 


1797)  at  a  very  dangerous  and  exciting  crisis 
of  affairs.  The  progress  of  the  French  revolu 
tion  had  superinduced  upon  previous  party  di 
visions  a  new  and  very  vehement  one.  Jef 
ferson's  supporters,  who  sympathized  very 
warmly  with  the  French  republic,  gave  their 
moral  if  not  their  positive  support  to  tho 
claim  set  up  by  its  rulers,  but  which  Wash 
ington  had  refused  to  admit,  that  under  the 
provisions  of  the  French  treaty  of  alliance 
the  United  States  were  bound  to  support 
France  against  Great  Britain,  at  least  in  the 
defence  of  her  West  India  possessions.  The 
other  party,  the  supporters  of  Adams,  upheld 
the  policy  of  neutrality  adopted  by  Washing 
ton.  At  the  same  time  that  Washington  had 
sent  Jay  to  England  to  arrange,  if  possible, 
the  pending  difficulties  with  that  country, 
wishing  also  to  keep  on  good  terms  with  the 
French  republic,  he  had  recalled  Gouverneur 
Morris,  who  as  minister  to  France  had  made 
himself  obnoxious  to  the  now  predominant 
party  there,  and  had  appointed  James  Mon 
roe  in  his  place.  Monroe,  instead  of  conforming 
to  his  instructions  and  attempting  to  reconcile 
the  French  to  Jay's  mission,  had  given  them 
assurances  on  the  subject  quite  in  contradiction 
with  the  treaty  as  made,  both  the  formation  and 
ratification  of  which  Monroe  had  done  hi.-; 
best  to  defeat.  He  had  in  consequence  been 
recalled  by  Washington  shortly  before  tho 
close  of  his  term  of  office,  and  C.  C.  Pinckney,  a 
brother  of  Thomas  Pinckney,  had  been  appoint 
ed  in  his  place.  The  French  authorities,  of 
fended  at  this  change  and  at  the  ratification  of 
Jay's  treaty  in  spite  of  their  remonstrances, 
while  they  dismissed  Monroe  with  great  ova 
tions,  refused  to  receive  the  new  ambassador 
sent  in  his  place,  at  the  same  time  issuing  de 
crees  and  orders  highly  injurious  to  American 
commerce.  Almost  the  first  act  of  Mr.  Adams 
as  president  was  to  call  an  extra  session  of 
congress  to  consider  what  should  be  dene.  Not 
only  was  a  war  with  France  greatly  to  be 
dreaded  and  deprecated  on  account  of  her  great 
military  and  naval  power,  but  still  more  so  on 
account  of  the  very  formidable  party  which, 
among  the  ultra  republicans,  she  could  muster 
within  the  states  themselves.  Under  these  cir 
cumstances,  the  measure  'resolved  upon  by 
Adams  and  his  cabinet  was  the  appointment  of 
a  new  and  more  solemn  commission  to  France, 
composed  of  Pinckney  and  two  colleagues,  for 
which  purpose  the  president  selected  John 
Marshall  of  Virginia  and  Elbridge  Gerry  of  Mas 
sachusetts.  But  instead  of  receiving  and  open 
ly  treating  with  those  commissioners,  Talley 
rand,  lately  an  exile  in  America,  but  now  sec 
retary  of  foreign  affairs  to  the  French  directory, 
entered  into  an  intrigue  with  them  through 
several  unaccredited  and  unofficial  agents,  of 
which  the  object  was  to  induce  them  to  promise 
a  round  bribe  to  the  directors  and  a  large  sum 
of  money  to  the  exhausted  French  treasury,  by 
way  of  purchasing  forbearance.  As  Pinckney 
and  Marshall  appeared  less  pliable  than  Gerry, 


JOHN  ADAMS 


Talleyrand  finally  obliged  them  to  leave,  after 
which  he  attempted,  though  still  without  suc 
cess,  to  extract  money  or  promises  of  it  from 
Gerry  alone.  The  publication  of  the  despatches 
in  which  these  discreditable  intrigues  were 
disclosed  (an  event  on  which  Talleyrand  had 
not  calculated)  produced  a  great  excitement 
botli  in  Europe  and  America.  Tal  eyrand  at 
tempted  to  escape  by  disavowing  his  agents, 
and  pretending  that  the  American  ministers 
had  been  imposed  upon  by  adventurers.  Gerry 
left  France,  and  the  violation  of  American 
commercial  and  maritime  rights  was  pushed  to 
new  extremes.  In  America  the  effect  of  all 
this  was  greatly  to  strengthen  for  the  moment 
the  federal  party.  The  grand  jury  of  the  fed 
eral  circuit  court  for  Pennsylvania  set  the  ex 
ample  of  an  address  to  the  president,  applaud 
ing  his  manly  stand  for  the  rights  and  dignity 
of  the  nation.  Philadelphia,  which,  under  the 
lead  of  Mifflin,  McKean,  and  others,  had  gone 
over  to  the  opposition,  was  suddenly  converted 
once  more,  as  during  Washington's  first  term, 
to  the  support  of  the  federal  government. 
That  city  was  then  the  headquarters  of  the 
American  newspaper  press.  All  the  hitherto 
neutral  papers  published  there,  as  well  as 
several  others  which  had  more  or  less  deci 
dedly  leaned  to  the  opposition,  came  out  now 
in  behalf  of  Adams.  Besides  an  address  from 
five  thousand  citizens,  the  young  men  got  up 
a  separate  address  of  their  own.  This  ex 
ample  was  speedily  imitated  all  over  the  coun 
try,  and  the  spirited  replies  of  the  president, 
who  was  now  in  his  element,  served  in  their 
turn  to  blow  up  and  sustain  the  blaze  of  patri 
otic  indignation.  These  addresses,  circulated 
everywhere  in  the  newspapers,  were  collected 
at  the  time  in  a  volume,  and  they  reappear  in 
Adams's  works,  of  which  they  form  a  charac 
teristic  portion.  A  navy  was  set  on  foot,  the 
old  continental  navy  having  become  extinct, 
and  an  army  was  voted  and  partly  levied,  of 
Avhich  Washington  accepted  the  chief  com 
mand.  Merchant  ships  were  authorized  to  pro 
tect  themselves.  The  treaty  with  France  was 
declared  to  be  at  an  end,  and  a  quasi  war 
with  France  ensued.  It  was  not,  however, 
the  policy  of  France  to  drive  the  United  States 
into  the  arms  of  Great  Britain.  Even  before 
Gerry's  departure  Talleyrand  had  made  some 
advances  toward  reconciliation,  Avhich  were 
afterward  renewed  by  communications  opened 
with  Vans  Murray,  the  American  minister  to 
Holland.  The  effect  of  the  French  outrages 
and  of  the  progress  of  the  French  revolution 
had  been  to  create,  in  a  part  at  least  of  the 
federal  party,  the  desire  for  an  absolute  breach 
with  France— a  desire  felt  by  Hamilton,  and 
by  three  at  least  out  of  the  four  cabinet  offi 
cers  whom  Adams  had  found  and  had  kept  in 
office.  In  his  message  to  congress  announc 
ing  the  expulsion  of  Pinckney  and  Marshall, 
Adams  had  declared  "that  he  would  never 
send  another  minister  to  France  without  as 
surances  that  he  would  be  received."  This 


was  on  the  21st  of  July,  1798.  When,  there 
fore,  on  the  18th  of  February  following,  with 
out  CUD  suiting  his  cabinet  or  giving  them  any 
intimation  of  his  intentions,  he  sent  into  the 
senate  the  nomination  of  Vans  Murray  as  min 
ister  to  France,  this  act  took  the  country  by 
surprise,  and  hastened  the  downfall  of  the 
federal  party.  Some  previous  acts  of  Adams, 
such  as  the  appointment  of  Gerry,  which  his 
cabinet  officers  had  striven  to  prevent,  and 
his  disinclination  to  make  Hamilton  second  in 
command  of  the  army  till  forced  into  it  by 
Washington,  had  strengthened  the  distrust  en 
tertained  of  Adams  by  Hamilton  and  many  of 
his  friends ;  and  Adams  was  now  accused  of 
seeking,  in  his  attempt  to  reopen  diplomatic 
intercourse  with  France,  to  reconcile  his  polit 
ical  opponents  of  the  republican  party,  and  to 
secure  by  unworthy  and  impolitic  concessions 
his  own  reelection  as  president.  The  opposition 
to  Murray's  nomination  so  far  prevailed  that 
Murray  received  two  colleagues,  Ellsworth  of 
Connecticut  and  Davie  of  North  Carolina; 
but  the  president  would  not  authorize  the 
departure  of  Ellsworth  and  Davie  till  he  had 
received  explicit  assurances  from  Talleyrand 
that  they  would  be  duly  received  as  ministers. 
On  arriving  in  France  they  found  the  directory 
superseded  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte  first  con 
sul,  wTith  whom  they  managed  to  arrange  the 
matters  in  dispute.  But,  however  beneficial  to 
the  country,  this  mission  proved  very  disastrous 
to  Adams  personally,  and  to  the  political  party 
to  which  he  belonged.  He  justified  its  appoint 
ment  on  the  ground  of  assurances  conveyed  to 
him  through  a  variety  of  channels  that  France 
desired  peace,  and  he  excused  himself  for  not 
having  consulted  his  cabinet  by  the  fact  that  he 
knew  what  their  opinion  wr.s  without  asking 
them — decidedly  hostile,  that  is,  to  any  such 
attempt  as  he  had  determined  to  make.  The 
masses  of  the  federalists,  fully  confident  of 
Adams's  patriotism,  were  well  enough  disposed 
to  acquiesce  in  his  judgment ;  but  many  of  the 
leaders  were  implacable.  The  quarrel  wras  fur 
ther  aggravated  by  Adams's  dismissal  at  this 
time  of  his  cabinet  officers  and  the  construction 
of  anew  cabinet,  The  pardon  of  Fries,  convicted 
of  treason  for  armed  resistance  in  Pennsylvania 
to  the  levy  of  certain  direct  taxes,  was  also  re 
garded  by  many  at  the  time  as  a  piece  of  mis 
placed  lenity  on  the  part  of  Adams,  dictated, 
it  was  said,  by  a  mean  desire  of  popularity  in  a 
case  in  which  severe  example  was  needed. 
But  Adams  will  hardly  suffer  with  posterity 
from  his  unwillingness  to  be  the  first  president 
to  sign  a  death  warrant  for  treason,  especially  as 
there  was  room  for  grave  doubts  whether  the 
doings  of  this  person  amounted  to  treason 
as  defined  by  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States. — In  this  divided  condition  of  the  fed 
eral  party  the  presidential  election  came  on. 
Adams  was  still  too  popular  with  the  mass  of 
the  party  to  encourage  any  attempt  to  drop  him 
altogether,  and  the  malcontents  were  reduced 
to  the  old  expedient  of  attempting  by  secret 


JOHN  ADAMS 


93 


understand  ing  and  arrangement  to  reduce  his 
vote  in  the  electoral  college  below  that  of  C. 
0.  Pinckney,  the  other  of  the  two  candidates 
voted  for  by  the  federalists.  The  republicans, 
on  the  other  hand,  under  the  prospect  of  an  ar 
rangement  with  France,  rapidly  recovered  from 
the  blow  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  violence 
and  mercenary  rapacity  lately  charged  upon 
their  French  friends,  but  which  they  now  in 
sisted  was  a  charge  without  foundation.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  dissatisfaction  at  the  heavy 
taxes  necessarily  imposed  to  meet  the  expenses 
of  warlike  preparations,  and  especially  of  the 
unpopularity  of  the  alien  law  and  the  sedition 
law — two  acts  of  congress  to  which  the  pros 
pect  of  war  had  led — they  pushed  the  canvass 
with  great  energy  ;  while  in  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  Aaron  Burr  they  had  two  leaders  unsur 
passed  for  skill  in  party  tactics,  and  in  Burr,  at 
least,  one  little  scrupulous  as  to  the  means 
which  he  employed.  Not  only  was  the  whole 
blame  of  the  alien  and  sedition  acts,  to  which 
he  had  merely  assented  without  ever  having 
recommended  them,  laid  on  Adams's  shoulders, 
but  he  was  the  object  of  most  vehement  and 
bitter  attacks  for  having  surrendered  up,  under 
one  of  the  provisions  of  Jay's  treaty,  one 
Thomas  Nash,  an  English  sailor,  charged  with 
mutiny  and  murder.  Having  been  recognized 
and  arrested  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Nasli  had 
endeavored  to  save  himself  by  assuming  the 
name  and  character  of  Jonathan  Bobbins,  an 
American  citizen,  in  the  light  of  which  assumed 
character  the  greater  part  of  Adams's  political 
opponents  insisted  upon  exclusively  regarding 
him,  and  Adams  himself  as  having  basely 
yielded  up  an  American  citizen,  who,  it  was 
argued,  even  if  guilty  of  mutiny  as  charged, 
had  been  justified  in  it  by  the  fact  of  having 
been,  as  it  was  alleged,  previously  pressed  into 
the  British  naval  service.  Nor  was  it  against 
his  public  acts  alone,  nor  even  to  his  political 
opponents,  that  these  assaults  upon  Mr.  Adams 
were  confined.  With  strong  feeling  and  busy 
imagination,  loving  both  to  talk  and  write, 
Adams  had  been  betrayed  into  many  confidences 
and  into  free  expression  of  feelings,  opinions, 
and  even  conjectures  and  suspicions — a  weak 
ness  very  unsuited  to  the  character  of  a  politi 
cian,  and  which  he  had  frequent  occasion  to 
rue.  During  Washington's  first  term  of  office 
he  had  thus  been  led  into  a  confidential  corre 
spondence  with  Tench  Coxe,  who  held  at  that 
time  the  place  of  assistant  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  and  had  afterward  been  appointed 
supervisor  of  the  internal  revenue,  but  who 
since  Adams's  accession  had  been  dismissed 
from  this  place  .on  the  charge  of  being  a  spy 
upon  the  treasury  department  in  the  service  of 
the  "Aurora,"  the  principal  newspaper  organ 
of  the  opposition,  with  which  party  Coxe  sym 
pathized,  and  since  his  recent  dismissal  from 
office  had  acted.  In  this  state  of  mind  Coxe 
betrayed  a  private  confidential  letter  of  Adams, 
which,  after  having  been  handed  about  in  manu 
script  for  some  time,  to  the  great  damage  of 


Adams  with  his  own  party,  was  finally  printed 
in  the  "Aurora,"  of  which  Coxe  had  become 
one  of  the  principal  contributors.  The  purport 
of  this  letter,  written  as  long  ago  as  May,  1792, 
was  to  give  countenance  to  the  favorite  charge 
of  the  opposition  that  Washington's  cabinet, 
and  of  course  Adams's,  which  followed  the  same 
policy,  was  under  British  influence,  and  that 
Thomas  Pinckney  and  his  brother  C.  C.  Pinck 
ney,  candidates  with  Adams  on  the  federal 
presidential  ticket,  were  especially  obnoxious  to 
this  suspicion.  The  publication  of  this  letter  was 
followed  up  by  a  still  more  deadly  blow  in  the 
shape  of  a  pamphlet  written  and  printed  and 
signed  by  Hamilton,  and  probably  intended  by 
him  for  private  distribution  among  the  federal 
leaders,  but  which  was  made  public  by  Aaron 
Burr,  who  had  succeeded  in  possessing  himself 
of  some  of  the  proof  sheets.  This  pamphlet 
had  its  origin  in  the  same  charge  against  Hamil 
ton  of  being  under  British  influence,  thrown 
out  by  Adams  in  private  conversation,  and  as 
to  which,  when  written  to  by  Hamilton,  he  had 
refused  to  give  any  explanation,  though  when  a 
similar  request  was  made  by  C.  C.  Pinckney  in 
consequence  of  the  publication  of  the  letter  to 
Coxe,  Adams  fully  exonerated  both  him  and 
his  brother  in  a  published  letter  from  any  sus 
picion  which  his  letter  to  Coxe  might  seem  cal 
culated  to  convey.  Hamilton  declared  in  the 
conclusion  of  his  pamphlet,  that  as  things  then 
stood  he  did  not  recommend  the  withholding 
from  Adams  of  a  single  vote.  Yet  it  was  the 
leading  object  of  his  pamphlet  to  show,  without 
denying  Adams's  patriotism  and  integrity,  or 
even  his  talents,  that  he  had  great  and  intrinsic 
defects  of  character  which  disqualified  him  for 
the  place  of  chief  magistrate,  and  the  effect 
which  he  desired  it  to  have  must  have  been  to 
gjve  C.  C.  Pinckney  the  presidency,  by  causing 
a  certain  number  of  votes  to  be  withheld  from 
Adams.  The  result,  however,  of  the  election 
was  to  throw  out  both  the  federal  candidates. 
Adams  received  65  votes  and  Pinckney  61,  while 
Jefferson  and  Burr  had  73  each.  In  the  ensuing 
struggle  between  Jefferson  and  Burr  Adams 
took  no  part. — Immediately  on  the  expira 
tion  of  his  term  of  office  (1801)  he  left  Wash 
ington,  to  which  shortly  before  the  seat  of  gov 
ernment  had  been  removed,  without  even  stop 
ping  to  be  present  at  the  inauguration  of  Jef 
ferson,  against  whom  he  felt  a  sense  of  personal 
wrong,  probably  thinking  he  had  been  deluded 
by  false  professions  as  to  Jefferson's  views  on  the 
presidential  chair.  This  state  of  feeling  on  the 
part  of  Adams  led  to  a  strict  non-intercourse 
for  the  next  13  years,  though  both  were  much 
given  to  letter-writing,  and  had  previously,  at 
least  till  within  a  short  time  before,  been  on 
terms  of  friendly  correspondence.  The  only 
acknowledgment  for  his  25  years'  services  to 
the  nation  which  Mr.  Adams  carried  with  him 
in  this  unwelcome  and  mortifying  retirement, 
was  the  privilege  which  had  been  granted  to 
Washington  on  his  withdrawal  from  the  presi 
dency,  and  after  his  death  to  his  widow, 


94: 


JOHN  ADAMS 


and  bestowed  likewise  upon  all  subsequent  ex- 
presidents  and  their  widows,  of  receiving  his 
letters  free  of  postage  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  Fortunately  for  Adarns,  his  thrifty  hab 
its  and  love  of  independence,  sustained  during 
his  absence  from  home  by  the  economical 
and  managing  talents  of  his  wife,  had  enabled 
him  to  add  to  the  savings  from  his  pro 
fession  before  entering  public  life,  savings 
from  his  salaries  enough  to  make  up  a  suf 
ficient  property  to  support  him  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  a  style  of  decent  propriety 
and  solid  comfort,  in  conformity  to  his  ideas. 
Almost  all  his  savings  he  had  invested  in  the 
farming  lands  about  him.  Jn  his  vocabulary, 
property  meant  land.  With  all  the  rapid  wealth 
then  being  acquired  by  trade  and  navigation, 
he  had  no  confidence  in  the  permanency  of  any 
property  but  land,  views  in  which  he  was  con 
firmed  by  the  commercial  revulsions  of  which 
he  lived  to  be  a  witness.  lie  was  the  possessor, 
partly  by  inheritance  and  partly  by  purchase, 
of  his  father's  farm,  including  the  house  in 
which  he  was  himself  born ;  but  he  had  trans 
ferred  his  own  residence  to  a  larger  and  hand 
somer  dwelling  near  by,  forfeited  by  one  of 
the  refugee  tones  of  the  revolution,  and  of 
which  he  had  become  the  purchaser,  where  he 
spent  the  next  quarter  of  a  century.  In  this 
comfortable  home,  acquired  by  himself,  he 
sought  consolation  for  his  troubled  spirit  in  the 
cultivation  of  his  lands,  in  books,  and  in  the 
bosom  of  his  family.  Mrs.  Adams,  to  her 
capacities  as  a  housekeeper,  steward,  and  farm 
manager,  added  a  brightness  and  activity  of 
mind  and  a  range  of  reading,  such  as  fully 
qualified  her  to  sympathize  with  her  husband 
in  his  public  as  well  as  his  private  career.  She 
shared  his  taste  for  books,  and,  as  his  published 
letters  to  her  are  unsurpassed  by  any  American 
letters  ever  yet  printed,  so  hers  to  him  as  well 
as  to  others,  from  which  a  selection  has  also 
been  published,  show  her,  though  with  less  of 
nature  and  more  of  formality  than  his  letters 
exhibit,  yet  worthy  of  the  admiration  and  re 
spect  as  well  as  of  the  tenderness  with  which 
he  always  regarded  her.  To  affections  strong 
enough  to  respond  to  his,  a  sympathy  equal  to 
his  highest  aspirations,  a  proud  feeling  of  su 
periority  and  an  enjoyment  of  it  equal  to  his 
own,  she  added  what  is  not  always  found  in 
such  company,  a  flexibility  sufficient  to  yield 
to  his  stronger  will,  without  disturbance  to  her 
serenity  or  his.  and  without  the  least  compro 
mise  of  her  own  dignity  or  her  husband's  re 
spect  and  deference  for  her.  While  she  was 
not  ignorant  of  the  foibles  of  his  character,  and 
knew  how  to  avail  herself  of  them  when  a 
good  purpose  was  to  be  served  by  it,  yet  her 
admiration  of  his  abilities,  her  reliance  upon 
his  judgment,  her  confidence  in  his  goodness, 
and  her  pride  in  his  achievements,  made  her 
always  ready  to  yield  and  to  conform.  His 
happiness  and  honor  were  always  her  leading 
object.  This  union  was  blessed  with  children 
well  calculated  to  add  to  its  happiness.  Mr. 


Adams  indeed  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  by 
death,  just  at  the  moment  of  his  retirement 
from  office,  private  grief  being  thus  added  to  po 
litical  disappointment,  his  second  son,  Charles. 
He  had  grown  to  manhood,  had  been  married 
and  had  settled  in  New  York  with  flattering 
prospects,  but  had  died  under  painful  circum 
stances,  which  his  father  speaks  of  in  a  con 
temporary  letter  as  the  deepest  affliction  of  his 
life,  leaving  a  wife  and  two  infant  children  de 
pendent  on  him.  Col.  Smith,  an  officer  of  the 
revolution,  who  had  been  Adams's  secretary 
of  legation  at  London,  and  who  had  married 
his  only  daughter,  did  not  prove  in  all  respects 
such  a  son-in-law  as  he  could  have  wished. 
His  pecuniary  affairs  becoming  embarrassed, 
his  father-in-law  had  provided  for  him  by  sev 
eral  public  appointments,  the  last  of  which  was 
that  of  surveyor  of  the  port  of  New  York, 
which  position  he  was  allowed  to  hold  till 
1807,  when  he  was  removed  from  it  in  conse 
quence  of  his  implication  in  Miranda's  expedi 
tion.  Nor  did  Thomas  Boylston  Adams,  the 
third  son,  though  a  person  of  accomplishments 
and  talents,  fully  answer  the  hopes  of  his 
parents.  But  all  these  disappointments  were 
more  than  made  good  by  the  oldest  son,  John 
Quincy  Adams,  who  subsequently  to  his  recall 
from  the  diplomatic  service  abroad,  into  which 
Washington  had  introduced  him,  and  in  which 
his  father  (urged  to  it  by  a  letter  from  Wash 
ington)  had  promoted  him,  was  chosen  one  of 
the  senators  in  congress  from  Massachusetts. — 
All  consolations,  domestic  or  otherwise,  at  Mr. 
Adams's  command,  were  fully  needed.  Never 
did  a  statesman  sink  more  suddenly,  at  a  time 
too  when  his  powers  of  action  and  inclination 
for  it  seemed  wholly  unimpaired,  from  a  lead 
ing  position  to  more  absolute  political  insig 
nificance.  His  grandson  tells  us  that  while 
the  letters  addressed  to  him  in  the  year  prior 
to  March  1,  1801,  may  be  counted  by  thou 
sands,  those  of  the  next  year  scarcely  number 
a  hundred,  while  he  wrote  even  fewer  than 
he  received.  Nor  was  mere  neglect  the  worst 
of  it.  He  sank,  loaded  with  the  jibes,  the 
sneers,  the  execrations  even  of  both  political 
parties  into  which  the  nation  was  divided.  It 
is  easy  to  see  now  that  hardly  any  degree  of 
union  or  skill  on  the  part  of  the  federalists,  a 
minority  from  the  beginning  and  only  sustained 
from  the  first  by  the  name  of  Washington  and 
the  talent  and  activity  of  the  inferior  leaders, 
could  have  prevented  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
the  other  party.  But,  as  is  usual  with  con 
temporaries,  the  disposition  then  was  to  ex 
plain  everything  by  the  skill  or  luck  of  indi 
vidual  movements,  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
most  active  leaders  of  the  federal  party  were 
inclined  to  hold  Adams  personally  answerable 
both  for  the  breach  in  their  ranks  and  for  their 
subsequent  overthrow.  At  the  same  time,  the 
other  party,  identifying  him  with  all  the  meas 
ures  most  obnoxious  to  them,  especially  the 
alien  and  sedition  laws,  long  continued  to  use 
his  name  as  a  sort  of  synonyme  for  aristocracy, 


JOHN"  ADAMS 


95 


longing  after  monarchy,  bigotry,  tyranny,  and 
oppression  in  general.  Especially  were  they 
enraged  at  the  passage  by  the  last  congress, 
just  before  the  clo^e  of  his  and  their  term  of 
office,  of  a  new  judiciary  act,  or  rather  at 
Adams's  presuming  to  till  up  with  federalists 
the  twenty-three  new  judicial  offices,  besides 
attorneys,  marshals,  and  clerks,  created  by  this 
act.  These  nominations,  stigmatized  as  ''mid 
night  appointments,"  were  assailed,  as  well  as 
he  who  made  them,  by  every  term  of  party  re 
proach  ;  nor  did  the  now  triumphant  republi 
cans  rest  until,  unable  to  reach  these  appointees 
in  any  other  way,  they  had  stripped  them  of 
their  offices  by  repealing  the  act.  Though 
Adams  was  far  more  of  a  speculative  philoso 
pher  tli an  any  of  his  contemporaries  in  the 
field  of  American  politics,  except  Jefferson,  he 
was  by  no  means  philosopher  enough  to  sub 
mit  with  patience  to  the  obloquy  with  which 
he  was  new  visited.  In  the  agony  of  his  heart 
he  sat  down  to  defend  himself  with  his  pen,  at 
least  before  the  tribunal  of  posterity.  He  had 
been  in  the  habit  of  keeping,  during  intervals 
of  his  life,  a  diary  or  journal,  large  and  very 
valuable  extracts  from  which  appear  in  the  2d 
and  3d  volumes  of  his  collected  works.  He 
now  set  himself  to  writing  an  "  Autobiogra 
phy  "  and  a  reply  to  Hamilton's  pamphlet. 
But  though  he  wrote  with  great  facility  and 
force,  neither  his  eyes,  which  were  weak,  his 
hand*  which  trembled  so  as  to  make  the  me 
chanical  labor  of  writing  disagreeable,  nor  yet 
his  habits  or  his  temperament,  were  favorable 
to  the  labor  of  correction,  condensation,  and 
arrangement ;  and  he  presently  abandoned  both 
those  works,  though  some  selections  from  the 
"  Autobiography  "  have  been  published  by  his 
grandson  by  way  of  filling  gaps  in  his  diary. 
Eight  years  later,  when  time  had  somewhat 
healed  over  these  wounds,  they  broke  out  with 
new  malignancy  by  reason  of  renewed  attacks 
upon  him  by  the  federalists  on  account  of  his 
son  John  Quincy  Adams  having  abandoned  the 
federal  party,  and  the  disposition  evinced  by 
the  father  to  sustain  the  policy  of  the  admin 
istration,  rather  than  that  of  the  federalists, 
in  the  disputes  which  finally  terminated  in  war 
with  Great  Britain.  Hitherto  the  Jeffersonian 
or  democratic  party  had  possessed  in  Boston 
as  its  sole  newspaper  organ  "The  Chronicle," 
a  very  violent  paper,  of  which  the  staple  in 
times  past  had  been  abuse  of  John  Adams  as 
an  aristocrat  and  a  monarchist,  and  the  author 
of  the  alien  and  sedition  laws.  To  represent 
and  express  the  sentiments  of  a  new  cohort, 
which  with  the  years  1806  and  1807  came 
in  Massachusetts  to  the  support  of  Jefferson, 
under  the  leadership  of  John  Q.  Adams,  a  new 
paper  was  established  called  the  ''Boston  Pa 
triot,"  to  which  both  John  Q.  Adams  and  his 
father  became  contributors.  In  the  earliest 
numbers  of  this  paper,  John  Adams  printed 
(and  it  may  be  found  in  the  9th  volume  of  his 
collected  works)  "The  inadmissible  Principles 
of  the  King  of  England's  Proclamation  of  Oct. 


10,  1807,  considered,"  being  an  examination 
and  refutation  of  the  English  doctrine  of  im 
pressment  as  applied  to  British  subjects.  Very 
soon,  however,  he  dropped  these  topics  of  the 
day,  and  reverted  to  the  past.  The  old  charge 
having  been  anew  brought  up  against  him  by 
some  of  the  federalist  papers,  of  personal  mo 
tives  in  setting  on  foot  the  mission  to  Franco 
in  1799,  he  took  up  that  subject  in  a  series  of 
letters  to  the  "  Patriot  " — also  printed  in  his 
collected  works,  vol.  ix. — into  which  he  incor 
porated  much  of  the  material  collected  for  his 
answer  to  Hamilton.  These  letters  are  a  valu 
able  contribution  to  the  history  of  that  inter 
esting  period,  and  can  hardly  fail  to  be  re 
garded  as  a  complete  vindication  of  Adams's 
policy  and  conduct  on  that  occasion — at  least 
if  we  allow  that  the  immediate  welfare  of  the 
nation  was  to  be  consulted,  rather  than  any 
supposed  prospective  interest  of  any  political 
party.  From  this  beginning  Mr.  Adams  went 
on  to  a  history  especially  of  his  diplomatic  ca 
reer,  into  which  he  introduced  many  valuable 
documents  in  his  possession.  These  publications, 
interrupted  and  again  commenced  from  time  to 
time,  extended  over  a  space  of  three  years.  A 
portion,  embracing  perhaps  two  thirds  of  the 
whole,  was  collected  and  published  in  pam 
phlets,  which,  bound  together,  made  an  octavo 
volume,  entitled  "  Correspondence  of  the  late 
President  Adams,  originally  published  in  the 
Boston  '  Patriot '  in  a  series  of  letters."  Thus 
disjointed,  and  written,  as  parts  of  it  evince, 
and  as  his  published  correspondence  of  this  pe 
riod  more  clearly  shows,  under  great  exasper 
ation  of  feeling,  and  coming  forth,  too,  at  a 
period  when  the  events  of  the  day  engrossed 
all  thoughts,  and  during  which  the  history  of 
the  revolution  was  less  generalhr  known  and 
less  a  subject  of  public  interest  than  at  any 
time  before  or  since,  these  letters  failed  to  at 
tract  the  public  attention  or  to  satisfy  Mr.  Ad 
ams's  ideal  of  an  historical  vindication  of  himself. 
Seeing  how,  amid  the  ignorance  and  careless 
ness  of  the  times,  the  true  history  of  the  revo 
lution  was  in  danger  of  total  oblivion  or  of  be 
ing  transformed  into  a  sort  of  legend,  he  aban 
doned  his  task  with  expressions  to  his  private 
correspondents  of  contempt  for  history,  and  of 
utter  despair  of  ever  having  justice  done  to 
him.  But  with  the  establishment  of  peace  in 
Europe,  and  the  apparent  fulfilment,  at  least 
for  the  moment,  of  all  Mr.  Adams's  prophecies 
as  to  the  result  of  the  French  revolution,  the 
bitter  political  obloquy  of  which  he  had  been 
the  mark — an  obloquy  directed  against  him 
from  two  opposite  quarters  at  once — began 
sensibly  to  relax ;  and  as  those  who  had  been 
contemporaries  with  his  active  life  one  after 
another  dropped  off,  he  himself  began  to  fill, 
while  yet  alive,  the  position  in  general  estima 
tion  of  a  hero  of  the  past.  After  Mr.  Jefferson's 
withdrawal  from  political  life,  through  the 
agency  of  Dr.  Rush,  who  had  all  along  re 
mained  the  personal  friend  of  both,  correspon 
dence  by  letter  was  renewed  between  Adams 


96 


ADAMS 


and  Jefferson  and  kept  up  for  the  remainder  | 
of  their  lives.  About  the  same  time  also  Ad-  | 
ams  opened  a  correspondence  with  McKean,  I 
his  friend  and  cooperator  in  revolutionary  ' 
times,  but  separated  from  him  in  the  whirl-  | 
pool  of  subsequent  politics ;  and  he  thus  drew  I 
out  from  McKean  some  valuable  historical  \ 
reminiscences.  Mr.  Adams  indeed  gave  great 
attention  to  the  subject  of  American  history. 
His  letters  to  Mr.  Tudor  (which  led  to  the  pub 
lication  by  that  gentleman  of  tbe  u  Life  of 
James  Otis  ")  shed  great  light  upon  the  early 
history  of  the  revolution  in  Massachusetts. 
They  contributed  not  a  little  to  give  the  first 
impulse  to  that  study  of  American  history, 
revolutionary  and  colonial,  which,  commenc-  | 
ing  about  that  time,  has  rescued  those  subjects 
from  the  hands  of  rhetoricians  and  fabulists, 
and  has  produced  so  many  valuable  and  au 
thentic  historical  works.  In  his  correspon 
dence,  which  appears  to  have  gradually  in 
creased  and  extended  itself,  Mr.  Adams  loved 
to  recall  and  to  reexplain  his  theoretical  ideas 
of  government,  on  some  points  of  which  he 
pushed  Jefferson  rather  hard,  and  which  the 
result  of  the  French  revolution  so  far  as  then 
developed  seemed  to  confirm.  Another  sub 
ject  in  which  he  continued  to  feel  a  great  in 
terest  was  that  of  theology.  He  had  begun  as 
an  Arminian,  and  the  more  he  had  read  and 
thought  and  the  older  he  grew,  the  freer  views 
he  took.  Though  clinging  with  tenacity  to 
the  religious  institutions  of  New  England,  it 
would  seem  from  his  correspondence  that  he 
had  finally  curtailed  his  theology  to  the  ten 
commandments  and  the  sermon  on  the  mount. 
Of  his  views  on  tins  point  he  gave  evidence  in 
his  last  public  act,  to  which  we  now  approach. 
Mrs.  Adams  had  died  in  1818,  but  even  that 
shock,  severe  as  it  was,  did  not  unsettle  the 
firm  grasp  of  her  husband  on  life,  its  enjoy 
ments  and  its  duties.  When,  in  consequence 
of  the  erection  of  the  district  of  Maine  into  a 
separate  state,  a  convention  was  to  meet  in 
1820  to  revise  the  constitution'  of  Massachu 
setts,  in  the  framing  of  which  Mr.  Adams  had 
taken  so  leading  a  part,  though  in  his  86th 
year,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  by  his  towns 
men.  Upon  his  first  appearance,  with  a  form 
yet  erect,  though  tremulous  with  age,  in  this 
convention,  which  included  almost  everybody  I 
in  the  state  of  distinguished  intelligence  or  rep 
utation,  Mr.  Adams  was  received  by  the  mem 
bers  standing,  and  with  every  demonstration 
of  affection  and  regard ;  and  a  series  of  resolu 
tions  was  forthwith  offered  and  passed,  con 
taining  an  enumeration  and  warm  acknowl 
edgment  of  some  of  his  principal  public  ser 
vices,  and  calling  upon  him  to  preside.  But 
this,  while  duly  acknowledging  the  compli 
ment,  he  declined  on  the  score  of  his  age  and 
infirmities.  The  same  cause  also  prevented  his  | 
taking  any  very  active  part  in  the  proceedings. 
Yet  he  labored  to  produce  a  modification  of 
the  third  article  of  the  bill  of  rights,  on  the 
subject  of  public  worship  and  its  support,  an  i 


article  which,  when  originally  drawing  the 
rest  of  that  instrument,  he  had  passed  over  to 
other  hands.  But  the  time  had  not  yet  come 
for  such  changes  as  he  wished.  The  old  pu 
ritan  feeling  was  still  in  too  great  force  to  ac 
knowledge  the  equal  rights,  political  and  reli 
gious,  of  others  than  Christians.  Yet,  however 
it  might  be  with  his  colleagues  or  his  fellow 
citizens,  Mr.  Adams  in  this  movement  ex 
pressed  his  own  ideas.  One  of  his  latest  let- 
.ters,  written  in  1825  and  addressed  to  Jefi'er- 
son,  is  a  remarkable  protest  against  the  blas 
phemy  laws,  so  called,  of  Massachusetts  and 
the  rest  of  the  Union,  as  being  utterly  incon 
sistent  with  the  rights  of  free  inquiry  and  pri 
vate  judgment. — It  is  in  the  letters  of  Mr.  Ad 
ams,  of  which  but  a  small  part  have  yet  been 
published,  that  his  genius  as  a  writer  and 
thinker,  and  no  less  distinctly  his  character  as 
a  man,  most  clearly  appear.  Down  even  to 
the  last  year  of  his  protracted  life,  his  letters 
exhibit  a  wonderful  degree  of  vitality,  energy, 
acuteness,  wit,  playfulness,  and  command  of 
language.  As  a  writer  of  English,  little  as  he 
ever  troubled  himself  with  revision  and  correc 
tion,  and  we  may  add  as  a  speculative  philos 
opher,  he  must  be  placed  first  among  Ameri 
cans  of  all  the  several  generations  to  which  he 
belonged,  except  only  Franklin  ;  and  if  Frank 
lin  excelled  him  in  humor  and  geniality,  he  far 
surpassed  Franklin  in  compass,  wit,  and  viva 
city.  Indeed,  it  is  only  by  the  recent  partial 
publication  of  his  letters  that  his  gifts  in  this 
respect  are  beginning  to  become  known.  The 
first  collection  of  his  private  letters,  published 
in  his  lifetime  and  much  against  his  will, 
though  not  deficient  in  the  characteristics 
above  pointed  out,  yet,  having  been  written 
under  feelings  of  great  aggravation  and  in  a 
spirit  of  extreme  bitterness  toward  his  politi 
cal  opponents,  was  rather  damaging  to  him. 
This  publication  was  one  of  the  incidents  of 
his  becoming  for  a  third  time,  in  his  extreme 
age,  an  object  of  hostility,  confined  now,  how 
ever,  to  a  few  of  the  more  tenacious  of  his  old 
federalist  opponents,  in  consequence  of  the 
coalition  of  all  parties  in  New  England  to  sup 
port  his  son,  J.  Q.  Adams,  for  the  presidency. 
In  the  interval'  from  1804  to  1812,  Mr. 
Cunningham,  a  maternal  relative,  Lad  drawn 
him  into  a  confidential  correspondence,  in 
which,  still  smarting  under  a  sense  of 
injury,  he  had  expressed  himself  with  perfect 
unreserve  and  entire  freedom  as  to  the  chief 
events  of  his  presidential  administration  and 
the  character  and  motives  of  the  parties  con 
cerned  in  them.  By  a  gross  breach  of  confi 
dence,  of  which,  like  other  impulsive  and 
confiding  persons,  Mr.  Adams  had  been  often 
the  victim,  those  letters  were  sold  by  Cun 
ningham's  heir  in  1824,  while  the  writer  and 
many  of  the  parties  referred  to  were  still 
alive,  and  were  published  as  a  part  of  the 
electioneering  machinery  against  J.  Q.  Adams. 
They  called  out  a  violent  retort  from  Col. 
Pickering,  who  had  been  secretary  of  state  to 


JOIIX  ADAMS 


Washington  and  Adams,  till  dismissed  from 
office  by  the  latter ;  but  though  Mr.  Jefferson 
was  also  severely  handled  in  them,  they  occa 
sioned  no  new  interruption  to  the  friendly 
correspondence  for  some  years  reestablished 
between  him  and  Adams.  Those  two  leading 
actors  in  American  politics^  at  first  so  coop 
erative  and  afterward  so  hostile,  again  reunited 
in  friendly  intercourse,  having  outlived  almost 
all  their  fellow  actors,  continued  to  descend 
hand-  in  hand  to  the  grave.  Adams  lived  to  see 
his  son  president  and  to  receive  Jefferson's 
congratulations  upon  it.  By  a  remarkable 
coincidence,  they  both  expired  on  the  50th 
anniversary  of  that  declaration  of  indepen 
dence  in  which  they  had  both  taken  so  active 
a  part,  Adams,  however,  being  the  survivor 
by  a  few  hours. — Of  Adams's  personal  appear 
ance  and  domestic  character  in  his  old  age, 
his  grandson  gives  the  following  account : 
"  In  figure  John  Adams  was  not  tall,  scarcely 
exceeding  middle  height,  but  of  a  stout,  well 
knit  frame,  denoting  vigor  and  long  life,  yet 
as  he  grew  old  inclining  more  and  more  to 
corpulence.  His  head  was  large  and  round, 
with  a  wide  forehead  and  expanded  brows. 
His  eye  was  mild  and  benignant,  perhaps  even 
humorous  when  he  was  free  from  emotion, 
but  when  excited  it  fully  expressed  the  vehe 
mence  of  the  spirit  that  stirred  within.  His 
presence  was  grave  and  imposing  on  serious 
occasions,  but  not  unbending.  He  delighted 
in  social  conversation,  in  which  he  was  some 
times  tempted  to  what  he  called  rhodomon- 
tade.  But  he  seldom  fatigued  those  who 
heard  him ;  for  he  mixed  so  much  of  natural 
vigor  of  fancy  and  illustration  with  the  store 
of  his  acquired  knowledge,  as  to  keep  alive 
their  interest  for  a  long  time.  His  affections 
were  warm,  though  not  habitually  demon 
strated  toward  his  relatives.  His  anger,  when 
thoroughly  aroused,  was  for  a  time  extremely 
violent,  but  when  it  subsided  it  left  no  trace 
of  malevolence  behind.  Xobody  could  see 
him  intimately  without  admiring  the  sim 
plicity  and  truth  which  shone  in  his  actions, 
and  standing  in  some  awe  of  the  power  and 
energy  of  his  will.  It  was  in  these  moments 
that  he  impressed  those  around  him  with  a 
sense  of  his  greatness.  Even  the  men  em 
ployed  on  his  farm  were  in  the  habit  of  citing 
instances,  some  of  which  have  been  remem 
bered  down  to  the  present  day.  At  times  his 
vehemence  would  become  so  great  as  to  make 
him  overbearing  and  unjust.  This  was  most 
apt  to  happen  in  cases  of  pretension  and  any 
kind  of  wrong-doing.  Mr.  Adams  was  very 
impatient  of  cant,  or  of  opposition  to  any  of 
his  deeply  established  convictions.  Neither 
was  his  indignation  at  all  graduated  to  the 
character  of  the  individuals  who  might  happen 
to  excite  it.  It  had  little  respect  of  persons, 
and  would  hold  an  illiterate  man  or  a  raw  boy 
to  as  heavy  a  responsibility  for  uttering  a 
crude  heresy  as  the  strongest  thinker  or  the 
most  profound  scholar.'1  The  same  writer 
VOL.  i. — 7 


'  makes  the  following  remarks  on  his  general 
i  character :  "  His  nature  was  too  susceptible  to 
•  emotions  of  sympathy  and  kindness,  for  it 

tempted  him  to  trust  more  than  was  prudent 

in  the  professions  of  some  who  proved  un- 
i  worthy  of  his  confidence.  Ambitious  in  one 
j  sense  he  certainly  was,  but  it  was  not  the 
,  mere  aspiration  for  place  or  power.  It  was  a 
I  desire  to  excel  in  the  minds  of  men  by  the 
i  development  of  high  qualities,  the  love,  in 
!  short,  of  an  honorable  fame,  that  stirred  him 
:  to  exult  in  the  rewards  of  popular  favor.  Yet 
i  this  passion  never  tempted  him  to  change  a 
;  course  of  action  or  to  suppress  a  serious  con- 
I  viction,  to  bend  to  a  prevailing  error  or  to 
I  disavow  one  odious  truth."  This  last  assertion 
j  involves  some  controverted  points  of  history ; 

yet  this  at  least  must  be  granted,  that  it  may 
I  be  made  with  far  more  plausibility  of  Mr. 
i  Adams  than  of  the  greater  portion  of  political 

men.  The  pecuniary  independence  which 
j  previous  to  his  retirement  Mr.  Adams  had 
j  secured  by  a  judicious  adaptation  of  his  ex- 
i  penditures  to  his  income,  more  fortunate  than 
!  Mr.  Jefferson,  he  maintained  till  the  end  of 
I  his  life.  Although  he  had  a  large  family,  in- 
I  eluding  grandchildren  and  great-grandchil- 
1  dren,  dependent  upon  him,  he  yet  died  in  the 
|  possession  of  a  valuable  landed  estate. — See 
|  k'Life  and  Works  of  John  Adams,"  by  Charles 
i  Francis  Adams  (10  vols.  8vo,  Boston,  1850- 
!  '56),  and  "Life  of  John  Adams,"  by  J.  Q.  and 
I  C.  F.  Adams  (2  vols.  8vo,  1871). 

AD1MS,  John,  the  assumed  name  of  ALEX- 
i  AXDER  SMITH,  one  of  the  mutineers  of  the 
;  British  ship  Bounty,  born  in  London  in  1764, 
I  died  on  Pitcairn  island,  March  29,  1829.  In 
j  1787  he  joined  the  Bounty  as  a  common 

sailor,  and  was  one  of  those  who  revolted 
I  against  Lieut.  Bligh  on  April  28,  1789.  (See 
i  BLIGH,  WILLIAM.)  On  Jan.  23,  1790,  after 
i  various  adventures,  Adams  landed  with  the 
j  other  mutineers  and  a  number  of  Tahitian 
i  men  and  women  on  Pitcairn  island,  where  he 
|  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1800  ho  found 
'  himself  the  sole  surviving  Englishman,  and 
i  the  only  guardian  and  teacher  of  a  community 
',  of  women  and  children.  He  organized  divine 
'  service  according  to  the  forms  of  the  church 
I  of  England,  and  acted  also  as  a  schoolmaster. 
i  In  1808,  when  Capt.  Mayhew  Folger,  of  the 
I  American  ship  Topaz,  landed  on  the  island, 
i  Adams  gave  him  an  account  of  the  feuds 
:  among  his  companions  and  the  Tahitian  men 
I  and  women,  ending  in  the  violent  death  of  all 
|  except  himself  and  Young.  Capt.  Folger,  in 
i  return,  gave  him  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  great 
',  events  of  the  preceding  20  years,  all  of  which 

were  entirely  new  to  him.  The  captain's 
,  report  of  this  extraordinary  meeting  with 

Adams  bore  testimony  to  the  excellent  moral 
,  and  religious  training  of  the  little  community, 

and  was  accompanied  by  the  chronometer  and 
I  azimuth  compass  of  the  Bounty,  presented  to 
i  him  by  Adams.  It  was  nfter  the  visit  of  Capt. 
i  Folger  that  he  changed  his  real  name  of 


98 


ADAMS 


Alexander  Smith  to  John  Adams,  to  avoid 
recognition  and  conviction  for  mutiny  in 
England.  The  island  was  visited  only  two  or 
three  times  afterward  during  Adams's  life.  In 
1825  a  man  named  Buftett  was  permitted  to 
settle  there,  and,  being  well  educated,  re 
lieved  Adams  of  the  business  of  teaching. 
Lady  Belcher,  in  her  work  on  the  "Mutineers 
of  the  Bounty"  (London,  1871),  says:  "By 
the  mercy  of  God  and  by  the  aid  of  his  Bible 
and  prayer  book,  which  he  had  so  earnestly 
studied,  John  Adams  succeeded  in  establish 
ing  such  a  community  as  has  been  the  dream 
of  poets  and  the  aspiration  of  philosophers." 
(See  PITCAIEN  ISLAND.) 

ADAMS,  John,  LL.  D.,  an  American  teacher 
and  philanthropist,  born  in  Canterbury,  Conn., 
in  1772,  died  in  Jacksonville,  111.,  April  24, 
1863.  He  'was  a  son  of  John  Adams,  an 
officer  in  the  revolutionary  army  from  Con 
necticut,  and  graduated  at  Yale  college  in 
1795.  Until  1798  he  taught  the  academy  in 
his  native  town;  from  1800  to  1803  he  was 
rector  of  Plainiield  academy;  from  1803  to 
1810  principal  of  Bacon  academy,  Colchester, 
Conn. ;  and  from  1810  to  1833  principal  of 
Phillips  academy,  Andqver,  Mass.  He  was 
during  this  period  also  one  of  the  founders  of 
several  of  the  national  benevolent  societies. 
After  being  thus  engaged  in  teaching  for  36 
years,  he  resigned  and  removed  to  Illinois, 
where  he  was  instrumental  in  introducing 
some  valuable  modifications  into  the  school 
laws;  and  when  past  70  years  of  age  he 
organized  several  hundred  Sunday  schools  in 
different  parts  of  the  state.  He  published 
several  essays  on  the  training  of  the  young, 
and  left  others  in  manuscript. 

ADAMS,  John  Conch,  an  English  astronomer, 
born  of  humble  parentage  near  Bodmin,  June 
5,  1819.  lie  is  a  fellow  of  Pembroke  college, 
Cambridge,  England,  and  shares  with  Lever- 
rier  the  honor  of  having  calculated  the  place 
of  the  planet  Neptune  before  it  had  been  rec 
ognized  by  sight.  He  early  showed  great 
powers,  and  in  1841,  while  in  St.  John's  col 
lege,  made  his  first  computation  of  Neptune's 
place.  In  1844— '6  he  renewed  his  calcula 
tions,  and  communicated  the  results  to  Profes 
sors  Challis  and  Airy ;  but  he  did  not  publish 
them,  and  therefore  Leverrier,  who  soon  after 
attained  and  published  similar  results,  has 
reaped  the  larger  share  of  glory.  The  calcula 
tions  of  both  mathematicians  were  formed  on 
the  motions  of  the  planet  Uranus,  which  was 
drawn  aside  from  its  expected  course  by  the 
attraction  of  Neptune.  In  1858  Adams  was 
appointed  Lowndean  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Cambridge. 

ADAMS,  John  Qniney,  sixth  president  of  the 
United  States,  eldest  son  of  President  John 
Adams,  born  in  Braintree,  July  11,  1767,  died 
in  Washington,  Feb.  23,  1848.  The  origin  of 
his  name  was  thus  stated  by  himself:  "My 
great-grandfather,  John  Quincy,  was  dying 
.when  I  was  baptized,  and  his  daughter,  my 


grandmother,  requested  I  might  receive  his 
name.  This  fact,  recorded  by  my  father,  has 
connected  with  my  name  a  charm  of  mingled 
sensibility  and  devotion.  It  was  filial  tender 
ness  that  gave  the  name — it  was  the  name  of 
one  passing  from  earth  to  immortality.  These 
have  been  through  life  perpetual  admonitions 
to  do  nothing  unworthy  of  it."  John  Adams, 
having  been  appointed  minister  to  France,  took 
with  him  as  companion  his  son  John  Quincy, 
then  in  his  llth  year.  The  voyage  from  Bos 
ton  to  Bordeaux  was  tempestuous ;  the  travel 
by  land  from  Bordeaux  to  Paris  was  rapid  and 
fatiguing;  but  the  young  Adams,  as  appears 
from  his  father's  published  diary,  conducted 
and  sustained  himself  through  both  voyage  and 
travels,  and  also  during  their  residence  at 
Paris,  to  his  father's  entire  satisfaction. 
Placed  at  a  school  near  Paris,  he  made  rapid 
progress  both  in  the  French  language  and  in 
his  general  studies.  His  health  was  perfect, 
and  his  father  wrote  to  his  mother  that  he  at 
tracted  general  attention  wherever  he  went 
by  his  vigor  of  body,  his  vivacity  of  mind,  and 
his  constant  good  humor.  After  a  stay  in 
France  of  near  a  year  and  a  half — several 
months  of  which  were  spent  at  Nantes  waiting 
for  a  passage  home — John  Quincy  Adams 
came  back  with  his  father  in  a  French  frigate. 
While  at  sea  he  taught  English  to  his  fellow 
passengers,  the  French  ambassador  to  the 
United  States,  De  la  Luzerne,  and  his  secre 
tary,  M.  Marbois.  The  following  is  an  extract 
from  his  father's  diary,  under  date  of  June  20, 
1779:  "The  chevalier  de  la  Luzerne  and  M. 
Marbois  are  in  raptures  with  my  son.  They 
get  him  to  teach  them  the  language.  I  found 
this  morning  the  ambassador  seated  on  the 
cushion  in  our  stateroom,  M.  Marbois  in  his 
cot,  at  his  left  hand,  and  my  son  stretched  out 
in  his  at  his  right,  the  ambassador  reading  out 
loud  in  Blackstone's  '  Discourse '  at  his  en 
trance  on  his  professorship  of  the  common  law 
at  the  university,  and  my  son  correcting  the 
pronunciation  of  every  word  and  syllable  and 
letter.  The  ambassador  said  he  was  astonished 
at  my  son's  knowledge ;  that  he  was  a  master 
of  his  own  language  like  a  professor.  M.  Mar 
bois  said,  '  Your  son  teaches  us  more  than 
you;  he  has  point  de  grace,  point  cTeloges. 
He  shows  us  no  mercy,  and  makes  us  no  com 
pliments.  We  must  have  Mr.  John.'  "  Char 
acter  is  very  early  developed,  and  John  Q. 
Adams  retained  much  of  this  same  style  of 
teaching  to  the  end  of  his  life.  After  remain- 
I  ing  at  home  three  months  and  a  half,  John  Q. 
Adams,  now  in  his  13th  year,  sailed  again  in 
the  same  French  frigate,  as  his  father's  com- 
J  panion  on  his  second  diplomatic  mission  to 
I  Europe.  Arriving  at  Paris  in  February,  1780,  he 
I  was  again  placed  at  school,  where  he  remained 
|  till  August.  He  then  went  with  his  father  to 
Holland,  where,  after  some  months'  tuition  at  a 
school  in  Amsterdam,  he  was  sent  about  the 
end  of  the  year  to  the  university  of  Leyden. 
His  father's  secretary  of  legation,  Francis 


JOHN   QUINCY   ADAMS 


99 


Dana  (afterward  chief  justice  of  Massachu 
setts),  having  been  appointed  minister  to  Rus 
sia,  he  took  with  him  as  his  private  secretary 
John  Q.  Adams,  then  in  his  15th  year.  Hav 
ing  discharged  the  duties  of  this  position  for 
14  months  to  Dana's  entire  satisfaction,  the 
latter  not  having  succeeded  in  getting  recog 
nized  as  minister,  young  Adams  left  St.  Peters 
burg,  and,  travelling  back  alone,  returned  lei 
surely  through  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and  by 
Hamburg  and  Bremen,  to  the  Hague,  where 
he  resumed  his  studies.  In  October,  1783,  the 
treaty  of  peace  having  been  signed,  John  Q. 
Adams  attended  his  father  on  his  first  visit  to 
England.  Returning  with  him,  he  spent  the 
year  1784  in  Paris,  where  the  whole  family 
was  now  collected.  His  father  having  been 
appointed  minister  to  Great  Britain,  he  ac 
companied  the  family  to  London,  but  soon 
after,  with  a  view  to  the  completion  of  his 
education,  returned  home  to  Massachusetts. 
In  1786  he  entered  the  junior  class  at  Harvard 
college.  He  graduated  in  1788,  and  imme 
diately  after  entered  the  office  of  Theophilus 
Parsons,  afterward  well  known  as  chief  justice 
of  Massachusetts.  Here  he  remained  for  three 
years.  In  1791  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
when  he  opened  a  law  office  in  Boston,  and  in 
the  course  of  four  years  he  gradually  attained 
practice  enough  to  pay  his  expenses.  He  did 
not,  however,  confine  himself  entirely  to  the 
law.  A  series  of  articles  which  he  published 
in  the  "Boston  Centinel,"  with  the  signature 
of  Publicola — a  reply  to  some  portions  of 
Thomas  Paine's  "  Rights  of  Man  " — attracted 
a  good  deal  of  attention  not  only  at  home  but 
in  England,  where  these  papers  were  repub- 
lished  and  ascribed  to  his  father.  In  another 
series  of  articles  in  the  same  journal,  signed 
Marcellus,  published  in  1793,  he  defended 
Washington's  policy  of  neutrality.  In  a  third 
series,  signed  Columbus,  published  the  same 
year,  he  reviewed  the  conduct  of  Genet,  the 
French  ambassador,  in  relation  to  the  same 
subject.  These  writings  drew  attention  to 
ward  him,  and  in  May,  1794,  Washington  ap 
pointed  him  minister  to  the  Hague.  Upon  his 
arrival  there  he  found  things  in  such  confusion, 
owing  to  the  French  invasion,  that  after  a  few 
months'  residence  he  thought  of  returning; 
but,  by  the  remonstrances  of  Washington,  who 
predicted  for  him  a  distinguished  diplomatic 
career,  he  was  induced  to  remain.  In  1795  he 
had  occasion  to  visit  London  to  transact  some 
business  with  Thomas  Pinckney,  who  after  Mr. 
Jay's  departure  had  resumed  the  embassy  at 
that  court.  The  American  consul  at  London 
was  Joshua  Johnson  of  Maryland,  brother  of 
Thomas  Johnson,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  of  independence,  and  a  judge  of 
the  United  States  supreme  court.  Mr.  Joshua 
Johnson  had  formerly  been  a  merchant  at 
Nantes,  where  in  1779  the  Adamses  had  made 
his  acquaintance.  He  had  by  this  time  a  grown 
up  daughter,  with  whom  young  Adams  now 
formed  an  intimacy,  which  resulted  in  mar 


riage  on  July  27,  1797.  Previously  to  this 
event,  and  shortly  before  the  close  of  Washing 
ton's  administration,  John  Q.  Adams  hud  been 
appointed  minister  to  Portugal ;  but  his  father, 
on  becoming  president,  changed  his  destination 
to  Berlin.  In  thus  promoting  his  own  son- 
John  Adams  acted  by  the  written  advice  or 
Washington,  who  expressed  his  decided  opin 
ion  that  young  Adams  was  the  ablest  person  in 
the  American  diplomatic  service,  and  that 
j  merited  promotion  ought  not  to  be  withheld 
!  from  him  merely  because  he  was  the  president's 
!  son.  He  arrived  at  Berlin  shortly  after  his 
marriage,  in  the  autumn  of  1797.  In  1798  he 
received  an  additional  commission  to  negotiate 
a  treaty  of  commerce  with  Sweden.  While 
residing  at  Berlin,  with  a  view  to  perfecting 
himself  in  the  German  language,  he  made  a 
translation  into  English  of  Wieland's  "  Oberon," 
and  would  have  published  it  but  for  the  ap 
pearance  about  that  time  of  a  translation  by 
Sotheby.  In  1800  he  travelled  through  Silesia, 
of  which  tour  he  wrote  an  account  in  a  series 
of  letters  to  his  brother  which  were  published, 
though  without  the  writer's  knowledge,  in  the 
"Port  Folio,"  a  weekly  paper  at  Philadelphia. 
These  letters  were  collected  and  published  in  a 
volume  in  London,  and,  being  translated  into 
French  and  German,  had  a  wide  circulation. 
On  the  accession  of  Mr.  Jefferson  .to  the  presi 
dency,  John  Q.  Adams  was  recalled ;  but  he 
had  previously  succeeded  in  negotiating  a  treaty 
of  commerce  with  Prussia.  Returning  to  Bos 
ton,  he  again  opened  a  law  office  there.  In  1802 
he  was  elected  from  Suffolk  county  (which  in 
cludes  Boston)  to  the  Massachusetts  senate, 
and  the  next  year  was  chosen  by  the  legisla 
ture  a  senator  in  congress  from  Massachusetts. 
He  owed  this  position  to  the  federal  part}r  of 
Massachusetts,  and  for  four  years  he  continued 
to  sustain  their  views ;  but  on  the  question  of 
the  embargo  recommended  by  Jefferson  he 
separated  from  them.  The  Massachusetts  elec 
tion  in  the  preceding  spring  had  resulted  in  the 
success  of  the  Jeffersonian  party,  who  elected 
their  candidates  for  governor  and  lieutenant 
governor,  and  a  majority  in  both  branches  of  the 
legislature.  At  the  time  when  the  embargo 
was  proposed  by  the  president  to  congress,  it 
seemed  probable  that  the  question  of  Adams's 
reelection  to  the  senate  would  have  to  be  de 
cided  by  a  legislature  favorable  to  the  views  of 
the  national  administration ;  and  the  support 
which  Adams  gave  to  that  measure  was  charg 
ed  by  the  federalists  to  the  hope  of  securing 
his  reelection  and  the  favor  of  a  party  whose 
predominance  seemed  at  length  established,  not 
merely  in  the  nation,  but  in  Massachusetts 
also.  This  course  on  his  part  led  to  a  warm 
controversy  between  him  and  his  colleague 
in  the  senate,  Timothy  Pickering,  who  now 
made  the  same  charges  of  treacherous  selfish 
ness  against  the  son  which  he  had  formerly 
brought  against  the  father.  Pickering  address 
ed  a  letter  to  Governor  Sullivan  of  Massa 
chusetts,  in  which  he  forcibly  stated  his  ob- 


100 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS 


jections  to  the  embargo,  which  he  represented  | 
as  the  first  step  toward  a  war  with  Great  Brit-  j 
ain,  a  step  into  which  the  administration  had 
been  led,  as  he  maintained,  by  French  threats  . 
or  French  seduction.  This  letter  Pickering 
requested  the  governor  to  lay  before  the  legis 
lature,  which  Sullivan  refused  to  do,  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  "  seditious  and  disorgan 
izing."  It  found  its  way,  however,  into  the 
newspapers,  and  Adams  replied  to  it  through 
the  same  medium.  In  this  reply  he  expressed 
his  conviction  that  the  whole  of  the  difficul 
ties  in  which  the  United  States  were  involved 
on  the  question  of  neutral  rights,  including 
the  issue  of  Bonaparte's  Berlin  and  Milan  de 
crees,  had  originated  in  the  unwarrantable 
maritime  pretensions  of  Great  Britain.  He 
even  went  so  far  as  to  represent  the  late  British 
orders  in  council,  issued  nominally  in  retaliation 
for  the  Berlin  decree,  as  a  first  step  on  the  part 
of  Great  Britain  toward  bringing  back  the 
United  States  to  colonial  subjection.  Giving 
emphatic  expression  to  suspicions  and  to  an  an 
tipathy  which,  as  to  the  Hamiltonian  or  Essex 
junto  section  of  the  federalists,  he  had  imbibed 
from  his  father,  he  broadly  hinted  that  Pick 
ering  and  his  special  party  friends  were  quite 
ready  to  side  with  Great  Britain  in  the  new 
enterprise  which  he  ascribed  to  her  of  re- 
subjecting  America.  Although  Sullivan  had 
been  reflected  governor,  the  embargo  had  op 
erated  to  give  the  federalists  a  small  majority 
in  both  branches  of  the  Massachusetts  legisla 
ture  ;  and  when  the  question  of  the  choice  of 
senator  came  up,  Adams  was  dropped,  and 
Lloyd,  a  Boston  merchant,  chosen  in  his  place. 
Adams  thereupon  declined  to  sit  for  the  remain 
ing  short  session  of  his  term,  resigned  his  sena- 
torship,  and  retired  to  private  life.  He  had 
previously,  however,  secured,  in  addition  to  his 
practice  as  a  lawyer,  a  new  resource  and  em 
ployment,  in  the  post  of  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  belles-lettres  at  Harvard  college.  He  en 
tered  upon  this  professorship  in  1806,  upon 
condition  of  not  being  obliged  to  reside  at 
Cambridge,  and  for  three  years  following  dis 
charged  the  duties  of  it,  delivering  lectures, 
the  first,  it  is  said,  ever  read  in  any  American 
college,  and  conducting  exercises  in  declama 
tion.  His  lectures,  which  were  printed  in  181 0, 
once  possessed  a  considerable  reputation,  but 
are  now  entirely  neglected.  The  winter  subse 
quent  to  his  resignation  he  visited  Washington, 
nominally  for  the  purpose  of  attending  the  su 
preme  court.  During  this  visit  he  sought  and 
obtained  a  confidential  interview  with  Jeffer 
son,  in  which  he  distinctly  brought  against  a 
portion  of  the  federal  leaders  the  charge  of  a 
treasonable  design  of  dissolving  the  Union  and 
forming  a  separate  northern  confederacy.  The 
same  charge,  thus  privately  made,  he  not  long 
after  repeated  in  print,  in  a  review  of  the  writ 
ings  of  Fisher  Ames,  which  he  published  in 
numbers  in  the  "Boston  Patriot."  Such  was 
the  origin  of  a  charge  which  for  the  next  ten 
or  fifteen  years  strongly  affected  the  admin 


istration  of  the  government,  and  which,  pen 
etrating  deeply  into  the  popular  mind,  made 
the  leading  statesmen  of  New  England  ob 
jects  at  once  of  dread  and  hatred,  deprived 
New  England  for  a  considerable  period  of  its 
natural  weight  in  public  affairs,  and  had  a 
decisive  influence  in  curtailing  to  a  single 
term  the  presidential  office,  to  which  John 
Q.  Adams  himself  afterward  attained.  That 
he  was  sincere  in  bringing  this  charge  there 
is  little  room  for  doubt.  The  proof,  however, 
which  he  presented  at  the  time  or  afterward 
of  the  truth  of  this  plot,  was  sufficiently  slen 
der.  It  was  said  to  have  originated  with  a 
few  federal  members  of  congress,'  in  conse 
quence  of  the  annexation  of  Louisiana — a  meas 
ure  which  Adams  had  himself  opposed,  being 
one  of  the  six  senators  who  voted  against  it — 
and  the  threatened  destruction,  by  the  addition 
of  so  much  new  western  and  southern  territory, 
of  the  political  influence  of  the  northern  and 
eastern  states.  These  dissatisfied  members  of 
congress,  so  Adams  alleged,  had  proposed  to 
have  a  meeting  at  Boston,  at  which  Hamilton 
was  to  have  been  present.  It  was  admitted 
that  Hamilton  disapproved  of  the  scheme,  and 
yet  his  reasons  for  accepting  Burr's  challenge 
were  cited  as  proof  that  he  anticipated  a  civil 
war  and  the  being  called  upon  to  take  a  leading 
part  in  it.  Such  seems  to  have  been  about  the 
whole  of  this  alleged  plot,  carefully  concealed, 
as  Adams  admitted,  from  the  great  body  of  the 
federalists,  and  unknown  even  to  the  greater 
part  of  their  leaders,  including  one  so  conspicu 
ous  as  Ames.  We  shall  have  occasion  at  a 
subsequent  period  of  Mr.  Adams's  life  to  refer 
again  to  this  subject.  It  should  be  added  now, 
however,  that  this  revelation  was  among  the 
reasons  by  which  Adams  pressed  Jefferson  to 
consent  to  the  repeal  of  the  embargo,  for  which 
he  had  himself  voted,  but  which  had  provoked 
in  all  the  maritime  parts  of  the  country,  and 
especially  in  New  England,  a  very  violent  hos 
tility,  and  which  could  not  be  persisted  in,  as 
Adams  thought,  without  leading  to  open  and 
violent  resistance,  and  so  affording  opportunity 
to  the  plotters  against  the  integrity  of  the  Union. 
Immediately  after  Madison's  accession  to  the 
presidency,  he  nominated  Mr.  Adams  as  minis 
ter  to  Russia.  Since  the  time  that  Adams, 
while  yet  a  boy,  had  visited  St.  Petersburg  as 
private  secretary  to  an  unrecognized  minister, 
the  United  States  had  had  no  ambassador  at 
that  court.  The  senate,  not  yet  satisfied  of 
the  expediency  of  opening  diplomatic  relations 
in  that  quarter,  though  the  same  thing  had  been 
recommended  by  Jefferson,  refused  to  confirm 
the  nomination.  However,  a  few  months  after, 
the  nomination  was  renewed,  and  with  bet 
ter  success.  John  Adams,  who  did  not  like 
being  thus  separated  from  his  son,  saw  in  this 
appointment  only  a  sort  of  political  banishment 
intended  on  the  part  of  the  Virginia  politicians 
to  remove  a  dreaded  competitor  out  of  the  \vay. 
Yet  in  fact,  by  removing  John  Q.  Adams  from 
the  immediate  theatre  of  contention  at  home, 


JOHN  QUINCY   ADAMS 


101 


it  contributed  not  a  little  to  his  subsequent  po 
litical  promotion.  lie  was  himself,  as  we 
may  judge,  well  satisfied  to  escape  from  the 
political  commotion  which  he  had  raised ;  for 
when,  after  various  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
fill  a  vacancy  on  the  supreme  bench  of 
the  United  States,  he  was  nominated  and 
confirmed  as  a  judge  (for  the  New  England 
circuit),  in  spite  of  the  wishes  of  his  father 
he  declined  the  nomination,  preferring  to 
remain  as  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg,  where 
he  was  now  established  with  his  family. 
He  was  well  received  in  Russia.  His  official 
duties  were  not  very  arduous.  Part  of  his 
leisure  he  employed  in  writing  a  series  of  "  Let 
ters,"  since  published,  addressed  to  his  sons,  on 
"  The  Bible  and  its  Teachings  "  ;  a  pious  work, 
but  not  otherwise  of  particular  value  or  merit. 
The  disputes  and  collisions  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  having  finally 
terminated  in  war,  through  the  influence  of  Mr. 
Adams  the  emperor  of  Russia  was  induced  to 
offer  himself  as  mediator,  and  in  July,  1813, 
Adams  was  joined  by  Mr.  Bayard,  and  after 
ward  by  Mr.  Gallatin,  those  gentlemen  having 
been  appointed  in  conjunction  with  himself  to 
negotiate  a  peace.  Great  Britain,  however,  re 
fused  to  treat  under  the  mediation  of  Russia. 
She  proposed  instead  an  independent  negotia 
tion  at  London  or  Gothenburg,  for  which  Ghent 
was  afterward  substituted.  This  proposition 
having  been  accepted  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  government,  Mr.  Adams  arrived  at 
Ghent  in  June,  1814,  and  after  a  protracted  ne 
gotiation  of  six  months,  in  which  Jonathan  Rus 
sell  and  Henry  Clay  were  associated,  peace  was 
finally  concluded  Dec.  24,  1814.  No  attempt 
whatever  was  made  to  limit  the  maritime  pre 
tensions  of  Great  Britain,  in  resistance  to 
which  the  war  had  originated,  and  against 
which  Mr.  Adams,  in  joining  the  administra 
tion  party,  had  so  decidedly  pronounced.  The 
skill  and  eloquence  of  the  American  commis 
sioners  found  ample  scope  in  warding  off  the 
pretensions  of  Great  Britain  to  portions  of  ter 
ritory  occupied  by  her,  or  at  least  to  act  as  pro 
tector  to  the  Indian  tribes  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States.  Some  attempt  was  also 
made  to  limit  our  fishing  rights,  and  Mr. 
Adams  was  now  instrumental,  as  his  father  had 
been  before  him,  in  maintaining  unimpaired  our 
enjoyment  of  the  ocean  fisheries.  Previous  to 
proceeding  to  London  to  execute  a  new  com 
mission  to  negotiate  in  conjunction  with  Clay 
and  Gallatin  a  treaty  of  commerce,  Adams 
visited  Paris,  where  he  witnessed  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba  and  the  brief  empire  of 
the  hundred  days.  Here  his  family  joined  him 
after  a  long  and  perilous  journey  from  St. 
Petersburg,  and  on  the  25th  of  May  he  joined 
Clay  and  Gallatin  in  London;  in  conjunction 
with  whom,  on  July  13,  1815,  he  signed  a  com 
mercial  convention  with  Great  Britain.  This 
business  finished,  Adams  still  remained  at  Lon 
don  as  resident  minister. — Upon  the  accession 
of  Monroe  to  the  presidency  (1817)  he  offered 


Mr.  Adams  the  post  of  secretary  of  state,  to  fill 
which  he  returned  home,  after  an  absence  of 
eight  years.  The  reestablishment  of  peace  in 
Europe  having  removed  former  grounds  of  con 
tention,  a  political  lull  had  succeeded,  and  a 
new  organization  of  parties  now  began  to  take 
place,  especially  on  the  subjects  of  protection  to 
American  manufactures  and  expenditures  from 
the  United  States  treasury  for  internal  improve 
ments.  There  still  remained,  however,  to  be 
disposed  of,  some  questions  of  moment  more 
immediately  connected  with  Mr.  Adams's  posi 
tion  as  secretary  of  state.  Gen.  Jackson,  hav 
ing  been  consulted  on  the  subject  by  Monroe, 
had  heartily  approved  of  the  appointment  of . 
Mr.  Adams  to  that  department.  Adams  no 
less  warmly  supported  in  the  cabinet,  against 
Mr.  Calhoun's  proposition  of  censure,  the  con 
duct  of  Gen.  Jackson  in  invading  Florida, 
hanging  Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  and  taking 
military  possession  of  St.  Mark's  and  Pensacola. 
Those  proceedings  he  also  sustained  with  no 
less  zeal  in  his  diplomatic  correspondence  with 
the  Spanish  minister — an  important  correspon 
dence,  having  reference  to  the  boundaries  of 
Florida  and  Louisiana,  and  the  claims  of  Amer 
ica  on  Spain  for  commercial  depredations. 
Though  as  a  senator  Adams  had  voted  against 
the  Louisiana  treaty,  on  the  ground  that  the 
federal  constitution  gave  no  power  to  acquire 
territory,  he  now  as  secretary  of  state  pushed 
American  claims  under  that  treaty  to  the  ex- 
tremest  lengths,  insisting  that  this  cession  in 
cluded  not  merely  Florida  to  the  Perdido,  but 
Texas  to  the  Rio  Grande.  Finally,  in  consid 
eration  of  the  cession  of  Florida,  the  United 
States  agreeing  to  pay  $5,000,000  for  it,  to  be 
applied  to  the  extinction  of  American  mercan 
tile  claims  against  Spain,  Adams  compromised 
matters  by  agreeing  to  the  Sabine,  the  Red 
river,  the  upper  Arkansas,  the  crest  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  and  the  parallel  of  42°  N". 
lat.,  as  the  boundary  of  Louisiana ;  and  upon 
this  basis  a  treaty  was  arranged.  This  treaty 
was  his  principal  achievement  as  secretary  of 
state.  After  some  hesitation,  Mr.  Adams 
finally  yielded  to  the  policy  warmly  urged  by 
Henry  Clay  of  recognizing  the  independence  of 
the  late  Spanish  American  colonies.  An  elab 
orate  report  which  he  made  in  his  official  ca 
pacity  on  weights  and  measures  secured  him 
the  credit  of  extensive  scientific  acquirements. 
Toward  the  close  of  Monroe's  first  term  came 
up  the  great  question  of  the  admission  of  Mis 
souri  as  a  slave  state,  and  the  extension  of 
slavery  or  its  prohibition  throughout  the  un 
settled  territory  north  and  west  of  Missouri. 
The  Missouri  compromise  having  at  length, 
after  violent  agitations  at  Washington  and 
throughout  the  country,  received  the  sanction 
of  congress,  Monroe,  upon  being  called  upon 
to  sign'the  bill,  submitted  two  questions  to  his 
cabinet:  First,- had  congress  the  constitutional 
power  to  prohibit  slavery  in  a  territory  ?  and 
second,  was  the  term  "for  ever,"  used  in  the 
prohibitive  clause  of  the  Missouri  bill,  to  be  un- 


102 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS 


derstood  as  referring  only  to  the  territorial  con 
dition  of  the  district  embraced  in  it,  or  must  it 
be  understood  to  extend  to  such  states  as  might 
be  erected  out  of  it?  These  questions  grew 
out  of  the  circumstance  that  the  southern 
members  of  congress  had  denied  any  power 
in  congress  to  prohibit  slavery  in  a  state,  and 
therefore  any  right  to  refuse  to  admit  Mis 
souri  into  the  Union  on  the  ground  that  her  con 
stitution  established  slavery.  Those  of  them 
who  supported  the  compromise  admitted,  how 
ever,  a  power  of  imposing  conditions  on  territo 
ries,'  as  necessarily  implied  in  the  power  to  erect 
them.  On  the  first  of  these  questions  all  the  cab 
inet  declared  themselves  in  the  affirmative.  As 
to  the  second  question,  Adams  thought  that  the 
term  "for  ever"  must  be  understood  to  mean 
for  ever,  and  that  the  prohibition  of  slavery,  in 
stead  of  ceasing  with  the  territorial  condition 
of  the  district,  would  under  the  act  of  congress 
extend  to  any  states  that  might  at  any  time  be 
erected  out  of  it.  The  other  members  of  the 
cabinet,  including  Thompson  of  New  York  (ex 
cept  Adams,  the  only  other  northern  man  in  it, 
and  soon  after  made  judge  of  the  supreme 
federal  court),  were  all  of  opinion  that  the 
"for  ever"  in  question  was  only  a  territorial 
for  ever,  and  that  it  did  not  and  would  not  op 
erate  to  prevent  any  states  that  might  be  or 
ganized  out  of  this  territory  from  establishing 
or  prohibiting  slavery  as  they  chose.  But  to 
prevent  this  delicate  point  from  being  mooted, 
and  to  give  to  the  cabinet  an  appearance  of  una 
nimity,  at  Mr.  Calhoun's  suggestion  the  second 
question  was  modified  so  as  to  read,  "  Is  the 
proviso  as  it  stands  in  the  bill  constitutional?" 
To  this  question  all  the  members  returned  the 
brief  answer  "Yes,"  and  on  the  strength  of  their 
apparently  unanimous  opinion  (ordered  to  be  de 
posited  in  the  archives  of  the  state  department, 
whence,  like  some  other  valuable  historical  pa 
pers,  it  has  since  disappeared),  Monroe  signed 
the  bill.  We  owe  this  piece  of  secret  history 
to  an  extract  which  has  been  published  from 
Mr.  Adams's  diary,  from  which  it  also  appears 
that  he  still  strongly  entertained  the  same  sen 
timent  of  opposition  to  southern  ideas,  institu 
tions,  and  predominancy,  which  had  led  him  to 
vote  against  the  annexation  of  Louisiana.  But 
the  time  was  not  yet  come  for  the  open  avowal 
of  his  opinions  or  for  acting  upon  them.  Least  of 
all  were  the  present  crisis  and  Adams's  position 
favorable  to  such  a  course. — No  sooner  had 
Monroe  entered  upon  his  second  term  of  office 
(1821)  than  the  question  of  who  should  be  his 
successor  began  to  be  vehemently  agitated.  Of 
the  five  members  of  his  cabinet,  no  fewer  than 
three,  Adams,  Crawford,  and  Oalhoun,  were 
brought  forward  as  candidates,  as  were  also,  out 
side  the  cabinet,  Gen.  Jackson  and  Henry  Clay. 
Crawford  obtained  the  congressional  caucus 
nomination,  according  to  the  usage  which  then 
prevailed ;  but  this  nomination  had  no  weight 
with  the  partisans  of  the  other  candidates.  To 
support  Adams,  the  federal  party  of  Massachu 
setts — the  only  state  in  which  that  party  could 


be  said  to  maintain  an  organized  existence,  and 
even  there  it  had  lately  lost  the  control  of  the 
state  government — amalgamated  with  the  dem 
ocratic  party  of  that  state ;  and  the  same  union 
took  place  throughout  New  England,  and  par 
tially  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
and  Maryland.  All  the  federalists,  however, 
did  not  come  into  this  arrangement.  Some  of 
the  more  persistent  among  them  refused  to  sup 
port  Adams.  The  aged  Timothy  Pickering,  his 
former  senatorial  colleague,  made  a  violent  at 
tack  upon  him  in  a  printed  pamphlet,  founded 
on  his  former  separation  from  the  federal  party. 
As  a  general  thing,  however,  the  greater  part  of 
the  old  federalists  throughout  the  country  gave 
in  their  adhesion  to  Adams — a  circumstance 
urged  by  his  opponents  as  going  to  show  that 
he  was  still  but  a  federalist  in  a  democratic 
disguise,  and  not  entitled  to  the  support  of  the 
democratic  party.  From  the  earliest  history  of 
the  United  States  as  an  independent  nation, 
Virginia  and  New  England  ideas  had  contended 
for  predominancy  and  control.  Notwithstand 
ing  his  former  abandonment  of  New  England 
at  the  time  of  the  embargo,  in  the  present  con 
test  Mr.  Adams  represented  the  New  England 
which  was  in  fact  synonymous  with  the  federal 
idea.  Of  course  he  suft'ered  greatly  from  that 
bitter  dislike  of  New  England,  which  in  the 
preceding  quarter  of  a  century  had  been  labo 
riously  and  assiduously  instilled  into  the  people 
not  merely  of  the  southern  but  of  the  western 
states,  and  which  lie  had  himself,  as  we  have 
seen,  contributed  to  aggravate.  The  election 
resulted  in  giving  to  Adams  all  the  votes  of 
New  England,  20  votes  from  New  York,  1  from 
Delaware,  3  from  Maryland,  2  from  Louisiana, 
and  1  from  Illinois — 84  in  all ;  while  Jackson 
had  99 — those  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
Indiana,  and  2  of  the  3  votes  of  Illinois  among 
the  number.  Crawford  had  41,  and  Clay  had 
37",  including  the  votes  of  Kentucky  and  Ohio. 
Calhoun,  wlio  had  previously  withdrawn  from 
the  contest,  was  chosen  vice  president  almost 
unanimously.  There  being  no  choice  by  the 
people,  the  election  came  into  the  house,  where, 
by  the  influence  of  Clay,  Adams  was  chosen  at 
the  first  ballot — 13  states  voting  for  him,  7  for 
Jackson,  and  4  for  Crawford.  Jefferson,  in  a 
letter  a  few  days  before  to  John  Adams,  had 
characterized  the  decision  between  John  Quincy 
Adams  and  Jackson — the  only  two  candidates 
really  before  the  house — as  involving  the  ques 
tion  whether  he  and  his  correspondent  were  to 
end  their  days  "  under  a  civil  or  military  gov 
ernment."  It  is  probable  that  Jefferson's  fa 
vorite  candidate  had  been  Crawford,  who 
received  the  vote  of  Virginia ;  but  by  nobody 
had  Jackson  been  more  vehemently  opposed  as 
the  backwoods,  uncivilized,  and  military  candi 
date  than  by  the  supporters  of  Crawford,  who 
had  painted  in  very  strong  colors  the  probable 
barbarizing  consequences  of  Jackson's  election. 
Crawford  himself,  in  a  subsequent  letter  to 
Clay,  most  decidedly  approved  of  Clay's  pref 
erence  of  Adams  to  Jackson.  No  sooner, 


JOHN   QUINCY   ADAMS 


103 


however,  head  Adams  entered  upon  the  presi 
dency  (March  4,  1825),  with  Clay  as  his  secre 
tary  of  state,  than  a  coalition  was  formed 
between  the  late  supporters  of  Crawford  and 
Jackson,  with  the  understanding  that  Jackson 
should  be  their  candidate,  and  with  the  resolute 
determination  to  break  down  the  administration 
of  Mr.  Adams,  and  to  prevent  his  reelection. 
For  this  purpose  no  effort  was  spared.  The 
Crawford  presses,  which  had  abused  Jackson, 
now  began  to  sing  praises  to  him.  Adams, 
considering  himself  the  successor  to  Monroe  in 
the  regular  democratic  line,  and  wishing  to 
impress  that  fact  on  the  public,  made  few  or  no 
removals  from  office,  and  when  vacancies  oc 
curred  hardly  ventured  to  appoint  a  single 
federalist — a  proscription  under  which  that 
party  had  labored  now  for  a  quarter  of  a  cen 
tury,  and  to  which  Adams's  own  charges  and 
denunciations  had  in  fact  contributed.  It  was 
well  known  that  as  to  this  subject  Jackson  en 
tertained  very  liberal  views ;  in  fact,  that  he 
had  advised  Monroe  upon  his  accession  to  a 
much  more  liberal  course  in  appointing  federal 
ists  to  office  than  Monroe  had  seen  fit  to  adopt. 
Hence,  especially  in  all  those  states  where  the 
opposition  was  predominant,  many  enterprising 
young  federalists  mustered  to  the  side  of  Jack 
son,  some  of  them  even  joining  loudly  in  those 
charges  of  secret  federalism  against  Adams,  and 
in  appeals  to  the  long  cherished  prejudices 
against  New  England,  which. were  conspicuous 
weapons  in  the  party  warfare  of  that  day.  The 
new  party,  assuming  to  themselves  the  title  of 
democrats,  refused  to  accord  it  to  Adams  and 
his  supporters,  to  many  of  whom,  indeed,  it 
was  not  very  agreeable,  and  who  invented  for 
themselves  the  new  name  of  "  National  Repub 
licans."  Some  of  these  young  federalists, 
transformed  so  suddenly  into  democrats  and 
Jackson  men,  hit  upon  another  party  expedient 
no  less  effective.  Even  before  the  election  they 
had  gone  to  Jackson  with  the  story  of  a  secret 
bargain  between  Adams  and  Clay,  to  result  in 
Adams's  election  and  Clay's  appointment  as 
secretary  of  state ;  and  the  charge  of  bargain 
and  corruption  thus  originated,  and  taken  up 
even  by  Jackson  himself,  was  loudly  reechoed 
after  the  election,  to  the  damage  of  both  Clay 
and  Adams.  The  new  administration  endeav 
ored  to  strengthen  itself  by  assuming  the 
championship  of  internal  improvements,  which 
had  hitherto  been  Calhoun's  specialty,  and  of 
protection  to  domestic  industry,  of  which  Clay 
had  been  a  leading  advocate,  and  which  just 
before  Adams's  accession  had  carried  the  enact 
ment  of  the  tariff  of  1824.  Although  the 
tobacco  and  cotton  growing  states  were  strongly 
opposed  to  protection,  yet  that  idea  was  at  this 
time  far  too  popular  in  the  middle  states  to  be 
repudiated.  The  supporters  of  Gen.  Jackson, 
at  least  in  the  northern  and  middle  states,  rep 
resented  him  and  themselves  as  in  favor  of  a 
"moderate"  and  "judicious"  tariff,  as  opposed 
to  the  high  tariff  policy  which  they  ascribed  to 
Adams  and  Clay.  In  this  position  of  parties,  all 


!  the  free-traders  north  and  south  joined  the  op- 
I  position,  including  for  the  most  part  the  power 
ful  navigating  interest  of  New  England  and  the 
importing  interest  of  New  York,  thus  carrying 
over  to  that  side  a  large  additional  section  of 
|  the  old  federal  party.     Upon  the  internal  im- 
j  provement  question,  the  opposition,   notwith- 
!  standing  that  Calhoun  was  one  of  their  princi 
pal  leaders,  took  more  decisive  ground,  going 
so  far  as  to  deny,  as  Crawford  formerly  had 
I  done  in  opposition  to  Calhoun,   the  constitu- 
|  tional  authority  of  congress  to  vote  money  for 
!  that  purpose.     As  additional  means  of  affect- 
|  ing  popular  opinion,  loud  charges  of  extrava- 
|  gance  were  brought  against  the  government, 
j  whose  expenses,  exclusive  of,  the  public  debt, 
I  scarcely  amounted  to  thirteen  millions  a  year, 
and    retrenchment    and    reform    were    loudly 
promised  in  case  the  opposition  should  triumph. 
This  was  for  the  people.     To  the  politicians  an 
other  more  inviting  lure  was  held  out.     From 
Adams's  peculiar  position  in  relation  to  thoso 
whom  he  found  in  office,  he  had,  as  we  have 
seen,  nothing  in  that  way  to  promise  his  sup 
porters.     He  did  not  even  dare  to  remove  men 
apparently  hostile  to  him,  while  the  opposition 
held  out  the  prospect,  in  case  of  their  triumph, 
of  a  general  sweep  of  the  present  officeholders 
— at  least  of  such  as  were  not  strongly  on  their 
side — and  the  distribution  of  their  places  as 
I  spoils  to  the  victors — rewards,  that  is,  for  elec- 
I  tioneering  services.     The  debates  of  congress 
at  this  period  were  largely  made  up  of  elec 
tioneering  harangues ;  and  to  give  free  scope 
to  the  remarks  of  John  Randolph  and  other 
opposition  senators,  Mr.  Calhoun  started  and 
acted  upon  the  idea  that  as  presiding  officer  of 
the  senate  he  had  no  authority  to  call  any  sen 
ator  to  order.    It  was  in  vain  to  struggle  against 
this  combination,  which,  in  the  latter  part  of 
Mr.  Adams's  presidential  term,  had  a  majority 
against  him  in  both  houses  of  congress.     Nor 
was  his  administration  any  more  fortunate  in  its 
exterior  relations.     The  congress  of  Panama, 
from  which  much  had  been  hoped  in  the  way 
of  placing  the  United  States  at  the  head  of  a 
great  American  confederacy,  was  substantially 
defeated,  as  to  any  participation  of  the  United 
States  in  it,  by  the  delays  induced  by  the  oppo 
sition,   while  an  unlucky  quarrel  with  Great 
Britain  as  to  trade  with  the  West  Indies  ended 
in  the  entire  suspension  of  that  traffic.     It  ap 
pears  also  that  an  attempt  was  made  by  Clay 
|  and    Adams    to    purchase    Cuba — a    measure 
which  might  have  proved  very  acceptable  at 
the  south,  but  Spain  totally  refused  to  listen  to 
their  offers.     As  against  the  solid  combination 
of  the  opposition,  supported  by  the  name  and 
prestige  of  the  old  democratic  party,  the  game 
had  been  a  desperate  one  from  the  beginning. 
In  the  eastern  states  Mr.  Adams  was  pretty 
well  able  to  hold  his  own,  and  in  those  states, 
at  the  second  election,  he  obtained  about  as 
many   votes   as   before.      But   Kentucky   and 
Ohio,    in    which   the  popular   feeling   against 
1  New  England  was  greatly  embittered,    alto- 


104 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS 


gether  failed  him.  Mr.  Clay  was  unable  to 
help  him  to  a  single  vote.  In  this  desperate 
emergency,  finding  his  office  slipping  from  un 
der  him,  Mr.  Adams  made  a  most  unfortunate 
effort  to  retrieve  his  falling  fortunes,  in  the 
shape  of  a  letter  addressed  to  the  electors  of 
Viginia,  in  which  he  claimed  their  votes  on  the 
ground  of  his  services  twenty  years  before  in 
exposing  and  frustrating  the  alleged  New  Eng 
land  plot,  which  we  have  already  referred  to, 
to  dissolve  the  Union.  This  ill-judged  letter, 
while  it  did  not  gain  him  a  single  vote,  left  him 
to  retire  to  Quincy  (1829) — where  he  had  now 
become  possessor  of  his  father's  estate,  largely 
augmented  by  his  own  shrewd  management — 
with  a  new  personal  and  political  quarrel  on 
his  hands,  and  with  hard  feelings  and  personal 
antipathies  against  him,  which  for  a  long  time 
had  been  in  abeyance,  thus  unseasonably  re 
vived  by  himself.  Shortly  after  his  return  to 
Massachusetts  a  correspondence  ensued  between 
him  and  a  number  of  the  old  federalists  and 
their  representatives,  which  did  not  tend  to 
mollify  matters.  No  new  light  was  thrown  on 
the  alleged  plot,  though  Mr.  Adams  is  under 
stood  to  have  written  a  book  or  pamphlet  on 
the  subject,  which  however  he  refrained  from 
publishing,  on  the  judgment  of  some  friends  to 
whom  he  submitted  it,  that  it  would  not  better 
his  case.  After  having  successfully  kept  the 
political  seas  for  nearly  forty  years,  and  that 
in  very  stormy  times,  Mr.  Adams  was  at  last 
stranded,  as  it  seemed,  high  and  dry  on  a  po 
litical  lee  shore.  He  addressed  himself  for  the 
moment  to  arranging  the  papers  and  preparing 
a  life  of  his  father;  but  the  fragment  of  this 
work  which  his  son  has.incorporated  in  his  life 
of  his  grandfather  does  not  make  us  regret 
that  he  soon  abandoned  it.  He  had  been  a 
versifier  from  his  youth,  and  he  now  published 
a  rhymed  performance  of  some  length,  founded 
on  the  story  of  the  conquest  of  Ireland  ("Der- 
mot  McMorrogh,"  Boston,  1832)  ;  but  this  pal 
pably  was  not  a  field  in  which  he  was  likely  to 
gather  laurels. — Though  Mr.  Adams  had  now 
reached  an  age  at  which  many  politicians  have 
voluntarily  retired,  he  had  in  his  temperament 
too  much  of  innate  vigor  and  indefatigable  ac 
tivity,  and  too  much  of  the  stormy  petrel  in 
his  character,  to  make  him  willing  to  leave 
that  political  vocation  to  which,  both  by  na 
ture  and  habit,  he  was  so  specially  adapted. 
In  fact,  the  great  work  of  his  life  remained  to 
be  performed.  The  anti-masonic  excitement 
consequent  on  the  disappearance  and  alleged 
murder  of  William  Morgan  had,  about  tlds 
time,  introduced  a  new  element  into  the  poli 
tics  of  western  New  York,  whence  it  had 
spread  into  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Pennsyl 
vania,  and  in  a  less  degree  into  other  states. 
This  excitement  had  taken  a  strong  hold  of 
the  congressional  district  in  which  Mr.  Adams 
lived,  and  he  himself  exhibited  a  deep  interest 
in  it.  He  signalized  his  zeal  against  secret  so 
cieties  by  exerting  himself  to  procure  the  abo 
lition  of  some  passwords  and  secret  signs  which 


formed  a  part  of  the  ceremonial  of  the  Phi  Beta 
Kappa,  a  literary  society  of  which  branches 
existed  in  Harvard  and  other  colleges;  and  un 
der  these  circumstances  the  anti-masons  of  his 
district  brought  him  forward  as  a  candidate  for 
congress.  He  accepted  the  nomination,  and 
was  chosen  without  opposition,  and  continued 
to  represent  the  district  till  his  death,  17  years 
after.  The  mass  of  those  who  had  been  his 
supporters  for  the  presidency  had  looked,  since 
his  failure  of  a  reelection,  to  Mr.  Clay  as  their 
head  and  leader.  Mr.  Adams  entered  congress 
in  December,  1831,  without  party  or  followers, 
but  in  a  more  independent  position  than  he 
had  ever  yet  occupied.  Shortly  after  his  return 
to  public  life  he  was  nominated  by  the  anti- 
masons  as  their  candidate  for  governor  of  Mas- 
f  sachusetts.  The  politics  of  Massachusetts  were 
at  that  time  in  a  very  disorganized  state,  and  a 
strong  effort  was  made  by  the  Everetts  and 
other  personal  friends  of  Mr.  Adams,  and  was 
favored  by  Mr.  Webster,  to  induce  the  so-called 
national  republican  party  to  accept  the  nomi 
nation  of  Mr.  Adams  thus  made.  But  for  the 
feeling  against  him  which  his  Virginia  letter 
had  aroused  among  the  old  federalists,  this 
effort  would  probably  have  been  successful. 
As  it  was,  the  national  republicans  as  well  as 
the  supporters  of  the  administration  each 
nominated  a  separate  candidate  for  governor. 
There  Avas  no  choice  by  the  people,  but  as  the 
national  republicans  carried  a  majority  in  the 
legislature,  their  candidate,  John  Davis,  was 
elected  over  Adams's  head  (1834) — a  disap 
pointment  which  tended  to  place  him  in  a  still 
more  independent  political  position.  He  gave, 
however,  a  general  support  in  congress  to  that 
party  which  had  sustained  his  own  administra 
tion.  He  strongly  opposed  the  nullifiers  ;  yet, 
as  chairman  of  the  committee  on  manufactures, 
he  strove  to  discover  some  middle  ground  on 
which  the  vexed  question  of  the  tariff  might  be 
satisfactorily  sejttled.  On  the  question  of  the 
removal  of  the  deposits  he  went  with  the  party 
which  now  began  to  take  the  name  of  whigs — 
including  in  that  denomination  not  merely  the 
old  national  republicans,  but  a  certain  number, 
especially  at  the  south,  of  deserters  from  the 
Jackson  ranks.  In  the  affair  of  the  dispute 
with  France  in  1835,  about  the  delay  in  paying 
the  indemnity,  which  had  been  stipulated  by 
treaty,  for  maritime  spoliations  in  Bonaparte's 
time,"  true  to  his  pugnacious  temperament,  he 
supported  Jackson's  proposition  for  issuing  let 
ters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  no  less  energeti 
cally  than  he  had  formerly  supported  Jefferson's 
embargo ;  and  by  a  very  singular  coincidence, 
this  course,  like  that,  cost  him  a  seat  in  the 
United  States  senate.  At  this  very  time  the 
Massachusetts  legislature  were  employed  in 
filling  an  approaching  vacancy  in  that  body. 
Mr.  Adams's  friends  had  brought  him  forward 
as  a  candidate,  and  he  was  more  than  once 
chosen  by  the  state  senate.  The  house,  how 
ever,  did  not  concur,  but  proposed  John  Davis 
instead.  This  question  was  still  pending,  with 


JOHN  QUINCY   ADAMS 


105 


a  fair  prospect  of  a  decision  in  Adams's  favor, 
when  his  speech  in  favor  of  reprisals  on  France, 
which  did  not  correspond  with  the  sentiment 
of  Massachusetts,  caused  him  to  be  abandoned  | 
by  his  supporters  in  the  state  senate,  and  led  to  j 
the  election  of  Davis,  who  had  before  beaten  | 
him  as  governor.    Thus  again  forcibly  cut  loose  j 
from  all  party  connections,  Mr.  Adams  was  left  j 
at  liberty  to  follow  the  bent  of  his  own  daring  '• 
and   energetic   spirit.      The   abolitionists   had  | 
now  begun  to  appear  on  the  political  stage,  but  \ 
in  the  prevailing  anxiety  to  avoid  giving  of-  j 
fence  to  the  South,  reference  was  seldom  made  j 
to  them  on  the  floor  of  congress  except  with  ; 
disclaimers  of  sympathy,  if  not  with   expres-  | 
sions  of  detestation.     The  measure  principally  | 
employed  by  the  abolitionists  at  that  time  was  j 
the  presentation  of  petitions  for  the  abolition  j 
of  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the 
territories.    To  get  rid  of  this  importunity,  con-  | 
gress  had  adopted  rules  which  were  maintain 
ed  by  Mr.  Adams  to  be  inconsistent  with  the 
right  of  petition  itself.     In  this  emergency  he 
stepped  forward  as  the  champion  and  guardian  ! 
of  that  right.     Though  he  had  taken  the  posi-  i 
tion  of  being  opposed  to  the  legislation  asked  j 
for  by  the  abolitionists,  as  not  seasonable  or  i 
expedient  for  the  moment,  he  still  insisted  on  | 
their  right  to  be  heard.     Upon  this  point  he  j 
fought  for  years  a  battle  which  drew  all  eyes  j 
upon  him  as  the  representative  of  a  principle  \ 
which  found  in  him  an  unflinching  advocate  j 
and  indefatigable   champion.     This  new   and  | 
eminent  position  was  one  which  Mr.   Adams  | 
was  perfectly  adapted  to  fill.     With  an  iron 
constitution,  strengthened  by  an  active  and  ab-  j 
stemious  life,  there  was,  during  his  long  term  | 
of  service  in  congress,  not  a  single  member  who 
equalled  him,  notwithstanding  his  great  age,  in 
capacity  for  application  and  powers  of  endur 
ance  ;  certainly  not  one  whose  attendance  upon 
the  business  of  the  house  was  so  exact  and  un 
remitting.     In  acquired  knowledge,  whether  by 
books  or  personal  experience,  he  far  surpassed 
any  of  his  fellow  members  ;  and  what  was  of 
greater  consequence,  his  stores  of  knowledge 
were  always  at  hand  and  ready  for  use.  Though 
his  voice  was  weak,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  members  usually  crowded  about  him  when 
he  spoke,  he  never  became  exhausted  with  fa 
tigue  ;  and  though  his  manner  was  not  pleasing 
and  had  little  variety,  yet  the  peculiar  views 
which  he  took,  and  the  copiousness  and  nov 
elty  of  his   illustrations,   always  held  his  au 
dience  in  profound  attention.     Though  he  had 
the  appearance  often,  especially  to  strangers,  of 
speaking  in  a  passion,  at  least  in  ill  humor,  and 
of  laboring  under  a  degree  of  excitement,  he 
was  in  fact  perfectly  self-possessed,  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  storms  and  tumults  which  he  raised 
about  him  never  lost  in  the  slightest  degree  his 
own  self-control.     We  have  no  space  to  dwell 
on   the    history   of  his   congressional   career, 
which  would  fill  a  volume ;  but  we  must  not 
omit  to  notice  his  defeat,  in  February,  1837,  of 
his  opponents  on  the  question  of  a  censure  upon 


him  for  sending  up  to  the  speaker  a  petition 
purporting  to  come  from  slaves,  as  one  of  the 
most  signal  instances  of  his  triumph.  His  un 
daunted  bearing,  his  courage  and  determina 
tion,  which  no  threats  and  no  tumults  could 
suppress,  soon  drew  around  him,  as  a  moral 
aid  and  support,  a  body  of  external  applauders 
and  admirers ;  so  that  from  this  time  forward 
he  became  the  representative  not  merely  of  one 
of  the  districts  of  Massachusetts,  but  of  a  great 
embryo  party,  the  party  in  fact  of  northern 
sentiments  and  ideas,  a  party  which  he  him 
self  had  contributed  his  share  toward  burying 
under  ground,  but  which  he  now  labored  night 
and  day  to  help  emerge  again  into  life.  Nor 
did  Mr.  Adams  confine  his  labors  on  this  ques 
tion  to  congress.  In  the  famous  Amistad  case 
— the  case  of  certain  newly  imported  Africans, 
who,  while  being  transported  from  one  port  of 
Cuba  to  another,  had  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  vessel  and  had  escaped  to  the  coast  of 
the  United  States — he  appeared  in  the  federal 
supreme  court  as  counsel  for  the  Africans,  in 
opposition  to  the  claim  set  up  by  their  Spanish 
purchasers  from  whom  they  had  escaped  ;  a 
claim  zealously  urged  not  merely  by  the  Span 
ish  government,  but  covertly  also  by  Mr.  Van 
Buren,  then  president  of  the  United  States. 
Indeed,  he  seldom  declined  any  occasion  in  his 
power  of  addressing  an  audience.  The  follow 
ing  may  serve  as  a  specimen :  He  left  Boston 
one  Monday  morning  to  attend  the  opening  of 
congress.  That  same  evening  he  delivered  an 
address  before  the  young  men's  institute  in 
Hartford,  and  the  next  evening  a  similar  lec 
ture  before  a  similar  institute  in  New  Haven. 
On  Wednesday  evening  he  lectured  before  the 
New  York  lyceum  ;  on  Thursday  evening  he 
delivered  an  address  in  Brooklyn,  and  on  Fri 
day  evening  another  lecture  in  New  York, 
whence  he  proceeded  next  day  to  Washington 
to  be  present  at  the  opening  of  congress  on  the 
following  Monday.  Though  greatly  engrossed 
by  the  subject  of  slavery,  he  did  not  confine 
his  attention  to  it.  Few  leading  topics  came 
before  the  house  on  which  he  did  not  speak. 
In  the  organization  of  the  house  in  December, 
1839,  which  had  been  delayed  for  four  days  by 
the  persistency  of  the  clerk  in  undertaking  to 
reject  certain  members  from  New  Jersey  who 
had  certificates  of  election,  but  as  the  clerk 
thought  improperly  granted,  Mr.  Adams  finally 
intervened  with  great  energy  and  effect,  and 
to  general  satisfaction.  It  was  chiefly  through 
his  activity  and  perseverance  that  the  Smith 
sonian  institution  was  organized.  In  1845  the 
obnoxious  "gag  rule,"  originally  enacted  in 
1836,  was  rescinded,  and  from  that  moment  Mr. 
Adams  somewhat  relaxed  his  zeal  and  labors. 
He  began,  indeed,  to  feel  at  last  the  effects  of 
age.  His  health  had  been  somewhat  shaken 
by  a  heavy  fall  in  the  house  of  representatives, 
caused  by  his  foot  catching  in  the  floor  mat 
ting,  by  which  his  shoulder  was  dislocated  and 
a  severe  contusion  inflicted  on  his  fore'liead.  It 
rendered  him  for  the  moment  insensible,  and 


106 


ADAMS 


though  it  did  not  prevent  his  appearance  the 
next  day  in  his  seat,  he  suffered  permanently 
from  it.  On  Nov.  26,  1846,  just  as  he  was 
about  to  leave  Boston  for  Washington,  he  expe 
rienced  a  shock  of  paralysis  which  kept  him 
from  his  seat  for  the  next  four  months.  After 
this  he  attended  congress  regularly,  but  seldom 
spoke.  On  Feb.  21,  1848,  he  had  a  second  at 
tack  while  occupying  his  seat  in  the  house.  He 
was  taken  to  the  speaker's  private  room,  where 
he  remained  in  a  state  seemingly  of  uncon 
sciousness,  though  with  occasional  incoherent 
utterances,  till  the  23d,  when  he  expired.  His 
last  words  are  said  to  have  been,  "  This  is  the 
last  of  earth  ;  I -am  content." — In  addition 
to  his  voluminous  speeches  in  congress,  many 
of  which  were  written  out  by  himself,  on 
various  subjects,  a  great  number  of  his  ac 
knowledged  publications  appeared  in  his  life 
time.  He  left  behind  him  a  very  voluminous 
diary,  extending  from  his  early  youth  to  his 
death,  one  or  two  valuable  fragments  from 
which  have  already  appeared.  His  journal, 
which  is  in  the  hands  of  his  son,  is  regarded  as 
a  great  political  treasure.  He  wrote  with  great 
fluency,  his  manuscript  seldom  presenting  an 
erasure,  but  he  lacked  altogether  that  idiomatic 
elegance,  force,  and  simplicity  so  conspicuous 
in  his  father,  instead  of  which  his  style  is  swell 
ing,  verbose,  inflated,  and  rhetorical.  He  lack 
ed  also,  though  not  without  powers  of  sar 
casm,  the  wit  and  fancy  which  sparkled  in  his 
father's  writings,  and  still  more  that  spirit  of 
philosophical  generalization  into'  which  John 
Adams  constantly  fell,  but  which  was  totally 
foreign  to  the  intellectual  constitution  and  hab 
its  of  the  son.  John  Quincy  Adams  had  more 
learning  perhaps,  but  John  Adams  had  much 
more  genius.  In  energy,  spirit,  firmness,  and 
indomitable  courage,  John  Q.  Adams  was  his 
father's  equal;  in  self-command,  in  political 
prudence,  and  even  perhaps  in  capacity  for 
hard  work,  his  superior.  Both  will  live  for 
ever  as  representatives  and  embodiments  of 
the  spirit  and  ideas  of  New  England  during  the 
periods  in  which  they  figured.  In  some  re 
spects  John  Q.  Adams  was  far  more  fortu 
nate  than  his  father.  The  brilliant  period  of 
his  career  was  toward  its  close.  The  longer 
he  lived  the  higher  he  rose,  and  he  died  as  such 
men  prefer  to  die,  still  an  admired  and  trust 
ed  champion,  with  harness  on  his  back  and 
spear  in  hand.  Yet  his  whole  political  career, 
taken  together,  hardly  presents  to  the  close  ob 
server  a  character  so  uniformly  brilliant  and 
unspotted,  and  so  free  from  the  taint  of  selfish 
ness,  as  that  of  his  father.  In  personal  appear 
ance,  and  in  general  temperament  and  charac 
ter,  the  resemblance  between  the  father  and 
the  son  was  close.  Both  had  very  strong  feel 
ings  and  warm  prejudices,  though  of  the  two 
John  Quincy  appears  to  have  been  the  less  ve 
hement  by  nature,  and  also  the  better  under 
control.  Like  his  father,  he  was  an  economical 
housekeeper  and  judicious  financier,  and  he 
died  in  possession  of  a  handsome  estate. — See 


"Life  and  Public  Services  of  J.  Q.  Adams,'1 
by  William  H.  Seward  (12mo,  Auburn,  1849), 
and  "Life  of  J.  Q.  Adams,"  by  Josiah  Quincy 
(Boston,  1858). 

ADAMS,  Nehemiah,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Feb.  19,  1806.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1826,  studied 
divinity  at  Andover,  settled  as  colleague  pastor 
with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Holmes  over  the  first  Con- 
j  gregational  church  in  Cambridge,  Dec.  17, 
1829,  resigned  March  17,  1834,  and  was  in 
stalled  over  the  Essex  street  church  in  Boston, 
March  26,  1834.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  controversy  with  the  Unitarians,  and  pub 
lished  several  works  of  a  polemic  and  devo 
tional  character.  The  principal  of  these  are : 
"Remarks  on  the  Unitarian  Belief,"  "The 
Friends  of  Christ  in  the  New  Testament" 
(Boston,  1853),  and  "Life  of  John  Eliot."  He 
was  also  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  "  Spirit 
of  the  Pilgrims,"  a  religious  periodical  (Bos 
ton,  1826-'33),  devoted  to  the  defence  of  the 
puritan  faith  against  the  encroachments  of 
modern  liberalism.  He  has  also  published 
"  Christ  a  Friend,"  "Agnes  and  the  Key  of  her 
Little  Obftin,"  "Bertha  and  her  Baptism,  or 
the  Early  Saved,"  works  of  religious  consola 
tion  for  the  afflicted.  In  1853  Dr.  Adams 
spent  a  winter,  for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  in 
Savannah,  Georgia,  on  the  plantation  of  a 
wealthy  slaveholder;  and  on  his  return  he 
wrote  "  A  South  Side  View  of  Slavery  "  (1854), 
in  which  he  gave  a  highly  favorable  description 
of  the  institution,  and  especially  of  its  influence 
on  the  religious  character  of  the  slave.  He 
also  published  a  correspondence  on  the  same 
subject  with  Governor  Wise  of  Virginia.  After 
35  years  of  pastoral  labor  with  the  Essex  street 
church,  in  1809,  in  consequence  of  failing 
health,  he  resigned  his  pastorate.  His  people 
refused  to  accept  his  resignation,  but  procured 
an  associate  minister,  and  gave  him  a  long 
leave  of  absence,  which  he  employed  in  making 
a  voyage  round  the  world,  spending  much 
time  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  He  returned 
in  1871  with  improved  health. 

ADAMS,  Samuel,  a  leading  actor  in  the  Ameri 
can  revolution,  born  in  Boston,  Sept.  27,  1722, 
died  Oct.  2,  1803.  His  grandfather  was  a 
grandson  of  Henry  Adams,  the  same  emigrant 
from  England  to  Massachusetts  from  whom 
John  Adams,  second  president  of  the  United 
States,  traced  his  descent.  These  two  illus 
trious  cooperators  in  the  American  revolution 
had  both  the  same  great-grandfather,  a  son  of 
Henry  Adams.  He  was  prepared  for  college  at 
the  Boston  Latin  school,  then  taught  by  the 
elder  Lovell,  and  entered  at  Cambridge  in  1736. 
Previous  to  the  revolution  the  names  of  the 
graduates  of  Harvard  college  are  arranged  in 
the  college  catalogue,  not  alphabetically,  but 
in  an  order  of  precedence  according  to  the  es 
timated  rank  of  their  families.  In  a  class  of 
24,  John  Adams  held  the  14th  place;  Sam 
uel  Adams,  in  a  class  of  22,  the  5th.  The 
Boston  branch  of  the  Adams  family  would  seem 


SAMUEL   ADAMS 


107 


to  have  attained  to  a  somewhat  higher  colo 
nial  position  than  the  branch  which  remained 
at  Braintree.  He  was  graduated  A.  B.  in 
1740.  His  father,  Capt.  Samuel  Adams,  had 
urged  his  entering  the  ministry ;  but  he  had  no 
taste  for  this  calling,  and  on  leaving  college 
began  the  study  of  la\v.  This  he  relinquished 
to  take  a  place  in  the  counting  house  of  Mr. 
Thomas  Gushing,  where,  though  active  and 
industrious  enough,  he  displayed  conspicuous 
inaptitude  for  trade.  He  began  business  for 
himself,  and  failed.  Subsequently  he  became 
a  partner  with  his  father  in  a  brewery,  and 
after  Capt.  Adams's  death  in  1748  he  carried 
on  the  concern  himself.  About  1740  Capt. 
Adams  became  involved  in  pecuniary  misfor 
tunes  through  his  connection  with  a  banking 
speculation  known  as  the  land  bank  or  manu 
factory  scheme.  In  efforts  on  behalf  of  the 
unfortunate  speculators  in  this  scheme,  Samuel 
Adams  found  an  early  introduction  to  politics, 
which  ultimately  became  the  chief  interest  and 
principal  employment  of  his  life.  Fully  to  un 
derstand  the  first  connection  of  Samuel  Adams 
with  politics,  a  brief  retrospect  becomes  neces 
sary.  The  use  of  paper  money,  first  introduced 
into  Massachusetts  in  1690,  and  which  had 
speedily  driven  coin  out  of  circulatidn,  had,  in 
consequence  of  over-issues,  been  attended  with 
great  depreciation  and  fluctuations  of  prices. 
These  issues  were  made  for  limited  periods,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  remonstranoes  of  the 
English  merchants  trading  to  America,  orders 
had  been  sent  to  Governor  Belcher  to  agree  to 
no  ne\v  ones.  The  circulating  paper  being  grad 
ually  absorbed,  and  the  year  1741  being  fixed 
for  its  complete  withdrawal,  the  effect  of  this 
operation  was  much  like  that  of  a  bank  con 
traction  of  our  day.  The  Boston  merchants,  and 
indeed  the  body  of  the  people,  complained  bit 
terly  of  the  scarcity  of  money,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  force  Governor  Belcher,  by  with 
holding  his  salary,  to  consent  to  new  issues,  or 
to  extend  the  period  of  the  old.  As  he  proved 
inflexible,  t\vo  joint-stook  banking  compa 
nies  had  been  got  up :  one,  called  the  "  silver 
scheme,"  proposed  to  issue  £110,000  in  notes,  ( 
redeemable  in  silver  at  the  end  of  10  years;  ' 
the  other,  called  the  land  bank  or  "  manufactory 
scheme"  (that  in  which  Adams's  father  was 
concerned),  undertook  to  circulate  £150,000, 
which  was  to  be  redeemed  at  the  end  of  20 
years  in  colonial  produce.  The  "  silver  scheme" 
was  patronized  by  the  merchants  and  traders, 
the  land  bank  by  the  farmers  and  mechanics. 
Belcher  zealously  opposed  both.  In  spite,  how 
ever,  of  the  governor's  proclamation,  notes  were 
ssued  by  both  companies,  and  those  of  the 
land  bank  especially  were  largely  pushed  into 
circulation.  That  company  had  800  stock 
holders,  and  held  complete  control  of  the  Massa 
chusetts  house  of  representatives.  Belcher 
even  apprehended  an  insurrection  to  compel 
him  to  give  his  consent  to  the  scheme,  and  his 
opponents  did  succeed  in  obtaining  his  removal. 
But  this  did  not  avail  them,  for  the  operation  of 


these  two  Massachusetts  banks  was  cut  short  by 
an  act  of  parliament  extending  to  the  colonies  an 
act  of  the  previous  reign,   occasioned  by  the 
j  South  sea  and  other  bubble  schemes,  which  pro- 
[  hibited  the  formation  of  unincorporated  joint- 
j  stock  companies  with  more  than  six  partners. 
The  two  banking  companies  were  thus  com 
pelled  to  wind  up ;  the  partners  were  held  in- 
i  dividually  liable  for  the  notes,  and  the  umanu- 
|  factory  scheme  "  especially,  the  affairs  of  which 
!  remained  unsettled  for  several  years,  proved  ru- 
j  inous  to  the  few  partners  who  had  anything  to 
|  lose,  of  whom  Adams's  father  was  one.     This 
I  act  of  parliament  was  denounced  by  the  friends 
J  of  the  banks  as  a  violation  of  the  chartered 
j  rights   of  Massachusetts.     The  young  Adams 
I  thus  entered  upon  politics  as  the  opponent  of 
parliamentary  authority,  and  as  a  champion  for 
the  body  of  the  citizens — a  position  which,  to  a 
certain  extent,  his  father  seems  to  have  occu 
pied  before  him.     How  strongly  his  mind  was 
turned  in  this  direction,  appears  from  the  sub 
ject  he  chose  for  his  thesis  upon  taking  his  de 
gree   of  A.   M.     He   proposed   as  a  question, 
"Whether  it  be  lawful  to  resist  the  supreme 
magistrate,  if  the  commonwealth  cannot  other 
wise  be  preserved?  "  as  to  which  he  supported 
the  affirmative.    Not  succeeding  in  business,  he 
obtained  the  post  of  tax  collector  for  the  town 
of  Boston,    an  office  which  brought  him  into 
j  contact  and  acquaintance  with  all  the  inhab- 
!  itants,   and  which  obtained  for  him  from   his 
political    opponents  the  cognomen  of  Samuel 
the  Publican.     During   the  administration  of 
Governor  Shirley  he  was  steadily  in  the  oppo 
sition.    Against  Bernard — his  influence  increas 
ing  with  his  age — he  took  a  still  more  decided 
part.     From  an  entry  in  John  Adams's  journal, 
under  date  of  February,  1763,  it  seems  that  at 
that  time  there  were  in  Boston  two  clubs — one 
the  u  Merchants'  Club,"  the  other  the  "  Caucus 
Club" — accustomed  to  meet  and  agree  upon 
persons  to  be  supported  for  town  officers,  and 
that  the  caucus  club  used  to  send  committees 
to  consult  and  agree  with  the  merchants'  club 
as  to  men  and  measures.     Of  this  caucus  club 
— a  corruption  probably  of  caulkers'  club,  as 
having  been  originally  composed  of  ship-build 
ing  mechanics — Samuel  Adams  was  then  and 
long  had  been   an  active  member.     Gordon, 
indeed,   traces  back  the   existence  and  influ 
ence    of  this   club    to   the    time    of  Adams's 
father.     Adams  took  an  active  part  in  all  town 
meetings,  at   which   his   energy  and   courage 
made  him  a  leader.      The  instructions  given 
by  the  town  of  Boston,  in  May,  1764,  to  their 
newly  chosen  representatives — the  first  deci 
ded  protests  from  any  part  of  America  against 
Grenville's  scheme  of  parliamentary  taxation — 
were  drawn  up  by  him;  and  he  was  chosen 
the  next  year  as  one  of  the  three  representa 
tives  in  the  freneral  court  of  the  town  of  Bos 
ton,  a  position  which  he  held  for  nine  years 
following.     Upon  his  entry  into  the  house  he 
accepted  the  office  of  clerk,   which  not  only 
produced  him  a  small  addition  to  his  limited 


108 


SAMUEL  ADAMS 


income,  but  enabled  him  also  to  exercise 
a  certain  influence  over  the  course  of  pro 
ceedings.  The  Massachusetts  house  of  repre 
sentatives  consisted  at  this  time  of  upward  of 
a  hundred  members,  the  most  numerous  assem 
bly  in  the  colonies.  Its  debate's  had  begun  to 
attract  attention,  and  a  gallery  was  now  iirst 
erected  for  spectators.  Besides  taking  a  lead 
ing  part  in  the  debates,  it  devolved  upon  Adams 
to  draw  the  larger  part  of  the  papers  put  forth 
by  the  house  in  its  controversies  with  Bernard 
and  Hutchinson — an  office  for  which  his  fluent 
and  eloquent  pen,  and  the  mixture  in  his  char 
acter  of  caution  with  fire,  courage,  and  de 
cision,  admirably  fitted  him.  The  following 
account  of  Samuel  Adams,  sketched  from  the 
life  at  the  period  of  his  entering  the  house,  is 
found  in  the  diary  of  John  Adams,  under  date 
of  Dec.  23,  1765:  "Adams  is  zealous,  ardent, 
and  keen  in  the  cause ;  is  always  for  softness, 
delicacy,  and  prudence  when  they  will  do,  but 
is  stanch  and  stiff  and  strict  and  rigid  and  in 
flexible  in  the  cause."  A  previous  paragraph 
had  sketched  Gray,  who  afterward  joined  the 
tory  party,  and  Thomas  Gushing.  A fter  a  sketch 
of  James  Otis,  the  diary  adds:  "Adams,  I  be 
lieve,  has  the  most  thorough  understanding  of 
liberty  and  her  resources  in  the  temper  and 
character  of  the  people,  though  not  in  the  law 
and  constitution,  as  well  as  the  most  habitual 
radical  love  of  it,  of  any  of  them ;  also  the  most 
correct,  genteel,  and  artful  pen.  He  is  a  man 
of  refined  policy,  steadfast  integrity,  exquisite 
humanity,  fair  erudition,  and  obliging,  engaging 
manners,  real  as  well  as  professed  piety,  and  a 
universal  good  character,  unless  it  should  be 
admitted  that  he  is  too  attentive  to  the  public 
and  not  enough  so  to  himself  and  his  family." 
Governor  Hutchinson — a  no  less  competent  ob 
server,  but  who  looked  at  Adams  from  an  en 
tirely  opposite  point  of  view — gives  in  the  3d 
volume  of  his  "History  of  Massachusetts  "  sub 
stantially  the  same  account.  He  sets  down 
Samuel  Adams  as  the  most  artful  and  insinu 
ating  politician  he  had  ever  known,  and  the 
most  successful  "in  robbing  men  of  their  char 
acters  and  calumniating  the  servants  of  the 
crown."  He  accuses  Mr.  Adams  of  "defalca 
tion"  as  collector  of  taxes,  the  only  foundation 
for  the  charge  being  that  in  a  period  of  gen 
eral  commercial  distress  he  had  failed  to  col 
lect  the  full  amounts  levied  upon  the  citizens ; 
and  Hutchinson  adds,  by  way  of  comment, 
"The  benefit  to  the  town  from  his  defence  of 
their  liberties  he  supposed  an  equivalent  to  his 
arrears  as  their  collector."  While  Adams  thus 
devoted  himself  to  politics,  it  was  chiefly  the 
industry  and  economy  of  his  wife  that  sup 
ported  the  family.  lie  had  married  in  1749 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Check- 
ley  of  Boston.  She  died  in  1757,  and  in 
1764  he  married  Elizabeth  Wells,  daughter 
of  an  English  merchant  who  had  settled 
in  Boston  in  1723.  Though  poor,  Adams 
was  incorruptible.  It  had  been  proposed  to 
silence  him  by  the  gift  of  some  place  under 


government;  but  Ilutchinson  in  a  letter  to 
England  declared  that  such  was  his  "  ob 
stinacy  and  inflexible  disposition,"  that  no  gift 
nor  office  would  ever  conciliate  him.  The  pas 
sage  of  Townsend's  act  in  1767,  and  other  acts 
of  parliament  which  evinced  a  determination 
to  raise  a  parliamentary  revenue  in  America 
by  taxes  on  trade,  brought  the  colonists  in  a 
body  to  the  ground  that  taxes  on  trade,  if  de 
signed  to  raise  a  revenue,  were  just  as  much 
a  violation  of  their  rights  as  any  other  tax. 
Adams  took  a  leading  part  in  urging  these 
views,  and  the  petition  of  the  Massachusetts 
general  court  to  the  k-ing  agreed  to  on  this  oc 
casion,  their  letter  of  instruction  to  their  agent 
in  England,  and  a  circular  letter  addressed  to 
the  speakers  of  the  popular  branch  of  the  sev 
eral  colonial  assemblies,  inviting  consultation 
and  mutual  cooperation  for  the  defence  of  co 
lonial  rights,  were  all  from  his  pen.  Ilutchin 
son  states  that  as  early  as  1769,  some  objec 
tions  having  been  made  to  a  motion  pending 
in  a  Boston  town  meeting  that  it  savoretf  of 
independence,  Adams  wound  up  a  speech  in 
defence  of  it  with  this  bold  declaration:  "In 
dependent  we  are,  and  independent  we  will 
be."  Upon  the  occasion  of  the  so-called  Bos 
ton  massacre  in  March,  1770,  Samuel  Adams 
was  appointed  chairman  of  a  committee  to  wait 
upon  the  governor  and  council  with  the  vote 
of  a  town  meeting,  to  the  effect  that  nothing 
could  restore  order  and  prevent  blood  and  car 
nage  but  the  immediate  removal  of  the  regular 
troops,  who,  instead  of  encamping,  as  had  for 
merly  been  usual,  on  the  fortified  island  in  the 
harbor,  known  as  Castle  island,  had  for  the  last 
18  months,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  in 
habitants,  been  stationed  in  the  town.  Adams 
entered  the  council  chamber  at  the  head  of  the 
committee  and  delivered  his  message.  Col. 
Dalrymple,  the  commander  of  the  troops,  was 
present,  as  was  the  commander  of  the  ships  of 
war  in  the  harbor.  In  reply  to  the  vote  of  the 
town  presented  by  the  committee,  Lieutenant 
Governor  Ilutchinson  disclaimed  any  authority 
over  the  soldiers ;  to  which  Adams  replied  by 
referring  him  to  that  clause  in  the  provincial 
charter  which  declared  the  governor,  or  in  his 
absence  the  lieutenant  governor,  commander- 
in-chief  of  all  the  military  and  naval  forces  in 
the  province.  After  a  consultation  with  Dal 
rymple,  Ilutchinson  replied  that  the  colonel 
was  willing  to  remove  one  of  the  regiments 
if  that  would  satisfy  the  people.  "Sir,"  said 
Adams,  "if  the  lieutenant  governor,  or  Col. 
Dalrymple,  or  both  together,  have  authority 
to  remove  one  regiment,  they  have  authority 
to  remove  two ;  and  nothing  short  of  the  de 
parture  of  the  troops  will  satisfy  the  public 
mind  or  restore  the  peace  of  the  province." 
The  energy  of  Adams  prevailed,  and  both  regi 
ments  were  sent  to  the  castle.  The  destruc 
tion  of  the  tea  attempted  to  be  forced  on  the 
colonies,  the  passage  of  the  Boston  port  bill 
and  of  the  bill  modifying  the  Massachusetts 
charter,  and  the  appointment  of  Gen.  Gage 


SAMUEL   ADAMS 


109 


as  governor  at  the  head  of  an  army,  brought 
things  to  a  crisis.  As  (rage  entered  the  har 
bor  of  Boston,  May  13,  1774,  a  town  meeting 
at  which  Adams  presided  was  in  session,  as 
sembled  to  take  the  port  bill  into  considera 
tion,  news  of  which  had  just  arrived.  At  the 
June  meeting  of  the  general  court  a  continen 
tal  congress  was  proposed  to  assemble  at  Phila 
delphia,  to  which  the  representatives  appointed 
five  delegates,  of  whom  Adams  was  one ;  and 
Gage  having  thereupon  suddenly  dissolved  the 
court,  the  patriots  immediately  began  to  organ 
ize  a  distinct  government  of  their  own.  Trans 
ferred  thus  to  Philadelphia,  and  from  the  Mas 
sachusetts  general  court  to  a  continental  con 
gress,  Adams  began  now  to  act  on  a  broader 
scene.  His  first  act  was  one  of  conciliation. 
He  was  himself  a  strict  Congregationalist,  and 
the  recent  attempts  to  extend  Episcopacy  in 
America,  and  the  controversy  thence  arising, 
had  produced  a  good  deal  of  feeling.  A  motion 
by  one  of  the  Massachusetts  delegates  to  open 
the  proceedings  of  the  congress  with  prayer 
was  opposed  by  Mr.  Jay,  one  of  the  delegates 
from  New  York,  on  the  ground  that  as  there 
were  in  that  body  Episcopalians,  Quakers,  Ana 
baptists,  Presbyterians,  and  Congregationalists, 
they  would  hardly  be  able  to  join  in  the  same  act 
of  worship.  Thereupon  "Mr.  Samuel  Adams 
arose  " — so  wrote  John  Adams  in  a  letter  to 
his  wife  describing  the  scene  — "  and  said  he 
was  no  bigot,  and  could  hear  a  prayer  from  a 
gentleman  of  piety  and  virtue  who  was  at  the 
same  time  a  friend  to  his  country.  He  was  a 
stranger  in  Philadelphia,  but  he  had  heard  that 
Mr.  Duche  deserved  that  character,  and  there 
fore  he  moved  that  Mr.  Duche,  an-  Episcopal 
clergyman,  might  be  desired  to  read  prayers 
to  the  congress."  The  motion  passed,  and 
Duche,  at  that  time  the  most  popular  preacher 
in  Philadelphia,  appeared  the  next  morning 
and  officiated  with  great  unction.  He  acted 
as  chaplain  to  congress  for  several  sessions, 
but  when  the  British  occupied  Philadelphia  he 
abandoned  the  cause  of  his  country,  and  even 
had  the  impudence  to  write  Washington  a  let 
ter  exhorting  him  to  the  like  piece  of  treachery. 
Adams's  motion,  however,  was  very  well  timed. 
It  not  only  pleased  the  Episcopalians,  a  power 
ful  body  in  New  York  and  predominant  at  the 
south,  but  it  also  secured  for  the  moment  Duche 
himself,  whose  example  was  not  without  its 
effect  upon  others.  In  this  congress  and  those 
which  followed,  Adams,  who  continued  a  mem 
ber  for  eight  years,  took  an  active,  decided, 
and  influential  part.  No  one  man,  perhaps, 
did  so  much  as  he  to  put  the  revolution  in 
motion,  and  to  bring  about  the  separation  from 
the  mother  country,  to  which,  indeed,  Gen. 
Gage  bore  testimony  in  excepting  him,  along 
with  Hancock,  from  his  offer  of  pardon  in  case 
of  submission.  In  administrative  talents,  how 
ever,  he  was  not  so  conspicuous ;  and  the  line 
of  policy  which  he  supported  in  congress  was 
rather  graduated  to  accord  with  the  feelings, 
sentiments,  and  sometimes  the  prejudices  of 


the  people,  than  always  calculated  to  meet 
the  actual  exigencies  of  affairs.  Together  with 
John  Adams  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  for 
mation  of  the  state  constitution  of  Massachu 
setts,  adopted  in  1780.  He  was  a  very  influ 
ential  member  of  the  Massachusetts  convention 
called  in  1788,  to  consider  the  federal  consti 
tution;  and  though  opposed  to  many  of  its 
features,  he  was  finally  persuaded,  along  with 
Hancock,  to  give  it  his  support,  in  considera 
tion  of  certain  proposed  amendments,  of  which 
several  were  afterward  adopted.  This  decision 
of  the  question,  so  far  as  Massachusetts  was 
concerned,  was  of  the  greatest  moment,  in 
volving  in  it  the  action  of  other  states,  and 
in  fact  the  fate  of  the  new  government.  The 
next  year  Adams  was  chosen  lieutenant  gov 
ernor  of  Massachusetts,  which  office  he  held 
till  1794,  when  he  was  chosen  governor  as 
Hancock's  successor.  He  was  a  warm  ad 
mirer  of  the  French  revolution,  and  in  national 
politics  leaned  decidedly  to  the  republican  or 
Jeffersonian  party.  It  was  this  circumstance, 
no  less  than  his  increasing  age  and  infirmities, 
that  induced  him  in  1797,  the  federal  party 
being  predominant  in  Massachusetts,  to  decline 
serving  longer  as  governor,  and  to  retire  to 
private  life. — A  highly  characteristic  portrait 
by  Copley,  which  hangs  appropriately  in  Fan- 
euil  Hall,  has  transmitted  his  features  to  us. 
Memorials  of  his  life  and  service  are  to  be 
found  scattered  through  the  writings  of  John 
Adams,  who  in  his  old  age  exerted  himself 
to  recall  public  attention  to  his  colleagues 
of  the  revolutionary  times.  Sullivan,  in  his 
"Familiar  Letters  on  Public  Characters,"  de 
scribes  Samuel  Adams  as  "of  common  size, 
muscular  form,  light  blue  eyes,  fair  complexion, 
and  erect  in  person.  He  wore  a  tie  wig,  cocked 
hat,  and  red  cloak.  His  manner  was  very 
serious.  At  the  close  of  his  life,  and  even 
from  early  times,  he  had  a  tremulous  motion 
of  the  head,  which  probably  added  to  the 
solemnity  of  his  eloquence,  as  this  was  in  some 
measure  associated  with  his  voice.  Having  in 
herited  no  fortune,  and  being  without  a  pro 
fession,  he  was,  almost  down  to  the  close  of 
his  life,  without  resource  except  in  the  salaries 
and  emoluments  of  office,  never  large,  and  only 
eked  out  by  the  industry  and  economy  of  his 
wife.  Yet  those  who  visited  his  house  found 
nothing  mean  or  unbecoming  his  station,  since 
he  knew  how  to  combine  decency,  dignity,  and 
propriety  with  a  small  expenditure.  At  a  late 
period  of  his  life  he  obtained  a  competency, 
but  only  by  a  very  afflicting  event — the  death 
of  his  only  son,  of  the  same  name  with  himself, 
who,  having  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1771,  had  studied  medicine  with  Dr.  Joseph 
Warren  (the  famous  general),  had  served  as  a 
surgeon  through  the  revolutionary  war,  and  re 
turning  home  with  a  broken  constitution,  had 
died  in  1788.  The  avails  of  his  claims  for  ser 
vices  in  the  army  gave  his  father  a  competency 
in  his  declining  years. — In  one  respect — in 
deed  in  many,  but  we  can  here  refer  only  to 


110 


ADAMS 


AD  ANA 


one — there  was  a  remarkable  contrast  between 
Samuel  and  John  Adams.  Both,  true  to  their 
New  England  origin,  were  theologians;  but 
John  Adams,  while  to  a  certain  extent  a  con 
servative  in  politics,  was  quite  a  neologist  in 
religion.  The  Arminian  heresies  of  his  youth 
ful  days  had  prevented  him  from  studying  di 
vinity,  and  in  the  correspondence  of  his  ex 
treme  old  age  he  appears  almost  as  much  a  free 
thinker  as  Jefferson  himself.  Samuel  Adams, 
on  the  other  hand,  though  to  his  last  days  a 
progressive  in  politics,  was  always  a  decided 
conservative  in  religion,  adhering  with  sincere 
persuasion  and  firm  tenacity  to  the  five  points 
of  Calvinism.  Nor  did  this  strictness  limit 
itself  to  doctrine.  "At  a  time,"  says  Edward 
Everett,  "when  the  new  order  of  things  was 
inducing  laxity  of  manners  and  a  departure 
from  the  ancient  strictness,  Samuel  x\dams 
clung  with  greater  tenacity  to  the  whole 
some  discipline-*  of  the  fathers."  But  Mr. 
Everett  scarcely  does  justice  to  Mr.  Adams's 
spirit  of  'sociality  when  he  adds,  "His  only 
relaxation  from  business  and  the  cares  of 
life  was  in  the  indulgence  of  a  taste  for  sa 
cred  music,  for  which  he  was  qualified  by  the 
possession  of  a  most  angelic  voice  and  a  soul 
solemnly  impressed  with  religious  sentiment." 
He  was,  on  the  other  hand,  fond  of  conversa 
tion,  and  possessed  himself  a  large  fund  of 
anecdote. — Besides  the  state  papers  of  which 
Adams  was  either  wholly  or  mainly  the  author, 
and  his  numerous  political  contributions  to  the 
newspapers,  of  which,  however,  but  few  have 
been  identified,  there  have  appeared  in  print 
a  number  of  his  letters.  An  oration  on  Ameri 
can  independence,  purporting  to  have  been  de 
livered  by  him  in  Philadelphia  Aug.  1,  1776, 
and  printed  in  London,  is  probably  spurious, 
though  it  is  a  very  favorable  imitation  of  his 
style,  neat,  forcible,  and  pointed,  without  the 
least  inflation  or  appearance  of  effort.  In  this 
oration  the  writer  gives  the  English  the  title 
of  a  "nation  of  shopkeepers,"  and  it  is  not 
impossible  that  it  was  hence  that  Bonaparte 
borrowed  this  appellation,  which  was  a  favor 
ite  one  with  him,  since  it  is  known  that  the 
oration  was  translated  into  French  and  pub 
lished  at  Paris.  Adams's  life  has  been  writ 
ten  by  W.  V.  Wells  ("  Life  and  Public  Ser 
vices  of  Samuel  Adams,"  3  vols.  8vo,  Bos 
ton,  1805).  He  left  only  female  descendants, 
and  the  name  of  Adams  is  no  longer  borne  by 
any  of  his  blood. 

ADAMS,  William,  D.  D.,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  in  Colchester,  Conn.,  Jan.  25, 
1807.  He  received  his  early  education  from 
his  father  (see  ADAMS,  JOHN,  LL.  D.),  when 
principal  of  Phillips  academy,  Andover,  Mass., 
and  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1827.  He 
studied  theology  at  Andover,  and  in  February, 
1831,  was  ordained  as  a  Congregational  minister 
and  pastor  at  Brighton,  Mass.  In  1834  he  was 
called  to  the  charge  of  the  Central  Presbyterian 
church,  New  York  city.  He  has  since  that 
time  been  identified  with  the  Presbyterian 


church,  and  has  been  (1872)  for  38  years  the 
pastor  of  the  same  congregation,  which  since 
1853  has  been  known  as  the  "  Madison  Square 
Presbyterian  Church."  He  early  attained  rep 
utation  as  a  pulpit  orator,  and  has  been  very 
prominent  in  the  national  benevolent  societies. 
He  was  moderator  of  the  New  School  general 
assembly  of  1852,  and  was  active  in  promoting 
the  reunion  between  the  Old  and  New  School 
churches  in  1870-'71.  Besides  occasional  ser 
mons,  addresses,  orations,  and  articles  in  the 
reviews,  he  has  published  "  The  Three  Gar 
dens :  Eden,  Gethsemane,  and  Paradise" 
(1859)  ;  an  edition  of  Isaac  Taylor's  "Spirit  of 
Hebrew  Poetry,"  with  a  biographical  introduc 
tion  (1801) ;  "Thanksgiving:  Memories  of  the 
Day,  and  Helps  to  the  Habit"  (1805);  and 
"Conversations  of  Jesus  Christ  with  Represen 
tative  Men"  (1868).  In  1871  Dr.  Adams  was 
elected  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral 
theology  in  the  Union  theological  seminary, 
New  York,  but  declined  the  appointment. 

ADAMS,  William  T.  (pseudonyme,  OLIVER  OP 
TIC),  an  American  writer  of  juvenile  books, 
born  in  Medway,  Mass.,  July  30,  1822.  He  was 
for  many  years  a  public  school  teacher  in  Bos 
ton,  and  now  edits  "Oliver  Optic's  Magazine 
for  Boys  and  Girls."  His  principal  works  are 
"The  Boat  Club,"  "Woodville,"  "Army  and 
Navy,"  "Young  America  Abroad,"  "Starry 
Flag,"  and  "Lake  Shore"  series  of  stories, 
the  "  Riverdale  Story  Books,"  and  "In  Doors 
and  Out,"  a  volume  of  domestic  tales. 

ADAM'S  PEAR,  or  Hamazel,  a  conical  mountain 
in  S.  Ceylon,  45  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Colombo,  7,420 
ft.  high,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Pedrotalla- 
galla  (which  exceeds  it  by  860  ft.),  the  highest 
in  the  island.  The  ascent  is  made  by  means  of 
a  chain  fixed  to  its  summit.  It  is  considered 
sacred  by  both  Buddhists  and  Mohammedans, 
who  make  frequent  pilgrimages  there  during 
the  dry  season  (January,  February,  and  March). 
On  the  summit,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
5  ft.  high,  with  two  openings  for  the  admission 
of  pilgrims,  there  is  the  impression  of  a  gigantic 
foot  in  the  rock,  said  by  the  natives  to  be  that 
of  Buddha  when  he  stepped  from  this  peak  to 
the  adjacent  kingdom  of  Siam  ;  but  ascribed  by 
the  Mohammedans  to  Adam  after  his  expulsion 
from  paradise  (placed  in  the  vicinity  of  Cey 
lon),  whence  the  peak  derives  its  name. 

ADMA,  a  town  of  Turkey,  in  S.  E.  Asia 
Minor,  capital  of  a  sanjak,  on  the  river  Sihun 
(anc.  Sarus),  25  m.  N.  E.  of  Tarsus  and  60  m. 
N.  W.  of  Alexandretta ;  pop.  about  30,000.  It 
commands  the  Cilician  passes  of  the  Taurus 
chain,  is  well  built,  and  contains  interesting 
ancient  remains.  The  bridge  across  the  Sihun 
at  this  point  is  reported  to  have  been  con 
structed  by  Justinian,  and  the  castle  is  also 
notable.  Wool,  cotton,  corn,  wine,  and  fruit 
are  the  staples  of  its  commerce.  Pompey 
colonized  the  town  with  conquered  Cilician 
pirates.  From  1833  to  1839,  in  consequence 
of  Ibrahim  Pasha's  victory  at  Konieh,  the  san 
jak  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Egyptians. 


ADANSON 


ADDISON 


111 


ADANSON,  Michel,  a  French  naturalist,  of 
Scotch  descent,  born  at  Aix,  April  7,  1727, 
died  in  Paris,  Aug.  3,  1806.  At  the  age  of  21 
he  went  at  his  own  cost,  though  of  very  limited 
fortune,  to  the  French  colony  of  Senegal  to 
study  nature.  After  five  years  he  returned  to 
France  with  a  fine  collection.  He  first  at 
tacked  the  Linnosan  method,  and  his  writings 
paved  the  way  for  the  acceptance  by  the 
scientific  world  of  Jussieu's  system.  The 
generic  name  Adansonia  was  given  in  his 
honor  to  the  baobab  tree,  of  which  he  gave 
the  first  scientific  account.  He  was  also  dis 
tinguished  for  philanthropy,  and  proposed  to 
found  a  colony  with  free  negroes  in  Senegal, 
which  was  not,  however,  favored  by  the  min 
istry  of  Louis  XV.  His  name  is  associated 
with  a  plan  for  a  vast  cyclopaedia  of  natural 
history,  which  the  academy  had  not  the  cour 
age  to  take  up.  He,  however,  persisted  in  his 
ideas,  devoting  many  years  to  the  collection  of 
immense  masses  of  manuscript  material.  By 
the  revolution  he  was  stripped  of  everything, 
and  reduced  to  such  abject  poverty,  that  when 
he  was  invited  in  1798  to  take  his  seat  as  a 
member  of  the  reorganized  institute  (having 
been  a  member  of  the  academy  since  1759),  he 
was  obliged  to  decline  for  want  of  shoes.  He 
afterward  received  a  small  pension,  in  the  en 
joyment  of  which  he  died  in  his  80th  year. 
His  principal  works  are :  Histoire  naturelle  du 
Senegal  (1  vol.  4to,  1757,  including  IS  Histoire 
des  coquillages,  the  earliest  attempt  at  a  scien 
tific  classification  of  shells  according  to  their 
inhabitants),  and  Methode  naturelle  pour  ap- 
prendre  a  connaUre  les  differentes  families  des 
plantes  (2  vols.  8vo,  1764,  written  with  a 
phonetic  orthography  of  his  own  invention). 
He  also  contributed  many  valuable  memoirs  to 
the  publications  of  the  academy  of  sciences. 

ADAR,  the  name  of  the  6th  month  in  the  civil 
year  of  the  Jews,  and  of  the  12th  in  their 
ecclesiastical  year,  answering  to  parts  of  Feb 
ruary  and  March.  A  fast  for  the  death  of 
Moses  is  observed  on  the  7th,  the  fast  of  Esther 
on  the  13th,  and  on  the  14th  and  15th  the 
feast  of  Purim.  A  second  Adar  is  intercalated 
seven  times  in  every  nineteen  years,  in  order 
to  harmonize  the  lunar  and  solar  periods. 

ADDA  (anc.  Addua),  a  river  of  N.  Italy,  a 
tributary  of  the  Po.  It  rises  in  the  Rhaatian 
Alps,  flows  S.  W.,  S.,  and  S.  E.  through  the 
Valtellina  and  Lombardy,  and  the  lakes  of 
Como  and  Lecce,  and  enters  the  Po  about  8  m. 
W.  of  Cremona.  Its  course  is  about  80  m. 
Lodi,  the  scene  of  one  of  Bonaparte's  early 
triumphs,  and  Cassano,  at  which  Moreau  was 
defeated  in  1799,  are  on  its  banks. 

ADDER.     See  VIPER. 

ADDINGTON,  a  S.  county  of  the  province  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  bordering  on  the  bay  of 
Quinte,  near  the  E.  end  of  Lake  Ontario ;  area 
about  2,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  21,312.  The 
county  is  about  122  m.  long,  and  from  7  to  18 
wide.  It  has  between  20  and  30  lakes,  the 
longest  of  which,  Massanogo,  is  about  50  m. 


long.  The  northern  townships  are  new  and 
thinly  settled.  The  clwef  occupations  are  agri 
culture  and  lumbering.  Chief  town,  Bath. 

ADDIXGTON.  I.  Henry,  Lord  Sidmouth,  an 
English  statesman,  born  May  30,  1757,  died 
Feb.  15,  1844.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Anthony 
Addington  of  Reading,  known  as  the  author  of 
treatises  on  scurvy  and  on  the  mortality  of 
beasts,  and  for  his  attempt  in  1778  to  establish 
a  political  alliance  between  the  earl  of  Bute 
and  the  earl  of  Chatham,  whose  physician  he 
was.  This  connection  with  Lord  Chatham  led 
to  an  intimacy  between  Henry  Addington  and 
the  younger  William  Pitt,  who  induced  him  to 
enter  parliament  in  1784.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  the  same  year,  but  never  practised. 
In  1789  he  was  elected  speaker,  and  continued 
to  support  Pitt,  but  voted  against  him  on  the 
slave  question,  favoring  a  gradual  emancipa 
tion.  In  1801  Pitt  resigned  and  Addington 
took  his  place  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
and  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  formed  a 
new  ministry.  He  aided  in  forming  the  treaty 
of  Amiens  in  1802,  the  objectionable  clauses 
in  which  were  vigorously  attacked  by  Wind- 
ham  and  Grenville.  But  in  1803,  when  peace 
was  considered  dishonorable,  he  supported  a 
war  policy.  The  prince  of  Wales,  afterward 
George  IV.,  had  a  personal  dislike  to  Addington, 
who  was  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  special 
friends  of  George  III.,  and  the  illness  of  the 
latter  gave  the  prince  opportunity  to  show  his 
animosity.  In  1804  Addington  resigned,  and 
the  king  created  him  a  peer  by  the  title  of 
Viscount  Sidmouth  (Jan.  12,  1805),  and  ap 
pointed  him  president  of  the  council,  which 
office  he  resigned  in  July.  After  Pitt's  death, 
Lord  Sidmouth  entered  the  ministry  of  Gren 
ville  and  Fox  (Feb.,  1806,  to  March,  1807),  first 
as  lord  privy  seal  and  afterward  as  president 
of  the  council.  In  1812  Lord  Sidmouth  was 
appointed  secretary  for  the  home  department 
in  Lord  Liverpool's  ministry.  In  1822,  on  the 
death  of  Lord  Castlereagh,  he  resigned  his 
office,  but  at  Lord  Liverpool's  request  retained 
his  seat  in  the  cabinet  two  years  longer.  II. 
Henry  Unwin,  an  English  diplomatist,  a  rela 
tive  of  the  preceding,  born  March  24,  1790, 
died  in  London,  March  6,  1870.  He  entered 
the  foreign  office  after  leaving  Winchester  col 
lege,  and  was  fcr  upward  of  30  years  in  the 
diplomatic  service  in  various  countries,  includ 
ing  the  United  States,  whither  he  was  sent  in 
1822,  and  again  in  1826.  He  was  under-secre- 
tary  of  state  from  1842  to  1854,  when  on  his 
retirement  he  was  made  privy  councillor. 

ADDISON,  a  W.  county  of  Vermont,  bound 
ed  W.  by  Lake  Champlain  and  drained  by 
Otter  creek  and  its  tributaries,  which  afford 
excellent  water  power  ;  area,  750  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
in  1870,  23,484.  Near  the  lake  the  surface  is 
almost  level,  but  it  becomes  rugged  and  moun 
tainous  toward  the  east.  The  soil  is  fertile. 
The  productions  in  1870  were  57,725  bushels 
of  wheat,  144,257  of  corn,  334,446  of  oats, 
28,211  of  buckwheat,  317,043  of  potatoes, 


112 


JOSEPH  ADDISON" 


495,771  Ibs.  of  wool,  201,855  of  maple  sugar, 
1,723,437  of  butter,  546,047  of  cheese,  and 
114,298  tons  of  hay.  The  value  of  farms  was 
$16,001,548,  and  of  productions  $3,055,768. 
The  manufacture  of  cotton,  wool,  paper,  &c., 
is  carried  on,  and  quarries  of  white  and  veined 
marbles  are  extensively  worked.  The  Rut 
land  and  Burlington  railroad  runs  through  the 
county.  Capital,  Middlebury. 

ADDISOX,  Joseph,  an  English  author,  born 
at  Milton,  Wiltshire,  May  1,  1672,  died  in  Hol 
land  house,  Kensington,  June  17,  1719.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Charter  House  school  and 
at  Queen's  and  Magdalen  colleges,  Oxford,  and 
was  early  noted  for  elegant  scholarship,  and 
particularly  for  his  proficiency  in  Latin  versifi 
cation,  which  elicited  the  praise  of  Boileau. 
His  own  tastes  would  probably  have  led  him 
to  take  orders,  which  his  father,  the  Rev. 
Launcelot  Addison,  dean  of  Lichfield,  urged 
him  to  do,  or  to  follow  an  exclusively  literary 
career.  But  the  age  was  one  of  too  earnest 
political  warfare  to  permit  a  young  man  of 
talent  to  keep  aloof  from  party  strife,  and  Ad 
dison  began  to  pay  court  to  prominent  states 
men  in  complimentary  verses  and  other  offer 
ings  to  their  vanity.  He  thus  secured  the 
friendship  and  patronage  of  Lords  Somers  and 
Halifax,  the  former  of  whom  in  1699  obtained 
for  him  a  travelling  pension  of  £300,  by  means 
of  which  he  was  enabled  to  visit  France,  Ger 
many,  and  Italy.  The  death  of  William  III. 
having  removed  his  friends  from  power,  he  lost 
his  pension,  was  forced  to  become  a  travelling 
tutor,  and  in  1703  returned  to  England.  In 
the  succeeding  year,  at  the  suggestion  of  Lord 
Halifax,  he  commemorated  the  victory  of  Blen 
heim  in  an  indifferent  poem  entitled  "The 
Campaign,"  containing,  however,  one  fine  sim 
ile,  which  so  pleased  the  lord  treasurer  Godol- 
phin  that  he  appointed  Addison  a  commissioner 
of  appeal  of  the  excise.  From  this  time  until 
the  close  of  his  career,  except  during  the  tory 
administration  of  Oxford  and  Bolingbroke,  he 
was  scarcely  ever  without  office  of  some  kind. 
In  1705  he  accompanied  Halifax  to  Hanover  as 
secretary  of  legation.  In  the  succeeding  year 
he  was  appointed  under-secretary  of  state,  and 
in  1709  secretary  to  the  marquis  of  Wharton, 
the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  although  he  re 
mained  in  London  during  the  greater  part  of 
his  term  of  office.  He  also  represented  Lost- 
withiel  in  parliament  from  1708  to  1710,  and 
Malmesbury  during  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
His  career  as  a  legislator  was  not  brilliant,  his 
only  attempt  to  address  the  house  having 
proved  a  total  failure  through  loss  of  self-pos 
session. — Previous  to  his  87th  year  Addison's 
literary  productions  were  few  and  fragmentary. 
A  book  of  "Travels"  which  attracted  little 
attention,  the  "Dialogues  on  Medals,"  some  oc 
casional  poems  and  English  versions  from  Vir 
gil  and  Ovid,  and  his  Latin  verses  comprised 
nearly  all  that  he  had  given  to  the  public.  His 
reputation  as  a  wit  and  man  of  letters  was 
nevertheless  very  great  in  the  London  clubs 


and  coffee  houses,  then  the  usual  resorts  of  lit 
erary  characters ;  and  his  sudden. appearance  in 
the  "Tatler,"  started  by  his  school  friend  Steele 
in  1709,  and  its  successor  the  "Spectator,"  as 
the  most  brilliant  essayist  of  his  time,  was  by 
no  means  a  surprise  to  his  friends.  Upon  his 
contributions  to  the  "  Spectator  "  his  fame  now 
chiefly  rests.  Commenced  on  March  1,  1711, 
it  was  continued  daily  till  December  6,  1712, 
when  Steele  retired  and  the  publication  ceased. 
A  year  and  a  half  later  it  was  recommenced  by 
Addison,  who  for  a  considerable  period  was  its 
sole  contributor.  Eighty  papers  were  then 
added  to  the  555  already  published,  and  the 
"  Spectator  "  was  finally  discontinued  on  Dec. 
20,  1714.  Of  the  635  essays  included  in  both 
series,  Addison  was  the  author  of  274,  his  con 
tributions  being  generally  identified  by  some 
letter  in  the  name  of  the  muse  Clio  appended 
to  them.  He  also  wrote-  occasionally  for  the 
" Guardian,"  a  successor  of  the  "Spectator." 
He  found  this  style  of  composition  singularly 
adapted  to  his  talents  and  disposition ;  and  in  an 
age  artificial  and  frivolous  almost  beyond  prece 
dent,  his  essays  are  natural,  decent,  and  instruc 
tive,  infused  with  a  serene  and  cheerful  philoso 
phy,  and  often  with  an  artless  gayety,  and  writ 
ten  in  a  diction  of  almost  faultless  purity.  His 
papers  on  Milton,  on  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  and 
his  friends,  and  that  entitled  "The  Vision  of 
Mirza,"  are  to  this  day  among  the  masterpieces 
of  English  literature.  In  the  spring  of  1713 
was  produced  his  tragedy  of  "Cato,"  the  im 
mediate  success  of  which,  owing  to  the  political 
significance  attached  to  it,  to  the  zeal  of  friend 
ship,  and  to  the  existent  standard  of  dramatic 
taste,  was  far  beyond  its  merits  as  an  acting 
play.  Pope  wrote  the  prologue  and  Dr.  Garth 
the  epilogue,  and  it  had  a  run  of  35  nights,  and 
was  translated  into  various  European  languages. 
It  is  now  remembered  chiefly  by  the  soliloquy 
of  the  hero  and  a  few  passages  which  have  be 
come  standard  quotations.  The  death  of  Queen 
Anne  having  restored  his  political  friends  to 
power,  he  again  held  office,  first  as  secretary  to 
the  lords  justices,  then  for  a  while  as  secre 
tary  to  the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  in 
1715  as  one  of  the  lords  of  trade.  In  1716, 
being  then  in  his  45th  year,  he  married  the 
countess  of  Warwick  and  took  up  his  resi 
dence  with  her  in  Holland  house.  The  union 
proved  an  unhappy  one  to  Addison.  The 
countess  was  proud  and  high-tempered,  and 
made  his  home  so  uncomfortable  that  he  was 
fain  to  take  refuge  at  the  clubs  and  taverns, 
wrhere  it  is  said  he  often  drank  immoderately. 
I  In  1717  he  reached  his  highest  political  eleva- 
I  tion,  being  made  one  of  the  principal  seereta- 
ries  of  state.  But  his  inability  to  grapple  with 
details  and  to  take  rank  as  a  parliamentary 
leader  unfitted  him  for  the  office,  and  he  re 
signed  it  in  the  following  year.  Thenceforth 
until  his  death  he  applied  himself  to  the  com 
pletion  of  a  treatise  on  the  evidences  of  Chris 
tianity  which  had  been  projected  some  years 
before.  His  principal  writings  in  addition  to 


ADEL 


ADELAIDE 


113 


those  already  mentioned  were  the  "  Drummer," 
a  comedy,  an  opera  entitled  "Rosamond,"  and 
the  "Freeholder,"  a  sort  of  political  "Specta 
tor."  Scattered  among  his  essays  are  also  sev 
eral  devotional  poems,  exalted  in  tone  and  feli 
citous  in  diction,  which  are  still  included  in 
every  considerable  collection  of  sacred  poetry. 
Addison  was  a  man  of  integrity  and  sincere 
piety,  and  by  his  amiability,  his  pleasant  hu 
mor,  and  his  varied  conversational  powers 
greatly  endeared  himself  to  his  friends.  To 
those  not  intimate  with  him,  a  natural  shyness 
of  manner,  which  he  was  never  able  to  shake 
off,  made  him  seem  cold  and  reserved.  lie  has 
been  accused  of  slighting  and  even  of  depreci 
ating  the  merits  of  men  of  equal  ability  with 
himself.  His  treatment,  when  at  the  height 
of  political  power,  of  his  old  friend  and  literary 
coadjutor  Steele,  was  not  generous,  and  he  in 
curred  the  resentment  of  Pope,  who  attacked 
him  in  some  memorably  bitter  lines.  But  the 
uniform  tendency  of  his  writings  precludes  the 
idea  that  he  was  to  any  considerable  degree 
insincere  or  unjust  to  his  contemporaries. 

ADEL.     See  ADAL. 

ADELAAR,  Adelaer,  or  Adder  (the  Eagle),  a 
surname  given,  on  account  of  his  gallantry,  to 
COET  SIVEETSEX,  born  in  Brevig,  Norway,  Dec. 
16,'  1622vdied  in  Copenhagen,  Nov.  5,  1675. 
He  rose  from  the  position  of  a  common  sailor,  in 
which  capacity  he  served  from  1637  to  1642  in 
the  Dutch  navy,  to  the  rank  of  admiral,  first  in 
the  Venetian  and  afterward  in  the  Danish  ser 
vice.  During  the  wars  of  Venice  against  the 
Turks,  Adelaar  gave  e  vidence  of  his  daring  spirit 
by  fighting  his  way  in  1654,  with  the  ship  to 
the  command  of  which  he  had  risen  by  his 
skill,  through  67  Turkish  galleys,  sinking  15  of 
them  with  about  5,000  Turks  on  board,  all  of 
whom  are  said  to  have  perished.  For  this 
exploit  Venice  conferred  upon  him  the  order 
of  St.  Mark,  the  title  of  lieutenant  general  of 
the  admiralty,  and  a  pension.  In  1663,  after 
returning  for  a  short  time  to  the  Dutch  navy, 
Adelaar  accepted  employment  under  the 
Danish  government,  and  in  1675  became  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  ileet  just  about  to  act 
against  Sweden.  He  died  before  it  sailed. 

ADELAIDE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  South 
Australia,  about  6  m.  from  the  E.  shore  of  St. 
Vincent's  gulf,  and  515  m.  N.W.  of  Melbourne; 
pop.  (with  Port  Adelaide  and  Albert  Town) 
about  30,000.  It  is  divided  by  the  river  Tor- 
rens  into  N.  and  S.  Adelaide,  and  surrounded 
by  a  semicircle  of  hills.  The  city  was  founded 
in  1836,  and  incorporated  in  1842.  It  pos 
sesses  several  fine  squares,  streets,  and 
churches,  a  chamber  of  commerce,  an  assay 
office,  and  a  botanical  garden  with  a  Conser 
vatory.  King  William  street  is  the  central 
thoroughfare  and  Ilindlcy  street  the  chief 
business  locality.  It  is  united  by  railway  with 
Port  Adelaide,  6  m.  N.  W.  of  the  city,  through 
which  passes  most  of  the  commerce  of  South  j 
Australia.  There  is  a  large  export  trade  in 
cereals,  wool,  and  minerals,  especially  copper.  ! 
VOL.  i. — 8 


A  considerable  amount  of  gold  obtained  from 
the  mines  discovered  in  1852  is  assayed  at 
Adelaide.  The  export  of  wool  exceeds 
7,000,000  pounds  annually.  The  annual  ship 
ment  of  fine  copper  is  nearly  100,000  cwt. 
Since  1862  the  greater  part  of  the  ore  has 
been  smelted  in  the  colony.  Adelaide  has 
fiouring  mills,  breweries,  machine  shops,  brass 
and  iron  founderies,  and  manufactories  of  to 
bacco,  soap,  candles,  earthenware,  leather, 
and  barilla.  The  total  value  of  South  Aus 
tralian  imports  (including  £93,892  bullion  and 
specie)  in  1869  was  £2,754,770;  of  exports, 
£2,993,035  ;  total  tonnage  of  vessels,  exclusive 
of  coastwise,  nearly  350,000.  Most  of  this 
trade  centres  in  Port  Adelaide.  Albert  Town 
is  a  small  village  about  1  m.  from  the  port. 
The  public  revenue  of  the  city  in  1869  was 
£773,351,  and  the  expenditure  £653,107. 
It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  and  a  Pioman 
Catholic  bishop. 

ADELAIDE,  Eugenie  Lonisc,  princess  of  Or 
leans,  daughter  of  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  duke 
of  Orleans,  surnamed  £galite,  born  in  Paris, 
Aug.  25,  1777,  died  there,  Dec.  31,  1847.  In 
1791  she  went  to  England.  On  her  return,  in 
November,  1792,  she  found  herself  proscribed 
as  an  emiyree,  and  fled  into  the  Austrian  Neth 
erlands,  then  invaded  by  the  French  army  of 
the  north,  putting  herself  under  the  protection 
of  her  brother,  the  young  duke  of  Chartres, 
afterward  King  Louis  Philippe,  who  com 
manded  a  division  of  that  army.  Her  brother 
being  soon  compelled  to  take  flight  himself  to 
escape  the  guillotine,  she  was  conducted  over 
to  the  Austrian  advanced  posts.  She  rejoined 
her  brother  after  many  perils  in  Sehaff  liausen, 
Switzerland,  May  26,  1793,  accompanied  by 
her  former  governess,  Mine,  de  Genlis.  They 
next  took  refuge  in  a  convent,  but  their  money 
ran  short,  and  she  threw  herself  upon  the 
protection  of  her  aunt,  the  princess  Oonti,  at 
Fribourg.  Her  aunt  dared  not  receive  her  in 
her  own  house,  as  the  prejudice  against  the 
name  of  Orleans  was  so  strong  among  the 
royal  family  of  France,  but  she  put  her  and 
Mme.  de  Genlis  to  board  in  a  Swiss  convent. 
After  a  separation  of  10  years  she  saw  her 
brother  once  more  at  Figueras  in  Spain ;  and 
after  some  further  removals  she  at  length  re 
joined  him  at  Portsmouth,  England,  Avhence 
she  followed  him  to  Palermo,  where  in  1809 
he  married  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  the 
Two  Sicilies.  From  that  time  till  the  restora 
tion  she  lived  with  him  in  Sicily.  When 
Louis  XVIII.  had  to  quit  France  once  more, 
she  again  followed  her  brother  abroad.  After 
the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  she  persuaded 
him  to  accept  the  throne.  Madame  Adelaide, 
as  she  was  now  called,  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  the  decisions  of  the  king  of  the 
French,  and  was  popularly  regarded  as  his 
guardian  angel.  She  died  two  months  before 
his  overthrow  in  February,  1848. 

ADELAIDE,  Saint,  queen  of  Italy  and  empress 
of  Germany,  born  in  France  in  933,  died  at 


114: 


ADELSBERG 


ADEN 


Seltz,  Alsace,  Dec.  10,  009.  She  was  a 
daughter  of  Rudolph  II.,  kins?  of  Burgundy, 
whose  contest  with  King  Hugo  of  Italy  was 
peaceably  ended  by  her  marrying  in  947  the 
latter's  son,  Lothaire  II.,  after  whose  violent 
death  in  050  she  was  imprisoned  by  his  suc 
cessor  Berenger  II.  for  declining  to  marry  his 
deformed  son  Adalbert.  She  escaped  to  the 
castle  of  a  relative  and  solicited  the  protection 
of  Otho  I.,  the  Great,  who,  captivated  by  her 
beauty  and  character,  married  her  in  051. 
She  was  crowned  empress  of  the  West  in  002, 
and  exerted  much  influence  in  Germany  during 
a  part  of  the  reign  of  her  son  Otho  II.  and  as 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  grandson 
Otho  III.  She  was  called  the  "mother  of 
kingdoms."  The  latter  part  of  her  life  was 
consecrated  to  works  of  piety  and  charity  at 
Seltz,  where  she  founded  a  Benedictine  monas 
tery  ;  and  she  is  honored  as  a  saint  on  Dec. 
10.  Her  biography  has  been  written  by  St. 
Odilon  and  others  in  Latin,  French,  and 
German,  and  by  G.  B.  Semeria  in  Italian 
(Vita  politwo-religiosa  di  Santa  Adelaide, 
regina  d? Italia  ed  imperatrice  del  sacro  Ro 
mano  impcrio,  Turin,  1842). 

ADELSBERG,  a  small  market  town  of  Carniola, 
Austria,  on  the  Semmering  railroad,  midway 
between  Laybach  and  Trieste,  near  a  cele 
brated  cavern,  which  has  five  main  divisions. 
The  first,  called  Neptune  or  Great  Dome 
grotto,  traversed  for  the  length  of  400  feet  by 
the  Poik  river,  and  rich  in  stalactites,  consti 
tutes  the  old  part  of  the  cavern,  which  has 
been  known  for  upward  of  000  years.  The 
entrance  to  the  new  parts  of  the  cavern  was 
accidentally  discovered  in  1810.  This  leads  in 
the  first  instance  to  the  second  main  division, 
called  the  emperor  Ferdinand's  chamber,  with 
large  corridors  called  the  ball-room  and  the 
circus,  where  annual  festivals  take  place,  and 
that  of  Calvary,  a  mound  formed  by  the 
ruined  columns  of  rocks  more  than  200  feet 
high.  The  third  main  division  consists  of  two 
basins  of  water  called  the  dropping  well  and 
Tartarus.  The  fourth  main  division,  the  arch 
duke  John  grotto,  opens  behind  a  curtain  of 
transparent  spar,  and  contains  other  shapes 
called  Little  Curtain  and  Gothic  Hall.  The 
fifth  main  division,  the  Francis  Joseph  and 
Elizabeth  grotto,  explored  for  the  first  time  in  | 
185T,  discloses  a  range  of  chambers  with 
brilliant  and  fantastic  shapes,  and  a  pictur 
esque  elevation  called  Little  Calvary.  About  ! 
three  miles  from  Adelsberg  is  the  Black  or 
Magdalen  grotto,  through  which  runs  a  river. 
Here  was  first  discovered  the  protects  anguinus, 
an  animal  half  fish,  half  lizard,  and  eyeless. 
The  Poik  cavern,  a  mile  from  the  last-named 
grotto,  is  only  accessible  by  the  aid  of  a  rope, 
and  remarkable  chiefly  for  the  dashing  of  the 
river  over  the  rocks. 

ADELOG.  I.  Joliaim  Christoph,  a  German  j 
lexicographer,  born  at  Spantekow,  Pomerania,  j 
Aug.  8,  1782,  died  in  Dresden,  Sept,  10,  1800.  j 
He  finished  his  studies  at  the  university  of  I 


\  Halle,  and  went  to  Leipsic,  supporting  him- 
j  self  by  translations  of  valuable  foreign  works. 
<  His  Glossarium  mamiale  ad  Scriptorcs  mediae, 
ct  infimcs  Latinitatis  (Halle,  1772-'84)  is  his 
most  important  achievement  in  this  depart 
ment.  His  great  work,  for  which  he  took 
Johnson's  English  dictionary  as  a  pattern,  is 
his  Grammatisch-lcritisches  Worterbuch  dcr 
lioclideuUclien  Mundart  (Leipsic,  1774— '80). 
He  also  produced  Deutsche  Spraclilehre  fur 
Schulen  (Berlin,  1781),  and  Umstandlichc* 
Lehrgebiiude  dcr  deutschen  SpracJie  (Berlin. 
1782).  In  1787  Adelung  was  called  to  Dres 
den,  and  appointed  head  librarian  to  the 
electoral  library  in  that  city,  where  he  con 
ceived  the  plan  of  his  Hithridates,  a  work 
which  was  to  contain  an  account  of  all  the 
known  languages  of  the  earth,  with  a  transla 
tion  of  the  Lord's  prayer  given  as  a  specimen 
of  each.  lie  only  lived  to  finish  the  first 
volume,  which  gave  an  account  of  the  Asiatic 
languages.  The  work  was  afterward  taken  up 
|  by  Johann  Severin  Vater,  and  his  own  nephew 
j  Friedrich  Adelung,  and  finished  in  4  vols.  It 
is  said  that  he  devoted  14  hours  a  day  to  study. 
II.  Friedrich  von,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Stettin,  Feb.  25,  1708,  died  in  St.  Peters 
burg,  Jan.  30,  1843.  He  began  his  career  as 
a  private  tutor,  and  spent  several  years  in 
Rome,  but  subsequently  went  to  St.  Peters 
burg,  where  he  was  appointed  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  preceptor  of  his  brothers  Nicholas 
(afterward  czar)  and  Michael.  His  principal 
works  are  :  u  The  Relations  between  the  San 
scrit  and  Russian  Languages"  (1815),  an  "Es 
say  on  the  Sanscrit  Literature  and  Language  " 
(1830),  and  Billiotfieca  Sanscrita  (1837). 

ADEN  (anc.  Adane,  Attancp,  or  AraMa  Felix), 
a  fortified  British  seaport  town  on  the  S.  coast 
of  Arabia  and  on  the  gulf  of  Aden,  about  120 
m.  E.  of  the  entrance  to  the  Red  sea  at  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  hit,  12°  47'  K,  Ion.  45°  0'  E. ;  pop. 
about  50,000.  It  is  built  on  the  N.  E.  end  of 
the  peninsula  of  Aden,  and  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  low,  sandy  isthmus.  The  lat 
ter,  united  with  another  peninsula  called  Jebel 
Hassan,  forms  the  t\vo  extensive  harbors  of 
Aden,  the  best  on  the  Arabian  coast.  The 
town  stands  at  the  E.  base  of  a  volcanic  moun 
tain  range  from  1,000  to  1,800  feet  high.  It  is 
a  place  of  considerable  strength  and  is  well 
garrisoned,  its  situation  between  Asia  and 
Africa  resembling  that  of  Gibraltar  between 
Europe  and  Africa.  The  superiority  of  the 
port  and  abundant  supply  of  water  render  Aden 
a  valuable  and  important  station  on  the  way 
from  India  to  Europe.  The  inhabitants  are 
Asiatic  and  African,  with  a  few  Europeans, 
chiefly  English.  The  English  political  resident 
is  the  governing  authority.  The  town  is  sur 
rounded  with  gardens  and  fruit  trees.  The 
climate,  though  dry  and  hot,  is  not  insalubri 
ous. — In  ancient  times,  Aden  was  the  great 
centre  of  trade  between  Arabia,  Egypt,  and 
India.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  but  soon  revived.  Marco 


ADERXO 


ADHESION 


115 


Polo  speaks  of  its  wealth  and  splendor  in  the  j 
middle  ages.     At  the  beginning  of  the   16th 
century  if  was  so  strongly  fortified  that  the 
Portuguese  failed  to  capture  it ;  but  the  Turk-  j 
ish  domination,  from  about  1540  to  1630,  was  \ 
injurious ;  and  the  imam  of  Sana  and  the  sultan 
of  Yemen,  who  successively  ruled  Aden  for  the 
next   three   generations,  completed   the  work 
of  the  Turks,  and  left  the  place  a  heap  of  ruins 
in  1705,  when  it  became  independent.    In  1838  | 
Capt.  Ilaynes  proposed  to  the  sultan  of  Aden  j 
to  cede  the  town  to  Great  Britain,  and  on  his  j 
declining  the  English  took  forcible  possession,  j 
Jan.    11,    1839.      Since    that    time    the   town  j 
has  gained  commercial  importance.     In  1870 
the  imports  from  Great  Britain  amounted  to 
£110,403,  and  the  exports  to  £2,633. 

ADERXO  (anc.  Adranum),  a  town  of  Sicily, 
in  the  government  and  17  m.  X.  W.  of  Catania; 
pop.  in  1801,  12,877.  It  is  situated  on  a  plateau 
at  the  S.  W.  foot  of  Mt.  Etna,  and  is  approached 
by  a  steep  winding  road  of  4  m.  A  large  pro 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  monks  and  nuns. 
There  are  many  remains  of  the  ancienl  town 
and  ruins  of  medieval  buildings;  and  in  the 
piazza  is  a  Norman  castle,  now  used  as  a  prison. 

ADET,  Pierre  Angnste,  a  French  chemist  and 
politician,  born  at  Severs  in  1763,  died  about 
1832.  He  was  sent  by  the  directory  in  1795 
to  the  United  States  as  minister  plenipotentiary,  \ 
and  presented  to  congress  a  tricolor  flag  on  be 
half  of  the  French  nation.  On  Oct.  27,  1796, 
he  delivered  to  the  secretary  of  state  the  cele 
brated  decree  of  the  directory  complaining  that 
the  American  government,  in  its  treaty  with 
England,  had  violated  its  neutrality  and  broken 
the  treaty  of  1778,  and  authorizing  French 
ships  of  war  to  treat  neutral  vessels  in  the 
same  manner  that  they  allowed  themselves  to 
be  treated  by  the  English.  After  the  delivery 
of  this  note  Adct  announced  that  he  should 
suspend  his  functions,  and  he  accordingly  re 
turned  to  France,  after  issuing  an  inflammatory 
address  to  the  people  of  the  United  States. 
He  subsequently  adhered  to  Napoleon,  but  his 
political  career  remained  unimportant.  He 
composed  a  new  system  of  chemical  signs,  but 
it  found  no  favor. 

ADHESION  (Lat.  ad,  to,  and  harerc,  to  stick), 
the  force  by  which  the  particles  of  different 
bodies  stick  together,  distinguished  from  cohe 
sion,  which  is  the  force  that  holds  the  molecules 
'of  the    same   body  together.      There    are  six 
kinds  of  adhesion :  solids  to  solids,  liquids  to 
solids,  liquids  to  liquids,  gases  to  solids,  gases  to 
liquids,  and  gases  to  gases.     1.  Solids  to  solids. 
Two  glass   or   metal  plates  with  well  ground 
surfaces,   when   pressed  together,  will  adhere  ! 
with  such  force  that  the  upper  one  will  not  j 
only   support   the    lower,    but    an    additional 
weight  will  be  required  to  separate  them.    The 
amount  of  this  adhesive  force  has  been  meas- 
nred  by  recording  the  weights   necessary  for  | 
their  separation.     The  records  of  the  old  ex 
perimenters  on  this  subject  are  worthless,  be-  ! 
cause  they  placed  a  lubricating  fluid,   oil  or 


fat,  between  the  plates;  they  found  thus  the 
cohesion  of  the  oil  or  i'at,  and  not  the  adhesion 
of  the  plates.  In  later  times  Prechtl  in  Ger 
many  has  made  the  most  careful  experiments 
in  this  line  ;  he  took  polished  metal  plates  of 
1^-  inch  diameter,  suspended  the  upper  one  to  a 
balance,  brought  it  to  an  equilibrium  in  a  hori 
zontal  position,  and  attached  the  lower  plate 
to  a  support  underneath  it.  Soth  plates  were 
then  brought  in  contact,  so  that  the  flat  pol 
ished  surfaces  covered  one  another  perfectly, 
and  the  weights  required  in  the  scale  at  the 
other  end  of  the  balance  beam  to  separate  the 
plates  were  the  measures  of  the  adhesion. 


Prechtrs  Adhesion  Balance. 

He  found  thus  the  following  remarkable  law: 
The  adhesion  between  two  plates  of  the  same 
material  is  the  same  as  that  between  one  of  the 
plates  and  any  material  which  possesses  a  less 
adhesive  force.  For  instance,  to  separate  two 
copper  plates  required  a  weight  of  21  grains; 
but  the  same  weight  was  required  to  separate 
one  of  the  copper  plates  from  a  plate  of  bismuth, 
zinc,  tin,  lead,  &c.,  notwithstanding  the  adhe 
sive  force  of  bismuth  to  bismuth,  zinc  to  zinc, 
&c.,  was  found  to  be  smaller  than  that  of  cop 
per  to  copper.  Prechtl  found  also  that  an  at 
traction  of  the  plates  manifested  itself  at  an 
appreciable  distance  before  actual  contact,  and 
he  even  measured  the  amount  of  this  attraction 
at  the  distance  of  -£f  of  an  inch  by  means  of 
weights  in  fractions  of  grains.  The  suspended 
plate  when  brought  within  this  distance  was 
attracted  with  an  accelerated  motion  till  the 
contact  took  place  with  a  slight  concussion. 
The  idea  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  was  the 
chief  cause  of  the  adhesion  of  two  such  plates, 
as  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  well  known  experi 
ment  with  the  Magdeburg  hemispheres,  was 
set  at  rest  by  Boyle,  who  suspended  the  adhe 
sive  plates  charged  with  weight  in  the  vacuum 
of  an  air  pump ;  the  plates  were  not  separated, 
while  the  hemispheres  held  together  by  the 
vacuum  alone  fell  apart.  The  adhesion  of 
solids  to  solids  is  also  seen  in  the  dust,  which 
will  not  only  adhere  to  perpendicular  but  even 
to  inverted  surfaces.  Granite  consists  of  feld 
spar,  quartz,  and  mica,  kept  together  by  adhe 
sion.  A  portion  of  such  apparently  adhesive 
force  is,  however,  cohesion.  For  instance, 


116 


ADHESION 


brick  and  mortar  adhere  chiefly  by  the  cohe 
sion  of  the  mortar,  which  penetrates  the  pores 
of  the  brick ;  stones  without  sensible  pores  do 
not  adhere  so  well  to  mortar.  2.  Liquids  to 
solids.  Taylor  was  the  first  who  investigated 
this  subject  in  a  scientific  manner.  He  sus 
pended  a  polished  plate  on  the  balance  as  above 
described,  and  brought  it  carefully  down  on 
the  surface  of  a  liquid,  when  it  adhered,  and 
the  adhesion  was  measured  by  the  weight  re 
quired  to  separate  the  plate.  After  this  method 
Guy  ton  de  Morveau  in  Paris  found  that  plates 
of  a  French  inch  in  diameter  had  the  following 
adhesive  power  to  mercury  :  gold,  446  grains ; 
silver,  429;  tin,  418;  lead,  897  ;  bismuth,  372  ; 
zinc,  204 ;  copper,  142  ;  antimony,  120 ;  iron, 
115;  cobalt,  8 ;  cold  platinum,  108;  red-hot 
platinum,  10  grains.  Taylor  also  believed  that 
the  pressure  of  the  air  was  the  main  cause,  but 
Guyton  found  nearly  the  same  results  in  the 
vacuum  of  the  air  pump.  Link  took  a  polished 
plate  of  agate  of  nearly  one  inch  diameter,  and 
tested  its  adhesion  to  different  liquids ;  he  found 
for  water,  25  grains ;  sulphuric  acid,  29  ;  hy 
drochloric  acid,  25;  solution  of  saltpetre,  23; 
of  lime,  21;  almond  oil,  10;  petroleum,  10; 
turpentine  and  alcohol,  15;  ether,  10.  Where 
in  many  of  these  experiments  drops  of  the  liquid 
adhere  to  the  plate  used,  it  proves  that  the  ad 
hesion  of  the  liquid  to  the  solid  is  stronger  than 
the  cohesion  of  the  liquid  itself,  and  that  the 
numbers  obtained  express  rather  the  cohesion 
of  particles  of  the  liquid  which  were  separated 
by  the  weight,  than  the  adhesion  of  the  plate  to 
the  liquid.  The  ascent  of  liquids  in  capillary 
tubes  is  also  a  result  of  adhesion,  as  well  as  the 
spreading  out  of  liquids  between  two  surfaces 
kept  in  close  proximity.  The  chain  pump,  in 
which  the  water  is  carried  up  by  a  simple  chain 
in  a  tube,  is  a  practical  application  of  adhesion. 
Pre"vost  made  interesting  experiments  on  elec 
tive  adhesion,  showing  how  one  fiuid  will  drive 
another  away  from  a  surface  for  which  it  has 
more  adhesion.  He  found  that  they  displace 
one  another  in  the  following  order :  ether,  alco 
hol,  oil  of  bergamot,  poppy  oil,  olive  oil,  nut 
oil,  and  other  oils,  water.  Pure  water  dis 
places  in  its  turn  solutions  of  salts  and  alkaline 
earths.  Camphor  drives  a  film  of  water  away 
from  a  surface,  and  pieces  of  camphor  placed  on 
water  will  show  a  peculiar  motion  ;  the  same 
is  seen  with  camphor  or  phosphorus  placed  on 
pure  mercury.  These  phenomena  are  due  to 
the  evaporation  of  the  solid  and  the  cohesion  of 
its  vapor.  We  see  practical  applications  of  the 
adhesion  of  liquids  to  solids  in  writing,  paint 
ing,  printing,  dyeing,  washing,  and  elutriation, 
or  separation  of  coarse  from  fine  powders  by 
suspension  and  settling  in  a  large  quantity  of 
water.  3.  Liquids  to  liquids.  If  a  drop  of 
water  is  placed  on  mercury,  or  a  drop  of  oil 
placed  on  water,  it  does  not  keep  its  round 
form,  but  spreads  out  at  once,  because  its  adhe 
sion  to  the  liquid  surface  is  greater  than  the 
cohesion  of  its  particles.  A  drop  of  water  on 
an  oily  surface,  however,  will  not  spread  out, 


as  the  cohesion  of  its  particles  is  greater  than 
its  adhesion  to  the  oil.  The  manner  of  dis 
placement  of  one  liquid  by  another  having 
greater  adhesive  force  to  the  liquid  they  float 
on,  gives  rise  to  a  series  of  phenomena,  for  the 
study  and  exhibition  of  which  Prof.  Morton  of 
the  Stevens  institute  at  Hoboken  has  recently 
contrived  an  apparatus  in  the  style  of  a  magic 
lantern.  4.  Gases  to  solids.  Many  solids  have 
the  property  of  condensing  gases  on  their  sur 
face  (see  ABSORPTION  OF  GASES),  and  polished 
|  metallic  surfaces,  even  when  long  exposed  to 
I  the  air,  will  be  covered  with  such  a  gaseous 
|  film,  which  is  the  first  manifestation  of  chemi 
cal  affinity.  In  the  process  of  dagucrreotyping, 
the  polished  silver  plate  will  be  inert  unless  this 
I  film  of  air  has  been  removed  by  a  polishing 
process  just  before  the  operation.  Such  re- 
I  moval  of  air  may  be  made  visible  on  the  surface 
of  a  glass  mirror  which  has  not  been  rubbed 
for  some  time,  by  drawing  a  few  figures  or  let 
ters  on  it  with  a  clean  finger;  the  invisible 
change^of  surface  will  become  visible  by  breath 
ing  on  the  glass,  when  the  appearance  of  the 
deposit  of  watery  vapor  will  show  where  the 
air  film  has  been  removed  by  friction.  The 
adhesion  of  gases  to  solids  is  further  illustrated 
by  the  small  air  bubbles  which  are  often  visi 
ble  in  mineral  waters  and  effervescent  drinks, 
sticking  to  the  sides  of  the  glass  vessel  in  which 
they  are  contained,  and  not  rising  to  the  sur 
face  notwithstanding  they  are  some  600  times 
lighter  than  the  liquid.  This  adhesion  is  also 
illustrated  by  heavy  powders  and  even  sewing 
needles  floating  on  water ;  the  air  adhering 
around  the  needle  prevents  the  adhesion  of  the 
water,  and  the  latter  by  its  own  cohesion  forms 
a  hollow  depression  in  which  the  needle  floats. 
The  same  adhesion  of  air  around  a  piece  of  solid 
iron  causes  it  to  float  on  melted  iron,  notwith 
standing  it  has  not  a  less  specific  gravity  than 
the  fluid  material.  The  mutual  adhesion  of 
solids  and  gases  is  also  illustrated  by  the  float 
ing  of  particles  of  dust  in  the  air ;  subdivision 
of  matter  increasing  the  surface,  a  continued 
subdivision  will  at  last  cause  a  point  to  be 
reached  where  the  surface  adhesion  overcomes 
|  gravitation.  In  the  vacuum  of  the  air  pump 
i  the  dust  falls  down  like  a  heavy  body.  It  is 
the  same  with  smoke,  as  this  consists  of  solid 
particles  carried  upward  by  a  current  of  heat 
ed  air;  the  white  smoke  evolved  by  the  burn 
ing  of  magnesium,  zinc,  or  phosphorus  illustrates 
|  this  point  very  plainly.  5.  Gases  to  liquids. 
\  The  adhesion  of  gases  to  the  surface  of  liquids  is 
i  stronger  in  proportion  to  their  solubility  or  ab 
sorption  by  the  liquid.  So  carbonic  acid  ad 
heres  to  water  with  greater  force  than  air ;  but 
air  possesses  very  strong  adhesion  to  water,  as 
shown  by  the  currents  of  air  carried  down  by 
any  considerable  cataract.  Use  is  made  of 
this  adhesion  in  the  so-called  water  bellows,  in 
which  a  stream  of  water  falling  through  a  wide 
tube  carries  far  downward  and  produces  a  blast 
so  strong  that  this  principle  was  used  for  driv 
ing  the  drills  during  the  boring  of  the  Mont 


ADHESION 


ADIPOCERE 


117 


Cenis  tunnel.  In  the  so-called  atomizer  a  cur 
rent  of  air  is  used  to  divide  water  into  a  fine 
spray.  In  the  Giffard  injector  a  blast  of  steam 
is  used  to  carry  water  by  its  adhesion  to  it  into 
the  boiler  against  its  own  pressure.  The  adhe 
sion  of  air  to  water  is  further  illustrated  by 
the  friction  of  a  strong  wind  on  its  surface, 
which  not  only  pushes  it  forward,  but  creates 
the  waves.  If  oil  is  spread  over  the  water, 
the  air  finds  a  surface  for  which  it  has  little 
adhesion,  and  glides  easily  over  it.  This  is  the 
cause  of  the  quieting  influence  of  oil  upon  ocean 
waves,  of  which  advantage  has  occasionally 
been  taken  in  a  storm  by  vessels  having  oil  on 
board ;  the  oil  will  spread  at  once  over  a  large 
surface.  The  peculiar  motions  of  camphor  on 
water,  phosphorus  on  mercury,  &c.,  belong  to 
the  same  class  of  phenomena;  it  is  the  elective 
affinity  of  the  vapors  of  these  volatile  sub 
stances  for  the  liquid  on  which  they  float, 
which  is  the  cause  of  a  strong  and  unequal 
evaporation  at  the  points  in  contact,  the  evolv 
ing  gas  or  vapor  pushing  the  floating  solid  on 
ward  by  its  mechanical  reaction.  When  the 
water  is  touched  with  a  substance  containing 
the  merest  trace  of  oil  or  grease,  the  motion  of 
the  camphor  stops  at  once,  as  the  water  be 
comes  then  at  once  covered  with  a  very  thin 
but  strongly  adhering  oil  film,  which  has  no 
affinity  for  the  vapor  of  the  camphor.  A 
similar  action  is  seen  as  soon  as  mercury  is 
covered  with  a  film  of  phosphorus ;  removing 
this  film  with  the  edge  of  a  knife,  the  motion 
recommences  at  once,  and  is  visible  in  the 
dark.  The  mutual  adhesion  of  liquids  and 
gases  is  also  illustrated  by  the  floating  of  watery 
particles  in  the  atmosphere,  as  is  seen  in  clouds 
and  fogs.  AVatery  vapor,  present  in  the  air  in 
an  invisible  condition,  becomes  visible  as  soon 
as  condensation  commences,  when  a  kind  of 
fine  water  dust  is  formed,  identical  with  the 
spray  of  large  cataracts,  where  it  originates  by 
fnechanical  means.  These  watery  particles 
are  kept  floating  simply  by  their  adhesion  to 
the  air,  the  total  surface  being  very  large  com 
pared  with  the  total  weight;  but  when  the 
particles,  by  contact  and  mutual  adhesion, 
form  larger  bodies,  the  total  surface  diminishes 
in  proportion  to  the  weight,  while  finally  their 
gravitation  becomes  greater  than  their  adhe 
sion,  and  they  fall  down  like  rain.  This  fall 
ing  down  of  water  dust  not  only  takes  place 
in  a  vacuum,  but  even  a  trifling  diminution  in 
the  atmospheric  pressure  will  cause  it  when 
the  amount  of  watery  vapor  in  the  air  is  large, 
as  seen  in  the  fact  that  rain  is  usually  preceded 
by  a  descent  of  the  mercurial  column  of  the 
barometer.  A  descent  of  temperature  is  also  a 
cause  of  this  condensation  of  watery  vapor,  as 
it  diminishes  the  capacity  of  the  air  for  holding 
it.  This  adhesion  theory  makes  the  hypothesis 
of  De  Saussure  quite  unnecessary.  This  savant 
imagined  that  the  particles  of  watery  vapor 
were  supported  in  the  clouds  by  being  hollow, 
with  a  vacuum  inside,  and  thus,  being  -lighter 
than  the  same  volume  of  air,  they  were  sup 


ported  like  a  balloon.  He  was  strengthened 
in  this  notion  by  the  microscopic  illusion 
which  often  causes  solid  small  spheres  to  ap 
pear  as  if  hollow.  Still  such  hollow  spheres 
are  occasionally  seen  like  microscopic  soap 
bubbles,  but  they  have  air  inside,  are  heavier 
than  the  air,  and  are  only  supported  by  adhe 
sion.  6.  Gases  to  gases.  The  interpenetration 
of  gases  being  very  great,  it  is  impossible  to 
keep  their  surfaces  distinct ;  there  must  con 
sequently  be  much  adhesion  and  friction  be 
tween  them.  Direct  experiment  with  two 
gases  cannot  well  be  made,  but  observation 
demonstrates  this  great  adhesion  and  friction. 
So  one  small  jet  of  air  in  a  wide  tube  will  cause 
a  rush  of  air  to  follow ;  the  exhaust  steam 
blown  upward  in  the  locomotive  flue  causes 
the  air  to  rush  out  with  it,  and  so  creates  the 
draft ,  necessary  to  keep  up  a  sufficient  heat. 
This  adhesion  of  gases  plays  no  doubt  a  most 
important  part  in  the  actions  of  the  atmosphere 
in  the  economy  of  nature. 

ADIOE  (anc.  Athesis ;  Ger.  Etscli},  a  river  of 
the  Tyrol  and  1ST.  Italy,  rises  in  the  Swiss  Alps, 
and  flows  E.,  S.,  S.  E.,  and  again  E.  about  220 
m.  to  the  Adriatic,  S.  of  Chioggia.  On  its 
banks  are  the  towns  of  Trent  and  Hoveredo  in 
the  Tyrol,  and  the  fortresses  of  Verona  and 
Legnago  in  Venetia. 

ADIPOCERE  (Lat,  adeps,  fat,  and  cera,  wax, 
from  its  fatty  origin  and  waxy  consistency),  a 
white,  solid,  non-putrescible  substance,  into 
which  human  bodies  are  sometimes  converted 
after  burial.  If  the  dead  body  be  left  exposed 
to  the  air  at  a  moderate  temperature,  it  under 
goes  the  process  of  putrefaction,  and  is  rapidly 
decomposed  with  the  evolution  of  offensive  and 
putrefactive  gases.  If  buried  in  closed  coffins 
with  a  limited  supply  of  air,  or  in  a  tolerably 
dry  soil,  the  process  is  somewhat  modified ; 
the  putrescent  character  of  the  changes  is 
less  marked,  the  offensive  effiuvia  are  much 
.less  abundantly  developed  or  are  absorbed  by 
the  soil,  and  the  body  slowly  decomposes, 
losing  its  original  form  and  structure,  and 
finally  crumbling  away  to  powder,  leaving  only 
the  bones,  which  remain  for  a  long  time  after 
the  remainder  of  the  body  has  become  unrecog 
nizable.  But  occasionally  it  has  been  found 
that  bodies  disinterred  after  the  lapse  of  many 
years  have  not  undergone  either  of  these 
changes,  but  on  the  contrary  have  been  con 
verted  into  a  white,  solid,  and  very  heavy  sub 
stance,  of  firm  consistency,  retaining  the  ori 
ginal  size  and  contour  of  the  frame,  so  that  the 
features  may  still  be  distinguishable,  and  even 
the  natural  markings  and  texture  of  the  skin 
distinctly  apparent.  This  substance  is  adipo- 
cere.  It  does  not  putrefy,  but  has  evidently 
remained  unchanged  for  a  long  time  while 
buried,  and  after  disinterment  continues  with 
but  slight  alteration.  After  exposure  to  the 
air  it  simply  becomes  lighter  in  weight,  drier 
and  more  granular,  owing  to  the  evaporation 
of  the  water  which  it  contained ;  so  that  a  body 
which  has  undergone  this  conversion  may  be 


118 


ADIPOCERE 


ADIPOSE   SUBSTANCES 


afterward  preserved  for  an  indefinite  time  with 
out  changing  materially  in  form  or  appearance. 
It  is  this  change,  or  conversion  of  the  soft  parts 
into  adipocere,  which  gives  rise  to  the  instances 
occasionally  reported   of  human  bodies   being 
found  after  some  years  in  a  state  of  so-called 
petrifaction.     The   white    color,    soMdity,   and 
weight  of  the  bodies  thus  found  naturally  sug 
gest   to   the   popular  mind  the  idea  of  their 
having  become  petrified ;  but  the  change  which 
they  have"  undergone  is  in  reality  a  very  dif 
ferent  one,  and  has  little  or  nothing  in  common 
with  a  true  petrifaction. — It  is  found  that,  for 
a  body  to  become  changed  into  adipocere,  two 
principal  conditions  are  mainly  requisite.    First, 
the  body  at  the  time  of  its  burial  must  be  fat. 
Lean  bodies,   as  a  rule,   do  not  undergo  the 
change  in  question,  but  only  those  which  are 
abundantly  supplied  with  adipose  tissue.    And 
yet  it  is  not  the  adipose  tissue  itself  which  is 
converted  into  adipocere;   it  merely  supplies 
some  of  the  necessary  elements,  which  are  em 
ployed  in  effecting  the  alteration  in  other  tis 
sues.     The  second  necessary  condition  is  that  j 
the  body  should  be  buried  in  a  moist  place,  and  j 
one  in  which  the  water  collects  in  considerable 
quantity  and   remains   standing    at  or   about 
the  level  of  the  coffin,  without  being  rapidly 
changed.    Thus  a  single  body,  buried  in  marshy 
ground,  or  even  deposited  in  a  tomb  which  is  j 
undrained  and   collects  standing   water,    will  ; 
sometimes  be  found  to  have  undergone  the  al-  j 
teration.     A  collection  of  many  bodies  in  or  i 
near  the  same  spot  seems  also  to  favor  the  | 
change.     The  first  notable  instance  in  which  it  | 
was  observed  was  on  the  removal  in  1787  of 
the  bodies  deposited  in  the  Cimetiere  des  Inno 
cents  in  Paris,  where  they  had  been  accumulat 
ing    for    eight    or    nine    centuries,    many    of 
them  being  found  -in  the  condition  of  adipocere. 
In  1849,  in  the  city  of  I^ew  York,  an  old  pot 
ter's  field  burying  ground,  situated  at  the  junc 
tion  of  Forty-ninth  street  and  Fourth  avenue,  I 
was  demolished  and  the  bodies  removed.    Many  1 
of  them  had  been  buried  in  trenches  or  pits,  in  | 
which  the    coffins  were    piled    one  upon  the  j 
other,  sometimes  six  or  seven  deep.    This  was 
said  to  have  been  done  during  the  cholera  epi 
demic  of  1832.     On  removal  of  the   bodies, 
those  occupying  the  upper  and   middle   tiers  : 
were  found  to  be  nearly  or  altogether  decom-  j 
posed ;  those  forming  the  one  or  two  lowermost  | 
tiers,  beneath  the  level  of  the  water  retained 
by  the  soil,  had  apparently  been  converted  into 
adipocere,  but  had  been  subsequently  in  great  j 
part  dissolved  and  disintegrated  by  the  water; 
while  those  situated  between  the  two  were  in 
many  instances  also  converted  into  adipocere,  | 
but  completely  preserved,  retaining,  with  but  j 
a  few  changes,  their  natural  form  and  size. — 
The  process  of  the  conversion  of  a  human  body  | 
into  adipocere  under  such  circumstances  ap 
pears  to  be  the  following :   The  tatty  substance  j 
of  the  adipose  tissue  first  undergoes  a  change, 
by  which  it  becomes  rancid  and  produces  two 
fatty  acids,  the  oleic  and  the  margaric  acids. 


These  acids  are  liquid,  and,  being  in  large  quan 
tity,  penetrate  the  neighboring  tissues,  so  that 
the  skin,  muscles,  &c.,  become  permeated  and 
saturated  with  them.  At  the  same  time,  the 
albuminous  matter  of  these  tissues,  beginning 
to  undergo  decomposition,  produces  a  small 
quantity  of  ammonia,  which  unites  with  the 
fatty  acids,  making  an  ammoniacal  soap.  The 
greater  part  of  these  acids,  however,  is  taken 
up  by  combinations  of  lime,  forming  an  oleate 
or  margarate  of  lime,  substances  comparatively 
insoluble  and  non-putrescible.  The  lime  is  de 
rived  partly  from  the  soil,  being  brought  down 
in  solution  by  the  rain  water  as  it  filters  through 
successive  layers  of  superincumbent  earth.  If 
other  bodies  are  piled  above,  the  water  which 
filters  through  also  brings  the  products  of  their 
decomposition  and  partial  solution,  among 
which  are  ammonia  and  lime,  until  the  whole 
of  the  fatty  acids  of  the  bodies  lying  at  the  re 
quisite  level  have  combined  with  these  bases, 
and  have  become  in  this  way  converted  into 
adipocere.  Thus  the  tissues,  already  permeated 
by  the  fatty  acids,  are  now  saturated  with 
their  ammoniacal  and  calcareous  combinations, 
and  especially  with  the  oleate  and  margarate 
of  lime,  which  protects  them  from  further  de 
composition,  and  causes  even  their  minute  ana 
tomical  structure  to  be  indefinitely  preserved. 
These  bodies  when  first  taken  out  are,  as  we 
have  said,  dense  and  heavy,  owing  to  the  abun 
dant  moisture  which  they  contain ;  but  this 
soon  evaporates  after  exposure  to  the  air,  leav 
ing  them  comparatively  light  and  dry. — It  is 
not  by  any  means  all  the  tissues  and  organs  of 
the  body  which  are  converted  into  adipocere, 
even  under  favorable  circumstances.  The  adi 
pose  tissue  itself  disappears  more  or  less  com 
pletely,  since  its  principal  ingredient  is  used  up 
in  accomplishing  the  alteration  of  other  parts. 
The  internal  organs  generally,  such  as  the  heart, 
lungs,  brain,  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  &c.,  become 
shrivelled  and  disintegrated  and  finally  undistin- 
guishable.  But  the  skin,  fascia,  tendons,  fibrous 
membranes  generally,  and  especially  the  muscles 
of  the  head,  limbs,  and  trunk,  are  all  more 
or  less  completely  preserved.  The  muscular 
texture  is  easily  recognizable  by  the  naked  eye, 
and  the  natural  folds  of  the  skin,  or  accidental 
impressions  made  upon  the  surface  by  portions 
of  the  dress  or  ligatures,  may  be  plainly  dis 
cernible  after  the  lapse  of  many  years.  The 
bones,  teeth,  hair,  and  other  less  destructible 
parts  of  the  body,  do  not  seem  to  be  particu 
larly  influenced  by  the  change,  but  undergo 
only  the  usual  very  slow  and  almost  impercep 
tible  alterations  which  they  would  present  in 
ordinary  cases. 

ADIPOSE  SUBSTANCES  (Lat,  adcps,  fat),  a 
class  of  substances  of  a  fatty  nature,  which  are 
present  in  greater  or  smaller  quantity  in  most 
animal  and  vegetable  organisms.  Adipose  sub 
stances  are  all  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  chemical 
elements.  They  are  all  crystal!  izable  at  a  IOAV 
temperature  and  fluid  at  a  high  temperature, 


ADIPOSE   SUBSTANCES 


ADIPOSE   TISSUE 


119 


combustible,  and  insoluble  in  water,  but  solu 
ble  in  ether  and  in  each  other.  They  differ  from 
each  other  in  the  exact  proportion  of  the  dif 
ferent  chemical  elements  which  they  contain, 
and  particularly  in  the  precise  degree  of  tem 
perature  at  which  they  crystallize  or  assume 
the  solid  form ;  some  of  them,  such  as  stearine 
when  pure,  remaining  solid  above  140°  F., 
while  others,  such  as  oleine,  continue  fluid 
until  near  the  freezing  point  of  water.  The 
three  special  kinds  of  adipose  substance  with 
which  we  are  most  familiar  are  stearine,  mar 
garine,  and  oleine ;  stearine  and  margarine 
being  the  principal  constituents  of  the  more 
solid  fats,  while  oleine  is  abundant  in  the  more 
fluid  fats,  or  oils.  In  the  animal  body,  these 
different  substances  are  usually  mingled  with 
each  other  in  various  proportions,  thus  form 
ing  fats  or  oleaginous  ingredients  of  different 
degrees  of  consistency.  They  are  found  in  the 
adipose  tissue,  of  which  they  form  by  far  the 
largest  part;  in  the  minute  cells  of  the  liver 
and  of  some  cartilages,  where  they  are  depos 
ited  in  the  form  of  microscopic  globules;  in 
the  brain  and  nervous  matter,  where  they  are 
found  in  the  proportion  of  from  5  to  15  per 
cent. ;  in  the  marrow  of  the  bones  ;  in  the  chyle, 
to  which  fluid  they  impart  its  opacity  and 
white  milky  color ;  and  in  the  milk  itself  they 
exist  under  the  form  of  the  milk  globules, 
which  are  minute  particles  of  butter,  formed 
of  a  mixture  of  various  fatty  substances,  and 
suspended  in  the  serous  fluids  of  the  secretion. 
There  is  also  a  sebaceous  matter  secreted  by 
the  skin,  especially  in  the  parts  covered  with 
hair,  which  is  a  semi-solid  or  lardaceous  se 
cretion,  consisting  largely  of  adipose  mate 
rials.  Fatty  substances  also  exist  in  consider 
able  abundance  in  the  food,  since  they  enter  so 
largely  into  the  composition  of  animal  and  ve 
getable  tissues.  The  fat  of  meat,  the  liver  and 
the  brain  of  animals,  when  used  as  food,  of 
course  supply  a  large  quantity  of  adipose  sub 
stances.  Milk  and  butter  and  the  yolk  of  eggs 
are  especially  rich  in  these  materials ;  and  many 
articles  of  vegetable  food,  such  as  nuts,  olives, 
Indian  corn,  <fcc.,  also  contain  them  in  large 
proportion. — Although  fatty  substances  by 
themselves  are  not  capable  of  sustaining  life 
when  used  exclusively  as  articles  of  food,  yet 
they  are  extremely  useful  and  perhaps  indis 
pensable  as  part  of  the  regimen.  This  is  shown 
by  the  instinctive  desire,  which  is  nearly  uni 
versal  among  healthy  persons,  to  have  some 
kinds  of  adipose  materials  as  a  portion  of  the 
food  ;  butter,  fat,  and  olive  oil  being  the  kinds 
most  highly  valued  and  abundantly  used.  It 
has  also  been  proved  directly  by  the  experi 
ments  on  the  fattening  of  animals  by  Boussin- 
gault  (Chimie  agricole),  who  found  that,  how 
ever  abundant  and  appropriate  the  other  ele 
ments  of  the  food  might  be,  the  addition  of 
a  small  quantity  of  tatty  substance  improved 
greatly  the  condition  of  the  animals,  and  caused 
the  formation  in  their  own  bodies  of  a  much 
larger  amount  of  fat  than  that  which  had  been 


introduced.  Thus  the  fat  which  exists  in  the 
interior  of  the  body  of  a  living  animal  has  not 
all  been  derived  from  similar  materials  taken 
with  the  food.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  fatty  substances  are  pro 
duced  in  some  way,  in  the  process  of  digestion 
and  assimilation,  from  the  starchy  and  saccha 
rine  elements  of  the  food.  It  is  a  matter  of 
common  observation  that  food  containing  an 
abundance  of  starch  and  sugar  is  especially  fa 
vorable  to  the  deposit  of  fat ;  and  Boussingault 
also  found  that  the  most  effective  diet  for  the  fat 
tening  of  pigs  was  one  consisting  very  largely  of 
cooked  starchy  materials,  with  the  addition  of 
a  small  proportion  of  fatty  substances.  The  adi 
pose  substances  found  in  the  body  are  thus  part 
ly  introduced  w7ith  the  food,  and  partly  gener 
ated  from  the  transformation  of  its  starchy  and 
saccharine  ingredients.  They  are  then  depos 
ited  in  the  various  tissues,  or  form  for  the  time 
a  part  of  the  fluids  or  secretions,  like  the  chyle, 
the  milk,  and  the  sebaceous  matter  of  the  skin. 
Of  all  the  fatty  material  thus  taken  with  the 
food,  or  generated  in  the  system,  but  a  small , 
part  is  again  discharged  in  its  own  form.  It  is 
only  the  fat  of  the  sebaceous  matter  and  that 
of  the  milk  which  is  thus  discharged.  The  re 
mainder  is  decomposed  or  transformed  in  some 
way  in  the  daily  process  of  nutrition,  so  that  it 
is  no  longer  recognizable  as  fat.  In  the  opin 
ion  of  some  writers,  it  is  directly  oxidized  by 
the  air  taken  in  by  respiration ;  thus  produ 
cing  animal  heat  and  the  evolution  of  carbonic 
acid,  as  it  would  do  if  burned,  as  in  the  case 
of  ordinary  combustion.  But  this  must  be  con 
sidered  as  doubtful,  since  we  cannot  yet  follow 
all  the  details  of  the  chemical  changes  which 
take  place  in  the  living  body.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  fat  which  is  taken  up  from 
the  intestine  during  the  digestion  of  food  is 
absorbed  by  the  vessels,  partly  deposited  in  the 
adipose  and  other  solid  tissues,  and  for  the 
most  part  rapidly  decomposed  or  transformed, 
so  that  it  disappears  and  is  used  up,  so  to  speak, 
in  the  nutrition  of  the  body. 

ADIPOSE  TISSUE,  the  tissue  in  animal  bodies 
containing  the  largest  proportion  of  adipose 
substance,  known  in  ordinary  language  as  the 
fat  of  the  animal,  in  distinction  from  the  lean 
or  muscular  flesh.  The  adipose  tissue  is  situ 
ated  principally  beneath  the  skin  and  over  the 
muscles,  particularly  those  of  the  abdomen, 
about  the  cheeks,  in  the  orbit  of  the  eye, 
over  the  buttocks,  on  the  outside  of  the  heart 
about  the  origin  of  the  great  vessels,  over  the 
intestines,  where  it  forms  a  special  layer  or  dis 
tinct  curtain  called  the  on/cut  urn.  around  the 
kidneys,  and  in  various  places  about  the  inner 
side  of  the  abdominal  walls,  it  consists  of  a 
number  of  distinct  masses  or  lobules,  which  are 
connected  with  each  other  by  thin  layers  of 
areolar  tissue,  containing  the  few  blood  vessels 
and  nerves  with  which  the  adipose  tissue  is 
supplied,  Each  lobule  in  its  turn  consists  of  a 
number  of  transparent  vesicles,  or  closed  sacs, 
about  T\-Q  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  are 


120 


ADIPOSE   TISSUE 


ADIRONDACK  MOUNTAINS 


peculiar  to  the  tissue  and  are  called  the  adipose 
vesicles.  Each  vesicle  consists  of  a  thin,  color- 
and  structureless  animal  membrane,  em 


bracing  a  closed  cavity,  and  filled  with  fluid  or 
semi-fluid  fat.  The  vesicles  generally  approx 
imate  a  globular  or  ovoid  form,  but  with  some 
flattening  and  angularity  of  surface  produced 
by  mutual  compression.  The  albuminoid  ele 
ments  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  adi 
pose  tissue,  such  as  those  composing  the  wall 
of  the  vesicles,  the  intermediate  areolar  tissue, 
&c.,  are  much  less  abundant  than  its  fatty  con 
tents.  The  blood  vessels  and  nerves  are  partic 
ularly  scanty,  as  compared  with  those  of  the 
neighboring  skin  and  muscles ;  so  that  a  wound 
of  the  adipose  tissue  produces  but  slight  pain 
and  very  little  bleeding. — The  functions  of  the 
adipose  tissue  are  for  the  most  part  physical  in 
their  character.  It  acts  as  a  cushion  to  pro 
tect  delicate  parts  from  pressure  or  injury. 
Particularly,  wherever  the  skin  is  exposed  to 
frequent  pressure  over  a  bony  prominence,  as 
over  the  buttocks  or  beneath  the  heel,  it  is 
•defended  by  an  elastic  layer  of  fat.  The  eye 
ball  rests  in  its  socket  upon  such  a  cushion  of 
adipose  tissue,  and  the  abdominal  organs  are 
protected  from  injurious  pressure  by  that  of  the 
omentum  and  the  abdominal  walls.  The  en 
tire  layer  of  adipose  tissue  beneath  the  skin 


and  elsewhere  also  acts  as  a  protection  to  the 
animal  warmth.  Being  to  a  great  extent  a 
non-conductor,  it  is  a  kind  of  natural  blanket, 
which  prevents  the  dissipation  of  the  heat  of 
the  internal  organs,  and  thus  serves  to  maintain 
their  temperature.  An  abundant  layer  of  adi 
pose  tissue  is  accordingly  an  effective  protec 
tion  against  external  cold,  while  animals  which 
are  in  an  emaciated  condition  more  readily 
suffer  from  its  effects. — Adipose  tissue  is  some 
times  deposited  in  an  excessive  degree,  form 
ing  morbid  growths  or  tumors.  These  tumors, 
however,  are  usually  not  dangerous,  but  only 
inconvenient  from  their  size  or  situation. 

ADIRONDACK  MOUNTAINS,  the  principal 
group  of  mountains  in  New  York,  extending 
from  the  extreme  N.  E.  corner  of  the  state  in 
a  S.  S.  W.  direction  toward  its  centre,  occupy 
ing  portions  of  Clinton,  Essex,  Franklin,  and 
Hamilton  counties.  The  Catskills,  S.  of  the 
Mohawk  river,  may  be  regarded  as  their  exten 
sion  in  this  direction.  In  the  western  part  of 
Essex  county  these  mountains  have  their  great 
est  development,  and  present  the  highest  peaks 
of  any  of  the  northern  spurs  of  the  Appala 
chian  chain,  Mount  Washington  in  New  llam- 
shire  alone  excepted.  They  rise  from  an  ele 
vated  plateau,  which  extends  over  this  portion 
of  the  country  for  150  miles  in  latitude  and 


Longitude,  £ast   3  from-  WashingtoTv 


ADIRONDACK  REGION 
NEW  YORK  WILDERNESS 


^S^iml 


Longitude  West  74   troui  Greenwich 


ADIRONDACK   MOUNTAINS 


121 


100  in  longitude,  and  is  itself  nearly  2,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  highest  sum 
mits  are  those  of  Mounts  Marcy,  St.  Anthony, 
McMartin,  Seward,  Ernmons,  and  Mclntyre. 
The  first  of  these  reaches  the  height  of  5,337 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  St.  Anthony, 
McMartin,  and  Seward  are  supposed  to  be 
about  5,000  feet  high,  and  the  other  two  sum 
mits  about  4,000  feet  each.  These  mountains 
are  in  ranges,  which  have  a  general  N.  N.  E. 
and  S.  S.  W.  direction ;  but  being  formed  not 
of  stratified,  but  of  granitic  rocks,  they  lack 
that  precision  of  outline  which  characterizes 
the  mountains  of  the  same  Appalachian  sys 
tem  in  the  middle  and  southern  states.  For 
the  same  reason  the  peaks  assume  more  of  the 
conical  form,  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  are 
more  abrupt,  and  the  scenery  wilder  and 
grander  than  among  the  mountains  of  the  sedi 


mentary  rocks.  The  Saranac  and  the  Ausable, 
whose  sources  are  among  these  mountains,  run 
in  nearly  parallel  lines  toward  the  northeast, 
discharging  their  waters  into  Lake  Champlain. 
They  define  upon  the  map  the  position  of  the 
valleys,  which  have  the  same  general  arrange 
ment  throughout  the  whole  chain,  and  to  some 
extent  the  position  of  the  ranges  of  mountains 
also.  In  the  other  direction,  the  Boreas,  the 
Hudson,  and  the  Cedar  rivers,  which  all  unite 
I  below  into  the  Hudson,  define  the  extension 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Ausable  and  its  branches 
on  the  S.  declivity  of  the  great  plateau ;  and 
further  west  the  chain  of  lakes,  including  Long 
lake,  Raquette  lake,  and  the  Fulton  lakes,  lie  in 
the  same  line  with  the  valley  of  the  Saranac, 
and  mark  its  extension  from  the  central  eleva 
tion  of  the  plateau  toward  the  southwest. 
The  drainage  of  this  table  land  is  toward  Lake 


.  The  Adirondacks  from  Placid  Lake. 


Champlain  on  the  east,  the  St.  Lawrence  on 
the  northwest,  and  the  Hudson  on  the  south. 
The  sources  of  many  of  the  streams  which  flow 
in  these  different  directions  often  interlock 
with  each  other ;  and  the  numerous  lakes  and 
ponds  with  which  they  connect  lie  almost 
upon  the  same  horizontal  plane.  The  eleva 
tions  of  many  of  these  sheets  of  water  are 
given  by  Prof.  Benedict,  and  nearly  all  of  them 
are  included  between  1,500  and  1,731  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  latter  being  the 
elevation  of  Raquetto  lake.  The  great  numbers 
of  these  lakes  and  rivers  easily  navigable  to 
the  light  canoe  of  the  Indian,  with  occasional 
portages  past  the  rapids  and  falls,  gave  to 
this  district  in  former  times  features  of  great 
interest.  The  deer,  moose,  caribou,  bear, 
beaver,  and  otter  were  abundant  throughout 
this  region,  and,  with  the  numerous  varieties 


of  fish,  among  them  the  salmon  trout  and  the 
pike,  of  those  excellent  qualities  only  met  with 
in  our  northern  inland  waters,  gave  to  that 
ancient  race  nearly  all  they  required  for  sus 
tenance.  The  game,  excepting  the  caribou, 
still  linger  about  the  Adirondacks.  The  moun 
tains  are  covered  with  forests,  groves  of  birch, 
beech,  maple,  and  ash  succeeding  to  the  ever 
greens,  among  which  the  most  common  are  the 
hemlock,  spruce,  fir,  and  cedar,  with  the  valu 
able  white  pine  intermixed  with  and  overtop 
ping  the  rest.  In  the  lower  lands  along  the 
streams  a  denser  growth  of  the  evergreens  is 
more  common,  forming  almost  impenetrable 
swamps  of  cedar,  tamarack  or  hackmatack, 
and  hemlock.  The  white  pine  is  the  most  val 
uable  product  of  this  region ;  and  the  numer- 
|  ous  rivers,  which  served  as  roads  for  reaching 
1  every  part  of  it,  now  answer  the  same  purpose 


122 


ADIT 


ADJUTANT 


for  conveying  this  valuable  timber  to  market. 
So  important  has  the  pine  upon  these  moun 
tains  become,  that  large  sums  have  been  ex 
pended  in  removing  the  obstructions  of  the 
streams,  and  in  opening  new  outlets  to  the 
lakes,  by  which  in  the  spring  freshets  the  logs 
could  be  run  down.  As  may  well  be  supposed, 
this  mountain  region  offers  little  inducement  to 
the  permanent  settler.  Only  along  the  wider 
bottoms  of  the  Saranac  and  the  Ausable,  the 
fertile  alluvial  soil,  the  wash  of  the  mountains, 
tempts  to  cultivation. — About  40  years  ago  the 
discovery  of  enormous  masses  of  magnetic  iron 
ore  in  the  very  heart  of  the  mountains  led  to 
the  establishment  of  the  village  of  Adirondack, 
in  the  township  of  Macomb,  on  the  western 
border  of  Essex  county,  about  50  m.  W.  of 
Lake  Champlain.  Iron  works  were  erected  on 
a  scale  of  considerable  magnitude ;  but  the  final 
result  was  that  the  distance  from  market,  the 
scarcity  of  labor,  and  the  difficulties  of  trans 
portation  made  the  enterprise  unprofitable  in 
spite  of  the  excellence  and  abundance  of  the 
iron,  and  the  works  are  now  wholly  aban 
doned. — Of  late  years  the  whole  northern  wil 
derness  of  New  York  has  come  to  be  popu 
larly  known  as  the  Adirondacks,  and  is  much 
resorted  to,  not  only  by  sportsmen,  but  by 
tourists  of  both  sexes,  for  whose  accommoda 
tion  taverns  have  been  established  at  conve 
nient  distances.  All  travelling  there  is  done  by 
means  of  boats  of  small  size  and  slight  build, 
rowed  by  a  single  guide,  and  made  so  light  that 
the  craft  can  be  lifted  from  the  water  and  car 
ried  on  the  guide's  shoulders  from  pond  to 
pond  or  from  stream  to  stream.  Competent 
guides,  steady,  intelligent,  and  experienced  men, 
can  be  hired  at  all  the  taverns,  who  will  pro 
vide  boats,  tents,  and  everything  requisite  for 
a  trip.  Each  traveller  should  have  a  guide 
and  a  boat  to  himself,  and  the  cost  of  their 
maintenance  in  the  woods  is  not  more  than 
a  dollar  a  week  for  each  man  of  the  party. 
The  fare  is  chiefly  trout  and  venison,  of  which 
there  is  generally  an  abundance  to  be  procured. 
A  good-sized  valise  or  carpet-bag  will  hold  all 
the  clothes  that  one  person  needs  for  a  two 
months'  trip.  There  are  several  routes  by 
which  the  Adirondacks  can  be  reached,  but 
the  best  and  easiest  from  New  York  is  that  by 
Lake  Champlain.  The  steamer  from  Whitehall 
will  land  the  traveller  at  Port  Kent,  nearly 
opposite  Burlington,  Vt.,  where  coaches  are 
always  waiting  to  take  passengers,  six  miles, 
to  Keeseville.  Here  conveyances  for  the  wil 
derness  can  always  be  had. 

ADIT  (Lat.  adi.tus,  entrance),  a  horizontal 
passage  made  into  mines  for  the  purpose  of 
draining  them,  and  also  for  the  extraction  of 
their  products  at  the  lowest  convenient  level. 
In  very  mountainous  regions  adits  often  pre 
sent  the  readiest  means  of  access  to  the  min 
eral  veins  known  to  exist  in  the  interior  of 
precipitous  hills.  Enormous  sums  have  been 
expended  in  the  silver  region  of  Mexico  in 
these  exploring  adits.  One  of  the  most  fa- 


j  mous  adits  in  the  world  is  that  of  Klausthal, 
in   the  Ilartz,    which   is    (>£  miles   long,    and 
passes  upward  of  300  yards  below  the  church 
of  Klausthal.     Its  excavation  lasted  from  the 
!  year  1777  till  1800,  and  cost  about  $330,000. 
!  The  adit  which  drains  the  district  of  Gwenap, 
!  in  Cornwall,  is  estimated  with  its  branches  to 
I  extend  a  distance  of  30  miles;  its  mouth  is  in  a 
I  valley  near  the  sea,  and  from  it  are  discharged 
j  the  superficial  waters  of  numerous  mines,  as 
I  also  all  the  water  pumped  up  in  them  to  its  level. 
!  One  of  the  most  extensive  adits  in  the  world  was 
;  commenced  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
!  tury  by  the  Austrian  government,  and  is  called 
j  by  the  name  of  Joseph  II.      Its. mouth  is  in 
!  the  banks  of  the  river  Gran,  in  Hungary,  and 
|  it  passes  by  the  mines  of  Hodritz  toward  those 
!  of  Schernnitz,  about  10  miles.     The  object  of 
:  its  construction  is  partly  to  explore  for  new 
i  veins,  and  in  part  to  drain  mines  already  in 
j  operation.     A  work  of  similar  magnitude  has 
I  been  undertaken  in  the  Washoe  mining  district 
j  of  Nevada,  for  the  purpose  of  developing  the 
Comstock  lode.     It  is  known  as  the  Sutro  tun 
nel,  and  the   plan  was  to  commence  at  the 
Carson  river,  150  feet  above  the  stream,  and 
to  excavate  a  space  of  12  by  14  feet  to  a  dis- 
|  tance  of  19,790  feet,  when  the  lode  would  be 
!  cut  at  a  depth  of  1,898  feet  below  the  outcrop. 
j  A  cross  tunnel  was  to  be  constructed  along  the 
!  ledge  about  12,000  feet,  to  connect  with  all  the 
i  mines,  and  four  shafts  were  to  be  sunk  for  ven- 
i  tilation.     A  company  for  its  construction  re- 
|  ceived  large  privileges  from  congress  in  1860, 
|  and  afterward  application  was  made  for  a  gov 
ernment  subsidy.     A  commission  was  appoint 
ed  to  examine  the  project,  which  early  in  1872 
reported  unfavorably,  estimating   the  cost  at 
$4,418,329.     The  work  was  not  then  far  ad- 
vanced,  but  has  since  been  vigorously  prosecu- 
I  ted  both  upon  the  main  tunnel  and  the  shafts. 

ADJUTANT,  a  staff  officer  attached  to  the 
commander  or  to  the  headquarters  of  larger 
or  smaller  bodies  of  troops.  Generally,  the 
commander  of  every  military  post,  battalion, 
regiment,  brigade,  division,  corps,  army,  or 
military  department  has  an  adjutant,  or  an 
adjutant  general,  with  such  assistants  as  the 
importance  of  the  command  may  require.  The 
duty  of  the  adjutant  is  to  assist  his  chief  in  the 
performance  of  his  military  duties,  to  make 
known  his  orders,  to  see  to  their  execution,  to 
receive  reports,  and  to  take  care  of  the  records 
and  returns  pertaining  to  the  troops.  He  has 
therefore  under  his  charge,  to  a  great  extent, 
the  internal  economy  of  the  command  to  which 
he  is  attached.  By  authority  of  the  com 
mander,  he  regulates  the  rotation  of  duty 
among  its  component  parts,  and  gives  out  the 
daily  orders ;  at  the  same  time,  he  is  a  sort  of 
clerk  to  his  chief,  carries  on  the  correspondence 
with  detachments  and  with  the  superior  au 
thorities,  arranges  the  daily  reports  and  returns 
into  tabular  form,  and  keeps  the  journal  and 
statistical  books  of  his  body  of  troops.  Larger 
bodies  of  troops  now  generally  have  a  regular 


ADJUTANT  BIRD 


ADMETUS 


123 


staff  attached,  taken  from  the  general  staff  of  j 
the  army,  and  under  a  "chief  of  the  staff," 
who  takes  to  himself  the  higher  functions  of 
adjutant,  and  leaves  him  merely  the  transmis-  j 
sion  of  orders  and  the  regulation  of  the  in-  j 
ternal  routine  duty  of  the  corps.      Owing  to  j 
the  difference  of  regulations  and  military  sys-  | 
terns,  as  well  as  to  the  peculiarities  of  com-  ! 
manders,  there  is  practically  a  great  variety  in  | 
the  functions  of  adjutants.     In  the  army  of  ; 
the  United  States  there  is  one   adjutant,   or  ; 
adjutant  general,  attached  to  the  war  depart-  j 
ment,  who  issues  the  orders  of  the  secretary  ' 
of  war  and  the  general-in-chief,  and  has  charge  I 
of  the  military  record  of  the  government.     He  I 
is  also  head  of  the  adjutant  general's  depart-  j 
ment,  composed  of  a  fixed  number  of  colonels,  ' 
lieutenant  colonels,  and  majors,  promoted  by 
selection  from  the  officers  of  the  army,  and 
assigned  to  duty  in  the  bureaus  of  the  adju 
tant  general's  office  or  with  the  headquarters 
of  armies,  corps,  divisions,  brigades,  or  military 
divisions  and  departments ;  they  are  called  as-  j 
sistant  adjutants  general.     Besides  these,  the 
governor  of  each  state  has  an  adjutant  general, 
while  the  requirements  of  monarchical  institu 
tions  have  created  in  almost  all  European  states 
hosts  of  titular  adjutants  general  to  the  mon-  ! 
arch,  whose  functions  are  imaginary,   except  ' 
when  called  upon  to  do  duty  with  their  mas-  ! 
ter;  and  even  then  these  functions  are  of  a 
purely  formal  kind. 

ADJITAXT  BIRD.     See  MAEABOU. 

ADLERBERG.     I.  Vladimir  Fedorovitch,  count,  j 
a  Russian  statesman,  born  in  St.  Petersburg  in 
1793.    His  mother,  the  widow  of  a  colonel,  and 
superior  of  a  seminary  for  the  daughters  of  the  j 
nobility,  was  much  befriended  by  the  empress  j 
Maria   Feodorovna,  through   whose   influence  j 
the  son  became  a  favorite  at  court,  and  in  1817  j 
adjutant  to  the  grand  duke  Nicholas.     After  j 
the  latter 's  accession  to  the  throne,  Adlerberg 
became  his  constant  companion,  and  was  made  ! 
general  of  infantry  in  1843  and  count  in  1847.  j 
In   1852   he   was   appointed   minister    of  the  • 
court,  the  most  influential  office  in  the  person-  ! 
al  service  of  the  imperial  family,  and  which  ' 
requires  constant  attendance  on  the  emperor.  | 
After  the  death  of  Nicholas  (1855),  and  at  that  i 
emperor's  urgent  recommendation,  lie  retained 
his  post  under  Alexander  II.,  whoso  full  confi 
dence  he  also  enjoyed.     In  1869  he  retired  on  j 
account  of  old  age.     For  many  years  he  had 
also  officiated  as  postmaster  general,  and  con-  j 
tributed    much   toward    postal   reform.      His 
sister,  widow  of  the  councillor  of  state  Bara-  j 
noff,  brought  up  the  daughters  of  the  emperor 
Nicholas,  and  wras  made  a  countess  in  1840.  ! 
I!,  Adlerberg  II.,  Alexander,  count,  eldest  son  of  i 
the  preceding,  succeeded  him  in  1809  as  minis-  I 
ter  of  the  court  and  chancellor  of  imperial  dec-  ' 
orations,  and  holds  the  rank  of  general  of  in-  ! 
fantry  and  chief  aide-de-camp  of  the  czar.     He 
is  inseparable  from  the  emperor,  of  whom  he 
had  been  a  schoolmate,  and  whom  he  accom 
panied    on   his  journey  to  Germany  and   the 


Caucasus  in  1871.     III.  Adlerberg  III.,  Nicholas, 

brother  of  the  preceding,  was  active  in  the 
Hungarian  campaign  of  1849,  published  in  1852 
a  narrative  of  his  journey  to  the  Holy  Land 
(Ot  Rima  •»'  Yerwalem,  "From  Rome  to  Je 
rusalem  "),  was  governor  of  the  province  of 
Taurida  in  1854-'5,  and  from  1857  was  for 
some  time  military  commissioner  in  connection 
with  the  Russian  embassy  at  Berlin.  He  holds 
the  rank  of  adjutant  general  of  the  emperor, 
and  since  1861  also  that  of  lieutenant  general. 
He  has  been  for  several  years  governor  general 
of  Finland. 

ADLERCREUTZ,  Karl  Johan,  count,  a  Swedish 
soldier,  born  April  27,  1757,  died  Aug.  21, 
1815.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Finnish 
war  against  Russia  in  1808,  as  adjutant  general 
of  Field  Marshal  Klingsporr,  and  on  March  13, 
1809,  joined  that  officer  in  arresting  Gusta- 
vus  IV.  in  his  own  palace.  The  king  was 
deposed,  and  the  diet  on  May  1  thanked  Adler- 
creutz  and  his  fellow  conspirators  for  having 
saved  Sweden  from  ruin  by  their  daring.  He 
was  made  lieutenant  general  in  1809  and 
count  in  1814. 

ADLERSPARRE.  I.  Georg,  count,  a  Swedish 
soldier  and  statesman,  born  March  28,  1760, 
died  Sept.  23,  1835.  He  enjoyed  the  confi 
dence  of  Gustavus  III.,  after  whose  death 
(1792)  he  retired  from  the  army,  and  edited 
from  1797  to  1801  a  periodical,  Loaning  i  ~blan- 
dade  Amnen,  the  liberal  politics  of  which  gave 
umbrage  to  the  government.  In  1809  he 
joined  in  the  campaign  against  Russia,  as  well 
as  in  the  conspiracy  which  culminated  on 
March  13  in  the  arrest  and  deposition  of 
Gustavus  IV.  -He  had  insisted  upon  the  con 
summation  of  this  event  without  bloodshed  and 
revolutionary  commotion.  On  May  1,  1809, 
he  received  the  public  thanks  of  the  diet,  and 
was  promoted  to  various  high  dignities,  eventu 
ally  including  that  of  count  and  provincial  gov 
ernor  general,  which  latter  post  he  resigned  in 
1824.  He  was  fined  in  1831  for  having  pub 
lished  secret  state  papers  and  his  private  per 
sonal  correspondence  with  Swedish  princes, 
but  protested  against  the  injustice  of  the  pun 
ishment  and  persisted  in  the  publication 
(Handlingar  rorande  Sreriges  dldre  ock  nyare 
historic*,  9  vols.,  Stockholm,  1830-'33).  II. 
Karl  Angnst,  count,  an  author,  eldest  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  1810,  died  in  1862. 
Like  his  father,  he  possessed  poetical  talent, 
and  published  various  novels  and  lyrical  effu 
sions  under  the  name  of  Albano.  His  reputa 
tion  rests  on  his  historical  works,  entitled  1809 
Ars  Revolution,  and  1809  ock  1810  Tidstaflor 
(respectively  2  and  3  vols.,  Stockholm,  1849), 
and  Anteclcningar  om  Itortgdngna  Samtida  (3 
i  vols.,  1860-'62). 

ADMETIS,  in  Greek  mythology,   a  king   of 
Phene,  in  Thessaly,  who  took  part  in  the  Caly- 
donian  hunt   arid  the  Argonautic  expedition, 
i  He  is  said  to  have  obtained,  through  the  inter- 
;  cession  of  Apollo,  deliverance  from  death,  on 
condition   that    his    father,    mother,    or    wife 


124 


ADMINISTRATOR 


ADMIRALTY 


should  voluntarily  die  for  him.  This  was 
cheerfully  complied  with  by  his  wife  Alcestis, 
daughter  of  Peiias,  who  was  subsequently  res 
cued  from  the  hands  of  Pluto  by  Ilercules  and 
restored  to  Admetus. 

ADMINISTRATOR.     See  EXECUTOR. 

ADMIRAL,  a  naval  officer  of  the  highest  rank. 
The  title  was  introduced  by  the  Genoese  and 
other  Italians  into  Europe,  and  was  probably 
derived  from  the  Arabic  word  amir,  which 
was  also  used  in  reference  to  shipping  by  the 
Greeks  of  the  lower  empire.  The  office  of 
admiral  was  not  created  for  the  navy  of  the 
United  States  until  during  the  second  year 
of  the  civil  war.  Previously  the  grade  of 
captain  was  the  highest  in  the  service,  al 
though  the  title  of  commodore  had  been  ac 
corded  to  commanders  of  squadrons  and  naval 
stations,  and  they  had  assumed  the  commo 
dore's  distinguishing  broad  pennant.  By  act 
of  congress,  Jan.  16,  1857,  captains  in  com 
mand  of  squadrons  were  denominated  flag 
officers,  and  by  subsequent  and  progressive  de 
partmental  orders  and  regulations  they  sub 
stituted  for  the  broad  pennant  a  square  blue 
flag  worn  at  the  mizzen ;  next  the  same  at  the 
fore  for  those  over  20  years  commissioned  as 
captain,  and  the  senior  captain's  was  carried  at 
the  main;  finally  they  came  to  arrogate  all  of 
the  functions  of  admirals.  Congress  established 
the  grade  of  rear  admiral  July  16,  1862,  and 
commissioned  therein  on  account  of  eminent 
individual  services  David  G.  Farragut  and 
three  other  captains  from  the  active  list,  and 
Charles  Stewart  and  ten  other  distinguished 
veterans  from  the  retired  list.  The  grade  of 
vice  admiral  was  constituted  by  act  of  Dec. 
21,  1864,  and  Farragut  promoted  thereto  as  a 
reward  for  .Mobile ;  and  as  a  further  token  of 
gratitude  and  honor  the  grade  of  admiral  was 
created  for  him  July  25,  1866.  The  rank  of 
admiral  is  relatively  equivalent  to  that  of  gen 
eral  in  the  army,  vice  admiral  to  lieutenant 
general,  and  rear  admiral  to  major  general. 
The  pay  per  annum  of  admiral  is  $13,000; 
the  sea  pay  of  vice  admiral  $9,000,  and  of  rear 
admiral  $6.000.  There  have  been  bestowed 
2  commissions  of  admiral,  3  of  vice  admiral, 
and  55  of  rear  admiral ;  and  there  are  now  in 
the  service  1  admiral,  1  vice  admiral,  and  88 
rear  admirals ;  of  the  latter,  12  are  on  the  ac 
tive  and  26  on  the  retired  list.— In  Great  Brit 
ain  there  were  until  1864  three  classes  of  ad 
mirals,  red,  white,  and  blue.  The  distinction 
of  flags  was  then  abolished,  and  only  the  white 
flag  retained  in  the  royal  navy.  The  manage 
ment  and  superintendence  of  the  navy  of  Eng 
land  was  formerly  vested  in  a  lord  high  admiral. 
James  II.  when  duke  of  York  held  this  office, 
and  when  king,  on  account  of  his  predilection 
for  the  naval  service,  kept  it  in  his  own  hands. 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  husband  of  Queen 
Anne,  was  also  lord  high  admiral.  The  last  in 
cumbent  of  the  office  was  the  duke  of  Clarence, 
afterward  William  IV.,  who  held  it  from  May, 
1827,  till  September,  1828,  since  which  time  I 


the  office  has  been  put  in  commission,  the  du 
ties  being  performed  by  the  lords  of  the  ad 
miralty,  who  are  six  in  number,  the  first  lord 
having  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  His  pay  is  £4,- 
500  per  annum. — The  highest  officer  in  the 
Russian  navy  bears  the  title  of  general  admiral. 
ADMIRALTY.  In  England  at  a  very  early 
period  the  administration  of  the  navy,  and  of 
all  affairs  pertaining  to  commerce,  ships,  and 
navigation,  or  connected  in  any  way  with  the 
high  seas  or  the  navigable  waters  of  the  realm, 
seems  to  have  been  delegated  to  a  naval  offi 
cer  of  high  dignity  called  the  lord  high  admiral, 
deriving  his  authority  directly  from  the  sov 
ereign,  and  invested  with  powers  over  some 
of  the  sovereign's  most  important  prerogative 
rights.  His  functions,  covering  originally  all 

j  maritime  affairs,  extended  also  to  the  private 

!  concerns  of  the  subject  in  commercial  trade. 

|  All  of  his  powers  which  required  judicial  action 
were  delegated  to  a  court  of  admiralty,  and 
they  still  remain  its  characteristic  function. 
That  part  of  the  jurisdiction  which  was  purely 
executive,  and  which  related  especially  to  the 
navy  and  the  royal  privilege,  was  at  a  very 
early  date  transferred  to  other  departments  or 
tribunals.  Originally,  then,  the  high  court  of 
admiralty  in  England  was  the  court  of  the  lord 
high  admiral,  and  its  judge  was  his  lieutenant. 
The  admiral  also  appointed  vice  admirals,  and 
their  lieutenants  in  turn  were  the  judges  of  the 
vice  admiralty  courts  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom.  The  commission  usually  issued  to 
the  admiral  of  England  in  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  gave  him  cognizance  of  "  debts,  bills 
of  exchange,  policies  of  insurance,  accounts, 
charter  parties,  contractions,  bills  of  lading, 
and  all  other  contracts  which  any  ways  con- 

|  ccrn  moneys  due  for  freight  of  ships,  moneys 
lent  to  be  paid  beyond  the  sea  at  the  hazard 
of  the  lender,  and  also  of  any  cause,  business, 
or  injury  whatsoever  had  or  done  on  or  upon 
or  through  the  seas  or  public  rivers,  or  fresh 
waters,  streams,  havens,  and  places  subject 
to  overflowing,  within  the  flowing  and  ebbing 
of  the  sea,  upon  their  shores  or  banks,  fre>m 
the  first  bridges  toward  the  sea,  throughout 
our  kingdom  or  dominions  aforesaid,  or  else 
where  beyond  the  seas,  or  in  any  parts  be- 
yonel  the  seas  whatsoever,"  &c.  A  commis 
sion  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  gives  to  the 
admiral  authority  in  cases  of  treasons,  rob 
beries,  and  other  crimes  on  the  seas  or  other 
waters  within  the  king's  maritime  jurisdic 
tion.  But  these  commissions,  though  full 
and  large,  are,  it  mnyt  be  remembered,  of 
a  comparatively  recent  date  ;  for  the  admi 
ralty  jurisdiction  is  very  ancient,  and  the 
"  Black  Book  of  the  Admiralty,"  a  sort  of 
code  of  the  admiralty  law  of  England,  com 
piled  probably  about  the  beginning  of  the  14th 

'  century,  contains  constitutions  of  John  (1199), 
Richard  I.  (1189),  and  Henry  I.  (1100),  relat 
ing  to  the  admiralty.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
court  was  modelled  after  that  of  the  consular 
courts  of  the  Mediterranean.  Its  decisions 


ADMIRALTY 


125 


were  governed  by  the  practice  of  those  and 
the  like  courts  on  the  continent  by  the  ancient 
customary  laws  of  /he  sea  and  commerce,  and 
by  those  collections — such  as  the  laws  of 
Rhodes  and  Oleron,  the  Water richt  of  Wisby, 
the  Hanseatic  ordinances,  and  the  Consolato  del 
Mare — which  from  time  to  time  shaped  the 
admiralty  law  of  Europe.  From  the  course 
of  the  administration  of  the  law  in  those  con 
tinental  courts  from  which  the  English  admi 
ralty  borrowed  its  procedure,  and  from  the  tact 
that  its  characteristic  jurisdiction  related  so 
largely  to  commercial  dealings  with  the  states 
of  continental  Europe  where  the  Roman  law 
prevailed,  the  law  and  practice  of  the  English 
court  adopted  and  followed  also  the  principles 
and  rules  of  that  system  of  jurisprudence.  .But 
the  Roman  law  was  regarded  in  those  early 
periods  with  great  jealousy  and  suspicion  in 
England,  and  many  efforts  were  made  to  re 
strain  the  jurisdiction  of  the  admiralty  with 
in  the  narrowest  possible  limit.  It  was 
charged  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  that  now 
the  admiralty  claimed  jurisdiction  of  tres 
passes  on  land  and  within  the  bodies  of  coun 
ties,  and  undertook  to  regulate  the  wages  of 
labor  and  the  prices  of  provisions.  As  a  result 
of  the  complaint  it  was  enacted  in  the  13th 
year  of  Richard  II.  (1390),  that  "  the  admirals 
and  their  deputies  shall  not  meddle  henceforth 
of  anything  done  within  the  realm,  but  only 
of  a  thing  done  upon  the  sea ;  "  and  in  the  loth 
year  of  the  same  reign  (1392),  that  "all  man 
ner  of  contracts,  pleas,  and  quereles,  and  all 
other  tilings  rising  within  the  bodies  of  coun 
ties,  as  well  by  land  as  by  water,  as  afore,  and 
also  wrecks  of  the  sea,  shall  be  determined  and 
remedied  by  the  laws  of  the  land,  and  not  be 
fore  nor  by  the  admiral  nor  his  lieutenant  in 
any  wise."  The  admonitions  of  these  statutes 
were  still  further  emphasized  by  a  law  of 
Henry  IV.  (1411),  which  not  only  inflicted 
fines  on  persons  proceeding  in  the  admiralty 
courts  in  the  forbidden  causes,  but  also  fined 
the  admiralty  judges  who  entertained  their 
suits.  About  the  same  time  the  common  law 
courts  began  to  issue  their  prohibitions  to  the 
courts  of  admiralty,  forbidding  their  interfer 
ence  in  certain' disputed  cases.  This  matter  of 
prohibitions  became  the  subject  of  a  sort  of 
convention  between  the  judges  of  the  rival 
courts  early  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1575), 
which  quelled  the  discord  until  the  next  reign. 
Coke  (1551-1033)  repudiated  the  agreement 
just  referred  to,  though  it  had  been  observed 
for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  on  the  ground  that 
it  was  not  signed,  and  that  the  justices  of  the 
queen's  bench  had  never  assented  to  it ;  and 
he  accordingly  sent  out  prohibitions  from  his 
court  more  fierce  than  had  ever  issued  yet. 
There  was  never  much  peace  with  the  admiral 
ty  courts  during  his  time,  and  the  common 
law  courts  had  their  own  way.  In  1632  cer 
tain  ordinances  were  drawn  up  by  the  king 
and  his  council  and  the  judges  of  the  two 
courts,  which  were  again  favorable  to  the  ad 


miralty.  But  these  were  set  aside  by  the  com 
monwealth,  and  in  turn  a  new  ordinance  of 
that  period  (1648),  still  more  favorable  to  the 
admiralty,  was  annulled  at  the  restoration, 
and  the  common  law  judges  began  anew  with 
their  prohibitions.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
court  was  now  very  much  narrowed,  and 
among  the  more  important  branches  of  it 
which  were  lost  were  cases  of  seamen's  wages, 
freight,  charter  parties,  claims  for  the  building, 
repairing,  or  supplying  of  ships,  and  questions 
involving  disputes  of  title  to  ships.  The  stat 
ute  3  and  4  Victoria  began  to  repair  r>nd  re 
store  the  damaged  capacity  of  the  admiralty. 
That  act  extends  the  power  of  the  court  to  all 
cases  of  salvage  or  damage,  though  arising 
within  the  body  of  a  county  ;  to  questions  of 
title  in  causes  for  possession ;  to  cases  of 
damages,  bottomry,  and  wages ;  to  suits  tor  sup 
plies  furnished  to  foreign  ships;  and  to  the 
claims  of  mortgagees  when  the  ship  or  her  pro 
ceeds  are  under  the  control  of  the  court.  The 
so-called  admiralty  court  act  of  1854,  the  elab 
orate  merchant  shipping  act  of  the  same  year, 
and  especially  and  notably  the  admiralty  court 
act  of  1861,  "to  extend  the  jurisdiction  and 
improve  the  practice"  of  the  court,  have  in 
creased  very  materially  its  power,  and  bear 
strong  testimony  to  its  usefulness  in  all  matters 
of  a  maritime  character. — The  criminal  juris 
diction  of  the  English  admiralty  was  anciently 
very  extensive,  and  included  all  crimes  and  in 
juries  committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  the 
general  government  of  the  navy.  In  later 
times,  however,  this  branch  of  its  jurisdiction 
was  withdrawn.  Cases  arising  in  the  public 
ships  of  the  realm  were  transferred  to  naval 
courts  martial  by  acts  of  Charles  II.  and  George 
II. ;  and  cases  arising  on  ships  of  commerce  or  in 
foreign  ports  were  assigned  to  certain  commis 
sioners  and  courts  created  by  acts  of  28  Henry 
VIIL,  39  and  46  George  III.,  and  4  and  5  Wil 
liam  IV.,  in  which  tribunals  the  acts  provide 
that  the  lord  high  admiral,  or  as  now  the  judge 
of  the  admiralty,  shall  be  included  ;  and  by  the 
operation  of  still  more  recent  statutes  the 
criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  court  is  almost  en 
tirely  annulled.  Apart  from  the  general,  or  as 
it  is  called  the  instance  side  of  the  court,  it 
has  exercised  vevy  important  functions  in  time 
of  war  as  a  court  of  prize.  This  court  is  called 
into  being  by  the  special  w  arrants  of  the  crown 
at  the  outbreak  of  each  var,  and  takes  cogni 
zance  of  all  seizures  of  prizes  and  their  con 
demnation,  and  all  other  matters  relating  to 
capture.  (See  PEIZE.) — In  France  admiralty 
courts  existed  prior  to  the  revolution  of  1790, 
and  there  as  in  England  denved  their  authority 
from  a  lord  high  admiral.  Their  jurisdiction 
was  even  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  Eng 
lish  courts,  and  included  all  questions  of  prize, 
salvage,  bottomry,  charter  parties,  average, 
wages  of  seamen,  fisheries,  and  the  building, 
fitting,  manning,  and  sale  of  ships;  and  also 
all  crimes  or  misdemeanors  committed  ^ on  the 
high  seas,  except  those  connected  w"th  the 


126 


ADMIRALTY 


navy.     These  courts  were  abolished  in  1791, 
and  their  functions  distributed  to  other  tribu 
nals.     All  commercial  questions  were  assigned 
to  the  tribunals  of  commerce,  matters  of  prizes 
to  a  special  court  called  the  council  of  prizes, 
and  the  criminal  jurisdiction  was  transferred  | 
partly  to  courts  of  assize  and  partly  to  the  cor-  j 
rectional  police. — In  Ireland  there  also  exists, 
unless  very  recent  changes  have  been  made,  a 
high  court  of  admiralty  which  is  independent 
of  that  of  England,  and  has  a  jurisdiction  of 
the   same   character   and    quite   as   extensive. 
Such  a  court  also  existed  in  Scotland  until  it  ] 
was  abolished  by  statute  of  1  William  IV.,  ch. 
09.     Its  jurisdiction  on  the  instance  side  was  I 
transferred  to  other  courts.     Its  authority  in  | 
cases  of  prize  and  capture  had  been  already,  by  | 
6  George  IV.,  ch.  120,  vested  in  the  high  court  j 
Of  admiralty  of  England. — The  American  admi-  ' 
ralty  exists  under  the  clause  of  the  constitution  j 
which  declares  that  the  judicial  power  shall  ex-  j 
tend  to  "all  causes  of  admiralty  and  maritime  j 
jurisdiction,"  and  the  statute  vesting  that  pow-  j 
er,  which  gives  to  the  district  courts  exclusive  | 
original  cognizance  of  all  civil  causes  of  that  de-  j 
scription.  The  interpretation  of  this  clause  of  the  | 
constitution  has  brought  out  conflicting  opinions  j 
as  to  its  proper  meaning.  For  upon  the  principles  j 
and  rules  of  construction  which  are  familiarly  i 
applied  in  determining  what  is  the  law  of  the  j 
United    States  in   civil   or  criminal  or  equity  ! 
cases,  in  the  absence  of  specific  legislation,  the  j 
question   fairly  arises  whether   the   admiralty  | 
and  maritime  jurisdiction  contemplated  by  the  | 
constitution  was  the  jurisdiction  as  it  existed  | 
in  England  when  the  colonies  declared  their  j 
independence,  or  as  it  existed  in  the  colonial  I 
courts  at  the  time  of  the  revolution,  or  as  it  ! 
was  exercised  by  the  states  when  the  constitu 
tion  was  adopted ;  whether  it  was  not  rather 
that  characteristic  and  proper  jurisdiction  of  i 
the  English  admiralty  before  it  was  taken  a\vay  ' 
from  it  by  prohibitions  or  encroachments ;  or  j 
whether  finally  the  clause  was  not,  in  a  still  I 
more   liberal   spirit,  designed  to   embrace   all  j 
causes  relating  to  shipping  and  maritime  com-  , 
merce  which,  in  the  broadest  sense  and  within  | 
the  traditional  functions  of  admiralty  courts  of  j 
full  powers,  are  regarded  as  maritime  and  ad-  j 
miralty  cases.     Though  no  very  definite  test  by 
which  the  extent  of  the  jurisdiction  is  to  be  de-  | 
termined  has  been  laid  down,  yet  it  is  certain 
that  the  American  jurisdiction  does  not  depend 
absolutely  on  any  of  the  criteria  suggested  by 
the  propositions  just  recited,  and  that  the  clear  \ 
tendency  at  least  of  our  decisions  is  to  extend  ' 
the  authority  of  the  court  over  its  ancient  do-  j 
main,   without  confining  it  within  limits  pre-  ' 
scribed  by  any  particular  historical  precedent.  ! 
Our  greatest  judges,  and   eminently  Marshall  j 
and  Story,  linve   construed  the  constitutional 
grant  with  the  utmost  liberality,  and  with  the  i 
purpose   of    embracing    within   its    scope   the  j 
largest  powers  ;  and  especially  within  the  last 
20  years  the  disposition  of  the  supreme  court  | 
has  been  to  regard  all  causes  of  which  foreign  i 


admiralty  courts  have  usually  and  characteris 
tically  taken  cognizance,  and  which  are  histor 
ically  known  as  admiralty  and  maritime  causes, 
as  being  cases  within  the  constitutional  provi 
sion. — The  first  statute  which  drew  upon  the 
constitutional  grant,  and  first  actually  vested 
its  power  in  our  courts,  was  the  act  of  1789,  by 
which  "exclusive  original  jurisdiction  of  civil 
causes  of  maritime  and  admiralty  jurisdiction  " 
was  assigned  to  the  district  courts.  This  stat 
ute,  it  will  be  observed,  repeats  the  language 
of  the  constitution,  and  therefore  gives  no  aid 
to  the  definition  of  the  power.  But  the  extent 
of  it  has  been  illustrated  by  a  multitude  of  ad 
judicated  cases,  and  from  these  the  general 
character  and  range  of  the  authority  can  be 
easily  gathered.  The  jurisdiction  can  be  most 
conveniently  considered  under  two  aspects : 
first,  as  it  is  determined  by  the  subject  mat 
ter  ;  and  second,  as  it  is  determined  by  the 
locality.  Upon  what  is  probably  the  right 
ground  of  construction,  the  first  of  these  is  the 
proper  criterion ;  for,  as  has  already  been  inti 
mated,  the  reason  of  the  thing  depends  proba 
bly  only  upon  the  consideration  whether  the 
subject  is  of  a  maritime  character  or  not.  The 
early  contests  which  arose  in  England  upon  the 
competency  of  the  admiralty  to  interfere  with 
in  the  bodies  of  counties  or  other  land  lines 
have,  however,  fixed  the  criterion  of  locality  so 
firmly  that  it  has  been  constantly  appealed  to 
here  ;  but  it  has  been  found  singularly  embar 
rassing  in  this  country  from  the  fact  that  so 
much  of  our  commerce  is  carried  on  on  great 
inland  seas,  and  on  great  rivers  which  are 
navigable  through  the  whole  extent  of  our  ter 
ritory.  The  European  states  afford  no  parallel 
to  these,  and  to  adopt  literally  the  limits  of  the 
jurisdiction  fixed  by  the  practice  of  their  ad 
miralty  courts  was  to  exclude  the  ships  and 
commerce  of  all  these  waters.  Nevertheless, 
the  precedents  of  the  foreign  admiralty  law  in 
these  respects  were  closely  followed  for  fully 
half  a  century  after  the  foundation  of  the  gov 
ernment  ;  and  though  our  courts  did  not  sub 
mit  to  the  limited  jurisdiction  by  which  the 
English  courts  were  restrained  within  head 
lands  or  the  bodies  of  counties,  yet  they  did 
hold  regularly  that  no  cause  came  within  their 
power  unless  it  arose  within  the  movement  of 
the  tides.  At  last  a  case  arose  in  the  harbor 
of  New  Orleans.  There  the  waters  of  the 
Mississippi  flow  always  outward  and  never 
backward  with  the  ocean  tide ;  but  upon  proof 
that  there  was  nevertheless  a  perceptible  rise 
and  fall  of  the  water,  caused  by  the  tides  be 
low,  it  was  held  that  this  was  sufficient  and 
that  the  jurisdiction  attached.  The  decision  was 
admitted  to  be  a  forced  one,  and  the  tide  OR 
which  it  rested  was  afterward  spoken  of  in  the 
supreme  court  rather  contemptuously  as  "an 
occult  tide  without  ebb  or  flow."  But  there 
was  good  sense  at  the  bottom  of  the  decision, 
and  the  inconvenience  of  making  tide  waters 
the  limit  of  the  jurisdiction  led  to  the  enact 
ment  in  1845  of  the  famous  act  "  extending  the 


ADMIRALTY 


127 


jurisdiction  of  the  district  courts   to  certain  ! 
cases  upon  the  hikes  and  the  navigable  waters  | 
connecting  the  same."     This  act  did  not  cover  j 
the    great   rivers  which   do  not   connect   the 
lakes,  nor  did  it  profess  to  extend  a  real  admi 
ralty  jurisdiction  even  over  the  waters  to  which 
it  referred.     It  created  rather  a  sort  of  imita 
tion  jurisdiction,   modelled    all  the  way  after  j 
the  real.     The  act  caused  more  embarrassment 
than  it  relieved,  and  in  fact  it  has  been  prac 
tically  annulled  by  the  supreme  court  by  deci 
sions  which  declared  subsequent  to  its  enact 
ment  that  the  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdic 
tion  given  by  the  constitution  was  not  in  fact 
limited  to  the  high  seas  and  tide  waters,  but, 
by  its  own  proper  force,  covered  as  well  the 
great  interior  lakes  and  rivers  wherever  they 
were  navigable,  so  that  the  act  of  1845  was  un 
necessary  and  inoperative. — As  to  the  subject 
matter,  it    may   be    said    generally  that   the 
American    admiralty   exercises   a  jurisdiction 
based  largely  upon  that  of  the  English  court  in 
the  time   of  Edward   III.,    and   embraces   all 
maritime  causes  of  action,  as  well  matters  of 
contract  as  matters  of  tort,  and  under  the  lat 
ter  covers  all  injuries  and  damage  done  upon  j 
the  seas,  even  though  done  in  a  port  or  har 
bor  or  within   the   body  of   a  county.     With  ; 
reference   to  the   contracts  which  are  within 
the  reach  of   the    court,  the  distinction  must 
be  first  made   between   those  which  directly  j 
and  of  themselves  touch  maritime  affairs,,  and  ! 
those  which  are  only  preliminary  or  subordi-  : 
nate  to  such  agreements ;  for  the  former  the  j 
court  will  pass  upon,    but   it  will    not  upon  ! 
the    latter.      Thus    a    charter    party    or,    as  j 
within  a  year  or  two  it  has  been  decided,  a  j 
policy  of  marine  insurance  is  a  maritime  con-  | 
tract  which  the  court  will  aid  in  enforcing ;  ' 
but  it  has  no  power  in  respect  to  an  agreement 
to  make  a  charter  party  or  a  policy.     The  dis-  | 
tinction  in  these  cases  is  rather  obvious  and  rea-  ! 
sonable,  but  it  is  not  so  clear  as  to  some  other 
cases.     For  example,  the  earlier  maritime  law, 
PS  it  was  administered  in   those  periods  and 
courts  to  which  our  court  appeals  for  tests  of  '. 
jurisdiction,  covered  all  contracts  which  con 
cern  the  ship,  and  thus  included  all  contracts  ! 
for  building,  repairing,  supplying,  or  equipping 
her.     But  as  to  a  contract  for  building  a  ship, 
our  supreme  court  has  held  that  it  was  not 
within  its  jurisdiction.     It  may  be  observed, 
however,  that  the  court  in  Massachusetts  has 
since  decided  the  contrary,  and  also  that  the 
iecent  English  admiralty  court  acts  expressly 
confer  jurisdiction  in  such  cases  upon  the  court. 
The   court   does  without   hesitation  entertain 
suits  by  material  men  for  repairing  and  supply 
ing  the   ship    and  for  towing  her,    and  even 
claims  for  shipping  a  crew  and  procuring  a 
cargo ;  but  it  has  declined  to  hear  actions  by 
stevedores  and  ship  keepers,  or  claims  for  ad 
vertising  the  vessel  for  sea  or  preparing  her  car 
go  for  stowage,  or  for  the  wages  of 'lightermen, 
and  even  claims  for  scraping  the  ship's  bottom 
preparatory  to  coppering  her.    The  jurisdiction 


also  includes  what  aro  called  possessory  and 
petitory  actions  respecting  a  ship — that  is  to 
say,  cases  in  which  the  title  to  possession  of 
the  ship  is  involved,  and  cases  of  dispute  be 
tween  part  owners  as  to  their  interests  in  the 
employment  of  the  vessel ;  contracts  of  af 
freightment,  either  at  the  instance  of  the  own 
ers  for  their  freight,  or  of  the  shippers  for  dam 
ages  for  the  non-fulfilment  of  the  contract  of 
carriage,  and  also  contracts  for  the  carriage  of 
passengers;  cases  of  jettison  and  average,  bot 
tomry  and  respondentia  bonds,  and  all  hypoth 
ecations  of  ship  or  cargo;  of  salvage,  collision, 
surveys,  and  sales  of  condemned  vessels;  de 
murrage,  pilotage,  and  wharfage,  and  seamen's 
wages— and  all  persons  stand  on  the  footing 
of  seamen  who  serve  or  are  useful  in  the  nav 
igation  of  the  ship,  including  cooks  and  car 
penters,  coopers  on  whaling  voyages,  and  fire 
men  and  engineers  and  deck  hands  on  steam 
boats.  The  court  has  also  jurisdiction  of  all 
assaults  and  batteries,  imprisonment  or  im 
proper  treatment  of  sailors  or  of  passengers, 
and  all  other  damages  and  injuries  done  on  the 
high  seas  and  navigable  waters,  and  also  of 
questions  of  prize  and  of  seizure  under  the  rev 
enue  and  navigation  laws.  (Hee  PRIZE.)  With 
respect  to  the  relations  of  the  federal  and  the 
state  courts,  it  is  now  settled,  but  it  was  not 
until  very  lately,  that  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
former  in  admiralty  suits  in  rem  is  exclusive, 
and  consequently  none  of  the  states  can  give 
their  local  courts  power,  under  statutes,  to  en 
force  liens  in  rem  which  are  of  a  purely  mari 
time  and  admiralty  nature. — Though  the  court 
of  admiralty  exercises  its  jurisdiction  upon  prin 
ciples  of  equity  arid  natural  justice,  and  may  ad 
minister  equitable  relief  upon  a  subject  which 
is  fairly  within  its  characteristic  powers,  yet  it  is 
not  in  the  ordinary  sense  a  court  of  equity,  and 
cannot  intervene  in  that  class  of  cases  which 
are  peculiaily  passed  upon  in  such  a  court; 
and  though  it  construes  the  contracts  and 
obligations  of  parties  before  it  less  strictly 
than  the  courts  of  common  law,  and  will  miti 
gate  the  severity  of  contracts  or  moderate  ex 
orbitant  demands,  yet  it  will  not  assume  to 
go  further  and  grant  purely  equitable  relief. 
Thus  it  cannot  entertain  a  bill  for  the  specific 
performance  of  a  contract  for  the  sale  of  a 
ship,  for  the  execution  of  a  trust,  for  the  cor 
rection  of  a  mistake,  or  the  reformation  of  an 
instrument,  on  that  ground,  or  grant  relief 
against  fraud ;  and  it  was  even  expressly  held 
that  it  cannot  in  general  order  an  account 
ing  between  part  owners,  or  aid  in  cases  of 
mortgage  of  a  ship  so  as  to  decree  foreclosure, 
or  vest  title  in  the  mortgagee  upon  a  sale.  The 
court  in  its  equitable  spirit  will  also  disregard 
technicalities  in  procedure,  and  looks  at  the 
matter  rather  than  the  form,  to  the  end  that 
the  party  entitled  to  it  shall  receive  substantial 
justice  without  regard  to  formal  irregularities 
or  defects. — In  the  United  States  there  are  no 
courts  which  possess  an  admiralty  jurisdiction 
solely.  It  is  exercised  in  all  cases  by  the  fed- 


ADMIRALTY 


ADOLPIIUS 


oral  courts,  as  a  branch  and  part  of  the  full 
powers  delegated  to  them.  The  original  juris 
diction  is  vested  exclusively  in  the  district 
courts.  From  these  appeals  lie  to  the  cir 
cuit  courts  in  admiralty  and  maritime  causes, 
when  the  matter  in  dispute  exceeds  the  value 
of  $50,  and  from  these  to  the  supreme  court 
when  it  exceeds  the  value  of  $2,000.  Upon 
an  appeal  in  admiralty  to  the  circuit  court, 
unlike  the  course  in  such  proceedings  in  other 
courts,  the  parties  may  have  the  whole  cause 
heard  de  noro,  and  the  cause  is  not  in  fact 
res  adjndicata-  or  finally  decided  until  such 
appeal  is  waived  or  sentence  is  reached  in  the 
appellate  court.  The  case  may  therefore  go 
before  the  circuit  court  upon  the  same  testi 
mony  taken  below,  or  the  parties  may  intro 
duce  new  evidence  there  and  have  all  the  pro 
ceedings  as  well  of  fact  as  of  law  in  the  court 
below  reviewed.  And  even  the  supreme  court, 
sitting  on  an  admiralty  appeal,  is  very  liberal  in 
permitting  amendments  and  additions;  and  if 
justice  require  that  the  pleadings  be  reformed  or 
A  new  claim  brought  into  the  case,  that  court 
will  refer  the  cause  back  to  the  circuit  court 
for  this  purpose.  But  in  regard  to  appeals 
brought  up  on  the  same  testimony  presented 
below,  the  supreme  court  has  lately  declined 
to  reverse  decisions  as  to  matters  of  fact  in 
which  the  district  and  circuit  courts  have 
agreed. — The  practice  of  the  admiralty  courts 
is  simple,  and  their  procedure  direct  and  expe 
ditious,  and  intolerant  of  technicalities ;  their 
administration  of  tho  law  is  liberal  and  equi 
table,  trusting  rather  to  the  matter  than  to  the 
form,  and  seeking  always  to  insure  quick  rem 
edies  and  to  give  relief  upon  the  actual  merits 
of  the  case.  The  practice  is  regulated  in  some 
of  its  details  by  rules  framed  by  the  district 
courts.  They  differ  somewhat  in  the  different 
districts,  but  not  materially.  The  forms  of 
proceedings  are  modelled  upon  those  of  the 
Roman  civil  law  as  it  has  been  fashioned  in 
European  courts,  and  especially  in  European 
courts  of  admiralty.  Tho  suit  is  instituted  by 
•the  filing  of  a  libel,  which  is  a  mere  statement 
in  the  simplest  narrative  form  of  the  libellant's 
cause  of  action.  Upon  this  the  court  issues  its 
process  directing  the  marshal,  in  an  action  in 
personam,  either  simply  to  call  the  defendant 
into  court  to  answer,  or,  if  such  process  be 
prayed  for,  to  arrest  him  or  attach  his  goods; 
or  if  the  suit  is  in  rcm,  it  directs  the  marshal 
to  take  the  thing  into  his  custody,  and  to  give 
due  notice  to  all  persons  claiming  it  to  come 
and  show  cause  why  it  should  not  be  con 
demned  ;  the  theory  of  the  proceeding  in  rcm 
being  that  the  thing  proceeded  against,  rather 
than  any  person,  is  to  satisfy  the  libellant's  ac 
tion.  The  defendant  puts  in  an  answer,  and  if 
he  is  the  owner  of  the  thing  proceeded  against 
in  an  action  in  rem,  he  puts  in  also  a  claim  to 
the  property,  and  may  remove  the  hold  of  the 
court  upon  it  by  giving  a  bond  for  its  value. 
In  matters  of  contract,  the  cause  is  brought  to 
a  hearing  before  the  judge ;  and  previous  to  the 


j  final  hearing  by  the  court  the  evidence  of  wit 
nesses  about  to  leave  the  district,  as -Jfor  ex 
ample  of  sailors  or  officers  of  ships,  may  be 
taken  out  of  court  before  its  commissioners. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the  S.  Pacif 
ic,  N.  E.  of  New  Guinea,  between  lat.  2°  and  3° 
S.,  and  Ion.  146°  and  148°  E.  They  consist  of 
one  large  island,  Admiralty  or  Basko,  in  the 
centre  of  the  group,  between  50  and  GO  in.  long, 
one  (Matthew)  of  about  117  sq.  m.,  150  in.  N.  E., 
and  20  or  30  much  smaller  ones.  They  are  gen 
erally  low  and  fertile,  though  Basko  has  high 
mountains,  and  abound  in  cocoanut  trees.  The 
inhabitants  are  nearly  black,  well  formed,  and 
of  good  features,  and  go  almost  naked.  The 
islands  were  discovered  in  101G  by  a  Dutch 
navigator,  Cornelius  Schooten  (hence  some 
times  called  Schooten's  islands),  rediscovered 
in  17G7  by  Carteret,  who  gave  them  the 
present  name,  and  have  been  very  seldom 
visited  since,  access  being  difficult  on  account 
of  the  coral  reefs  which  surround  thorn. 

ADMONITION,  a  part  of  ancient  church  dis 
cipline.  If  the  offence  was  of  a  private  nature, 
the  warning  was  given  in  private ;  otherwise 
before  the  assembled  church.  If  the  person 
censured  did  not  amend  his  ways,  excommuni 
cation  followed. 

ADOBE  HOUSES,  dwellings  built  of  unburnt 
brick,  in  common  use  in  Mexico,  Texas,  and 
Central  America.  Adobe  bricks  are  made  of 
loamy  earth,  containing  about  two  thirds  fine 
sand  and  one  third  clayey  dust,  which  under 
the  action  of  the  sun  becomes  a  hard,  compact 
mass,  without  a  crack.  Four  men  generally 
work  at  the  making  of  these  bricks,  one  to  mix 
the  mass,  two  to  carry  it  in  a  hand-barrow, 
which  is  sprinkled  with  finely  powdered  dry 
manure  or  dust  to  prevent  adhesion,  and  one 
to  mould  the  prepared  substance  into  bricks. 
The  moulds  are  double,  each  1G  to  18  inches 
long,  9  to  12  inches  wide,  and  4  inches  thick, 
and  have  projecting  handles  at  each  end,  but 
no  bottom,  the  brick  being  deposited  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  which  has  been  pre 
viously  levelled  ;  and  the  adobes  are  carefully 
turned  on  the  edge,  and  left  to  harden  in  the 
sun.  They  are  laid  with  mud  mortar,  made 
from  the  earth  at  the  foot  of  the  wall ;  and  on 
the  completion  of  every  two  feet  of  the  struc 
ture,  an  interval  of  one  week  is  allowed  for 
drying,  and  a  similar  space  of  time  between 
the  completion  of  the  walls  and  fixing  of  the 
roof.  The  houses  are  usually  one  story  high, 
and  the  inside  plastered  before  the  roof  is  put 
on,  so  that  it  may  dry  With  the  walls.  An 
adobe  house  costs  little  ;  it  is  warmer  in  winter 
and  cooler  in  summer  than  cither  wood  or 
brick,  and  its  duration  is  extraordinary,  adobe 
houses  50  feet  high  being  in  existence  which 
have  stood  for  more  than  a  century. 

ADOLPHUS.     I.    John,    an   English   advocate 

and  author,  born  in  London  in  1760,  died  July 

j  1G,  1845.     He  studied  in  London,  was  admitted 

attorney  and  solicitor  in  1790,  and  was  called 

to  the  bar  in  1807.      He  soon  obtained  the 


ADOLPIIUS  FREDERICK 


ADONIS 


129 


character  of  an  adroit,  skilful  counsellor,  and 
practised  chiefly  at  the  Old  Bailey  in  criminal 
cases.  His  forensic  reputation  was  not  fully 
established  till  18:20,  when,  on  the  trial  of  the 

•  "  Cato  street  conspirators,"  he  defended  Ar- 

*  thur  Thistlewood,  charged  with  high  treason, 
with   marked   ability,   though   his   client  was 
convicted.     From  that  time  his  practice  at  the 
bar  was  large  and  lucrative,  but  his  warmth  of 
temper   frequently   led    him    into    undignified 
squabbles.       His    reports    are    referred   to   as 
authority.      His  principal  works   are  :    "  The 
History  of  England   from    the    Accession  of 
George  III."  (3  vols.,  1805,  of  which  a  new  edi 
tion  enlarged  to  7-  vols.,  but  still  unfinished, 
appeared  shortly  before  his  death),  and  "  Bio 
graphical  Memoirs  of  the  French  Revolution." 
See  "Recollections  of  John  Adolphus,"  by  his 
daughter  (1871).     II.  John  Leyccster,  a  barrister, 
son  of  the  preceding,  highly  distinguished  him 
self  at  the  university  of  Oxford,  and  published 
in  July,  1821,  a  work  which   Lockhart  says 
"  was  read  with  eager  curiosity  and  delight  by 
the  public,  with  much  diversion,  besides,    by 
his  [Sir  W.  Scott's]  friends,  and  which  Scott 
himself  must  have  gone  through  with  a  very 
odd  mixture  of  emotions."     This  book  is  en 
titled  "Letters  to  Richard  Heber,  Esq.,  con 
taining   critical    remarks    on    the    series    of 
novels  beginning  with  Waverley,  and  an  at 
tempt  to  ascertain  their  author."     The  purpose 
of  this  book  was  to  prove,  from  Scott's  ac 
knowledged  writings,  and  from  other  known 
circumstances  connected  with  his  personal  his 
tory  and  position,  that  he  and  none  other  could 
be  the  author,  sole  and  unassisted,  of  the  Wa 
verley  novels. 

ADOLPIIUS  FREDERICK,  of  IIolstein-Eutin, 
king  of  Sweden,  born  May  14,  1710,  died  Feb. 
12, 1771.  In  1727  he  was  elected  prince-bishop 
of  Liibeck  as  successor  of  his  father.  On  the 
death  of  his  cousin  Charles  Frederick,  duke  of 
Holstein-Gottorp,  in  1739,  Adolphus  Frederick 
became  the  administrator  of  his  possessions 
during  the  minority  of  his  son,  afterward 
Peter  III.  of  Russia.  The  king  of  Sweden, 
Frederick  of  the  house  of  Ilesse-Cassel,  being 
childless,  and  the  young  duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp  having  declined  to  become  heir  appa 
rent  at  a  time  when  he  hoped  to  succeed  to  the 
throne  of  Russia,  it  was  decided  in  1743,  by 
virtue  of  the  treaty  of  Abo  between  Russia  and 
Sweden,  that  Adolphus  Frederick  should  occu 
py  the  position,  so  that  it  might  be  at  all  events 
vested  in  the  Holstein  family.  The  grand 
mother  of  Adolphus  having  been  a  daughter  of 
Charles  XI.  of  Sweden,  this  circumstance  was 
also  regarded  as  favorable  to  his  election,  which 
was  ratified  by  the  Swedish  diet  on  July  3, 
1743.  In  1744  he  married  Louise  Ulrike,  a  sis 
ter  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  he  ascended  the 
Swedish  throne  April  5,  1751,  on  the  death  of 
King  Frederick.  The  aristocracy  being  favor 
able  to  France,  Sweden  was  dragged  into  the 
seven  years'  war  against  Prussia ;  and  the  at 
tempts  of  the  queen  to  oppose  this  policy 
VOL.  i. — 9 


!  resulted  only  in  bringing  the  ringleaders  against 
j  the  aristocracy  to  the  scaffold  (175(5).  The 
council  of  state  sided  with  the  aristocracy 
I  against  the  crown,  and  it  was  only  after  the 
|  king's  threatening  to  abdicate  that  the  Swedish 
I  diet  consented  to  sustain  his  rights  and  protect 
him  against  the  aggressions  of  the  nobles.  He 
|  was  an  upright  prince,  but  by  his  meekness  ho 
!  encouraged  the  schemes  of  France  and  her  al- 
I  lies  among  the  nobility.  He  was  succeeded  on 
|  the  throne  by  his  son  Gustavus  III. 

ADOLPHIS  OF  NASSAU,  a  German  sovereign, 
|  born  about  1250,  fell  in  battle  near  Worms,  July 
j  2,  1298.      He  was  the  second  son  of  Walram 
i  IV.,  count  of  Nassau,  and  was  distinguished 
I  for  valor  in  the  service  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg. 
I  On  the  death  of  the  latter  he  was,  at  the  sug 
gestion    of  the   archbishop   of  Mentz,   unani- 
;  mously  elected  as  his  successor  (May  10,  1292), 
:  in  place  of  Rudolph's  son  and  heir  Albert.    He 
|  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle   as  king  of 
:  Germany,  June  24,  1292,  but  not  in  Rome  as 
emperor.     Adolphus  disgraced  himself  by  ac- 
'•  cepting   an   English    subsidy  of  £100,000  for 
joining  in  the  war  against  France,  and  by  back- 
I  ing  out  of  the  bargain  without  restoring  the 
I  money.    He  further  lost  caste  by  his  mercenary 
i  but  fruitless  transactions  with  the  landgrave 
!  Albrecht  of  Thuringia  for  the  acquisition  of  his 
|  territory.     The  archbishop  of  Mentz,  in  con 
cert  with  Albert  of  Austria,  caused  Adolphus 
to  be  arraigned  before  the  college  of  electoral 
princes.     On  his  declining  to  comply  with  the 
I  summons,  his  deposition  was  proclaimed,  June 
23,  1298.     But  Adolphus  appealed  to  the  ar- 
!  bitrament   of    arms.      The    rivals    met,    with 
!  their  respective  armies,  between  the  villages 
,  of  Gollheim  and  Rosenthal,  near  Worms.    Adol- 
I  phus  fell,  hit  in  the  face,  as  was  reported  at 
i  the  time,  by  the  lance  of  Albert,  whose  com- 
!  panions   gave   him   the   death   blow.      Under 
;  Henry  VII.  his   remains   were  placed  beside 
!  those  of  his  successor  Albert  I.,  in  the  vault  of 
German  sovereigns  at  Spire. 

ADONAI,  one  of  the  appellations  of  the  Su 
preme  Being  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  signi 
fying   Lord,    or   my   Lord.      The   Jews,    who 
!  refrain  from  uttering  the  name   of  Jehovah, 
I  pronounce  Adonai  in  its  place  where  it  occurs 
i  in  the  Hebrew  text  in  which  they  have  also 
!  substituted   the    vowels  of  Adonai    for   those 
j  of  the  name,  thus  rendering  the  right  pronun- 
|  ciation  of  the  latter  doubtful. 

ADOMA,  feasts  anciently  held  in  honor  of 
\  Venus  and  Adonis.  They  lasted  two  days ; 
;  the  first  was  spent  in  tears  and  lamentations. 
|  the  second  in  mirth  and  feasting.  The  festival 
\  typified  the  dying  and  resurrection  of  nature. 

ADOMS,    in    Greek    mythology,    a   beautiful 

youth  beloved  by  Venus.      According  to  the 

;  account  received  from  the  cyclic  poet  Panyasis, 

i  he  was  the  son  of  Theias,  king  of  Assyria,  and 

his  daughter  Smyrna.     Venus,  discovering  the 

•  beauty  of  the  child,  hid  him  in  a  chest,  which 

I  she  intrusted  to  Proserpine.      Hence  resulted 

the   dispute   between   these    goddesses  as  to 


130 


ADOPTIANI 


ADOWA 


which  of  them  Adonis  should  belong  to,  which 
was  settled  by  the  judgment  of  Jupiter  that  he 
should  remain  with  each  of  them  an  equal  part 
of  each  year.  Adonis  died  of  a  wound  received 
from  a  wild  boar  in  the  Idalian  woods,  and  the 
sorrow  of  Venus  for  his  loss  was  so  great  that 
the  gods  allowed  his  return  to  earth  for  six 
months  of  every  year  to  console  her. 

ADOPTIAM,  a  Christian  sect  in  Spain,  found 
ed  by  Elipandus.  archbishop  of  Toledo,  and 
Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel,  near  the  close  of  the 
8th  century.  They  affirmed  that  Jesus  was 
really  the  son  of  God  only  in  his  divine  nature, 
and  the  son  of  God  by  adoption  merely  in  his 
human  nature.  So  long  as  they  confined  their 
efforts  to  spreading  their  views  in  the  Moham 
medan  territory,  no  notice  was  taken  of  the 
new  sect.  But  when,  through  the  efforts  of 
Felix,  whose  diocese  belonged  to  the  Frankish 
empire,  adoptianism  began  to  spread  in  the 
dominion  of  Charlemagne,  the  subject  was 
brought  to  the  notice  of  that  emperor,  and  the 
synod  of  Ratisbon  (792)  condemned  it  as  a  re 
newal  of  the  Nestorian  heresy.  Felix  recanted, 
and  confirmed  his  recantation  before  Pope 
Adrian  in  Rome.  But  after  his  return  to  Urgel 
he  reaffirmed  his  adoptian  views.  At  the  re 
quest  of  Charlemagne  Alcuin  wrote  an  epistle 
to  Felix  against  adoptianism.  This  step,  how 
ever,  had  no  results ;  on  the  contrary,  a  num 
ber  of  the  Spanish  bishops  declared  their  agree 
ment  with  Felix.  A  new  synod  convened  at 
Frankfort  (79-4)  ratified  the  decrees  of  Ratis 
bon  against  adoptianism.  Finally,  Archbishop 
Leidrad  of  Lyons  prevailed  upon  Felix  in  799 
to  appear  before  a  synod  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
when,  after  a  protracted  discussion  of  the  sub 
ject  with  Alcuin,  he  once  more  recanted.  Felix 
was  now  committed  to  the  charge  of  Leidrad  at 
Lyons,  where  he  died  in  816.  Elipandus  never 
retracted  his  opinions,  but  soon  after  his  death 
the  sect  became  extinct.  Adoptianism  was  the 
first  important  theological  controversy  concern 
ing  the  person  of  Christ  originating  in  the 
western  church. 

ADOPTION,  the  taking  of  another's  child  as 
one's  own,  still  regulated  by  law  in  Germany 
and  France,  as  it  was  in  Rome.  Where  the 
party  adopted  is  under  age,  and  actually  under 
the  parents'  power,  it  is  called  adoption 
proper ;  but  where  it  is  of  age,  sui  juris,  ad- 
rogation.  The  abstract  rule  that  adoption 
must  imitate  nature,  though  derivable  from 
regulations  of  the  Roman  law,  such  as  that 
forbidding  eunuchs  to  adopt,  and  that  re 
quiring  the  adopter  to  be  at  least  18  years 
older  than  the  adopted,  is  not  fully  carried 
out,  since  by  the  same  law  those  incapable  of 
procreation  may  adopt.  In  Germany,  while 
the  child  is  more  completely  absorbed  into  the 
family  of  the  adopter  than  he  was  in  Rome, 
numerous  subtle  distinctions  have  been  en 
grafted  upon  this  title  of  the  law ;  while  the 
Code  Napoleon  admits  adoption  only  to  a 
limited  extent.  A  prerequisite  to  adoption  in 
.Rome  was  leave  from  ;the  college  of  priests ; 


1  in   Germany  the   sanction   of   the   prince   or 
judge  is  required.     In  Texas,   a  person  may 
adopt  another  to  be  his  legal  heir  by  filing  a 
statement,  authenticated  like  a  deed,  express 
ing  his  intention  so  to  do,  with  the  county 
|  clerk,  thereby  entitling  him  to  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  a  legal  heir,  except  that  if 
the  adopter  have  a  legitimate  child  or  children, 
the  adopted  shall  in  no  case  inherit  more  than 
a  fourth  part  of  the  testamentary  estate  of  the 
adopter.     In  several  of  the  states  adoption  has 
been  made  the  subject  of  recent  statutes;  lor 
example,  in  Illinois  (1867)  and  Kansas  (1868). 
The  proceeding  under  these  acts  is  in  general 
similar  to  that  which  has  existed  for  a  long 
time   in  Massachusetts.      In   that  state,    any 
person  may  present  a  petition  to  the  probate 
court  for  the  adoption  of  a  child  not  his  own, 
I  and,   if  desired,   for  a  change  of   the   child's 
;  name.      If  the  petitioner  has   a   husband    or 
|  wife,  the  application  will  not  be  entertained 
i  by  the  court  unless  such  husband  or  wife  join 
I  in  it.     The  consent  of  the  child's  parents,  or 
of  the  survivor  of  them,  must  be  procured  in 
writing;  or  if  it  has  no  parent,  its  guardian 
or  next  of  kin  or  some  person  appointed  by 
the   court   must    give   the    requisite   consent. 
And  the  adoption  will  not  be  sanctioned  with 
out  the  child's  consent,  if  it  is  more  than  14 
years   old.      The    child   thus  adopted,  for  all 
purposes  of  inheritance,  and  in  respect  to  all 
I  the  other  legal  consequences  and  incidents  of 
!  the  natural  relationship  of  parent  and  child,  is 
deemed  the  child,  born  in  lawful  wedlock,  of 
the  person  who  adopts  it,  except  that  it  shall 
not  take  property  limited  to  the  heirs  of  the 
j  body  of   the  new  parents,   nor  coming  from 
j  their  collateral  kindred.     An  appeal  from  the 
decision  of  the  probate  court  upon  the  petition 
lies   in  favor  of  either  the  petitioner  or  the 
child  to  the  supreme  court ;  and  any  person 
interested  who  had  not  actual  notice  of  the 
proceeding   may  apply  writhin   a   year   for    a 
reversal  of  the  order  of  the  probate  court.     In 
Louisiana  the  proceedings  are  more  like  those 
of  the  civil  law.     The  person  adopting  must 
be  at  least  40  years  old,  and  at  least  15  years 
older  than  the  person  adopted.      Married  per 
sons  must  concur  about  the  adoption. 

ADOIR  (anc.  Atcrmi8\  a  river  in  the  S.  "W. 
of  France,  about  180  m.  in  length,  70  of  which 
are    navigable.      Its    course   is   nearly   semi 
circular.      It    rises    in    the    Pyrenees,    fiows 
|  through  the  departments  of  Ilautcs-Pyrenees, 
Gers,  and  Landes,  and  empties  into  the  bay  of 
;  Biscay,  a  little  below  Bayonne.     Though  many 
streams  unite  with  it,  its  volume  of  water  is 
:  small,  except  during  the  melting  of  the  snows 
I  in  the  Pyrenees,  when  it  often  inundates  the 
!  surrounding  country. 

ADOWA,  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  Abys 
sinia,  capital  of  Tigre,  about  145  m.  N.  E.  of 
|  Gondar;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  is  the  great 
i  depot  of  the  trade  in  cattle,  corn,  salt,  and 
!  slaves,  between  the  coast  and  the  interior. 
'  The  chief  manufactures  are  of  cotton. 


ADRASTEA 


ADRIAN 


131 


ADRASTEA  (Gr.  'Arf/odore/a,  she  whom  none 
can  escape),  in  Greek  mythology,  a  goddess  of 
just  retribution,  like  Nemesis,  or,  according  to  , 
some  of  the  poets,  identical  with  her. 

ADRASTIS,  a  legendary  king  of  Argos,  in  the  : 
history  of   ancient  Greece.      His   father  was 
Talaiis,  king  of  Argos.     Being  expelled  from 
Argos,   he  took  refuge  in  Sicyon,   and  there 
succeeded  to  the   throne,   and  instituted    the 
Nemean   games.      He    was    subsequently   re 
stored  to  his  native  city,  and  married  one  of 
his  daughters  to  Polynices,  son  of  (Edipus  and 
brother  of  Eteocles,  who  had  .been  deprived 
by  the  latter  of  his  share  in  the  reign  over 
Thebes.     He  now  formed  a  union  of   Greek  ; 
heroes  to  restore  his  son-in-law  to  his  throne,  | 
and  led  the  famed  expedition  of  the  '"  seven  ' 
against  Thebes,1'  the  abundant  theme  of  later 
tragedy.     Adrastus  alone  survived,   saved  by 
the  fleetness  of  his  horse  Arion.      Ten  years 
later  he  prompted  the  seven  sons  of  the  de-  • 
feated  heroes  to  renew  the  war.     Their  expe-  ! 
dition,    known    as    that    of    the    epigoni    or 
descendants,  set  out  with  promises  of  success 
from  the  oracle,  and  ended  with  the  capture  ; 
and  complete  demolition  of  Thebes.     The  son  ' 
of  Adrastus  was  the  only  Argive  that  fell,  and 
Adrastus  himself  soon  alter  died  of  grief. 

ADRIA,  a  town  of   Italy,  in    the  Venetian  ! 
province  of  Rovigo,  on  the  canale  Bianco,  be-  ! 
tween  the  mouths  of  the  Adige  and  Po,  30  m.  ! 
S.  by  W.  of  Venice;  pop.  13,000.     The  inun 
dation  of  these  rivers  gradually  rendered  the 
country   uninhabitable,   and    their   deposit  of  ; 
soil  caused  the  sea  to  recede  until  the  town,  • 
anciently  a  seaport,  is  now  14  m.  inland.     It 
is  a  bishop's  see,  and  has  a  celebrated  museum  j 
of   Etruscan    and    Roman    antiquities.      The  \ 
ruins  of  ancient  Adria,  or  Hadria,  founded  by  ! 
the  Etruscans,  lie  S.  of  the  modern  town.    The  ! 
name  of  the  Adriatic  sea  is  derived  from  it. 

AttRIAX,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Lenawee  j 
co.,   Mich.,   on  the  S.   branch   of   the   Raisin 
river,  and  on  the  Michigan  Southern  railway,  ! 
74  m.   W.   S.   W.   of   Detroit;    pop.   in   1870,  ! 
8,438;  in  1860,  0,213.     The  city  is  well  built  ; 
and  paved,  and  lighted   with   gas.      It   com-  ! 
mands  the  trade  of  an  extensive  grain-growing 
region.      The  stream  on  which  it  is  situated 
furnishes  good  water  power.      The  principal  I 
industrial  establishments   are:    a   car   factory  ; 
employing  250  men,  a  brass  foundery  employ-  : 
ing  100,  two  iron  founderies,  two  sash  factories,  : 
two  planing  mills,   two   organ   factories,   and  i 
three   flour  mills.      The  city  possesses  a  fine  j 
monument  to  the  memory  of  77  citizens  of 
Adrian  who  fell  in  the  civil  war.     There  are  ' 
eleven  churches  and  live  public  school  houses. 
Adrian  college,  founded  in  1859  by  the  Protest-  1 
ant  Methodists,  admits  both  sexes,  and  has  an  j 
average    attendance    of    about    1GO    students.  I 
The  central  union  school  building  is  one  of  the  i 
finest  in  the  West.    Three  papers  are  published  | 
here,  one  monthly  (educational),  one  weekly,  ; 
and  one  daily  and  weekly.     The  first  house  in  ! 
Adrian,  a  log  dwelling,  was  built  in  1826.     The 


[  village  was  laid  out  in  1828,  and  it  was  incor- 

•  porated  as  a  city  in  1853. 

ADRIAN,  a  Roman  emperor.     See  HADRIAN. 
ADRIAN,  the  name  of  several  popes.    I.  Born 

;  at  Rome,  succeeded  Stephen  IV.  in  772,  died 
Dec.  25,  795.  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lom 
bards,  having  invaded  the  provinces  which 
Pepin  had  presented  to  the  Roman  see,  Adrian 
solicited  the  assistance  of  Charlemagne,  who 
entered  Italy,  and  overthrew  the  power  of  the 
Lombards  in  774.  In  return  the  Frankish 
conqueror  received  from  Adrian  the  title  of 
king  of  Italy  and  patrician  of  Rome.  In  791 
Rome  was  inundated  by  the  Tiber,  when 
Adrian  distributed  provisions  in  boats.  He 
also  rebuilt  the  fortifications  of  Rome.  II. 
Born  at  Rome,  succeeded  Nicholas  I.  in  867, 
and  died  in  872.  He  had  been  married,  but 
left  his  wife  to  live  in  celibacy.  During  his 
pontificate  the  schism  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches  was  begun  by  the  secession  of 
Photius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  IH.  Born 
at  Rome,  was  made  pope  in  884,  and  died  in  885, 
on  his  way  to  the  diet  at  Worms.  IV.  NICHO 
LAS  BREAKSPEAE,  the  only  Englishman  who 
ever  filled  the  papal  chair,  became  pope  in  1154, 
and  died  in  September,  1159.  He  is  said  to 
have  left  England  as  a  beggar,  became  a  rnonk 
and  afterward  abbot  of  St.  Rufus  in  Rome,  and 
was  made  cardinal  bishop  of  Albano  by 
Eugenius  III.,  who  sent  him  as  his  apostle  or 
legate  to  Norway  and  Denmark.  On  the  death 
of  Anastasius  IV.  he  was,  much  against  his 
will,  elected  pope.  Rome  was  at  this  time  in  a 
state  of  great  confusion,  resulting  from  the 
reformatory  preaching  of  Arnold  of  Brescia. 
Immediately  after  his  election  he  placed  Rome 
under  interdict,  prohibited  all  religious  ser 
vices,  and  banished  Arnold,  who  was  subse 
quently  surrendered  on  Adrian's  demand  by 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  tried  and  executed 
at  Rome.  Shortly  afterward  Adrian  crowned 
Frederick  emperor  of  Germany ;  but  some 
trifling  dispute  occurring  as  to  the  forms  to  be 
observed  in  the  ceremony,  a  general  conflict 
took  place  between  the  Roman  and  German 
troops,  in  which  many  lives  were  lost.  Adrian 
afterward  became  involved  in  numerous  quar- 

"rels  with  Frederick,  which  was  the  origin  of  that 
bitter  enmity  between  the  papal  see  and  the 
Hohenstaufens,  which  ended  only  with  the 
fall  of  the  latter.  V.  A  Genoese,  succeeded 
Innocent  V.  in  1276,  and  died  five  weeks  after 
his  election.  VI.  Son  of  an  obscure  mechanic 
of  Utrecht  named  Boeijens,  born  in  1459,  died 
Sept.  24,  1523.  He  was  known  only  by  the 
name  of  Adrian,  was  educated  at  Louvain.  and 
became  professor  of  theology  there  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university.  Maximilian  I. 
chose  him  as  preceptor  of  his  grandson 
(Charles  V.),  and  subsequently  sent  him  as 
ambassador  to  Spain,  where  he  became  bishop 
of  Tortosa.  After  the  death  of  King  Ferdi 
nand  (1516)  he  shared  the  regency  with  Cardi 
nal  Ximenes,  and  in  1517  was  made  cardinal. 
On  the  departure  of  Charles  V.  for  Germany 


132 


ADKIANOPLE 


ADULTERATION 


in  1519  Adrian  was  left  sole  governor,  and 
showed  remarkable  feebleness  in  his  treatment 
of  a  powerful  insurrection  (war  of  the  com 
munities,  or  of  the  holy  league)  caused  by 
oppressive  taxes,  and  especially  by  the  ex 
cessive  favors  showered  upon  the  Flemings, 
but  which  was  finally  suppressed  by  a  council 
appointed  by  Charles  V.  He  was  elected  pope 
in  1522,  as  successor  of  Leo  X.,  and  entered 
Rome  Aug.  31.  The  simplicity  which  he  in 
troduced  at  the  papal  court,  contrasted  with 
the  magniticence  of  his  predecessor,  excited 
contempt  and  discontent  among  the  people ; 
while  his  ecclesiastical  reforms,  and  his  hu 
mility  in  acknowledging  the  errors  of  the 
papacy  while  dealing  with  the  schism  of 
Luther,  were  very  distasteful  to  the  clergy. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  pious  works,  in 
one  of  which,  published  after  his  accession, 
though  written  previously,  he  held  that  a  pope 
might  err  even  in  matters  of  faith. 

ADRIAXOPLE  (anc.  JIadrianopolis ;  Turk. 
Edirnch ;  Fr.  Andrinople),  a  city  of  Euro 
pean  Turkey,  capital  of  the  vilayet  of  Edirneh, 
situated  on  the  Maritza  (the  ancient  llebrus), 
in  ancient  Thrace,  about  180  m.  N.  W.  of  Con 
stantinople.  The  population  is  variously  esti 
mated  from  100,000  to  150,000,  at  least  one 
third  of  whom  are  Greeks,  and  the  rest  Turks, 
Armenians,  Jews,  Franks,  &c.  The  scenery 
of  the  city  is  beautiful;  the  gardens  on  the 
banks  of  the  Maritza  and  the  neighboring  vil 
lage  of  Ilisekel,  inhabited  by  the  wealthy  mer 
chants,  are  delightful ;  but  the  interior  of  the 
straggling  city  is,  like  that  of  most  Turkish 
towns,  dirty  and  desolate.  Even  the  pictur 
esque  effect  of  the  40  mosques,  among  which 
is  the  famous  one  of  Selim  II.,  built  of  ma 
terials  furnished  by  the  ruins  of  Famagosta  in 
Cyprus,  is  impaired  by  the  wretched  surround 
ings.  The  most  capacious  bazaar,  named  after 
Ali  Pasha,  is  the  centre  of  trade,  which  is  con 
siderable,  the  city  being  the  focus  of  the  whole 
of  Thrace.  It  is  also  the  residence  of  a  gov 
ernor  general,  a  Greek  archbishop,  foreign 
consuls,  'and  missionaries.  Wool,  silks,  cot 
ton,  dyestuffs,  carpets,  opium,  and  attar  of 
roses  are  the  principal  articles  of  commerce. 
Quince  preserve  is  one  of  the  special  products 
of  Adrianople. — The  town  was  founded  by  the 
emperor  Hadrian,  and  soon  attained  great  com 
mercial  and  military  importance.  It  was  the 
scene  of  famous  encounters  in  the  times  of  the 
Romans,  the  Byzantine  empire,  and  the  cru 
sades.  Frederick  Barbarossa  concluded  a  treaty 
there  in  1190  with  the  Greeks,  and  Baldwin  I. 
was  defeated  and  captured  in  the  city  in  1205 
by  the  Bulgarians.  Taken  by  the  sultan  Mu- 
rad  I.  in  1361,  it  remained  the  Turkish  capital 
until  the  taking  of  Constantinople  in  1453. 
Charles  XII.  spent  some  time  in  1713  in  the 
neighboring  castle  of  Timurtash,  previous  to 
his  residing  at  Demotika.  In  1829  Adrianople 
was  captured  by  the  Russian  general  Diebitsch, 
and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  there  on  Sept. 
14,  1829,  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  in  virtue 


_ 


of  which  the  Danubian  principalities  were  re 
stored  to  the  Porte.  The  Pruth,  and  from  its 
mouth  the  Danube,  were  made  the  dividing  line 
between  the  t\vo  countries,  and  the  boundaries 
of  their  respective  Asiatic  possessions  were 
agreed  upon.  Russia  obtained  the  privilege  of 
trading  with  all  parts  of  the  Turkish  empire, 
the  navigation  of  the  Danube,  the  Black  sea, 
and  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  passage  of  the 
Dardanelles,  upon  the  same  terms  with  the 
most  favored  nations,  besides  a  full  indemnity 
for  her  war  expenses. 

ADRIATIC  SEA,  the  portion  of  the  Mediter 
ranean  lying  between  Italy  on  the  W.  and 
Turkey  and  Austria  on  the  E.,  takes  its  name 
from  the  city  of  Adria.  Its  length  from  the 
strait  of  Otranto  (which  connects  it  with  the 
Ionian  sea)  to  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Trieste  is 
about  500  m. ;  its  average  width  about  130  m., 
which,  northward  from  the  mouth  of  the  Po, 
is  reduced  to  about  CO  m.  by  the  peninsula  of 
Istria.  The  Adriatic  receives  few  rivers  of  im 
portance,  except  the  Adige  and  the  Po.  The 
western  coast  is  generally  fiat  and  swampy ; 
its  harbors  are  few  and  poor.  The  eastern 
shores  are  steep  and  rocky,  and  the  numerous 
islands  along  the  Dalmatian  coast  furnish  ves 
sels  a  safe  shelter  from  storms.  The  north- 
Avestern  part  of  the  Adriatic  is  known  as  the 
gulf  of  Venice,  the  northeastern  as  the  gulf 
of  Trieste.  On  the  Neapolitan  coast  lies  the 
gulf  of  Manfredonia,  on  the  Dalmatian  the  gulf 
of  Cattaro,  and  on  the  Albanian  that  of  Drino. 
During  summer  the  navigation  of  the  Adriatic 
is  usually  free  from  danger,  but  the  S.  E.  winds 
that  blow  in  winter  produce  disastrous  ship 
wrecks.  Its  depth  betAveen  Dalmatia  and  the 
outlets  of  the  Po  is  22  fathoms ;  but  opposite 
Venice,  and  in  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
gulf  of  Trieste,  it  is  less  than  12  fathoms.  To 
the  southward  it  deepens  rapidly.  Its  Avaters 
are  more  salt  than  those  of  the  Atlantic.  -The 
tides  are  almost  imperceptible.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  dimensions  of  the  Adri 
atic  Avere  formerly  much  greater  than  at  pres 
ent,  and  that  they  have  been  contracted  by  the 
deposits  of  mud  made  by  the  streams  that 
empty  into  it.  On  the  western  coast  several 
lagoons  produced  by  sand  bars  are  being  rapidly 
transformed  into  meadoAvs  by  this  process.  The 
original  depth  of  the  Adriatic  has  likewise  been 
diminished  by  the  accumulations  of  sandy  marl 
and  testaceous  incrustations  at  the  bottom. 

ADI LLAM,  a  toAvn  of  ancient  Palestine,  in  the 
lowland  of  Judah,  the  scat  of  a  Canaanitish  king 
before  the  HebreAV  conquest.  It  Avas  fortified 
by  King  Rehoboam.  Its  location,  like  that  of 
the  "cave  of  Adullam,"  Avhere  David  hid  Avhen 
pursued  by  the  Philistines,  has  not  yet  been 
sufficiently  identified. 

ADI  ITERATION,  a  term  applied  to  the  de 
terioration  of  different  articles  of  food,  drugs, 
&c.,  by  mixing  them  with  cheap  and  inferior 
substances.  The  microscope  has  become  ft  very 
important  instrument  in  detecting  fraudulent 
mixtures.  In  Avheat  flour  it  detects  the  mix- 


ADULTERATION 


133 


ture  of  rice  flour,  and  in  the  maranta  arrow 
root  it  exposes  the  peculiar  structure  of  the 
cheap  potato  flour  and  sago.  In  mustard  and 
coft'ee  it  brings  out  the  peculiar  forms  of  chic- 
cory  root ;  and  in  the  former  turmeric  has  been 
detected  by  it,  when  this  was  added  only  in 
the  proportion  of  -^  part.  Poisonous  ingre 
dients,  being  mostly  of  a  mineral  nature,  are 
subjects  rather  of  chemical  analysis  than  of 
microscopic  examination.  There  is  an  instance, 
however,  of  cattle  having  been  poisoned  by 
eating  rape  or  oil  cake,  in  which  were  detected 
by  Dr.  llassall  the  ground  seeds  of  the  mustard. 
Chemical  analysis  in  such  a  case  could  discover 
nothing.  It  is  to  Dr.  llassall,  the  author  of 
scientific  papers  in  the  London  "Lancet,"  and 
of  several  works  on  food  and  its  adulterations, 
that  the  credit  is  principally  due  for  the  prog 
ress  made  in  this  department  of  science,  at 
least  in  its  applications  to  this  subject.  In 
some  vegetable  powders,  Dr.  llassall  has  suc 
ceeded  in  detecting  nine  different  vegetable 
productions.  The  mineral  poisons  that  are 
made  use  of  to  give  light  colors  to  confection 
ery,  and  the  fine  green  shades  to  pickles  and 
to  tea,  are  only  brought  to  view  by  chemical 
analysis.  By  these,  however,  they  are  sepa 
rated  quantitatively,  and  in  forms  that  are 
recognized  by  every  one.  The  mistaken  taste 
of  the  public  for  very  white  bread  leads  the 
baker  to  select  the  flour  from  which  the  more 
nutritious  portion  of  the  grain  has  been  sepa 
rated  by  the  miller,  and  to  make  this  flour  still 
more  white  he  adds  to  it  a  quantity  of  alum. 
Though  the  use  of  this  substance  in  bread  is 
forbidden  by  law  in  England,  it  was  found  in 
every  one  of  53  samples  that  were  examined 
for  it.  Cheaper  and  less  nutritious  kinds  of 
flour,  as  of  rice,  potatoes,  corn,  beans,  rye,  &c., 
are  mixed  with  wheaten  flour,  some  of  which, 
besides  their  direct  effect  in  lessening  the  value 
of  the  article,  also  cause  the  bread  to  absorb 
much  more  water,  and  thus  add  to  its  weight 
by  substituting  water  for  flour.  Carbonate  and 
sulphate  of  lime,  silicate  of  magnesia  in  the 
form  of  soapstone,  white  clay,  carbonate  of 
magnesia,  bone  dust,  and  bone  ashes,  have  all 
been  detected  in  flour  in  England.  In  the 
adulterations  of  tea,  especially  green  tea,  the 
ingenuity  of  the  Chinese  is  taxed  before  it 
leaves  their  country,  and  that  of  the  English 
on  receiving  it  in  their  own.  The  list  of  other 
plants  which  furnish  leaves  for  the  tea  chests, 
and  which  are  recognized  by  the  microscope, 
is  too  long  for  repetition  here,  and  so  of  the 
poisonous  mineral  ingredients,  including  arsen- 
ite  of  copper,  which  are  skilfully  used  to  make 
good  green  teas  of  unsalable  black  teas.  Cof 
fee  fares  somewhat  better,  its  adulterating  mix 
tures  being  of  a  more  harmless  nature,  such 
as  chiccory,  acorns,  mangel-wurtzel,  peas,  and 
beans,  and  for  the  use  of  the  poor  in  London 
roasted  horse  liver.  In  an  analysis  made  in  1872, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Massachusetts  board 
of  health,  a  pound  package  of  a  mixture  sold  as 
ground  coffee  was  found  to  contain  no  coffee 


whatever ;  but  coffee  sold  in  bulk  was  nearly 
always  found  pure.  Sugars  are  more  decidedly 
i'ree  from  adulteration,  but  the  brown  sugars, 
as  usually  imported,  are  found  from  the  acci 
dental  impurities  present,  and  from  the  im 
mense  numbers  of  live  animalcules,  to  be  in 
a  state  unfit  for  human  consumption.  The 
white  lump  sugars  are  very  pure,  and  any  insol 
uble  substance  like  sand  can  be  easily  detected. 
No  articles,  however,  have  been  the  subjects 
of  such  a  reckless  system  of  adulterations  as 
the  colored  sugar  confectionery.  Though  ex 
pected  to  be  used  principally  by  children,  the 
colors  painted  upon  the  candies  and  sweet 
meats  are  the  product  of  virulent  mineral  poi 
sons  ;  and  it  is  wonderful  what  a  variety  of 
these  have  been  made  applicable  to  this  pur 
pose.  Their  use,  however,  is  not  now  nearly 
so  great  as  it  was  in  former  times,  and  is  dis 
countenanced  by  reputable  dealers  in  these 
articles. — Wines  and  spirits,  from  their  high 
value  and  general  use,  as  also  from  the  diffi 
culty  of  detecting  the  cheap  mixtures  added 
to  them,  are  almost  universally  adulterated  to 
some  extent;  while  many  are  made  up  en 
tirely  of  ingredients  wholly  foreign  to  the 
country  which  produces  the  genuine  wine. 
The  substances  added  with  a  view  of  preserv 
ing  wines  are  sometimes  poisons,  lead  and  cop 
per  both  being  used,  the  former  in  the  state  of 
litharge.  In  England  the  favorite  port  wine 
is  thus  most  shamefully  treated,  besides  being 
manufactured  on  a  very  large  scale,  after  a  va 
riety  of  curious  recipes,  from  thousands  of 
pipes  of  spoiled  cider  imported  for  the  purpose, 
bad  brandy,  and  infusions  of  logwood  and  other 
dyestuffs.  The  champagnes,  which  are  more  in 
demand  in  this  country,  find  here  as  ingenious 
imitators ;  and  from  our  native  ciders,  with 
a  due  mixture  of  cheap  French  wine,  sugar, 
brandy,  and  a  little  lemon  or  tartaric  acid, 
more  champagne  is  bottled  than  ever  crosses 
the  Atlantic.  If  gooseberry  wine  is  easily  ob 
tained,  it  is  used  instead  of  cider  for  making 
good  champagne.  The  impossibility  of  supply 
ing  the'  demand  for  French  brandy,  and  the 
consequent  high  price  of  the  article,  have  led 
to  its  extensive  manufacture  in  France  from 
very  cheap  materials.  These  materials  are 
water  and  spirits  obtained  from  molasses,  beet 
root,  and  potatoes,  and  more  particularly  cheap 
whiskey,  which  is  sent  from  this  country  in 
large  quantities  to  come  back  brandy.  Burnt 
sugar  gives  the  desired  color,  and  the  fine  fla 
vor  is  made  to  suit  the  taste  by  skilful  admix 
tures  of  essential  oils  and  distilled  murk,  which 
is  the  refuse  skins  and  pips  of  the  grape  left 
after  the  wine  is  expressed.  This  stuff  is  im 
ported  into  England,  to  be  distilled  with  mo 
lasses  for  making  brandy.  Gin  is  largely  adul 
terated  with  water,  and  as  the  efl'ect  of  this  is 
to  make  the  liquor  whitish  and  turbid,  other 
substances  must  be  added  to  correct  this  and 
"  fine "  the  gin.  These  are  alum,  carbonate 
of  potash,  and  the  poisonous  acetate  of  lead. 
To  restore  its  strength  and  pungency,  cayenne 


ADULTERATION 


ADULTERY 


in  the  form  of  tincture  of  capsicum,  or  grains 
of  paradise,  are  employed ;  and  its  peculiar 
aroma  is  preserved  by  compounds  called  "  gin 
flavorings,"  the  ingredients  of  which  are  juni 
per  berries,  coriander  seeds,  almond  cake,  an 
gelica  root,  licorice  powder,  calamus  root, 
and  sulphuric  acid.  The  common  whiskey  of 
the  country  is  largely  diluted  in  the  distilleries 
with  water,  and  then  to  restore  the  strength 
the  lye  of  ashes,  which  is  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  is  added  in  sufficient  quantity  to  give 
the  liquor  the  character  which  is  expressed  by 
the  slang  name  by  which  it  is  called  of  "  rot- 
gut."  The  report  of  the  Massachusetts  board 
of  health,  already  referred  to,  shows  that  the 
adulteration  of  vinegar  with  sulphuric  acid  is  ex 
tensively  practised,  especially  in  wine  vinegars. 
Lead  is  also  found  in  vinegar,  often  coming  from 
lead  faucets. — It  has  been  supposed  that  the 
adulteration  of  drugs  was  very  generally  prac 
tised,  and  almost  without  check.  Were  this 
the  case,  medicine  would  indeed  be  in  bad 
repute ;  for  in  no  department  would  this  prac 
tice  be  followed  by  more  disastrous  conse 
quences.  That  it  is  largely  adopted,  the  analy 
ses  of  our  most  respectable  druggists  prove  ; 
but  these  also  show  that  the  system  may  be 
exposed,  and  in  a  great  measure  checked,  by 
those  disposed  to  do  so  ;  and  further,  that  the 
articles  used  for  sophistication  are  generally  of 
a  very  harmless  nature.  In  July,  1848,  a  law 
went  into  effect  in  this  country,  forbidding  the 
importation  of  these  dangerous  mixtures.  But 
while  the  effect  of  this  has  been  to  exclude  for 
eign  adulterations,  the  manufacture  of  them  at 
home  has  been  greatly  increased.  In  the  first 
year  after  its  establishment,  it  appears  by  the 
report  of  Dr.  J.  M.  Bailey  to  the  New  York 
academy  of  medicine  that  over  90,000  pounds 
of  drugs,  comprising  Peruvian  bark,  rhubarb, 
jalap,  senna,  and  various  other  kinds,  had  been 
rejected  and  condemned  in  the  ports  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  very  questionable,  how 
ever,  among  druggists,  whether  after  all  the 
sale  of  spurious  medicines  has  been  seriously 
diminished.  The  adulteration  of  Turkey  opi 
um  is  carried  on  as  a  regular  business  at  Mar 
seilles.  It  is  there  literally  made  over  again. 
The  greatest  variety  of  impurities  are  intro 
duced  into  it ;  besides  extracts  of  the  poppy  and 
other  plants,  sand,  ashes,  gums,  aloes,  small 
stones,  pieces  of  lead  and  iron,  seeds  and  stems 
of  plants,  are  freely  used.  In  England  the  same 
practice  has  been  so  successfully  pursued,  that 
what  appeared  to  be  the  best  Turkey  opium 
has  proved  entirely  destitute  of  the  active  prin 
ciple  of  the  drug.  The  essential  oils,  used 
more  particularly  for  perfumery,  are  especial 
objects  of  adulteration.  Oil  of  wormwood,  we 
notice  upon  the  test  book  of  one  of  our  most 
respectable  druggists,  ''warranted  pure  from 
Boston,"  contained  about  40  per  cent,  of  a 
mixture  of  chloroform  and  alcohol,  besides 
some  resin  or  fixed  oil.  Such  adulterations 
may  be  detected  by  the  greatly  reduced  boil 
ing  point  of  the  fluid.  Scammony,  which  is 


extensively  used  as  a  drastic  purgative,  was 
before  the  passage  of  the  law  always  very  im 
pure.  At  Smyrna  its  adulteration  is  still  a 
regularly  established  business.  The  article 
called  cake  scammony,  bought  and  sold  in  this 
country,  is  considered  good  if  it  is  found  to 
contain  20  per  cent,  of  the  genuine  material ; 
and  virgin  scammony  passes  if  it  contains  no 
more  than  20  per  cent,  of  foreign  matter.  This 
is  usually  starch.  Chalk  and  flour  are  also  used. 
ADILTERY,  the  voluntary  sexual  intercourse 
of  a  married  person  with  another  than  the  hus 
band  or  wife.  As  a  topic  of  the  law,  adultery 
|  may  be  considered,  first,  as  a  ground  of  di- 
I  vorce;  second,  as  a  criminal  offence.  I.  In 
civil  cases.  The  adultery  of  either  party  to  the 
marriage  contract  is  now  a  ground  for  absolute 
divorce  in  almost  all  Protestant  states.  It  was 
not  so,  however,  either  in  Scotland  or  England 
until  the  reformation ;  and  after  that,  though 
in  the  former  country  divorces  a  vinculo  were 
allowed  for  adultery,  the  law  remained  un 
changed  in  England  for  a  long  time,  and  as  it 
had  been  administered  in  the  spiritual  courts 
ever  since  the  Catholic  period ;  and  by  the  ec 
clesiastical  law  marriage  was  held  to  be  an  in 
dissoluble  contract,  and  divorces  from  it  were 
prohibited.  The  consequence  was,  that  though 
divorces  a  mensa  et  tlioro,  or  rather  separations 
from  bed  and  board,  were  granted,  the  only 
absolute  divorces  to  be  had  in  England  were 
those  procured  from  parliament  upon  petition. 
Proceedings  of  this  character  were  very  ex 
pensive  and  cumbrous ;  and  besides,  it  was  the 
almost  uniform  practice  of  parliament  to  grant 
divorces  to  husbands  only,  and  to  refuse  them 
to  wives.  The  divorce  act  of  20  and  21  Vic 
toria,  ch.  85,  has  partly  removed  this  invidious 
distinction ;  but  not  even  now  have  husband 
and  wife  in  England  equal  legal  rights  and 
remedies  in  this  respect.  Under  this  statute 
the  husband  may  have  a  dissolution  of  the  mar 
riage  when  the  wife  has  since  its  celebration 
been  guilty  of  adultery ;  but  the  wife  may  have 
such  relief  only  when  the  husband  since  the 
marriage  has  been  guilty  of  incestuous  adul 
tery  ;  or  of  adultery  with  bigamy ;  or  of  rape, 
sodomy,  or  bestiality;  or  of  adultery  coupled 
with  such  cruelty  as,  without  adultery,  would 
have  entitled  the  wife  to  a  divorce  from  bed 
and  board  before  the  statute ;  or  of  adultery 
coupled  with  desertion  without  reasonable  ex 
cuse  for  two  years  and  upward.  The  incestu 
ous  adultery  of  this  statute  is  declared  to  mean 
adultery  with  a  woman  with  whom  the  hus 
band  could  not  have  contracted  a  valid  mar 
riage,  on  account  of  her  relationship  to  him 
within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  affinity  or  con 
sanguinity  ;  and  the  bigamy  of  the  statute 
means  marriage  of  the  husband  with  another 
woman  during  the  life  of  his  lawful  wife, 
whether  within  or  beyond  the  realm. — It  has 
been  shown  that  by  the  common  law  of  Eng 
land,  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  this 
country,  adultery  was  ground  only  for  a  divorce 
a  mensa  ;  and  as  our  law  followed  that  of  the 


ADULTERY 


135 


parent  state,  the  common  law  of  the  United 
States  -was  to  the  same  effect.  But  as  the 
power  to  grant  such  divorces  was  vested  in 
England  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  no  such 
tribunals  were  ever  erected  here,  the  jurisdic 
tion  over  divorces  was  granted  to  our  common 
law  courts  by  special  statutes.  But  these  stat 
utes  did  not  limit  the  relief,  as  in  England,  to 
mere  separation,  but  have  almost  universally 
made  adultery  the  cause  for  absolute  divorce ; 
also,  here  as  in  Scotland,  the  law  makes  no  dis 
tinction  in  favor  of  the  husband,  but  adminis 
ters  the  remedy  in  favor  of  either  party  to  the 
marriage,  and  for  the  same  grounds. — In  refer 
ence  to  divorce,  it  is  immaterial  whether  the 
paramour  of  the  adulterous  husband  or  wife  be 
married  or  single.  It  is  essential  to  the  action 
for  divorce  that  the  adultery  be  voluntary. 
Thus  a  woman  is  not  guilty  of  it  in  having  in 
tercourse  with  a  man  whom  she  innocently 
supposed  to  be  her  husband,  nor  if  she  commit 
ted  the  act  in  a  state  of  insanity,  or  was  forced 
to  it  by  a  ravish er.  It  has  been  held  other 
wise  in  Pennsylvania  in  regard  to  insanity, 
Chief  Justice  Gibson  declaring  that  insanity  so 
great  as  to  efface  from  the  mind  of  the  wife 
the  first  lines  of  conjugal  fidelity  will  be  no  de 
fence  to  the  husband's  action  for  adultery. 
But  this  seems  hardly  sound,  and  it  is  probably 
not  law  in  any  other  state.  Adultery  may  be 
committed  by  the  contraction  of  a  new  mar 
riage  under  the  belief  that  the  former  husband 
or  wife  is  dead,  when  that  is  not  the  fact ;  for 
unless  the  period  of  absence  is  the  full  term 
prescribed  by  statute  for  founding  the  presump 
tion  of  death,  the  mere  belief  of  it  is  not 
deemed  innocent.  But  in  such  a  case,  if  the 
new  marriage  is  by  law  not  totally  void,  but 
only  voidable,  the  essential  adultery  is  not  com 
mitted  unless  the  parties  continue  to  cohabit 
after  the  passing  of  a  decree  against  them ;  and 
even  when  a  divorce  regular  in  form  has  been 
procured,  if  it  was  invalid  in  fact,  either  be 
cause  the  party  defendant  was  not  within  the 
jurisdiction  or  power  of  the  court  which  granted 
it,  or  for  any  other  reason,  the  plaintiff  in  the 
divorce  suit  may  be  guilty  of  adultery  in  con 
tracting  a  new  marriage. — The  bill  or  com 
plaint  for  divorce  on  the  ground  of  adultery 
must  in  general  allege  the  time  and  place  of  the 
commission  of  the  act,  and  the  name  of  the 
person  with  whom  it  was  committed.  The 
principle  which  requires  these  specifications  is 
that  the  defendant  is  entitled  to  be  informed 
with  reasonable  certainty  of  the  nature  of  the 
charge  made  against  him,  so  that  he  may  have 
an  opportunity  to  prepare  his  defence  intelli 
gently.  If,  however,  the  name  of  the  para 
mour  is  not  known  to  the  complainant,  the 
allegation  on  this  point  may  be  to  the  effect 
that  the  act  was  done  with  some  person 
unknown,  and  this  will  suffice  if  the  bill  is 
m  other  respects  specific  enough  to  make 
the  charge  definite  and  certain  on  the  whole. 
But  if  the  allegation  of  adultery  is  based  on 
circumstantial  evidence  of  its  commission,  as 


|  for  example  on  the  fact  that  the  defendant  is 
|  infected  with  a  venereal  disease,  or  that  a  wife 
I  is  found  pregnant  after  such  an  absence  of  the 
husband  as  precludes  the  presumption  of  ac 
cess  on  his  part,  the  complaint  or  libel  will  be 
good  if,  besides  charging  adultery  generally,  it 
suggests  such  reasonable  circumstances  as  fairly 
support  the  allegation. — The  charge  of  adultery 
is  made  out  by  proof  of  a  single  act ;  but  it  is 
not  necessary  that  the  court  or  jury  which  de 
cides  upon  the  case  should  be  furnished  with  de 
monstrative  proof  that  the  act  was  committed, 
or  be  absolutely  convinced  of  the  very  time  and 
place  when  or  where  it  was  committed.  From 
the  nature  of  the  act,  the  evidence  of  it  is  and 
must  be  in  the  mass  of  cases  only  circumstan 
tial.  Sometimes  the  circumstantial  evidence  is 
very  simple,  but  of  a  very  convincing  charac 
ter  ;  and  sometimes  the  nature  of  the  case  re 
quires  the  scrutiny,  comparison,  and  interpre 
tation  of  trains  of  circumstances  which  re 
garded  separately  are  insufficiently  criminating. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  former  sort  of  evidence, 
Lord  Stow  ell's  remark  may  be  quoted,  that 
"as  people,  according  to  the  old  saying,  do  not 
go  to  bawdy  houses  to  say  their  paternosters, 
it  is  impossible  that  one  can  have  gone  to  such 
a  place  for  any  but  improper  purposes;"  and 
to  have  done  so  is  universally  held  to  be  good 
proof  of  adultery.  Accordingly,  it  has  been 
held  to  be  sufficient  evidence  of  adultery,  pri- 
ma  facie  at  least,  that  a  man  has  gone  to  a 
brothel  and  shut  himself  into  a  room  with  a 
prostitute ;  and  the  same  is  true  if  a  married 
woman  goes  to  such  a  house  with  another  man 
than  her  husband,  or  even  alone.  Of  course, 
in  both  cases  proof  of  innocence,  or  better  of 
an  innocent  purpose,  is  admissible,  though  such 
evidence  would  not  have  much  weight  in  most 
cases.  The  mere  fact  that  a  man  and  woman 
live  together  in  the  same  house,  even  with  the 
common  reputation  of  being  married,  while 
they  are  not  so  in  fact,  would  probably  not, 
without  other  suspicious  circumstances,  be  held 
sufficient  proof  of  adultery ;  though  it  would  be 
otherwise  if  the  parties  gave  themselves  out  to 
be  husband  and  wife.  With  reference  to  cases 
where  the  intent  of  the  defendant  is  less 
clear,  and  where  the  approaches  to  the  act 
have  been  less  bold  and  open,  the  courts  have 
used  such  language  as  this :  that  it  is  impossible 
to  lay  down  in  the  form  of  a  rule  what  circum 
stances  shall  or  shall  not  constitute  satisfactory 
proof  of  the  fact  of  adultery,  because  the  same 
facts  may  constitute  such  proof  or  not,  as  they 
are  modified  or  influenced  by  different  circum 
stances.  But  there  must  be  on  the  whole  sat 
isfactory  proof  that  a  criminal  attachment  or 
purpose  existed  between  the  parties,  and  that 
opportunities  occurred  when  the  intercourse  in 
which  it  is  clear  that  the  parties  intended  to 
indulge  might  have  taken  place.  If,  for  ex- 
|  ample,  a  married  woman  were  shown  by  un- 
1  doubted  proof  to  have  been  in  an  equivocal 
position  with  a  man  not  her  husband,  leading 
to  a  suspicion  of  her  adultery ;  if  it  were  proved 


136 


ADULTERY 


that  she  had  shown  an  improper  fondness  for 
the  man;  if  they  had  been  detected  in  clan 
destine  correspondence,  had  had  private  meet 
ings,  or  made  passionate  declarations;  if  her 
affection  had  been  alienated  from  her  hus 
band,  or  it  appeared  that  her  mind  and  heart 
were  already  depraved,  and  nothing  was  want 
ing  but  an  opportunity  to  consummate  the 
guilty  purpose;  then  proof  that  such  oppor 
tunity  had  occurred  in  connection  with  some 
or  all  of  these  other  circumstances,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  case,  would  lead  to  the 
satisfactory  conclusion  that  the  act  had  been 
committed.  The  guilty  consummation,  in  short, 
may  be  fairly  and  conclusively  presumed  from 
such  circumstances  of  conduct  as,  on  grounds 
of  common  experience  and  common  sense, 
would  lead  the  discreet  and  careful  judgment 
of  a  reasonable  and  just  man  to  that  conclusion. 
But,  on  the  same  principles,  the  conclusion 
may  not  be  fairly  or  justly  deduced,  even 
when  a  witness  testifies  to  the  actual  fact 
of  adultery ;  for  his  testimony  may  be  un 
worthy  of  credit,  either  because  he  is  mistaken 
or  because  he  does  not  speak  the  truth.  On 
this  ground  the  direct  but  uncorroborated 
evidence  of  two  prostitutes  as  to  the  very  act 
has  been  held  insufficient  proof  of  it;  and  on 
the  same  principle,  the  testimony  even  of  the 
paramour  of  the  defendant  may  require  con 
firmation.  Such  a  person,  it  has  been  said,  is 
an  accomplice,  and  all  the  legal  considerations 
applicable  to  such  a  witness  must  be  applied 
to  him  or  her.  Upon  the  same  principles  and 
within  the  same  spirit  of  construction  already 
suggested,  acts  in  themselves  rather  innocent 
and  indifferent  may  take  the  color  of  guilt 
from  proof  of  other  circumstances  attending 
them.  Thus  the  mere  visit  of  a  married  woman 
to  the  lodgings  of  a  single  man  has  been  held 
insufficient,  alone,  to  establish  criminality ;  but 
the  act  receives  a  different  complexion  when 
there  is  also  proof  of  correspondence  or  other  im 
proper  conduct  between  the  parties.  So,  though 
a  mere  correspondence  or  intimacy  with  the  al 
leged  paramour  would  not  be  by  itself  sufficient, 
proof  that  there  had  been  falsehood  or  conceal 
ment  in  respect  to  these  things  might  justify 
the  inference  of  guilt.  Again,  the  difference 
between  the  higher  and  lower  classes  of  society 
in  their  habits  of  life  and  social  manners  must 
be  taken  into  the  account  in  passing  upon  the 
behavior  of  parties  in  certain  instances.  -For 
indelicate  acts  and  demeanor,  which  among  the 
vulgar  may  be  consistent  with  innocence,  may 
deserve  no  such  favorable  significance  when 
observed  among  those  whose  breeding  is  finer. 
(See  DIVORCE.)  II.  The,  criminal  offence.  Adul 
tery,  by  which  is  here  meant  the  mere  private 
act,  is  not  a  crime  nor  indictable  at  common 
law;  Before  the  famous  adultery  act  of  1050, 
in  the  time  of  the  commonwealth,  there  was  no 
law  in  England  against  adultery  and  the  kindred 
acts  as  criminal  offences.  This  statute  intro 
duced  at  once  the  utmost  severity,  ordaining 
death  for  incest  and  adultery,  and  three 


months'  imprisonment  for  simple  fornication, 
and  making  a  second  offence  felony  without  cler 
gy.  The  act  was  repealed  at  the  restoration, 
aiid  nothing  was  substituted  in  its  place.  Adul 
tery,  however,  has  been,  theoretically  at  least, 
punishable  in  England  by  virtue  of  unwritten 
law  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  though  the  of 
fence  has  never  been  pursued  with  any  great  or 
systematic  vigor ;  and  it  may  be  remembered 
that  Blackstone  charges  the  framers  of  the 
canon  law  with  an  improper  levity  in  respect 
to  this  sort  of  offences  from  their  own  aptitude 
to  commit  them.  In  Scotland  there  is  still,  or 
until  very  recently  there  was,  on  its  statute 
book  a  law  making  adultery  and  incest  capital 
offences.  The  statute,  as  to  adultery  at  all 
events,  has  been  long  in  disuse. — In  many  of 
the  United  States  adultery  is  made  criminal  by 
special  statutes,  but  in  as  many  more  it  is  not 
criminal.  But  though  the  simple  act  is  not  a 
crime  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Lou 
isiana,  and  other  states,  yet  in  many  of  them 
open  and  notorious  adultery  is  criminal.  The 
nature  of  the  offence  of  adultery,  created  by 
statutes,  is  sometimes  clearly  defined  by  their 
provisions;  but  many  of  the  statutes  on  this 
head  simply  declare  the  punishment  of  adul 
tery,  using  the  word  as  if  it  had  a  precisely  as 
certained  meaning.  In  such  cases  it  has  been 
necessary  for  the  courts  to  determine  what  acts 
were  intended  to  be  covered  by  the  word ;  and 
upon  this  point  has  arisen  an  extreme  diversity 
of  opinion  on  account  of  the  different  views 
which  have  been  taken  of  the  policy  of  the  law 
on  the  subject.  Thus  it  has  been  sometimes 
said  that  an  unmarried  man's  illicit  intercourse 
with  a  married  woman  is  adultery  on  his  part, 
because  he  may  impose  a  spurious  issue  upon 
the  husband ;  and,  upon  the  same  ground,  that 
a  man,  though  married,  does  not  commit  adul 
tery  in  having  intercourse  with  an  unmarried 
woman,  because  in  that  case  there  is  no  possi 
bility  of  that  result.  It  has  also  been  said  that 
when  either  of  the  parties  to  the  act  is  married, 
though  the  other  is  not,  both  commit  adultery. 
In  Massachusetts  the  statute  expressly  provides 
that  when  the  crime  is  committed  between  a 
married  woman  and  an  unmarried  man,  the 
latter  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  criminal  adul 
tery,  and  be  liable  to  the  punishment  prescribed 
for  that  offence.  The  statute  of  Minnesota  is 
to  the  same  effect.  In  the  absence  of  such  pro 
visions,  it  has  been  held  in  New  Jersey,  for  ex 
ample,  that  in  such  a  case  the  man  does  not 
commit  the  crime,  and  in  Virginia  that  his  act 
is  only  fornication.  In  Connecticut  the  statute 
provides  that  "every  man  and  every  married 
woman  who  shall  commit  the  crime  of  adul 
tery  with  each  other  shall  be  punished  with 
imprisonment."  The  statute  of  Iowa  declares 
that  when  the  crime  is  committed  between 
persons  only  one  of  whom  is  married,  both  are 
guilty  of  adultery,  and  shall  be  punished  ac 
cordingly.  It  seems  on  the  whole  to  be  the 
prevailing  and  better  rule,  when  positive  enact 
ments  do  not  forbid  it,  that  when  one  of  the 


ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE 


ADVERTISEMENT 


137 


parties  to  the  act  is  married  and  the  other  is 
not,  it  is  adultery  in  the  married  one,  whether 
man  or  woman,  and  only  fornication  in  the 
other.  From  this  rule  results  as  the  best  defi 
nition  that  can  he  Driven  of  the  offence,  that 
criminal  adultery  is  the  voluntary  sexual  inter 
course  of  a  married  person  with  another  than 
the  husband  or  wife ;  and  this  is  the  position 
taken  by  Mr.  Bishop,  the  highest  American  au 
thority  on  this  and  the  cognate  topics  of  the 
law. — Even  though  the  single  private  act  of 
adultery  is  not  criminal  or  indictable  at  com 
mon  law,  yet  within  the  principle  that  the  gen 
eral  law  will  punish  all  acts  which  offend  against 
public  morality,  adultery  may  take  so  gross  and 
openly  indecent  a  form  as  to  be  regarded  as 
criminal  at  common  law.  But  offences  of  this 
character  are  in  general  made  the  subject  of 
special  statutes.  Such  crimes,  especially  the 
living  together  in  adultery,  are  not  ordinarily 
regarded  by  the  law  as  having  been  committed 
by  mere  occasional  acts  of  private  intercourse, 
but  there  must  be  proof  of  a  general  course  of 
misbehavior,  an  habitual  living  or  lodging  to 
gether,  though  it  is  not  impossible  that  the 
complete  offence  may  be  committed  in  a  single 
day.  In  several  of  the  states  it  is  provided 
that  no  criminal  prosecution  for  adultery  shall 
be  commenced  except  on  the  complaint  of  the 
husband  or  wife  of  a  guilty  party. 

ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE,  "Associations  for 
the.  The  British  association  for  the  advance 
ment  of  science  was  formed  in  1831,  principally 
through  the  energy  of  Sir  David  Brewster,  sup 
ported  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  Sir  John  F.  W. 
Herschel,  Mr.  Charles  Babbage,  Messrs.  Forbes, 
Johnston,  and  Robison  of  Edinburgh,  and  Mr. 
Murchison  of  London.  The  main  feature  which 
distinguishes  it  is  an  annual  gathering  of  its 
members,  at  which  each  one  who  has  made 
what  he  supposes  a  real  advance  reads  his  pa 
per  for  the  criticism  of  laborers  in  the  same  de 
partment  of  science.  The  association  also  pro 
cures  reports  upon  the  state  of  each  particular 
science,  its  progress,  and  its  needs,  as  a  guide 
to  inquiry.  The  effect  of  the  formation  of  this 
society  upon  the  state  of  science  in  England 
has  been  very  marked.  The  first  meeting,  in 
September,  1831,  consisted  of  about  200  mem 
bers;  the  second,  June,  1832,  numbered  700; 
the  third,  900 ;  and  the  fourth,  in  September, 
1834, 1,390.  The  transactions  are  annually  pub 
lished  in  octavo  volumes  of  about  500  pages, 
and  these  contain  a  record  of  nearly  every  im 
portant  step  taken  in  British  science  during  the 
past  40  years.  In  the  reports  included  in  these 
transactions  are  also  found  the  discoveries  of 
continental  and  American  men  of  science. — The 
American  association  for  the  advancement  of 
science  was  formed  in  September,  1847,  by  the 
association  of  American  geologists  and  natural 
ists.  The  first  meeting  of  the  new  association 
was  held  in  Philadelphia  in  September,  1848, 
and  although  the  original  association  of  geolo 
gists  consisted  of  only  21  members,  461  names 
were  enrolled  in  the  first  list  of  members  of 


the  new  society,  which  now  embraces  nearly 
every  scientific  man  in  the  United  States.  The 
2d  meeting  was  held  at  Cambridge  in  Au 
gust,  1849;  the  3d  at  Charleston,  March,  1850; 
the  4th  at  New  Haven,  August,  1850;  the  5th 
at  Cincinnati,  May,  1851 ;  the  6th  at  Albany, 
August,  1851  ;  the  7th  at  Cleveland,  July, 
1853;  the  8th  at  "Washington,  April,  1854;  the 
9th  at  Providence,  August,  1855  ;  the  10th  at 
Albany,  August,  1856;  the  llth  at  Montreal, 
August,  1857;  the  12th  at  Baltimore,  May, 
1858;  the  13th  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  August, 
1859;  the  14th  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  August, 

1860.  The  15th  was  appointed  for  April  17, 

1861,  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  but  was  postponed  in 
consequence  of  the  civil  war,  and  after  an  inter 
val  of  several  years  was  finally  held  at  Buffalo 
in  August,  1866.    The  1 6th  was  held  at  Burling 
ton,  Vt.,  in  August,  1867;  the  17th  at  Chicago, 
August,  1868 ;  the  18th  at  Salem,  Mass.,  August, 

|  1869;  the  19th  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  August,  1870; 
the  20th  at  Indianapolis,  August,  1871 ;  the  21st 
at  Dubuque,  Iowa  (substituted  for  San  Fran 
cisco),  August,  1872.  The  objects  and  methods 

i  of  the  association  are  identical  with  those  of 
the  British  society.  The  proceedings  of  each 
meeting  form  an  octavo  volume  of  about  300 
pages,  and  this  series  of  volumes  contains  the 
most  valuable  results  of  American  scientific  in 
quiry  during  the  last  25  years.  The  mathe 
matical  papers  are  not  usually  published  in  de 
tail,  but  the  titles  of  all  papers  offered  at  the 
meeting  are  published,  and  thus  the  volumes 
furnish  at  least  a  record  of  the  growth  of 
American  science,  a  growth  partly  due,  as  it  is 
well  known,  to  the  influence  of  this  association. 
The  usual  number  of  members  is  about  700. 

ADVENT,  the  period  of  four  weeks  preced 
ing  Christmas,  appointed  by  several  Christian 
churches  to  be  observed  in  honor  of  the  ap 
proach  of  the  anniversary  of  Christ's  nativity. 
It  formerly  occupied"  six  weeks,  and  that  is  still 
the  case  in  the  Greek  church.  It  commences 

1  with  the  Sunday  nearest  to  St.  Andrew's  day 
(Nov.  30).  In  England  and  some  parts  of  the 

|  European  continent,  marriages  can  be  performed 
only  by  special  license  during  this  period. 

ADVERTISEMENT,  a  public  notification.  An 
nouncements  in  the  public  journals  known  as 
advertisements  appeared  while  journalism  was 
in  its  infancy.  The  Acta  Diurna  of  the  Ro 
mans,  the  Gazzetta  of  the  Venetians,  and  the 
affixes  of  the  French  belong  rather  to  the 
crude  devices  which  led  to  the  creation  of 
journalism  than  to  the  history  of  advertising ; 
while  the  stamping  and  bill-posting  processes 
of  ancient  times,  and  the  fence  and  rock  deco 
rations  of  to-day,  sometimes  considered  in 
connection  with  advertising,  are  little  else  than 
ingenious  sign-painting.  The  advertisement 
proper  arose  with  periodical  literature,  and 
must  be  considered  in  connection  with  its  de- 

I  velopment.  The  first  regular  newspaper,  "  The 
Certain  Newes  of  this  Present  Week,"  pub 
lished  in  England  in  1622,  did  not  contain  any 
advertisements;  but  they  appeared  in  some- 


138 


ADVERTISEMENT 


thing  like  a  resemblance  to  the  present  form  in  '• 
1652,   in   a  paper  called  the  "Mercurius  Po-  ; 
liticus."     It  needed  but  a  short  time  to  pop-  | 
ularize  the  idea,  and  those  notices  which  are 
still  called  "hue  and  cry  advertisements  "- 
for   thieves    and    runaway    apprentices — soon  j 
became   prominent    features    in     the    papers,  i 
Books   were   the   earliest   articles   advertised,  | 
and  were  followed  by  groceries — tea  (or,  as  it  I 
was  then  called,  "tcha")  being  the  first  article  j 
of   merchandise   announced.      By    1688   Eng-  j 
land  had  added  a  sufficient  number  of  news-  ! 
papers  to  her  meagre  list  to  cause  advertise-  I 
ments,  especially  those  of  popular  amusements,  j 
to  be  eagerly  looked  for.     The  plague  brought  j 
the  first  medical  advertisements.     Under  Wil-  | 
liam  and  Mary  a  gratuitous  journal  was  started 
devoted  solely  to  advertisements.     It  lived  but 
two  years.     A  similar  enterprise  a  few  years 
afterward  succeeded.     In  1700  advertising  had 
become   very  general,    and  in   1710   we  find 
Addison  reviewing  the  advertisements  of  his 
time,  "  printed  with  little  cuts  and  figures  "- 
this  being  the  first  we  hear  of  pictorial  adver 
tisements.     In  1800  a  crude  system  of  classify 
ing  and  arranging  advertisements  was  adopted. 
The  further  progress  of  advertising  up  to  the 
time  when  the  enterprise  of  the  United  States 
pushed  it  onward  may  be  followed  out  in  the 
history  of   the  London  "Times,"  which   was 
established  in  1788.     The  "Times "did  little 
to  reduce  advertising  to  a  system,  but  it  demon 
strated  its  value  to  the  public,  and  its  impor 
tance  in  the  economy  of  newspapers.     In  1865 
a  single  number  is  said  to  have  contained  2,575 
advertisements,   and  other  numbers  are  cited 
containing  still  more. — The  first  printing  press 
was  brought  to  America  in  1629.     In  1704  the 
first  regular  newspaper,    "  The  Boston  News 
Letter,"   was    established.      This    was    often 
without  a  single  advertisement,  and  had  been 
published     40     years    before     its    circulation 
reached   300.      It  needed  15  years  after  the 
establishment  of    the   first  paper    to    add    a 
second  and  third.     "With  the  increase  of  ship 
ping  interests  newspapers  appeared  in  larger 
numbers,  and  advertisements  began  to  multi 
ply.      In   1725   the  first  newspaper  in   New 
York,  the  "Gazette,"  was  commenced;    and 
in    1728     Philadelphia    founded    the  journal 
which    at   its   40th   number   passed   into    the 
hands  of  Benjamin  Franklin.     At  this  time  the 
country  contained  but  seven  newspapers.     In 
1775   there    were    34.      Then   came   the    war 
of  independence,  which  put  journalism  back 
again ;  but  after  its  close  the  country  steadily 
advanced  in  periodical  literature.     In  1787  the 
first  daily  journal,  the  "Independent  Gazette," 
was   commenced   in   New    York,   and   in   the 
following  year  (the  same  in  which  the  Lon 
don  "  Times  "  was  established)  it  contained  34 
advertisements.      It   seems   from   these    facts 
that   England   and    America    made    advertis 
ing  a  serious  business  more  nearly  at  the  same 
time  than  is  usually  supposed.     England  had 
largely  the  advantage,  however,  in  population 


and  in  developed  resources.  Some  of  the 
larger  tradesmen  in  London  soon  learned  that 
those  who  advertised  most  liberally  received 
the  most  custom.  Competition  among  dealers 
created  a  large  advertising  business,  which 
certain  special  advertisers  carried  so  far  as  to 
astonish  the  world,  until  the  growth  of  Ameri 
can  advertising  enterprise  developed  the  fact 
that  heavy  advertising  was  not  so  much  a  bold 
as  a  strictly  legitimate  operation  on  the  part  of 
business  men.  Various  food  and  medicinal 
preparations  and  many  fancy  articles  were 
advertised  in  England  until  the  yearly  amounts 
paid  the  newspapers  on  account  of  a  single 
article  sometimes  reached  $100,000  to  $150,000. 
Cuts  became  almost  innumerable,  and,  with 
crests  and  monograms,  appeared  in  every 
paper  which  would  admit  them.  The  advance 
of  journalism  in  America  can,  up  to  a  certain 
time,  be  best  given  in  its  statistics,  it  being 
understood  that  advertising  fully  kept  pace 
with  it  and  to  a  considerable  extent  made  it 
possible.  In  1794  the  "Commercial  Adver 
tiser"  was  commenced  in  New  York,  and  in 
1801  the  "Evening  Post."  Both  journals  had 
considerable  influence  and  grew  rapidly.  The 
year  1810  found  32  papers  in  the  state  of 
Massachusetts,  and  10  years  afterward  there 
were  690  in  the  United  States.  In  1830  there 
were  1,000,  and  in  1840,  1,401.  The  New 
York  "Sun,"  founded  in  1833,  the  "Herald," 
in  1835,  and  the  "Tribune,"  in  1841,  had  in 
troduced  some  new  ideas,  which  not  only 
enlarged  the  power  and  influence  of  journal 
ism,  but  greatly  popularized  advertising. 
Transient  advertising  was  encouraged,  it  being 
discovered  that  a  regular  run  of  small  adver 
tisements,  at  fair  rates,  continued  the  year 
round,  paid  better  than  contracts  for  the  same 
space  devoted  to  long  advertisements  at  low 
rates,  and  which  lasted  only  during  the  busi 
ness  season.  A  variety  in  the  classes  of  adver 
tisements  was  also  introduced,  and  is  almost 
peculiar  to  American  newspapers.  For  in 
stance,  the  advertiser  could  insert,  if  he  chose, 
amusing  "reading"  or  "local"  notices,  in 
which  matters  interesting  the  public  mind  were 
ingeniously  joined  with  the  goods  for  sale. 
"Business  Notices"  and  "Special  Notices" 
are  other  varieties  of  early  adoption,  for  which 
higher  prices  are  obtained  than  for  the  ordi 
nary  advertisement.  In  1860  the  United 
I  States  contained  the  surprising  number  of 
j  5,253  newspapers.  The  art  of  advertising 
|  was  growing  into  something  like  system.  Ex 
pedients  of  all  kinds  were  used.  Odd  and 
startling  cuts  were  adopted  in  spite  of  the 
newspaper  rule  (not  always  enforced)  of  double 
prices  for  such  figures;  while  the  old-fash 
ioned,  simple  style  of  advertising  grew  to  very 
large  proportions,  and  enabled  almost  every 
village  in  the  country  to  have  its  newspaper. 
As  the  business  became  so  extensive  and  the 
territory  to  be  covered  so  large,  advertising 
agencies  became  necessary.  These  exist  to-day 
in  England  and  continental  Europe,  but  have 


ADVERTISEMENT 


ADVOCATUS  DIABOLI. 


139 


by  no  means  the  importance  which  from  the 
nature  of  the  case  they  have  attained  in  the 
United  States.     A  few   large  houses — one  of 
which  situated  in  New  York  has  transactions 
to   the  amount  of  nearly  one  million  dollars 
per  annum — do  most  of  the  agency  business. 
It  requires  a  high  reputation  for  responsibility 
either  to  obtain  the  advertising  or  secure  favor 
able   contracts    with    the    newspapers.      The 
method  pursued  by  the  better  class  of  agents 
is  simple  in  principle,  but  the  details  require 
great  labor  and  attention.     The  largest  house 
in  the  United  States  employs  about  40  men 
permanently,    and   occupies    one  of    the   best 
offices  in  New  York.     It  has  its  own  printing 
establishment,  and  keeps  tiles  of  nearly  6,000 
periodicals.      The     advertiser    gives    in     his 
"copy,"  chooses  the  papers  in  which  it  is  to 
appear,  and  receives  an  estimate  of  the  cost. 
The  copy  is  printed,  forwarded  to  publishers, 
and  inserted  in  the  space  contracted  for.     The  • 
agent  receives  his  commission  entirely  from  the  : 
paper,  though  it  will  be  understood  that  he 
saves  the  advertiser  large  sums  in  postage  or 
travelling  expenses  and  much  time  and  trouble. 
The  papers,  as  fast  as  returned  with  the  adver 
tisements,  are  entered,  checked,  and  verified, 
after  which  they  are  filed  away  for  the  inspec- 
tion  of  the  advertiser  if  he  desires  to  examine 
them.     The  first  advertising  agency  in  America 
was    established    in    1828    by    Mr.     Orlando 
Bourne,    and    was   followed   in    1840    by    the 
founding  of  similar  agencies  in  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  and  New  York,  by  Mr.  V.  B.  Palmer. 
It  was  not  until  about  1860  that  anything  like 
full  lists  of  newspapers  appeared  and  the  busi 
ness  was  systematized.     A  complete  "Amer 
ican  Newspaper  Directory  "  is  now  published 
by  a  New  York  advertising  agency,  and  an 
nually  revised ;    and  the  same  firm  publish  a 
weekly  "Newspaper  Reporter,"  which   fully  j 
records  the  occurrences  in  the  newspaper  and  i 
advertising  world. — The  number  of  large  cities  ! 
in  the  United  States  having  a  powerful  and  ! 
thoroughly  organized    press   would    naturally 
give   rise   to  the  supposition  that  advertising 
was  cheaper  here  than  in  England,  where  the  ' 
very  large  papers  are  few  in  number.      But  ; 
such  is  not  the  case.     "Harper's  Weekly,"  for 
example,  considered  an  important  medium  for  i 
"scattered"  advertising,  receives   from  $1.50  i 
to  $2.50  per  line,  and  "Frank  Leslie's  Illus-  ; 
trated   Newspaper"  from  $1   to  $1.50.     The  | 
"  New  York  Weekly  Tribune  "  receives  from  $2 
to  $5  per  line,  the  latter  price  being  for  notices 
inserted  among  the  news.     The   "  New  York 
Weekly,"  a  story  paper,  receives  $3  per  line.  '• 
The  "  Fireside  Companion,"  "  Harper's  Bazar," 
"The  Scientific  American,"  and  others,  charge 
$1  per  line,  although  the  last-named  paper,  to 
protect   its   smaller   advertisers   against  being 
overshadowed,  has  adopted  the  peculiar  rule  j 
of  charging   25    cents  per   line  additional  for  I 
advertisements  over  four  lines  in  a  certain  part  \ 
of  the  sheet  devoted  to   this  purpose.      The  j 
larger  dailies  in  New  York  receive  from  20  to  i 


|  40  cents  per  line  for  ordinary  advertisements, 
|  and  $1  to  $2.50  per  line  for  notices  insert 
ed  among  the  general  reading  matter. — The 
amounts  expended  by  certain  advertisers, 
though  often  exaggerated,  have  been  very 
large.  Ten  years  ago,  when  boldness  was  less 
a  habit  than  to-day,  $150,000  was  spent  by  one 
firm  in  New  York  for  a  year's  advertising. 
Since  that  time  the  same  sum  has  been  ex 
pended  repeatedly.  A  patent  medicine  dealer 
in  New  York  has  several  times  advertised  to 
the  extent  of  $250,000  a  year.  To  advertise 
to  the  amount  of  $100,000  a  year  now  excites 
little  surprise  in  the  United  States,  and  many 
names  might  be  given  of  those  who  do  not 
use  less  than  $50,000  or  $25,000  for  their 
!  yearly  advertising.  Some  of  the  larger  incor 
porated  companies  are  also  heavy  advertisers. 
1  This  is  a  peculiar  feature  in  this  country,  as 
;  most  of  these  interests  are  advertised  in 
Europe  by  a  brief  card,  if  at  all.  The  "  Union 
Pacific  Railway  Company,"  and  also  the 
"Northern  Pacific,"  are  stated  to  have  adver 
tised  to  the  extent  of  between  $400,000  and 
$500,000  in  a  little  over  two  years.  Insurance 
companies  expend  large  amounts  in  this  way, 
and  banking  houses,  brokers,  and  those  con 
nected  with  shipping  interests,  all  find  adver 
tising  advantageous.  Nor  are  their  advertise 
ments  confined  to  any  single  class  of  news 
papers.  When  Jay  Cooke  advertised  the 
bonds  of  the  United  States,  his  announcements 
were  seen  throughout  the  country.  The  bank 
er's  orders  to  his  manager  were,  "Give  the 
advertisement  to  all  those  newspapers  that  are 
alive  enough  to  apply  for  it."  The  faith  of 
Americans  in  advertising  may  best  be  shown 
in  the  fact  that  newspaper  publishers  and  the 
largest  advertising  agents  are  often  liberal  ad 
vertisers.  The  sum  of  $3,500  has  been  paid  by 
"  The  Sun  "  for  an  advertisement  in  one  number 
of  a  publication.  The  weekly  paper  which  is 
supposed  to  have  the  largest  circulation  in  the 
country,  the  "New  York  Ledger,"  gained  it 
almost  exclusively  by  advertising.  In  1867 
the  government  tax  was  collected  on  nearly 
$10,000,000  worth  of  advertisements.  New 
York  state  paid  nearly  $100,000  tax,  at  3  per 
cent,  (of  which  the  city  alone  paid  over  $80,- 
000),  Philadelphia  $30,000,  Boston  $23,000, 
Cincinnati  $16,000,  Chicago  $15,000,  and  New 
Orleans  and  St.  Louis  each  over  $13,000.  In 
the  five  years  1867-'72  the  amount  paid  by 
the  public  for  their  advertising  must  have 
reached  $15,000,000  annually.  The  use  of 
pictures  in  the  advertising  columns  of  news 
papers  is  gaining  constantly  in  popularity,  and 
less  and  less  resistance  is  made  to  it  by  pub 
lishers.  Of  the  150  religious  newspapers,  most 
of  which  refused  cuts  two  or  three  years  ago, 
all  but  16  now  accept  them. 
ADVOCATE.  See  LAWYER. 
ADVOCATUS  DIABOLI,  in  the  Catholic  church, 
the  speaker  or  writer  who  shows  cause  against 
the  canonization  of  a  person  proposed  for  saint 
hood.  The  advocate  who  defends  the  proposed 


140 


ADVOWSON 


saint  is  called  advocatm  Dei.  The  advocatus 
diaboli  insists  upon  the  weak  points  of  the 
good  man's  or  woman's  life.  Hence  the  name 
is  sometimes  popularly  applied  to  those  who 
detract  from  the  characters  of  good  men. 

ADVOWSON,  in  English  law,  the  right  of  pre 
senting  to  a  vacant  living  in  the  church.  Ad- 
vowson,  according  to  Blackstone,  signifies  tak 
ing  into  protection  or  patronage.  When  the 
lord  of  a  manor  built  a  church  and  endowed  it, 
he  acquired  a  right  of  nominating  the  minis 
ters,  provided  they  were  canonically  qualified. 
Advowsons  are  property,  and  as  such  purchas 
able,  provided  that  certain  laws  for  the  pre 
vention  of  simony  are  not  infringed  in  the  pur 
chase.  These  laws  are,  however,  more  fre 
quently  evaded  than  obeyed.  The  most  ordi 
nary  form  of  advowson  is  the  presentation  of  a 
duly  qualified  clergyman  to  the  bishop  for  insti 
tution  into  the  living.  The  bishop  has  the  right 
to  reject  the  candidate  presented  ;  but  in  a  few 
rare  cases  the  patron  has  a  right  of  presenting 
a  person  without  the  bishop's  interference. 
The  benefices  of  the  church  of  England  are  in 
every  case  subjects  of  presentation.  They  are 
nearly  12,000  in  number  ;  the  advowson  of  more 
than  half  of  them  belongs  to  private  persons,  and 
of  the  remainder  to  the  crown,  bishops,  deans 
and  chapters,  universities,  and  colleges.  The  in 
cumbents  are  maintained  by  tithes,  or  since  the 
tithes  commutation  act  by  taxes  in  lieu  of 
tithes.  The  elective  right  of  the  congregation 
is  unknown  in  the  church  of  England,  except 
in  regard  to  those  clergymen  who  perform  du 
ties  in  excess  of  the  regular  duties  of  the  rec 
tor  or  vicar ;  such  for  instance  as  lecturers, 
who  are  paid  by  voluntary  contributions. 

JSACUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  Jupiter 
and  /Egina,  and  first  king  of  the  island  of  /Egi- 
na.  lie  was  renowned  for  his  justice,  so  that 
he  was  called  upon  to  settle  disputes  not  only 
among  men,  but  even  among  the  gods.  His 
reputation  was  such  that,  on  the  occasion  of 
an  excessive  drought  in  Greece,  he  was  ap 
pointed  by  the  oracle  of  Delphi  to  intercede 
with  the  gods  for  rain,  and  his  prayers  were 
successful.  After  his  death,  Pluto  made  him 
one  of  the  three  judges  of  Hades. 

^EDILES  (Lat.  cedes,  a  building,  temple),  Ro 
man  magistrates  charged  with  the  supervision 
of  public  buildings,  archives,  streets,  roads, 
aqueducts,  markets,  baths,  eating  houses,  places 
of  amusement,  and  public  games ;  with  the  reg 
ulation  of  prices  of  provisions,  and  of  weights 
and  measures;  with  the  sanitary  superinten 
dence,  and  various  other  functions  of  a  similar 
character.  The  fediles  were  originally  of  the 
plebeian  order,  and  served  as  assistants  to  the 
tribunes  of  the  people.  Subsequently  they  be 
came  independent  magistrates.  In  the  earlier 
part  of  the  4th  century  B.  0.  two  patrician 
eediles  were  added,  who  enjoyed  the  double 
privilege  of  wearing  the  toga  prcetexta  and  sit 
ting  on  curule  chairs  (cediles  curules).  These 
privileges  were  soon  after  extended  to  their 
plebeian  colleagues.  In  the  latter  periods  of 


j  the  republic  the  office  of  redile  became  an 
i  object  of  great  ambition  to  wealthy  politicians, 
'  who  sought  to  win  the  favor  of  the  multitude 
|  by  lavish  expenditures  on  the  public  games. 

J£DUI,  or  llnlni,  a  powerful  people  of  Celtic 
I  Gaul,  between  the  Saone  and  the  upper  Loire, 
|  which  rivers  separated  their  territory  from  the 
j  countries  of  the  Sequani  and  Biturrges.     They 
I  were  the  first  Gallic  tribes  which  concluded  an 
1  alliance  with  the  Romans,  and  having,  after  a 
struggle   with    the    Sequani,  fallen   under  the 
power  of  Ariovistus,  the  German  ally  of  the 
i  latter,  were  restored  to  power  by  Julius  Cassar, 
shortly  after  the  opening  of  his   Gallic  cam 
paigns  (58  B.  0.).     They  joined,  however,  in 
the  great  rising  against  that  conqueror  under 
|  Vercingetorix  (52),  on  whose  fall  they  were  len 
iently  treated  by  the  victor.     Their  chief  town 
'  was  Bibracte,  subsequently  called  Augustodu- 
1  num,  now  Autun,  in  Burgundy. 
JSGJilOXi     See  BEIAEELTS. 
jEC^lS,  a  legendary  king  of  Athens,  father 
of   Theseus.     Misled  by  a  false  signal  to  be 
lieve  that  his  son  had  been  killed  in  a  contest 
with  the  Minotaur,  he  cast  himself  into  the  sea, 
which,  according  to  some,  was  called  after  him 
the  ./Egean. 

J&EAN  SEA.     See  ARCHIPELAGO. 

2EGI1VA,   or   Egina    (Turk.    Engici),    a   Greek 

island  in  the  Saronic  gulf  (now  gulf  of  ./Egina), 

12  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  the  Piraeus,  about  9  m.  long 

',  from  1ST.  E.  to  S.  "W.,  and  about  7  in.  wide.     Its 

;  western  side  consists  of  stony  but  fertile  plains, 

which  are  well  cultivated  and  produce  luxuriant 

'  crops.     The  rest  of  the  island  is  mountainous. 

The  climate  is  the   most   healthy  in   Greece. 

'  From  its  hills  a  magnificent  prospect  unfolds 

itself.     Its  chief  interest  depends  on  its  past 

'  history  and  its  antiquities,  it  having  been  one 

:  of  the  most  celebrated  islands  of  Greece,  both 

;  in  the  mythological  and  historical  periods,  and 

i  also  in  the  sphere    of  art.     It  was  a   Dorian 

settlement,  and  was  one  of  the  first  places  in 

Greece  noted  for  its  maritime  ascendancy.     As 

early  as   563  B.  C.  yEgina  had  a  factory  in 

Egypt,     It  was  a  great  rendezvous  for  pirates 

and    slave  traders,   fugitive   criminals  and  in- 

1  solvent  debtors.     The  people  of  /Egina,  with 

I  their  contingent  of  80  ships,  played  a  brilliant 

|  part  in  the  great   sea  fight  off  Sal  amis.     Its 

earliest  enemy  was  Athens,  which  state  event- 

i  ually,    in  429   B.    C.,   took    possession  of  the 

island  and  expelled  its   inhabitants.      ^Egina, 

though  often  mentioned  in  the  Greek  authors, 

j  never  recovered  any  political   or   commercial 

importance.     Sulpicius,  in  one  of  his  letters  to 

Cicero,  in  which  he  alludes  to  a  cruise  in  the 

Saronic  gulf,  speaks  of  /Egina  as  a  monument 

;  of  departed  greatness.     Its  chief  temple  was 

I  that  of  Zeus  Panhellenius,  or,  in  the  opinion  of 

I  some  archaeologists,  that  of  Minerva,  mentioned 

i  by  Herodotus.     Cicero  speaks  of  it  as  in  ruins. 

i  In   1811    a   company   of  German  and  British 

j  scholars  cleared  away  the  rubbish  which  had 

|  accumulated  in  the  course  of  2,000  years  at  the 

i  base  of  the  temple,  and  after  20  days'  excav&t- 


X   HARP 


ing  were  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  10 
statues  of  an  early  type  of  Greek  sculpture. 
These  statues  are  now  in  the  Glyptothek  of 
Munich,  and  have  been  restored  by  Thor- 
waldsen.  The  subject  is  supposed  to  be  the 
expedition  of  the  JEacidre  or  yEginetan  heroes 
against  Troy,  under  the  guidance  of  Minerva. 
The  present  population  of  the  island  is  about 
6,000,  and  that  of  its  chief  town,  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  W.  side,  near  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  town,  3,000.  The  products  are  wine, 
oil,  fruits,  and  grain.  The  ./Egina  almonds  are 
the  best  in  Greece.  The  water  works  on  the 
neighboring  Mount  Elias,  famous  for  its  mag- 
niricent  views,  save  the  island  from  drought. 
A  bishop  resides  on  the  island,  and  schools  and 
churches  abound.  Since  the  decay  of  the  By 
zantine  empire,  ^Egina  has  been  successively  in 
the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  Turks,  and  Greeks. 
Under  Capodistria  it  was  from  1828  to  1831 
the  seat  of  the  government.  Edmond  About 
has  published  Vile  d'Egine  (1854). 

/EGIS  (Gr.  al%,  she  goat),  the  appellation  of 
the  shield  of  Jupiter,  which  was  covered  with 
the  skin  of  the  goat  Amalthea,  by  which  that 
god  was  nourished  in  infancy.  Minerva  also 
bore  an  ffigis,  which,  at  least  according  to  post- 
Homeric  mythology,  was  of  different  origin. 

jEGISTHlS,  king  of  Mycense,  son  of  Thyes- 
tes  and  cousin  to  Agamemnon.  He  formed  an 
adulterous  connection  with  Agamemnon's  wife 
Clytemnestra  during  his  absence  at  Troy,  and 
contrived  his  murder  on  his  return.  Eight 
years  later  he  was  slain  by  Orestes,  the  son  of 
Agamemnon.  Writers  later  than  Homer  tell 
a  frightful  story  of  incest  and  crime  about 
^•Egisthus  and  his  family.  (See  ATEEFS.) 

JELIA.  I'APITOLOA,  a"  name  given  to  Jerusa 
lem  by  the  emperor  Hadrian  (^-Elius  Hadri- 
anus),  who,  after  a  rebellion  of  the  Jews  in 
his  reign,  drove  them  from  the  destroyed  city 
and  its  environs,  and  repeopled  it  with  Roman 
colonists.  It  went  by  this  title  until  the  time 
of  the  Christian  emperors. 

jELIAXUS,  i'landins,  a  writer  of  the  early  part 
of  the  3d  century,  born  at  Prfeneste  in  Italy. 
His  compilation,  generally  known  under  the 
Latin  title  Varia  Historia,  is  still  extant,  as 
well  as  an  original  treatise  De  Animalium 
Natura.  These  works  are  written  in  Greek, 
of  which  the  author,  though  an  Italian  by 
birth,  was  a  perfect  master. 

AELST,  or  Aalst,  a  town  of  Belgium.  See 
ALOST. 

AELST,  or  Aalst.  I.  Evert  Tan,  a  Dutch  paint 
er,  born  in  Delft  in  1602,  died  in  1608.  He- 
was  distinguished  for  painting  flowers,  dead 
birds,  and  game,  and  other  inanimate  objects. 
Few  of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  picture 
galleries.  II.  Willeni  van,  nephew  and  pupil  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Delft  in  1620,  died  in 
Amsterdam  in  1679.  His  works  in  the  same 
line  were  more  admired  than  those  of  his  uncle, 
and  are  to  be  found  in  the  galleries  of  Berlin, 
Munich,  and  Dresden,  as  well  as  in  France  and 
Italy,  in  which  countries  he  spent  many  years, 


particularly  in  Florence.  In  the  coloring,  fin 
ish,  delicacy,  and  naturalness  of  his  flowers 
and  fruits  painted  on  vases,  he  had  no  superior. 

J3IIL1CS  PAILIS.  I.  See  PAULUS,  L.  yE.Mi- 
LIUS.  II.  (PAOLO  EMILIO),  an  Italian  historian, 
born  in  Verona,  died  in  Paris,  May  5,  1529. 
In  consequence  of  his  celebrity  as  a  writer  in 
Italy,  Louis  XII.  made  him  a  canon  of  the 
cathedral  of  Paris,  and  employed  him  to  write 
a  history  of  the  kings  of  France  in  Latin. 

jENEAS,  son  of  Anchises  and  Venus,  a  Tro 
jan  prince,  with  whom  tradition  connects  the 
origin  of  the  Roman  empire.  Having  fought 
for  Troy  till  it  fell,  he  quitted  the  burning  city 
with  his  followers,  accompanied  by  his  father 
and  son.  After  visiting  various  countries,  they 
landed  on  the  shores  of  Latium,  where  they 
met  with  a  friendly  reception  from  King  Lati- 
nus.  They  settled  there,  and  soon  became  in 
volved  in  hostilities  with  the  people  of  the 
country,  in  the  course  of  which  Latin  us  was 
slain.  ^Eneas  was  finally  victorious.  He  mar 
ried  Lavinia,  the  daughter  of  Latinus.  His 
son  by  Creusa,  Ascanius  or  lulus,  founded 
Alba  Longa,  one  of  the  last  kings  of  which, 
Xumitor,  was  the  grandfather  of  Romulus  and 
Remus,  the  founders  of  Rome.  yEneus  is  the 
hero  of  Virgil's  ^Eneid. 

JENEAS  SYLVIUS.     See  Pius  II.  (pope). 

JLXEID.     See  VIRGIL. 

£NIA\ES,  an  ancient  tribe  of  upper  Greece, 
of  remote  and  uncertain  origin,  whose  fre 
quent  migrations  in  early  times  are  spoken  of 
by  many  writers  of  antiquity,  especially  by 
Plutarch,  in  his  "Greek  Questions."  Accord 
ing  to  this  author,  they  occupied  in  the  first 
instance  the  Dotian  plains,  on  the  confines  of 
Thessaly  and  Macedonia,  moved  thence  into 
Epirus,  and  in  their  last  migration  went  from 
Crissa,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  to  the 
valley  of  the  northern  Inachus,  on  which  they 
finally  settled.  Their  chief  town  was  Ilypata, 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  (Eta,  of  which  considerable 
remains  exist  at  the  village  of  Xcopatra.  The 
antiquity  and  early  importance  of  this  people 
are  attested  by  the  fact  of  their  belonging  to 
the  Amphictyonic  council.  At  a  later  period 
they  joined  the  confederation  of  the  other  Hel 
lenic  states  against  Macedonia,  which  gave  rise 
to  the  Lamian  war ;  but  according  to  Strabo, 
in  his  time  they  had  no  longer  a  national  ex 
istence,  having  been  nearly  exterminated  by 
the  yEtolians  and  Alhamanians. 

JEOLIAX  HARP,  a  musical  instrument,  the 
tones  of  which  are  produced  by  the  sweeping 
of  the  wind  over  its  strings.  Its  invention  is 
ascribed  to  Athanasius  Kircher.  It  is  com 
posed  of  a  rectangular  box  made  of  very  thin 
boards,  about  5  inches  deep  and  6  inches  wide, 
and  long  enough  to  fit  across  the  window  in 
which  it  is  to  be  placed.  At  the  top  of  each 
end  of  the  box  is  glued  a  strip  of  wood  about 
half  an  inch  in  height;  these  strips  serve  as 
a  bridge  for  the  strings,  which  are  stretched 
lengthwise  across  the  top  of  the  box,  and  are 
made  of  catgut  or  wire.  These  strings  should 


142 


.EOLIAN   ISLES 


be  tuned  in  unison  by  means  of  pegs  construct 
ed  to  control  their  tension,  as  in  the  violin. 
When  the  instrument  is  exposed  in  a  window 


^Eolian  Harp. 


partly  open,  so  as  to  allow  a  current  of  air  to 
pass  over  the  strings,  a  most  agreeable  com 
bination  of  tones  is  produced,  constantly  vary 
ing  in  pitch  and  intensity  with  the  force  of  the 
wind,  and  forming  harmonies  of  a  wild  and 
melancholy  character. 

JEOLIAN  ISLES.     See  LIP  ART  ISLANDS. 

J20LIANS,  the  name  of  one  of  the  primitive 
divisions  of  the  Hellenic  race.  They  are  said 
to  have  dwelt  originally  in  the  S.  W.  part  of 
the  plain  of  Thessaly,  and  thence  to  have 
spread  over  other  regions  of  Greece,  and  after 
the  Doric  invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus  to 
have  occupied  the  N.  W.  coast  region  of  Asia 
Minor,  from  them  called  yEolis,  and  the  islands 
of  Lesbos  and  Tenedos.  Of  the  JEolic  dialect 
of  the  Greek,  which  was  chiefly  developed  in 
Lesbos,  only  scanty  specimens  have  been  pre 
served  ;  these  bring  it  nearer  to  the  Doric  than 
the  Attic.  Mythologically,  the  JEolians  were 
descended  from  ^Eolus,  the  son  of  Hellen. 

MJLIPYLE,  or  vEolipile  (Ai6?.ov-~ vlai,  the  gate 
of  ^Eolus;  or,  more  probably,  Alolipila,  the 
ball  of  JEolus),  a  hollow  metallic  ball,  contain 
ing  a  curved  tube  connected  with  a  small  ori 
fice,  and  sometimes  two  such  tubes  turning  in 
opposite  directions.  Water  or  alcohol  being 
introduced  in  it  and  boiled,  it  was  used  in  old 
times  to  exemplify  the  force  of  steam,  or  as  a 
blowpipe. when  adjusted  to  a  lamp.  In  1(>15 
Salomon  de  Caus  noticed  in  using  it  the  effect 
of  steam  in  causing  water,  by  the  assistance  of 
heat,  to  mount  above  its  level.  This  machine 
was  intended  to  discover  the  cause  of  the  winds. 

JEOLIS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  district  in 
Asia  Minor,  originally  settled  by  colonies  of 
^Eolian  Greeks.  It  was  properly  the  coast 
land  of  Mysia,  extending  from  Troas  to  the 
south  bank  of  the  river  Hermus.  In  its  broad 
est  signification  it  included  Troas  to  the  shores 
of  the  Hellespont.  In  the  southern  part  were 
situated  the  twelve  cities  which  formed  the 
^Eolian  league.  Of  these,  Cyme,  where  the  an 
nual  Panreolium  was  celebrated,  and  Smyrna, 
which  in  later  times  became  a  member  of  the 
Ionian  confederation,  were  the  most  celebrated. 

JEOLUS*  I.  In  Greek  mythological  history, 
a  son  of  II  ell  en,  who,  in  the  division  by  the 


j  latter  of  the  government  of  the  Hellenes  or 

Greeks  between  him  and  his  brothers  Dorus 

and  Xuthus,  received  the  throne  of  Thessaly 

I  and  named  his  subjects  the  ^Eoliaris.     He  was 

\  the  progenitor  of  a  great  race  of  heroes,  the 

^Eolids,  from  whom  in  turn  sprang  many  of 

the   most   famous    personages   of    the    Greek 

i  legends.     Other   genealogies  were   also  given 

I  by  the  Greeks  to  JEolus,  but  the  above,  that 

I  of  the  Hesiodic  catalogue,  is  that  which  Grote 

j  believes  to  have  been  generally  received.     II. 

|  An  inferior  god  or  demigod,  ruler  of  the  winds. 

There  seems  no  good  reason  to  connect  this 

./Eolus  with  the  preceding,   but  a  few  Greek 

authors  endeavored  to  prove  even  the  identity 

of  the  two,   while  others  made  the  demigod 

the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Acasta,   daughter  of 

Ilippotas.     yEolus  was  supposed  to  have  his 

home  in  the  island  now  called  Stromboli,  of  the 

Lipari  group,  anciently  known  as  the  ^Eolian 

islands.     According  to  tradition,  he  kept  the 

several  winds  confined  in  bags,  releasing  them 

at  the  command  of  Neptune. 

J20JV,  a  Greek  term  signifying  age.  In 
Gnostic  speculations,  reons  are  embodiments 
of  divine  attributes.  (See  GNOSTICS.) 

JEPDTS.  I.  Joliann  (the  Greek  translation 
of  his  real  name,  IIocli  or  Nock,  high),  a  Ger 
man  theologian,  born  at  Ziegesar,  Branden 
burg,  in  1499,  died  in  Hamburg,  May  13,  1553. 
He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  arrested  on  ac 
count  of  his  zeal  for  the  cause  of  Luther,  and 
exerted  himself  after  his  release  in  England 
and  Germany  on  behalf  of  the  reformation, 
lie  Avas  afterward  for  some  time  teacher  at 
Stralsund,  and  organized  the  new  educational 
and  ecclesiastical  system  there,  and  in  Ham 
burg  (1522),  in  which  latter  city  he  was  pas 
tor,  and  afterward  superintendent  of  St.  Peter's 
church  from  1529  till  his  death.  He  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Sinalcald  articles  in  1537, 
shared  in  the  theological  controversies  regard 
ing  the  Interim,  the  Adiaphora,  and  the  doc 
trines  of  Osiander,  and  was  supported  by  Fla- 
cius  and  others,  and  to  a  moderate  extent  also 
by  Melanchthon.  II.  Franz  llrieli  Thcodor,  a 
German  physicist,  a  descendant  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  at  Rostock  in  December,  1724, 
died  in  Dorpat  in  1802.  He  became  professor 
of  physics  and  member  of  the  academy  of 
!  sciences  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1757.  Catharine 
II.  appointed  him  teacher  of  her  son  Paul,  di- 
rector  of  the  nobility  corps  of  cadets,  and  in- 
!  spector  general  of  the  normal  schools  which 
i  she  projected.  lie  is  honored  as  the  inventor 
I  of  the  electrophus  and  of  electric  condensation, 
an  improver  of  the  microscope,  and  the  dis 
coverer  of  the  electrical  polarity  of  tourmaline. 
'  lie  contributed  extensively  to  the  publications 
of  the  Berlin  and  St.  Petersburg  academies. 
His  principal  work  is  Tentamcn  Theories  Elec- 
tricitatis  et  Magnetismi  (St.  Petersburg,  1759; 
French  translation,  abridged  by  Haiiy.  1787). 
One  of  his  other  works,  written  in  German, 
j  was  translated  in  1762  into  French  by  M. 
Raoult,  under  the  title  of  Reflexions  sur  la 


AEROLITE 


distribution  de  la  chaleur  stir  la  surface  de 
la  terre.  lie  wrote  in  French  Description  dcs 
noureaxx  microscopes  imentes  par  M.  sEpinus 
(St.  Petersburg,  1786). 

jCQUI,  also  called  liqniculi  and  iiqiiiriilani.  an 
ancient  warlike  people  of  central  Italy,  dwell 
ing  in  the  mountainous  region  of  X.  E.  Latium, 
between  Lake  Fucinus  (Lago  di  Celano)  and 
the  Anio  (Tevcrone),  surrounded  by  the  Sa- 
bines,  Marsi,  Hernici,  and  Latins.  They  were 
among  the  most  obstinate  enemies  of  the  early 
Romans,  fighting  them  chiefly  in  alliance  with 
the  Volsci,  a  kindred  people,  and  together  with 
the  latter  were  badly  defeated  by  Camillus  in 
389  13.  C.  They  suffered  still  more  crushing 
defeats  shortly  before  the  close  of  the  same 
century,  when  they  were  finally  subdued. 
Mount  Algidus,  in  the  western  part  of  their 
territory,  was  one  of  their  natural  strongholds, 
from  which  they  made  their  incursions  into 
the^country  around  Rome. 

AERIAXS,  a  semi-Arian  sect  of  the  4th  cen 
tury,  named  from  Aerius.  a  monk  of  Pontus, 
and  holding  middle  ground  between  the  Arians 
and  the  Xicceans.  The  Xicaeans  were  Homo- 
ousians,  and  the  high  Arians  were  Heterousians, 
while  the  Aerians  were  Ilomoiousians.  The 
Aerians  in  church  government  denied  the  dis 
tinction  between  a  bishop  and  a  presbyter. 
They  were  opposed  by  a  small  counter  faction 
called  Aetians.  (See  AETIUS.) 

AEROE,  or  Arroc,  an  island  belonging  to  the 
Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-Ilolstein,  in 
the  Baltic,  E.  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  Little 
Belt,  10  m.  S.  of  Filnen;  pop.  12,400.  It  is 
about  10  m.  long  by  5  broad,  and  is  fertile  and 
•well  cultivated.  The  capital,  Aeroeskjobing, 
has  considerable  shipping;  pop.  1,700. 

AEROKLIXOSCOPE,  an  instrument  recently 
introduced  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  con 
nection  with  the  weather  signal  departments. 
It  is  intended  to  give  public  information  of  the 
condition  or  rather  differences  of  barometric 
pressure  at  the  different  stations,  so  that  every 
one  at  a  glance  may  see  in  what  quarter  the 
maximum  and  minimum  barometric  pressure  is, 
and  consequently  what  direction  of  wind  and 
what  kind  of  weather  are  to  be  expected.  The 
apparatus  as  no\v  in  practical  use  consists  of  a 
vertical  axis  some  30  feet  high,  turning  on  a 
pivot,  and  carrying  on  its  t  >p  a  horizontal  arm 
<>f  which  the  inclination  can  be  varied  accord 
ing  to  the  difference  of  barometrical  pressure 
at  different  sides  of  the  station.  If  the  pres 
sure  is  the  same  north  an  I  south,  for  instance, 
the  horizontal  arm  is  placed  horizontal ;  but 
if  the  pressure  is  less  in  the  nortu,  the  north 
ern  end  of  the  arm  is  caused  to  dip  downward, 
and  more  so  in  proportion  as  the  barometer  is 
lower  north  as  compared  with  its  position 
south.  The  amount  of  dip  is  regulated  by  a 
sliding  rod,  held  in  position  by  different  notch 
es  at  the  lower  part  of  the 'axis,  each  notch 
corresponding  with  one  millimetre  in  baro- 
nietric  pressure.  This  most  useful  apparatus 
is  the  invention  of  Buvs-Ballot  in  Holland. 


!  The  government  of  the  Netherlands  introduced 
j  storm  signals  there  in  1860;  England  followed 

•  in  1861,  and  France  in  18G3. 

AEROLITE  (Gr.  atjp,  air,  and  M&oe,  stone),  a 
!  stone  or  mineral  mass  of  ultra-terrestrial  ori- 
!  gin  which  has  fallen  to  the  earth.     The  differ- 
1  ent  bodies  constituting  our  planetary  system 
vary  considerably  in  size.     Jupiter,  the  largest, 
has  in  round  numbers  a  diameter  of  80,000 
|  miles,  while  Clio,  the  smallest  of  the  so-called 
j  asteroids   thus  far  known,  has  a  diameter  of 
|  scarcely  16  miles,  and  is  thus  125, 000, 000  times 
smaller  in  bulk.     There  is  no  ground  whatso 
ever  to  assert  that  Clio  is  the  smallest  body 
!  which  revolves  around  the  sun;    most  likely 
i  there  are  bodies  as    much  smaller  than  Clio 
!  as   the  latter   is  smaller  than  Jupiter.     Such 
!  bodies  would  have  a  diameter  of  scarcely  16 
feet ;  and  if  we  descend  another  step  in  the 
i  same  ratio,  we  come  to  bodies  of  a  diameter  of 
!  -5*5-  of  an  inch,  constituting  mere  dust.     Such 
bodies  may  revolve  in  myriads  in  the  planetary 
I  space,  without  our  ever  being  able  to  obtain 
any  knowledge  of  their  existence,  except  where 
i  they  come  so  near  to  our  planet  as  to  be  acted 
I  on  by  its  gravitation  and  drawn  to  its  surface. 
1  It  has  been  proved  by  the  statistics  of  obser- 
|  vation  that  every  year  600  or  700  meteoric 
|  showers  take  place  over  the  surface  of  our 
i  earth,  bringing  down  at   least  5,000  separate 
I  aerolites ;  the  unequal  distribution  over  differ- 
i  ent  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  is  only  appa 
rent,  a.s  the  two  zones  in  America  and  Europe 

•  in  which,    according  to    Prof.    Shepard     the 
;  greatest  numbers    of  meteoric   showers  have 
••  been  observed,   are  simply  those  zones  which 
;  are  the  most  thickly  peopled,  and  where  the 
I  press  and  telegraph  diffuse  rapidly  every  ob- 
|  servation.     Sometimes  one  or  two  single  mass- 
j  es  fall,  and  sometimes  a  shower  of  2,000,  3,000, 

or  more  stones  is  distributed  over  a  surface  of 
!  several  acres  or  even  miles ;   sometimes  dust 
I  accompanies  the  shower,  and  sometimes  dust 
;  falls  alone.      The  theory  here  propounded  is 
i  due  to  Chladni,   who  toward    the  end  of  the 
!  last  century  defended  the  idea  originated  by 
:  Kepler,    that   there    were    more    comets   and 
smaller  bodies  flying  about  in  space  than  fishes 
|  in  the  ocean.     Before  Chladni's  time  the  most 
absurd  ideas  prevailed  in  regard  to  the  origin 
I  of  aerolites.     Some  supposed  that  they  were 
i  formed  in  the  upper  strata  of  our  atmosphere 
!  by  the  condensation  of  vapors  of  solids,  as  hail- 
stones   are    formed  by  the    condensation  and 
congelation  of  watery  vapors.     Laplace  sought 
their  origin  at  a  greater  distance,  and  conclu 
ded  that  as  gravitation  on  the  moon  is  about 
I  four  times  less  than  it  is  on  the  earth,  it  might 
be  possible  that  the   volcanoes  there  project 
;  stones  with   such  force   as  to  go  beyond  the 
limits  of  lunar  attraction,  and  to  reach  that  of 
;  the  earth ;  and  indeed  a  velocity  two  or  three 
times  greater  than  that  which  we  are  able  to 
give  to  a  cannon  ball  would  accomplish  this 
i  result.      These  theories  prevailed  for  a  time, 
although  chemists  proved   that  aerolites   are 


AEROLITE 


not  of  volcanic  origin,  and  astronomers  proved 
that  their  velocity  in  approaching  the  earth  is 
far  too  great  to  be  accounted  for  by  terrestrial 
attraction.  Mechanical  science  indeed  proves 
that  a  body  falling  from  an  infinite  distance 
will  arrive  at  the  earth  with  a  velocity  of  only 
6  to  7  miles  per  second,  while  aerolites  pass 
tangentially  through  our  atmosphere  with 
more  than  double  or  triple  that  rate,  in  fact, 
with  a  planetary  velocity ;  some  of  them  even 
overtake  the  earth  in  its  course,  as  is  the  case 
with  those  falling  about  sunset.  By  the  com 
bined  rotation  and  revolution  of  the  terrestrial 
globe,  that  portion  of  the  earth  where  it  is 
sunset  moves  from  its  zenith,  while  that  por 
tion  where  it  is  sunrise  moves  toward  its 
zenith,  or  at  least  toward  that  portion  of  the 
zodiac  nearest  to  its  zenith,  and  thus  has  more 
chance  of  coming  in  contact  with  isolated  flying 
masses ;  this  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the 
greatest  number  of  aerolites  fall  in  the  forenoon. 
Of  the  cases  recorded  in  history,  the  most  re 
markable  are  as  follows :  An  aerolite  is  men 
tioned  by  Pliny,  which  fell  in  467  B.  C.  in 
Thrace,  and  was  still  extant  in  his  time ;  he  states 
that  it  had  the  size  of  a  wagon.  The  Chinese 
chronicle  a  large  aerolite  which  fell  during  a 
thunderstorm  long  before  our  era.  The  Annalcs 
Fuldenscs  report  a  great  shower  of  aerolites  in 
Saxony  in  823,  by  which  men  and  cattle  were 
killed  and  35  villages  were  set  on  fire.  Among 
the  other  cases,  the  most  remarkable  are  the 
falls  of  aerolites  in  921,  1010,  1104,  and  1304, 
all  in  Europe.  In  Alsace  there  fell  in  1492 
an  aerolite  of  2 GO  Ibs.,  which  is  still  pre 
served  in  the  church  of  Ensisheim.  In  Grema 
a  shower  of  many  hundreds  of  stones  took  place 
Sept.  14,1511 ;  1,200  pieces  were  collected,  of 
which  one  weighed  200  Ibs.,  and  another  120 
Ibs.  Records  of  later  date  become  more  and 
more  complete  and  authentic,  and  all  doubts 
in  regard  to  the  accuracy  of  their  statements, 
existing  till  the  end  of  the  last  century,  were 
removed  when,  on  April  26,  1803,  at  Aigle  in 
France,  a  small  immovable  cloud  was  seen,  out 
of  which,  during  explosions  lasting  five  to  six 
minutes,  a  number  of  stones  fell  on  a  surface 
two  miles  long.  The  largest  weighed  20 
Ibs.,  the  smallest  £  ounce.  On  March  13, 
1807,  an  aerolite  of  140  Ibs.  fell  in  Smolensk, 
Russia;  and  on  May  22,  1808,  at  Stannern  in 
Moravia,  between  200  and  300  stones  fell,  from 
half  an  ounce  to  11  Ibs.  in  weight.  An  Amer 
ican  vessel  240  miles  S.  of  Java  experienced 
on  Xov.  14,  1856,  a  shower  of  stones  of  the 
size  of  shot,  which  were  afterward  proved  not 
to  be  the  product  of  the  eruption  of  a  distant 
volcano,  carried  along  with  the  winds,  as  at 
first  suggested,  but  of  true  cosmical  origin — a 
question  easily  settled  by  the  microscope  and 
chemical  analysis,  as  will  be  seen  later.  Klein 
published  in  his  Sonncmystem  (Brunswick, 
1869)  a  record  of  more  than  300  well  authen 
ticated  cases,  of  which  8  were  in  the  15th  cen 
tury,  15  in  the  16th,  23  in  the  17th,  40  in  the 
18th,  and  216  in  the  first  69  years  of  the  19th 


century.     It  is  certain  that  such  falls  were  just 
as  frequent  in   former  centuries    as  they  are 
now,  only  the  records  are  lacking.     In  regard 
to  the  ancient  geological  eras,  there  is  no  doubt 
|  that  the  falls  of  meteoric  masses  were  even 
I  more  frequent ;  it  is  highly  probable  even  that 
|  a  portion  of  the  earth's  and  moon's  mass  is 
|  largely  made  up  of  such  aerolites,  which  are 
i  not  now  found  in  the  lower  strata  of  the  earth 
for  the  simple  reason  that  they  are  very  oxid- 
izable,  and  have  been  disintegrated  by  air  and 
water  and  mixed  with  the  original  terrestrial 
matter,  by  the  immense  changes  through  which 
our  earth's  crust  has  passed ;  they  may  there 
fore  exist  in  a  better  state  of  preservation  on 
j  the  moon's  surface.     Olbers  supposes  that  the 
i  earth    has    during    countless    ages    hollowed 
!  out  for  itself  a  kind  of  comparatively  empty 
i  rut  among  those  living  aerolites,  attracting  all 
within  the  reach  of  its  gravitation,  and  that 
!  now,  by  the  periodical  inequalities  and  pertur 
bations  of  its  orbit,  it  occasionally  appropriates 
•  some   masses   which   had   before    escaped   its 
I  attractive  power,  or  that  the  earth  occasionally 
comes  in  the  neighborhood  of  masses  baving  an 
orbit  which  intersects  its  own.     (See  METEOE.) 
In  regard  to  the  sizes,  the  largest  masses  on 
record  were  heard  of  by  Capt.  Ross  in  1818, 
when  the  Esquimaux  of  Baffin  bay  informed 
him  of  their  existence  on  the  W.  coast  of  Green- 
!  land.     They  were  found  in  1870  by  the  Swe- 
[  dish  Arctic  expedition,  which  brought  some  of 
I  them   to   Stockholm,   where   they  excited   so 
much  interest  that  in  1871  20  more  specimens 
I  were  collected,  now  in  the  royal  academy  of 
|  Stockholm,  the  largest  weighing  25  tons,  with 
:  a  maximum  sectional  area  of  42  square  feet. 
i  The  next  in  size  weighs  10  tons,  and  has  been 
;  presented  to  the  museum  of  Copenhagen.     In 
!  Mexico  and  Brazil  similar  masses   have  been 
i  found.     The  British  museum  possesses  one  of 
|  more  than  five  tons.      In  the  museum  in  St. 
Petersburg  is  a  mass  of  1,680  Ibs.  found  in  Si 
beria  in  1772.     Yale  college,  New  Haven,  pos- 
j  sesses,  among  more  than  100  specimens,  one 
I  aerolite  of  1,635  Ibs.,  which  fell  in  Texas  in 
1808.     The  Smithsonian  institution  possesses 
a  very  remarkable  annular  specimen  discovered 
about  1700  in  Mexico,  which,  according  to  an 
:  Indian  tradition,  fell  there  about  200  years  be 
fore  during  a  shower  of  stones ;  its  weight  is 
1,400  Ibs.     Aerolites  of  a  weight  of  200  to  400 
Ibs.  are  not  uncommon  in  collections,  and  those 
of  100  Ibs.  and  less  are  very  common. — In  re- 
i  gard    to    the    chemical    composition  of  these 
stones,  it   must   be   observed   that   in  passing 
through  our    atmosphere  they  undergo  some 
change,  as  they  always  take  fire  in  the  upper 
regions,  and  arrive  at  the  ground  quite  hot, 
sometimes  making  a  deep  hole.     Combustible 
substances  in  their  composition,  and  perhaps  an 
atmosphere  of  combustible  gases  surrounding 
them,    combined    with    the   immense  velocity 
with  which  they  enter  our  atmosphere,  cause 
on    the   sudden    diminution    of    that    motion 
a  most  intense  rise  of  temperature,  ignition. 


AEROLITE 


AERONAUTICS 


145 


ruul  very  often  one  or  more  exceedingly  violent  | 
explosions.  It  is  therefore  not  surprising  that 
they  all  present  the  appearance  of  having  been 
subjected  to  great  heat.  Chemical  analysis 
;!ias  shown  that  there  are  two  principal  kinds,  j 
rthe  stony  and  the  metallic  aerolites,  which  by 
further  investigation  have  been  divided  into 
several  groups,  in  accordance  with  the  elements 
contained  and  the  character  of  their  combina 
tions.  Stony  aerolites  resemble  the  peridot,  a 
universal  scoria  from  the  earth's  deep  interior, 
underlying  the  aluminous  basic  rocks,  the 
granite  and  gneiss;  the  latter,  being  stratified 
rocks,  are  never  found  among  aerolites.  The 
specific  gravity  of  stony  aerolites  is  3 '5  to  3 '8, 
while  that  of  stratified  formations,  gneiss  and 
granite,  and  of  lava,  is  only  2 -6  to  2'9.  Metal 
lic  aerolites  have  a  specific  gravity  of  from  6*5  j 
to  8,  and  consist  chiefly  of  iron,  always  com 
bined  with  nickel,  usually  containing  60  per 
cent,  or  more  of  iron  and  5  to  25  of  nickel,  a 
compound  never  found  on  earth ;  the  other  ele 
ments  are  chiefly  phosphorus,  silicon,  alumi-  j 
num,  cobalt,  and  manganese.  Other  substances  j 
which  have  been  found  in  different  specimens  ' 
are :  magnesium,  titanium,  tin,  copper,  chro-  I 
mium,  arsenic,  calcium,  potassium,  sodium,  sul-  J 
plmr,  carbon,  chlorine,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen 
in  occlusion  (see  ABSORPTION  OF  GASES  BY  SOL 
IDS),  making  22  elements,  one  third  of  those  of 
which  the  earth  is  composed.  Some  aerolites 
are  of  a  mixed  stony  and  metallic  character, 
but  they  are  never  homogeneous;  even  the 
metallic  ones,  which  appear  to  be  an  alloy,  are 
very  heterogeneous.  This  is  manifested  by 
grinding  and  polishing  a  face  and  then  acting 
on  it  with  nitric  acid,  when  some  portions  will 
dissolve,  and  more  resistant  small  crystals  will 
become  prominent,  showing  a  decided  crystal 
line  structure.  The  figures  thus  formed  are 
called,  after  their  discoverer,  Widmanstaett's 
figures,  and  they  may  be  made  so  prominent  as 
to  allow  the  surface  to  be  used  as  an  engraved 
plate  and  printed.  Our  figure  represents  an 
aerolite  found  in  Wisconsin,  preserved  in  the 


Widmannataett's  Figures. 

cabinet  of  I.  A.  Lapham  of  Milwaukee,  and 
engraved  after  the  photograph  of  a  section 
prepared  by  Dr.  J.  Lawrence  Smith,  show 
ing  the  Widmannstaettian  figures. — The  idea 
suggested  by  Sir  William  Thompson  before 
the  British  association  for  the  advancement 
of  science  in  1871,  that  the  existence  of  vege- 
YOL.  i.— 10 


table  and  animal  life  on  our  planet  may  be 
accounted  for  by  aerolites  having  brought  the 
first  organized  germs  hither,  substitutes  for  the 
difficult  question  as  to  the  terrestrial  origin  of 
organisms,  the  still  more  perplexing  one  of  how 
they  originated  on  the  aerolites. — See  further 
Phipson's  '"Treatise  on  Meteors,  Aerolites,  and 
Falling  Stars  "  (London,  1866);  Daubree,  Rap 
port  sur  Ics  progres  cle  la  geologic  experimentale 
(Paris,  1867).  The  latter  is  very  exhaustive,  and 
contains  accounts  of  experiments  in  imitating 
the  different  kinds  of  aerolites. 

AEROMETER  (Gr.  aijp,  air,  and  fjLirpov,  meas 
ure),  an  instrument  invented  by  Dr.  Marcus 
Hunt  for  ascertaining  the  mean  bulk  of  gases 
and  the  density  or  rarity  of  air.  It  is  now  little 
used,  and  the  whole  doctrine  of  air,  considered 
as  a  fluid,  its  pressure,  elasticity,  rarefaction, 
and  condensation,  belongs  in  that  department 
of  natural  philosophy  termed  pneumatics. 

AERONAITKS  (Gr.  afo,  air,  and  vauw/oJ?,  of 
or  belonging  to  ships),  or  Aerostation  (Gr.  arjp, 
and  araaiG,  standing),  the  art  of  sailing  in  and 
navigating  the  air,  and  of  raising  and  sustaining 
substances  by  means  of  gases  specifically  lighter 
than  the  atmosphere,  contained  in  a  spheroidal 
bag  called  a  balloon.  The  former  term  is  the 
more  comprehensive  of  the  two,  and  includes 
the  whole  science  of  aerial  navigation,  while 
the  latter  is  generally  confined  to  ballooning. 
The  myths  of  Dasdalus  and  Icarus  show  that 
the  attempts  of  man  to  soar  above  the  earth 
commenced  in  prehistoric  times.  Flying  ma 
chines  were  expected  to  effect  this  object. 
Archytas  of  Tarentum  is  said  to  have  manufac 
tured,  400  years  B.  C.,  a  wooden  pigeon  which 
sustained  itself  in  the  air  a  few  minutes.  Simon 
Magus,  according  to  Suetonius,  met  his  death 
in  Rome  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Xero  in 
an  attempt  to  fly  from  one  house  to  another. 
Roger  Bacon  had  some  notion  of  a  flying  ma 
chine  to  be  propelled  by  a  system  of  wings; 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century 
Dante,  a  mathematician  of  Perugia,  rose  above 
Lake  Thrasimene  by  means  of  artificial  wings 
attached  to  his  body.  Many  similar  attempts 
have  been  made  since  then  by  persons  imper 
fectly  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  me 
chanical  philosophy,  which  have  invariably  re 
sulted  in  failure,  and  the  problem  is  as  far  from 
solution  as  ever.  The  discovery  of  the  proper 
ties  of  hydrogen  gas  by  Cavendish  in  1760  gave 
the  first  hint  of  a  practical  method  of  aerial 
navigation.  This  is  the  lightest  of  the  gases, 
being  a  little  more  than  14  times  rarer  than  at 
mospheric  air;  and  as  early  as  1767  Professor 
Black  of  Edinburgh  announced  to  his  class  that 
a  vessel  filled  with  it  would  naturally  rise  into 
the  air.  A  few  years  later  (1782)  Cavallo 
made  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  subject, 
but  did  not  succeed  in  raising  anything  heavier 
than  a  soap  bubble.  The  honor  of  preparing 
and  sending  up  the  first  balloon  belongs  to  the 
brothers  Stephen  and  Joseph  Montgolfier,  pa 
per  manufacturers  at  Annonay,  near  Lyons, 
who,  however,  at  the  outset  of  their  experi- 


146 


AERONAUTICS 


ments,  knew  nothing  of  hydrogen  gas,  and  em 
ployed  heated  air  to  inflate  their  machine, 
without  apparently  being  aware  of  its  superior 
buoyancy  to  the  atmosphere.  Their  balloon 
was  constructed  of  linen  cloth  lined  with  paper, 
under  which  a  lire  was  kindled,  fed  with 
bundles  of  chopped  straw.  By  this  means 
dense  volumes  of  smoke  were  produced,  which 
filled  the  balloon ;  and  it  would  seem  that  they 
actually  expected  the  latter  to  be  raised  by  the 
ascending  power  of  the  smoke,  instead  of  its 
true  cause,  the  rarefaction  of  the  heated  air. 


First  Balloons  made  by  Montgolfier. 

On  June  5,  ITS;],  their  balloon,  weighing  500 
pounds,  first  rose  into  the  atmosphere.  It 
reached  an  altitude  of  nearly  a  mile,  remained 
suspended  a  few  minutes,  and,  as  the  air  es 
caped,  gradually  returned  to  the  earth.  The 
event  singularly  impressed  all  classes  of  society, 
and  the  most  extravagant  notions  were  enter 
tained  of  the  uses  to  which  balloons  might  be 
applied.  Several  successful  ascents  were  made 
within  the  next  few  months  from  Paris,  and 
on  Nov.  21,  1783,  Pilatre  de  Rozier  and  the 
marquis  d'Arlandes,  the  first  adventurers  who 
durst  ascend  in  an  unconfined  balloon,  as 
tonished  the  world  by  rising  to  the  height 
of  3,000  feet,  descending  in  safety  not  far 
from  Paris.  These  experiments  were  mostly 
made  with  the  Montgolfier  balloon,  or  mont- 
golfiere,  which  was  inflated  with  heated  air, 
and  the  early  aeronauts  were  obliged  to 
carry  with  them  a  supply  of  fuel  to  renew  the 
rarefied  air  as  fast  as  it  escaped.  This  clumsy 
and  dangerous  expedient  subsequently  led  to 
disastrous  results.  On  Dec.  1  of  the  same  year 
Messrs.  Charles  and  Robert  left  Paris  in  a 
hydrogen  balloon,  in  the  presence  of  600,000 
spectators,  and  after  a  trip  of  two  hours  de 
scended  in  safety  near  Nesle,  25  m.  distant. 
M.  Charles  immediately  reascended  alone,  and 
had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  sun,  which 
had  set  when  he  left  the  earth,  rise  and  set 
.again.  He  descended  in  safety  in  35  minutes, 
9  m.  from  his  starting  point.  In  this  expedition 
the  fall  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer  was 
first  noticed.  The  first,  sinking  to  20*05  inches, 
indicated  an  ascent  of  about  9,700  feet.  The 
thermometer  sank  to  21°  F.  In  1784  upward 
of  52  balloon  ascents  are  recorded,  the  most 
remarkable  being  those  of  Messrs.  Charles  and 
Robert,  who  reached  an  altitude  of  13,000 
feet;  of  Blanchard,  the  first  aerial  voyager  by 


profession ;  and  of  Prince  Charles  de  Lignes. 
In  January,  1785,  Blanchard  and  Dr.  John 
Jeffries,  of  Boston,  accomplished  the  daring 
feat  of  crossing  the  channel  from  Dover  to 
France,  narrowly  escaping  being  wrecked  in  the 
sea.  In  the  same  year  occurred  the  first  fatal  acci 
dent  connected  with  ballooning.  Pilatre  de  Ro 
zier  attempted,  with  a  young  man  named  Ro- 
maine  Laine,  to  cross  from  France  to  England  in 
a  hydrogen  balloon,  under  which  was  suspended 
a  small  montgolfi&re  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
or  diminishing  the  ascensional  power  at  pleas 
ure.  The  hydrogen,  -by  its  expansion  in  the 
rarer  upper  strata  of  the  atmosphere,  pressed 
down  through  the  tubular  neck  of  the  balloon, 
and  reaching  the  fire  of  the  montgolfi&re  was 
at  once  ignited.  Both  balloons  were  quickly 
consumed,  and  the  voyagers  were  precipitated 
from  a  height  of  3,000  feet  upon  the  rocks  near 
the  French  coast.  As  this  calamitous  occur 
rence  was  occasioned  by  the  neglect  of  proper 
precautions,  aeronauts  were  not  deterred  by  it. 
Ascents  to  the  number  of  many  thousands  have 
since  been  made  in  Europe  and  America,  both 
in  montgolfieres  and  gas  balloons,  and  it  is  be 
lieved  that  not  more  than  25  persons  have  lost 
their  lives  in  consequence.  Of  this  number  of 
ascents,  however,  few  only  have  been  under 
taken  for  scientific  purposes,  most  having  been 
made  merely  as  a  popular  spectacle  or  for 
the  sake  of  amusement.  In  this  regard  both 
hemispheres  have  furnished  skilful  and  daring 
aeronauts.  Among  the  earlier  French  voyagers 
was  Blanchard,  who  died  in  1809,  having  made 
more  than  66  ascents,  one  of  which  took  place 
in  New  York  in  1796.  Mme.  Blanchard  some 
times  accompanied  him,  and  after  his  death 
she  occasionally  ascended  alone.  In  1819,  hav 
ing  ascended  from  Tivoli  garden  in  Paris  with 
some  fireworks,  her  balloon  became  accident 
ally  ignited  and  she  was  precipitated  to  the 
earth  and  dashed  to  pieces  in  the  rue  de  Pro 
vence.  In  later  times  Eugene  and  Louis  Godard 
have  been  the  most  famous  of  the  French  pro 
fessional  aeronauts.  Green,  the  English  aero 
naut,  had  probably  more  experience  in  the 
management  of  balloons  than  any  person  who 
has  given  attention  to  the  subject.  During 
his  professional  career  of  36  years,  ending  in 
1857,  he  made  nearly  1,400  ascents,  crossing 
the  sea  three  times  and  falling  into  it  twice. 
His  most  interesting  voyage  was  undertaken  in 
1836,  when  in  company  with  Messrs.  Holland 
and  Mason  he  journeyed,  in  a  balloon  of  great 
dimensions  and  provisioned  for  a  fortnight,  from 
London  to  Weilburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau, 
a  distance  of  500  m.,  in  18  hours.  This  feat 
of  aerial  travelling  was  however  surpassed  by 
Mr.  John  Wise,  the  American  aeronaut,  who 
with  Mr.  John  La  Mountain  and  two  others 
passed  in  July,  1859,  from  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  to 
Henderson  in  Jefferson  co.,  N.  Y.,  a  distance 
of  1,150  m.,  in  19  h.  50  m.,  or  at  an  average 
speed  of  nearly  a  mile  per  minute.  In  Septem 
ber  of  the  same  year  Messrs.  La  Mountain  and 
Lowe  made  a  voyage  of  300  m.  in  about  4 


AERONAUTICS 


147 


hours. — The  first  ascent  for  the  purposes  of  sci 
ence  was  made  from  Hamburg  on  July  18, 
1803,  by  Messrs.  Robertson  and  Lhoest,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Russian  academy  of  sci 
ences.  A  second  voyage  followed  in  the  suc 
ceeding  month,  and  a  third  from  St.  Peters 
burg  on  June  30,  1804.  But  although  the  ex 
plorers  reached  on  one  occasion  an  altitude  of 
23,526  feet,  no  important  results  were  obtained. 
In  1804  Laplace  proposed  to  the  French  acad 
emy  the  solution,  by  means  of  observations 
from  a  balloon,  of  certain  physical  problems, 
and  notably  that  of  magnetic  intensity  at  great 
heights.  Gay-Lussac  and  Biot  undertook  to 
make  the  observations,  and  on  Aug.  23  as 
cended  from  Paris  to  the  height  of  13,000  feet. 
Their  experiments  in  magnetism,  electricity, 
and  galvanism  gave  results  identical  with  those 
made  on  the  earth.  The  rotatory  motion  of 
the  balloon  having  presented  an  unexpected 
obstacle  to  careful  obervations,  Gay-Lussac 
supplied  his  balloon  with  long  hanging  ropes 
destined  to  counteract  this  movement,  and  on 
Sept.  15  reascended  alone  to  a  height  of  23,000 
feet,  and  found  a  decline  of  temperature  from 
82°  to  15°,  which  almost  confirmed  the  theory 
of  a  fall  of  1°  in  every  300  feet  of  elevation. 
The  sky  was  very  blue  and  the  air  was  found 
to  be  very  dry.  A  magnet  took  a  longer  time 
to  vibrate  than  on  the  earth.  He  was  the  first 
to  bring  down  air  collected  at  this  enormous 
height,  which  on  being  analyzed  was  found  to 
be  in  its  component  parts  the  same  as  the 
lower  air.  In  the  highest  strata  of  air  reached 
by  the  balloon  he  suffered  severely  from  cold. 
Breathing  was  difficult,  the  pulse  and  respira 
tion  were  much  quickened,  and  the  throat  be 
came  parched.  In  1806  Carlo  Brioschi,  the 
astronomer  royal  of  Naples,  in  company  with 
Andreani,  the  first  Italian  aeronaut,  attempted 
to  rise  from  Naples  to  a  greater  height  than 
that  attained  by  Gay-Lussac;  but  in  conse 
quence  of  the  bursting  of  the  balloon  the  ex 
plorers  were  precipitated  to  the  earth,  which 
they  fortunately  reached  without  material  in 
jury.  No  subsequent  scientific  aerial  expe 
ditions  took  place  till  1850,  when  Messrs.  Bixio 
and  Barral  ascended  from  the  garden  of  the 
observatory  in  Paris  in  a  balloon  filled  with 
pure  hydrogen  gas.  They  reached  a  height  of 
19,000  feet,  when  an  accident  to  their  balloon 
compelled  them  to  descend  without  having  had 
the  opportunity  to  make  observations  of  much 
value.  In  a  second  ascent  in  July  of  the  same 
year,  they  reached  a  height  nearly  equal  to  that 
gained  by  Gay-Lussac  in  his  second  expedition 
in  1804,  but,  owing  to  a  tear  in  their  balloon, 
were  unable  to  rise  above  a  bank  of  cloud  es 
timated  to  be  15,000  feet  in  thickness,  and 
reach  the  blue  sky  beyond.  The  most  ex 
traordinary  phenomenon  noted  by  them  was 
the  sudden  variation  of  temperature  during  the 
last  few  thousand  feet  of  their  ascent.  At  the 
height  of  19,000  feet  the  thermometer  marked 
15°,  but  in  the  next  2,000  feet  it  fell  to  39°  be 
low  zero,  thus  showing  a  temperature  lower  by 


54°  than  that  noted  by  Gay-Lussac  at  a  similar 
elevation.  In  1852  Mr.  Welsh,  of  the  Kew  ob 
servatory,  in  company  with  Mr.  Green,  made 
four  ascents  from  London  in  the  great  "Nas 
sau"  balloon,  with  results  tending  to  confirm 
those  already  recorded  by  Gay-Lussac. — The 
most  remarkable  and  successful  ascents  ever 
made  for  scientific  purposes  were  those  of  Mr. 
James  Glaisher,  F.  R.  S.,  from  various  parts  of 
England  in  1862-'6,  and  of  Messrs.  Camille 
Flammarion,  W.  de  Fonvieille,  and  Gaston  Tis- 
sandier  from  Paris  and  other  parts  of  France  in 
1867-'9.  On  Sept.  5,  1862,  Mr.  Glaisher,  accom 
panied  by  Mr.  Coxwell,  an  experienced  aeronaut 
who  had  already  made  400  ascents,  reached  the 
astounding  height  of  37,000  feet,  or  7  m.  above 
the  earth's  surface.  At  the  height  of  5^  m.  Mr. 
Glaisher  gradually  lost  the  use  of  his  limbs,  and 
finally  became  totally  insensible.  Mr.  Coxwell 
had  meanwhile  climbed  up  to  the  ring  of  the 
balloon  in  order  to  free  the  valve  rope,  which 
had  become  entangled ;  while  doing  this  his 
hands  became  frozen  and  powerless,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  drop  down  into  the  car  and  pour 
brandy  over  them  to  restore  the  circulation, 
lie  then  perceived  the  critical  condition  of  Mr. 
Glaisher,  and  endeavored  to  approach  him ;  but 
finding  himself  also  in  danger  of  lapsing  into 
insensibility,  and  being^at  the  same  time  with 
out  the  power  to  move  his  hands,  he  seized 
the  valve  rope  with  his  teeth,  dipped  his  head 
downward  several  times,  and  found  to  his  re 
lief  that  the  escape  of  gas  caused  the  balloon 
to  descend  rapidly  into  a  warmer  temperature. 
Mr.  Glaisher  soon  after  revived,  and  they  re 
turned  without  further  adventure  to  the  earth. 
The  results  of  Mr.  Glaisher's  observations  in 
duced  him  to  abandon  the  theory  of  a  decline 
of  1°  of  temperature  for  every  increase  of  300 
feet  of  elevation.  M.  Flammarion  calculated 
a  mean  abatement  of  1°  for  every  345  feet 
when  the  sky  is  clear,  and  of  1°  for  every  354 
feet  when  the  heavens  are  overcast ;  but  Mr. 
Glaisher's  midday  experiments  show  that  with 
in  the  first  1,000  feet  from  the  earth  the  aver 
age  space  passed  through  for  a  decline  of  1° 
was  223  feet  with  a  cloudy  sky,  and  1 62  feet 
with  a  clear  sky.  Above  10,000  feet  the  space 
passed  through  for  a  like  decline  was  455  feet 
for  the  former,  and  417  feet  for  the  latter;  and 
above  20,000  feet  the  space  with  both  states 
of  the  sky  was  nearly  1,000  feet  for  a  decline 
of  1°.  In  an  ascent  made  by  him  on  July  17, 
1862,  the  temperature  was  59°  at  the  surface; 
at  10,000  feet  it  had  fallen  to  26°,  and  at 
20,000  feet  it  had  risen  to  42°,  which  shows  a 
difference  of  81°  from  the  temperature  record 
ed  by  Bixio  and  Barral  at  the  same  altitude  in 
their  second  ascent  in  1850.  Notwithstanding 
the  difficulty  of  extracting  any  definite  law 
from  such  capricious  data,  the  results  of  Mr. 
Glaisher's  observations  above  quoted  afford 
a  much  nearer  approach  to  a  solution  of  the 
problem  than  the  old  rule  of  a  uniform  rate 
of  decrease.  All  aeronauts  have  been  aware 
of  the  existence  of  atmospheric  currents,  often 


148 


AERONAUTICS 


moving  in  opposite  directions,  to  which  they 
are  obliged  to  trust  themselves,  if  desirous  of 
travelling  in  a  horizontal  direction.  M.  Flam- 
inarion  made  the  curious  discovery  that  the 
traces  of  his  various  voyages  are  all  represented 
by  lines  tending  to  curve  in  one  and  the  same 
general  direction;  whence  he  concluded  that 
above  the  soil  of  France  the  currents  of  the 
atmosphere  are  constantly  deviated  circularly, 
and  in  a  south-west-north-east-south  direction. 
Still  more  curious  was  the  discovery  by  Mr.  Glai- 
sher  of  what  may  be  called  an  aerial  gulf  stream. 
In  his  ascent  of  Jan.  12,  18(54,  he  reached  a 
warm  current  at  a  height  of  1,800  feet.  At 
3,000  feet  the  temperature  was  45°,  being  34-° 
warmer  than  at  the  surface,  and  for  the  next 
3,000  feet  it  was  higher  than  on  the  earth.  It 
then  gradually  fell  to  11°  at  11,500  feet.  This 
warm  stratum  of  atmosphere  was  a  current 
moving  from  the  S.  W.  in  the  direction  of  the 
gulf  stream.  Fine  granular  snow  was  falling 
into  it.  The  existence  of  this  warm  S.  W. 
current  goes  far,  Mr.  Glaisher  thinks,  to  ex 
plain  why  England  possesses  a  winter  temper 
ature  so  much  higher  than  her  latitude  would 
indicate.  The  same  observer  found  that  the 
time  of  the  vibration  of  a  magnet  was  greater 
than  on  the  earth ;  that  the  number  of  pulsa 
tions  and  inspirations  increased  considerably  at 
the  higher  elevations,  although  the  same  indi 
viduals  were  differently  affected  at  different 
times ;  that  the  velocity  of  the  wind  was  much 
greater  at  a  high  elevation  than  near  the  sur 
face;  and  that  sounds  from  the  earth  were 
more  or  less  audible  according  to  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  air.  When  in  the  clouds 
at  4  m.  high  lie  heard  a  railway  train ;  but 
when  clouds  were  below,  no  sound  ever  reach 
ed  the  car  at  this  elevation.  The  barking  of  a 
little  dog  was  heard  at  the  height  of  2  m., 
while  a  multitude  of  people  sLuouting  was 
not  heard  at  4,000  feet.  At  the  greatest 
heights  to  which.  Mr.  Glaisher  ascended  he 
found  that  the  color  of  the  unclouded  sky 
deepened  to  an  intense  prussian  blue  when  the 
air  was  free  from  moisture.  He  rejects  the 
theory  which  ascribes  this  to  reflection  from 
vesicles  of  water,  and  concludes  that  it  must  be 
caused  by  reflection  from  the  air,  whose  polar 
izing  angle  is  45°. — Soon  after  the  invention  of 
balloons  the  idea  was  entertained  that  they 
might  be  used  to  advantage  in  war  for  pur 
poses  of  observation  and  reconnoissance.  An 
aerostatic  school  was  established  at  Meudon  in 
France,  and  a  number  of  balloons  were  dis 
tributed  among  the  French  army.  At  the 
sieges  of  Maubeuge,  Charleroi,  Mannheim,  and 
Ehrenbreitstein  they  proved  to  be  of  some 
value.  It  is  said  that  the  battle  of  Fleurus  j 
was  gained  by  Gen.  Jourdan  in  1794  mainly  j 
through  information  of  the  Austrian  positions  ! 
and  movements  communicated  by  French  ' 
officers  stationed  in  a  balloon.  The  machine 
was  held  by  a  cable,  but  its  tether  was  easily 
extended  by  means  of  a  windlass,  so  that  the 
observers  could  soar  above  the  enemy's  fire. 


|  This  is  the  last  we  hear  for  many  years  of  the 
|  use  of  balloons  in  warfare.  In  the  Italian  cam- 
i  paign  of  1859  they  were  again  employed  by 
I  the  French,  and  one  is  reported  to  have  aided 
them  effectually  at  the  battle  of  Solferino. 
Early  in  the  American  civil  war  (18Gl-'5)  a 
I  balloon  corps  was  organized  by  the  United 
j  States  war  department,  in  the  management  of 
which  Messrs.  La  Mountain,  Lowe,  and  other 
experienced  aeronauts  were  associated.  Mr. 
Lowe  first  performed  the  feat  of  telegraphing 
from  an  aerial  station  GOO  feet  above  the  earth. 
In  the  summer  and  autumn  of  18G1  many  bal 
loon  reconnoissances  were  made  along  the  Po 
tomac  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fortress 
Monroe.  The  balloon  corps  formed  a  part  of. 
Gen.  McClellan's  expedition  to  the  peninsula 
in  the  spring  of  18G2,  and  when  his  army  in 
May  and  June  occupied  the  lines  in  front  of 
Richmond,  the  balloons  were  brought  into 
daily  use  for  purposes  of  observation.  On  one 
j  occasion,  while  Gen.  Fitz-Jolm  Porter  was 
watching  the  movements  of  the  enemy  from  a 
captive  balloon,  the  cable  broke,  and  he  was 
carried  over  the  confederate  lines.  By  pulling 
the  valve  string  he  caused  the  machine  to  de 
scend,  when  it  struck  a  current  of  air  going  in 
|  the  opposite  direction,  and  he  landed  safely 
within  the  Union  1'nes.  During  the  two  days 
of  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks  Mr.  Lowe  watched 
the  conflict  from  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet, 
and  was  the  first  to  announce  the  enemy's 
retreat  to  Richmond.  After  the  retreat  of 
McClellan  to  Harrison's  Landing  the  balloon 
corps  seems  to  have  been  disbanded,  and  no 
subsequent  employment  of  the  balloon  for 
military  purposes  is  recorded  during  the  war. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  of  1870-'71  a  proposal  was  made  to 
!  Marshal  Lebocuf  that  the  French  army  should 
be  supplied  with  balloons,  but  he  rejected  it. 
A  similar  proposal  was  made  to  the  German 
war  department,  which  was  accepted,  but 
failed  because  the  balloons  were  placed  in  un 
skilful  hands.  The  siege  of  Paris  by  the  Ger 
mans  in  1870-'71  gave  a  new  and  unexpected 
impulse  to  the  science  of  aerostatics.  Toward 
the  close  of  September,  1870,  the  city  was  com 
pletely  invested,  and  the  balloon,  rejected  by 
the  French  government  as  of  no  practical  use  a 
few  months  previous,  was  gladly  employed  by 
the  besieged  as  a  means  of  communicating  with 
those  parts  of  the  country  not  under  the  con 
trol  of  the  enemy.  As  no  machine  in  the  city 
was  at  that  time  considered  sufficiently  trust 
worthy  to  pass  over  the  besieging  lines  in  safe 
ty,  balloon  factories  were  established  in  two 
of  the  principal  railway  stations,  which  pre 
vious  to  the  capitulation  turned  out  nearly  70 
machines.  The  material  of-  the  envelope  was 
calico  varnished  on  the  exterior  with  a  mix 
ture  of  linseed  oil  and  oxide  of  lead,  and  the 
network,  car,  and  other  appurtenances  were 
of  the  customary  pattern.  The  balloons  were 
of  an  average  capacity  of  70,000  cubic  feet. 
The  first  left  Paris  Sept,  23  with  227  pounds 


AERONAUTICS 


U9 


of  letters,  and  descended  at  Evreux.  From 
that  date  to  the  end  of  the  siege,  Jan.  28,  1871, 
61  others  were  despatched.  Of  these,  54  were 
sent  by  the  post  office  department,  carrying 
about  2,500,000  letters,  which  represented  a 
total  weight  of  nearly  10  tons.  Most  of  them 
also  took  carrier  pigeons  intended  to  bring 
back  news  and  replies  to  the  outgoing  letters. 
Comparatively  few  of  the  pigeons  returned  to 
Paris.  In  order  to  adapt  the  weight  of  the 
return  document  to  the  capacity  of  the  bird, 
long  messages  and  letters  were  reduced  by 
photography  to  within  an  area  not  exceeding 
one  or  two  square  inches  on  paper  of  the  thin 
nest  texture.  These  slips  were  generally  en 
closed  in  a  quill,  which  was  fastened  to  the 
central  tail  feather,  and  when  received  they 
were  submitted  to  the  microscope  and  copied. 
Most  of  the  balloons  were  under  the  manage 
ment  of  sailors,  whose  nautical  training,  it  was 
supposed,  would  peculiarly  fit  them  for  navi 
gating  the  air.  Several  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy,  dropping  within  the  hostile  lines ; 
and  one,  the  Washington,  which  left  Paris  on 
Oct.  12,  was  subjected,  while  crossing  the 
Prussian  outposts  at  an  elevation  of  2,500  to 
3,000  feet,  to  so  severe  a  fire  that  the  travel 
lers  were  obliged  to  ascend  rapidly  several 
hundred  feet.  Some  were  carried  to  consider 
able  distances  beyond  the  French  frontier,  and 
the  Ville  d'Orleans  was  swept  into  Norway, 
and  came  to  anchor  000  m.  N.  of  Christiania. 
Three  have  never  been  heard  from  since  they 
left  Paris.  To  r  void  the  enemy's  fusillade,  it 
was  determined  in  the  latter  part  of  November 
to  despatch  the  balloons  at  night ;  but  as  no 
lights  were  permitted  in  them  by  the  govern 
ment,  the  subsequent  journeys  were  attended 
by  unusual  perils,  the  aeronauts  being  unable 
to  determine  their  rate  or  direction  of  travel 
ling  or  their  distance  from  the  earth.  To  this 
unwise  provision  was  doubtless  owing  the  loss 
of  the  balloons  above  mentioned,  and  the  ec 
centric  courses  which  others  took.  Gambetta, 
the  leader  of  the  provisional  government,  was 
one  of  the  first  to  leave  the  city  by  this  means 
of  conveyance,  in  order  to  take  the  control  of 
affairs  at  Tours.  On  the  night  of  Dec.  2 
Dr.  Janssen  departed  m  the  balloon  Volta  for 
the  purpose  of  observing  the  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun  on  Dec.  22.  He  noticed  that  the  balloon 
fell  at  sunrise  and  rose  again  when  the  sun 
was  several  degrees  above  the  horizon,  and  ac 
counted  for  this  effect  by  the  fact  that  the  en 
velope  upon  receiving  the  first  beams  of  the 
sun  began  to  radiate  heat  into  space  and  be 
came  rapidly  cooler,  deriving  less  heat  from 
the  rising  sun  than  it  parted  with  by  radiation. 
This  process  being  finished,  it  became  again 
susceptible  to  the  sun's  rays  and  reascended. 
Since  the  termination  of  the  war  it  has  been 
announced  that  the  German  government  have 
determined  to  take  active  steps  to  effect  im 
provements  in  military  ballooning,  and  to  make 
it  a  part  of  their  system. — Notwithstanding 
nearly  a  century  has  elapsed  since  the  inven 


tion  of  the  balloon,  little  or  no  improvement 
has  been  made  upon  its  original  form.  It  con 
sists  now,  as  in  the  time  of  Montgolfier,  of  a 
spheroidal  bag  of  gas  enclosed  within  a  net 
work,  attached  by  ropes  to  a  ring  or  hoop, 
from  which  is  suspended  a  car  for  the  convey 
ance  of  the  aeronaut.  In  place  of  heated  air 


The  Modern  Balloon. 

or  hydrogen,  the  latter  of  which  is  expensive 
and  requires  an  elaborate  apparatus  for  its 
production,  it  has  for  many  years  been  cus 
tomary  to  use  carburetted  hydrogen  or  com 
mon  coal  gas.  the  mean  density  of  which  is 
about  one  half  that  of  the  air.  This  improve 
ment  in  aerostatics  was  first  introduced  by  Mr. 
Green,  the  English  aeronaut.  The  height  to 
which  a  balloon  will  rise  is  determined  from 
the  law  according  to  which  the  density  of  the 
atmospheric  strata  diminishes  as  the  distance 
from  the  earth  is  increased.  The  buoyant 
force  diminishes  with  the  density,  and  when  it 
is  reduced  to  a  quantity  only  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  balloon  and  its  appendages,  no 
further  ascension  can  take  place.  As  the 
pressure  of  the  external  air  is  diminished  the 
expansive  force  of  the  confined  gas  becomes 
greater ;  and  a  balloon  quite  filled  at  the  sur 
face  of  the  earth  would  inevitably  be  torn  to 
shreds  at  the  height  of  a  few  miles,  unless  a 
portion  of  the  confined  gas  were  allowed  to  es 
cape.  For  this  purpose  the  neck  of  the  bal 
loon,  into  which  the  gas  is  introduced,  is  com 
monly  left  open,  and  the  machine  is  also  fur 
nished  with  a  safety  valve  at  the  top,  which 
can  be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure.  The  valve 
shown  on  the  next  page,  invented  by  M.  Giffard, 
a  well  known  manufacturer  of  balloons,  is 
considered  by  M.  Tissandier  and  other  high 
authorities  to  be  perhaps  the  best  thus  far 
made.  It  consists  of  a,  metallic  disk  four  feet 
in  diameter,  which  is  pressed  against  a  wood 
en  hoop  by  sixteen  steel  springs ;  by  means 
of  the  rope  attached  to  its  centre  it  may  be 
held  open,  but  on  this  being  released  it  springs 
back  to  its  place.  A  good  precaution,  besides 


150 


AERONAUTICS 


the  opening  of  the  valve,  and  one  generally 
adopted,  is  to  inflate  the  balloon  only  partially 
at  the '  surface  of  the  earth.  Mr.  Glaisher  is 


Balloon  Valve  Invented  by  M.  Giifard. 

of  the  opinion  that  in  order  to  reach  great  al 
titudes  the  balloon  must  have  a  capacity  of  at 
least  90,000  cubic  feet,  of  which  not  more  than 
one  third  need  be  inflated  with  gas,  and  must 
carry  upward  of  GOO  pounds  of  ballast.  "With 
such  a  machine  he  reached  a  height  of  seven 
miles,  at  which  elevation,  as  we  have  seen, 
he  became  insensible  and  his  companion  nearly 
so.  The  question  of  the  extreme  altitude  to 
which  a  balloon  can  ascend  can  therefore  only 
be  theoretically  determined,  since  the  vital 
powers,  however  strongly  organized,  must  at 
37,000  to  40,000  feet  of  elevation  succumb  to 
the  intense  cold  and  the  attenuated  atmosphere 
which  there  prevail.  The  balloon  usually 
rises  in  an  oblique  direction  under  the  com 
bined  influence  of  the  vertical  ascensional  force 
and  the  direction  of  the  wind.  As  soon  as  it 
mounts  into  a  stratum  of  air  having  the  same 
density  as  itself,  it  ceases  to  ascend  unless 
more  ballast  be  thrown  out,  and  follows  the 
course  of  the  aerial  current.  As  regards  the 
particles  of  air  which  surround  it,  it  is  quite 
motionless,  and  the  aeronaut  may  be  swept 
along  with  the  swiftness  of  a  tornado,  with 
nothing  to  indicate  to  him,  if  enveloped  in 
clouds,  that  he  is  not  in  the  quiet  of  a  calm. 
M.  Flammarion  states  that  in  an  aerial  journey 
of  120  m.  he  never  felt  himself  in  motion,  and 
that  from  a  glass  of  water  tilled  to  the  brim, 
which  was  placed  within  the  car,  not  a  drop 
was  shaken  out,  although  the  balloon  was  con 
stantly  rising  and  falling  hundreds  of  feet. 
Not  the  least  remarkable  phenomenon  which 
presents  itself  to  the  aeronaut  is  the  concave 
appearance  of  the  earth,  which  arches  beneath 
him  as  the  dome  of  the  sky  does  above,  so  that 
lie  may  be  said  to  float  between  two  vast  con 
cavities.  In  descending,  the  aeronaut  reduces 
the  buoyancy  of  the  balloon  by  a  skilful  man 
agement  of  the  rope  which  controls  the  safety 
valve,  and  when  the  descent  becomes  too  rapid 
he  lightens  the  machine  by  throwing  over  bal 
last.  This  is  an  operation  which  should  be 
committed  only  to  a  practised  hand.  So  deli 


cately  does  the  balloon  respond  -to  any  altera 
tion  in  its  weight  that,  as  M.  Tissandier  re 
lates,  the  throwing  out  of  a  chicken  bone  once 
caused  him  to  rise  from  20  to  80  yards.  In 
descending  through  a  heavy  bank  of  clouds  the 
weight  of  the  balloon  may  also  be  considerably 
increased  by  the  deposited  moisture,  and  the 
most  rapid  discharge  of  ballast  will  sometimes 
scarcely  prevent  a  violent  collision  with  the 
earth.  Under  such  circumstances  the  guide 
rope  suspended  from  the  car,  first  adopted  by 
Green,  proves  of  great  advantage  by  acting  as 
a  sort  of  substitute  for  ballast,  as  every  inch 
of  it  which  rests  upon  the  ground  relieves  the 
balloon  of  an  equivalent  portion  of  its  weight. — 
Of  the  innumerable  schemes  which  have  been 
propounded  for  the  guidance  and  propulsion 
of  balloons,  not  one  has  proved  available,  and 
the  machine  is  still  manageable  only  for  ver 
tical  motions.  It  is  within  the  power  of  the 
aeronaut  to  ascend  to  the  utmost  height  at 
which  human  existence  is  'possible,  but  when 
he  desires  to  move  in  a  horizontal  direction 
he  is  for  the  most  part  like  a  rudderless  ship 
at  the  mercy  of  the  winds  and  waves.  Start 
ing  from  a  given  point,  he  may  traverse  the 
segment  of  a  circle,  or  describe  the  most  ec^ 
centric  course,  and  after  hours  of  aerial  navi 
gation  be  as  far  as  ever  from  his  proposed  goal. 
He  can  rise  or  fall  at  pleasure  into  a  current 
of  air  seeming  to  waft  him  in  the  desired  di- 
rection ;  but  so  capricious  and  infinitely  vari 
ous  are  the  atmospheric  streams,  and  so  im 
perfectly  defined  are  their  courses,  that  ho 
will  be  most  likely  to  find  himself  only  baffled 
and  confused  by  them.  In  spite  of  the  results 
which  aerostatics  offered  in  connection  with 
the  siege  of  Paris,  Mr.  Glaisher  seriously 
doubts  the  practical  use  of  the  balloon.  He 
sees  no  probability  that  any  method  of  steer 
ing  it  will  be  invented,  and  even  intimates  that 
this  is  not  necessarily  the  first  step  in  aerial 
navigation,  and  may  possibly  have  no  share  in 
the  solution  of  the  problem.  He  would  em 
ploy  it  simply  as  an  aerial  observatory,  whence 
an  infinite  variety  of  phenomena  affecting  the 
laws  which  control  the  universe  can  be  noted 
with  a  precision  not  attainable  on  the  surface 
j  of  the  earth.  Messrs'.  Fonvielle  and  Tissan 
dier,  on  the  other  hand,  believe  that  the  guid 
ance  of  balloons  has  nothing  impossible  in  it, 
and  lay  particular  stress  upon  the  use  to  be 
made  by  the  aeronaut  of  the  natural  currents 
of  air  flowing  at  various  heights  in  the  atmos 
phere.  But  information  with  regard  to  these 
is  at  present  entirely  too  vague  to  justify  their 
confidence.  Various  plans  of  aerial  ships  to 
be  propelled  and  steered  by  fans,  paddles,  sails, 
or  other  mechanical  contrivances,  have  been 
projected  in  Europe  and  America,  all  of  which, 
having  been  designed  in  ignorance  of  or  in 
difference  to  the  most  rudimentary  atmospher 
ic  laws,  have  proved  failures.  Under  the  con 
viction  that  the  balloon  can  never  solve  the 
problem  of  aerial  navigation,  the  "Aeronauti 
cal  Society  "  was  established  in  England  a  few 


.-ESCHINES 


vESCIIYLUS 


151 


years  ago,  under  the  presidency  of  the  duke  of 
Argyll.  Absolutely  nothing  has  been  ac 
complished  by  it  yet  except  to  organize  a 
series  of  experiments  on  the  relation  be 
tween  the  pressure  and  the  velocity  of  air. — 
See  "Travels  in  the  Air  by  James  Glaisher, 
F.  R.  S.,  Camille  Flammarion,  W.  de  Fonvielle, 
and  Gaston  Tissandier,  edited  by  James  Glai 
sher,  F.  R.  S."  (London,  1871). 

JCSCHIXES.  I.  An  Athenian  orator,  rival 
of  Demosthenes,  born  at  Athens  in  389  B.  C., 
died  at  Samos  in  314.  He  was  the  son  of  Atro- 
metus  and  Glaucothea.  Demosthenes  says 
Atrometus  was  a  freedman  and  Glaucothea  a 
prostitute.  /Eschines,  on  the  contrary,  says 
his  father  was  a  true-born  Athenian.  Demos 
thenes  upbraided  him  with  the  fact  that  his 
father  was  a  schoolmaster,  as  though  it  were  a 
low  and  sordid  occupation.  ^Eschmes  was 
afterward  clerk  to  a  magistrate,  and  thus  ob 
tained  some  insight  into  the  laws  of  his  coun 
try.  He  subsequently  tried  his  fortune  on  the 
stage,  served  with  distinction  in  the  army,  and 
finally  appeared  as  an  orator  on  the  public 
arena.  He  was  public  clerk  for  two  years, 
and  a  satellite  of  the  orators  Aristophon  and 
Eubulus.  In  347  he  was  sent,  along  with  De 
mosthenes,  as  one  of  the  ten  ambassadors  to 
negotiate  a  peace  with  Philip  of  Macedon. 
From  this  time  forth  he  favored  the  Macedo 
nian  alliance,  and  opposed  the  patriotic  par 
ty  of  Athens,  headed  by  Demosthenes.  lie 
formed  one  of  the  embassy  who  went  to  receive 
Philip's  oath  to  the  treaty.  Timarchus  and 
Demosthenes  accused  him  on  his  return  of 
malversation.  Pie  evaded  the  danger  by  a 
counter  prosecution  against  Timarchus,  on  ac 
count  of  his  bad  moral  character,  which  suc 
ceeded.  Shortly  after  the  battle  of  Chreronea, 
in  338,  Ctesiphon,  an  Athenian,  proposed  that 
Demosthenes  should  receive  from  the  state  a 
golden  crown.  ^Eschines  indicted  Ctesiphon 
for  bringing  forward  an  illegal  arid  inappropri 
ate  resolution.  The  cause  was  not  tried  until 
330,  six  years  after  the  death  of  Philip,  and 
when  Alexander  was  in  Asia.  Ctesiphon  was 
acquitted,  and  as  ^Eschines  had  not  gained  one 
fifth  of  the  aggregate  votes  cast,  he  was  liable 
to  pay  the  penalty  inflicted  by  the  Athenian 
law  on  him  who  brought  forward  a  factious 
resolution.  Being  unable  to  pay  this  penalty, 
he  retired  to  the  island  of  Rhodes,  where  he 
taught  elocution  for  a  livelihood,  and  became 
the  founder  of  the  Rhodian  school  of  oratory. 
Three  speeches  of  his  are  extant,  showing  great 
narrative  and  descriptive  power,  and  freer 
from  personal  abuse  than  those  of  Demos 
thenes,  who  reluctantly  acknowledged  the  mer 
its  of  ^Esohines.  The  first  is  on  malversation 
in  his  embassy,  the  second  is  against  Timar 
chus,  and  the  third  against  Ctesiphon.  II.  An 
Athenian  philosopher,  a  follower  of  -Socrates, 
and  the  son  of  Charinus,  a  sausage  maker.  So 
crates  used  to  say  that  the  sausage  maker's  son 
was  the  only  man  who  knew  how  to  honor 
him.  Poverty  obliged  him  to  go  to  the  court 


of  the  younger  Dionysius,  the  Syracusan  tyrant, 
where  Plato,  then  in  the  ascendant  there, 
treated  him  with  contempt,  but  Aristippus 
gave  him  a  large  reward  for  his  dialogues.  On 
his  return  from  Sicily,  he  taught  philosophy 
for  a  living  at  Athens.  He  wrote  orations  for 
the  forum  for  hire.  Several  dialogues  on 
ethical  subjects  have  been  with  doubtful  jus 
tice  ascribed  to  him. 

^SCHYLUS,  the  eldest  of  the  great  Attic  trage 
dians,  the  son  of  Euphorion,  born  at  Eleusis  in 
525  B.  C.  (4th  year  of  the  63d  Olympiad),  died  in 
456.  He  was  of  a  noble  family  of  the  class  of 
the  Eupatridas,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  traced 
his  origin  to  Codrus,  the  last  king  of  Athens; 
for  among  the  life  archons,  who  succeeded  the 
kings,  was  an  ^Eschylus,  in  whose  reign  the 
Olympiads  commenced.  It  is  believed  that  his 
father  was  connected  with  the  worship  of 
Ceres;  and  he  was  probably  himself  accus 
tomed  from  his  youth  to  the  spectacles  of  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  into  which  he  was  after 
ward  initiated.  A  portion  of  these  he  seems 
to  have  described  in  a  strange  fragment  from 
his  drama  of  the  Edoni,  the  remainder  being 
lost,  and  he  was  accused  of  divulging  their  se 
crets  in  his  tragedy  of  the  Eumenides.  Pau- 
sanias  relates  of  him  that  Bacchus,  of  whose 
worship  tragic  and  dithyrambic  odes  and  spec 
tacles  formed  a  part,  appeared  to  him  in  a  vis 
ion — as  he  himself  asserted — when  he  had  fallen 
asleep  in  the  fields  one  day,  while  he  should  have 
been  watching  the  vines,  and  commanded  him  to 
write  tragedy.  At  the  age  of  25  he  made  his 
first  attempt  as  a  tragic  poet;  but  the  next 
shape  in  which  we  find  him  mentioned  is  that 
of  a  warrior,  when,  with  his  two  brothers,  Cy- 
ntegirus  and  Aminias,  he  received  public  honors 
for  distinguished  valor  in  the  famous  field  of 
Marathon.  Six  years  after  that  battle  he 
gained  his  first  tragic  victory,  and  four  years 
afterward  again  fought  at  Salamis,  where  his 
brother  Aminias  received  the  prize  for  the 
greatest  courage,  being  the  trierarch  who  sank 
the  first  Pho?nician  ship,  as  the  poet  himself 
has  related  in  his  PersoB,  although  modestly  re 
fraining  from  mention  of  this  hero's  name.  He 
again  fought  at  Platrea,  and  eight  years  after 
this  gained  the  prize  for  a  trilogy,  or  series  of 
three  dramas  presented  at  a  single  representa 
tion,  of  which  the  "  Persians,"  the  earliest  of 
his  extant  works,  was  one.  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  was  defeated  by  Simonides  in  an 
elegiac  contest  for  the  prize  offered  for  the  best 
elegy  to  the  honor  of  those  who  fell  at  Mara 
thon  ;  but  for  many  years  he  was  esteemed 
the  greatest  of  tragic  poets,  having  composed, 
it  is  said,  70  dramas,  5  of  which  were  satyric, 
the  rest  tragedies  of  the  loftiest  tone,  and 
gained  13  tragic  prizes  before  he  was  at  length 
defeated  by  Sophocles,  in  468.  Soon  after 
this,  whether  in  disgust  at  this  loss  of  his  poet 
ic  laurels,  or  at  a  trial  to  which  he  is  said  to 
have  been  subjected  on  an  accusation  of  impi 
ety  for  the  disclosure  of  the  Eleusinian  myste 
ries,  as  related  above,  he  retired  to  Sicily, 


152 


JESCHYLUS 


JSSCULAPIUS 


where  lie  was  hospitably  received  by  Iliero, 
in  whose  honor  he  composed  a  drama  styled 
the  "  Women  of  Etna  "  ;  and  he  died  at  Gela, 
in  the  09th  year  of  his  age.  The  real  circum 
stances  of  his  accusation  and  trial  are  unknown. 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  states  that  he  was  tried 
by  the  court  of  the  Areopagus  and  acquitted  ; 
while  ./Elian  relates  that  he  \vould  have  been 
stoned  to  death  by  the  Athenians,  had  not  his 
brother  Aminias  awakened  the  sympathies  of 
his  would-be  executioners  by  baring  his  mu 
tilated  arm,  from  which  the  hand  had  been 
hewn  by  a  Persian  scimitar  as  he  was  strug 
gling  to  prevent  the  launch  of  a  galley  from  the 
beach  at  Marathon.  It  is,  moreover,  doubtful 
whether  he  ever  revisited  his  native  country 
between  the  period  of  his  expatriation  and  that 
of  his  death,  although  many  of  his  pieces,  among 
others  the  celebrated  Oresteian  trilogy,  com 
posed  of  the  Agamemnon,  the  Choephori,  and 
the  Eumenides,  which  gained  the  tragic  prize 
in  458,  were  performed  during  this  period. 
The  latter  fact  seems  to  disprove  the  whole 
story  of  the  accusation  of  impiety  as  the  cause 
of  his  taking  umbrage  toward  Athens,  as  it  cer 
tainly  disposes  of  its  connection  with  his  re 
moval  to  Sicily.  Most  doubtful  of  all  is  the 
received  account  of  his  death,  which  was  occa 
sioned,  says  the  legend,  by  an  eagle  flying  over 
head  with  a  tortoise  in  his  claws,  and  dropping 
the  reptile  on  the  bald  head  of  the  poet,  which 
he  mistook  for  a  stone. — ./Eschylus  was  a  great 
improver  of  the  Attic  tragedy  ;  in  fact,  it  is  he 
who  gave  to  it  first,  the  tragic  form,  by  intro 
ducing  a  second  performer,  with  dialogue,  emo 
tion,  and  action.  He  also  abridged  the  length 
of  the  dithyrambic  odes,  caused  a  regular 
stage  to  be  erected,  and  was  the  first  to  pro 
duce  his  dramas  with  appropriate  scenery  and 
clothe  his  heroes  in  befitting  costumes.  Of  his 
70  dramas,  but  7  have  come  down  to  us  entire 
— the  Seven  against  Thebes,  the  Suppliants, 
the  Persians,  the  Prometheus  Bound,  the  Aga 
memnon,  the  Choephori,  and  the  Eumenides; 
with  but  a  few  fragments  of  the  others. 
^Eschylus  is  undoubtedly  the  grandest,  the 
stateliest,  and  the  most  solemn  of  the  Attic 
tragedians ;  and  his  style,  though  difficult  and 
at  times  rugged,  is  magnificently  sonorous  with 
its  many-syllabled  compounds.  His  creed  is 
that  of  a  blind,  overruling,  ever-present,  inevi 
table  necessity,  against  which  it  is  vain  to  con 
tend,  from  which  it  is  hopeless  to  escape,  yet 
which  it  is  alike  the  duty  and  the  glory  of  the 
great,  good  man  to  resist  to  the  end  undaunted  ; 
of  ancestral  guilt  continually  reproduced  and 
punished  by  the  successive  guilt  of  generation 
after  generation ;  of  hapless  kindred  criminals, 
who  would  not  be  criminals  could  they  avoid 
it,  but  are  goaded  on  to  the  commission  of  ever 
new  atrocities  by  the  hereditary  curse  of  the 
doomed  race.  Such  are  the  legends  of  the 
Theban  Labdacidre  and  the  Mycenian  Atriche, 
predestined  murderers,  adulterers,  and  parri 
cides,'  inextricably  involved  in  the  dark  net  of 
necessity.  It  is  objected  to  ^Eschylus  that  he 


deals  with  horrors  only ;  that  his  lyre  has  but 
one  chord  of  dark  and  disastrous  terror ;  that 
he  is  all  iron,  and  has  no  key  with  which  to  at 
tune  the  tenderer  strings  of  human  sympathies. 
But  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  is  to  be 
found  in  the  whole  range  of  Greek  letters 
deeper  pathos  than  that  of  the  woe  of  Prome 
theus,  crucified  on  his  Scythian  crags  for  his 
love  to  mortals ;  than  that  of  the  choruses  in 
the  Agamemnon,  descriptive  of  the  disconsolate 
sorrow  of  Menelaus  deserted  by  his  faithless 
Helen ;  and  of  the  sacrifice  at  the  father's  bid 
ding  of  the  devoted  Iphigenia.  Less  polished, 
he  is  grander  than  both  Sophocles  and  Euripi 
des. — The  tragedies  of  /Eschylus  have  been 
rendered  into  English  verse  by  Dean  Potter. 
A  more  poetical  version  is  that  of  the  Prome 
theus  Bound,  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Barrett  Brown 
ing.  The  great  trilogy,  the  Agamemnon,  Choe 
phori,  and  Eumenides,  was  translated  (London, 
1865)  by  Miss  A.  Swanwick,  assisted  by  Mr. 
Francis  Newman.  In  1800  appeared  Dean 
Hilman's  translation  of  the  Agamemnon.  The 
most  esteemed  editions  of  ^Eschylus  are  by 
Schiltz  (Halle,  1808-'21),  Dindorf  (Leipsic, 
1827,  and  Oxford,  1832),  and  Scholelicld  (Cam 
bridge,  1830).  Blomtield's  edition  is  excellent 
as  far  as  it  is  completed,  but  it  contains  only 
five  of  the  seven  tragedies  that  are  still  extant. 
JESCILAPHS  (Gr.  'AaK/.^t6c\  in  Greek  my 
thology,  the  god  of  medicine  and  the  patron  of 
physicians.  In  the  Homeric  poems  he  is  only 
spoken  of  as  the  u  blameless  physician,"  whose 
sons  were  serving  in  the  Greek  army  before 
Troy.  The  most  common  story  makes  him  the 
son  of  Apollo.  He  went  about  healing  diseases 
and  raising  the  dead  to  life.  Pluto,  god  of 
Hades,  took  alarm  at  the  latter  exploit,  and 
complained  to  Zeus,  who  struck  yEsculapius 
dead  with  a  flash  of  lightning.  The  most  re 
nowned  seat  of  ^Esculapius's  worship  in  Greece 
was  Epidaurus,  in  Argolis.  He  had  a  splendid 
temple  there,  with  a  statue  half  as  large  as  that 
of  Zeus  Olympius  at  Athens.  The  cock  was 
commonly  sacrified  to  him,  but  the  serpent  was 
his  favorite  type.  At  Epidaurus  a  peculiar 
breed  of  holy  serpents  were  kept  about  the 
temple,  and  into  them  the  god  was  supposed  to 
insinuate  himself.  When  a  city  was  afflicted 
with  a  pestilence,  it  used  to  send  to  Epidaurus 
for  one  of  these  vEsculapian  snakes,  out  of  the 
sale  of  which  the  Epidaurian  priests  reaped 
large  profits.  The  presence  of  the  god  in  the 
pest-stricken  city,  in  the  form  of  a  yellowish- 
brown  snake,  was  held  to  be  pjopitious,  and 
likely  to  allay  the  rage  of  the  pest.  About  400 
B.  C.  the  Romans,  under  the  pressure  of  ca 
lamity,  sent  a  solemn  embassy  to  request  the 
presence  of  one  of  these  representatives  of 
vEsculapius.  On  a  later  occasion  of  the  same 
nature  (293  B.  C.)  the  worship  of  ^rEsculapius 
was  introduced  into  Rome.  There  were  also 
famous  temples  erected  in  his  honor  at  Cos, 
Cnidos,  and  Rhodes.  In  all  these  temples  were 
tablets  commemorating  wonderful  cures,  on 
which  were  recorded  the  name  and  genealogy 


AESTHETICS 


153 


of  the  patient,  his  disease,  and  the  mode  of  re 
covery.  The  priests  of  these  temples  formed 
the  race  of  Asclepiadae,  or  children  of  yEscu- 
lapius.  They  were  the  only  regular 'physicians  j 
of  .antiquity.  Formerly  the  priesthood  of  ^Es- 
cnlapius  was  hereditary,  but  in  later  times  the 
priests  took  pupils  and*  initiated  them  into  the 
mysteries  of  medicine. 

*J2SOP  (Or.  AZmjrrof),  the  fabulist,  born  about 
the  year  620  B.  0.,  was  convicted  of  the  crime  j 
of  sacrilege  while   ambassador   of  Croesus   at  ; 
Delphi,  and  thrown  from  a  precipice,  about  5(54.  I 
His  birthplace  is  not  certainly  known,  though 
Phrygia  is  generally  mentioned.     While  young 
he  was  brought  to  Athens  and  sold  as  a  slave,  i 
but  finally  received  his  freedom  from  his  mas-  | 
ter,   ladmon  the    Saraian.      So   high  was   his  j 
reputation  as  a  writer  that  Croesus,  king  of  j 
Lydia,  invited  him  to  reside  at  his  court.     He  I 
visited  Athens  during  the  reign  of  Pisistratus,  | 
where  he  wrote  the  fable  of  "Jupiter  and  the  j 
Frogs.1'     His  genuine  works  have  perished,  the 
excellent  collection  going  by  his  name  being  j 
either   imitations    or   entirely   spurious.      The  j 
current  stories  concerning  him  are  taken  from  j 
a  life  written  by  Maximus  Planudes,  a  monk  of 
the  14th  century,  and  prefixed  to  a  volume  of 
fables  ascribed  to  his  pen.     In  this  work  he  is 
described   as  hideously  ugly   and  misshapen, 
which  statement  is  doubtless  entirely  false,  as 
no  personal  defects  of  the  kind  are  mentioned  j 
by  any  classical  author.     It  is  rendered   still  ! 
more  improbable  by  the  circumstance  that  his  j 
statue  was  executed  for  the  city  of  Athens  by 
the  famous  sculptor  Lysippus. 

JCSOPrS,  (bdins,   a  famous  tragic  actor  at 
Rome,  died  at  a  great  age  about  50  B.  C.     lie 
was   the   contemporary  of  Eoscius,  and  with 
him  the  instructor  of  Cicero  in  oratory.     He 
was   accustomed  to   identify  himself  so  com 
pletely  with  his  part,  that  once  while  enacting 
the  character  of  Atreus,  and  plotting  how  to 
avenge  himself  on  Thyestes,   he  struck  dead  I 
with  hi  4  truncheon  one  of  the  stage  attendants.  I 
He  realized  a  large  fortune  by  his  acting,  which  | 
his  son  squandered  in  extravagance  and  luxury. 

.ESTHETICS  (Gr.  01067/7^6^  perceptive,  from 
aiaddvoftat,  I  feel,  or  perceive  by  the  senses),  the 
science  of  the  beautiful,  first  recognized  as  an  in 
dependent  branch  of  philosophy  about  the  mid 
dle  of  the  last  century.  Even  the  ancient  phi 
losophers  had  speculated  upon  the  beautiful. 
Pythagoras  tried  to  express  its  form  in  numeri 
cal  proportion-; ;  Socrates  and  Plato  united  it  | 
with  the  good,  and  called  the  highest  ideal  by 
the  compound  name  "  kalokagathon  " ;  Aris 
totle  strove  to  give  its  laws  in  formulas ;  and 
later  metaphysicians,  down  to  the  recent 
schools,  continued  these  attempts  to  define  its 
conditions  and  effect.  But  Baumgarten,  a  dis 
ciple  of  the  German  philosopher  Wolf,  and  in 
1740  professor  of  philosophy  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder,  first  established  its  claims  to  the  dig 
nity  of  a  separate  science.  He  held  that  be 
sides  the  divisions  adopted  by  Wolf's  system, 
namely,  the  capacity  of  knowing  (intellect), 


the  ultimate  ideal  and  aim  of  which  is  the 
true,  and  the  capacity  of  acting  (will),  the  ul 
timate  aim  of  which  is  the  good,  there  exists 
also  in  the  human  mind  a  capacity  of  feeling, 
or  perceiving  by  the  senses  (sensibility),  the 
ultimate  ideal  and  aim  of  which  is  the  beau 
tiful.  As  logic  determines  the  laws  of  intellect, 
and  ethics  those  of  will  or  action,  so  there 
should  be  a  branch  of  philosophy,  which  he 
called  aesthetics,  to  determine  the  laws  of 
sensibility.  He  made  the  mistake  of  consider 
ing  this  faculty,  by  which  men  perceive  the 
beautiful,  a  lower  capacity  founded  in  the 
mere  exercise  of  sense  (cognitio  sensitive^ ; 
but  Kant,  who  in  his  Kritik  der  Urtheihlcraft 
accepted  the  general  division  given  above,  cor 
rected  this,  and  showed  that  the  aesthetic  per 
ception,  for  which  the  senses  form  only  a 
means,  really  falls  within  the  province  of  the 
high  power  of  judgment.  After  1742  Baum 
garten  lectured  regularly  on  aesthetics,  and  its 
place  as  a  philosophical  science  was  almost 
universally  recognized.  In  this  purely  abstract 
psychological  consideration  of  the  subject  he 
followed  Kant,  who  held  that  the  beautiful  was 
the  harmony  between  the  understanding  and 
the  imagination;  and, after  him  several  other 
German  philosophers  of  much  less  note.  He 
gel's  great  work  (Aesthetik)  also  treats  the 
subject  from  this  point  of  view ;  and  Fichte 
belonged  entirely  to  the  ideal  school  of  writ 
ers  on  the  aisthetic  perception.  But  the  name 
esthetics  soon  began  to  be  received  in  a  more 
practical  acceptation,  and  to  be  especially  ap 
plied  to  that  part  of  the  science  of  the  beauti 
ful  which  relates  to  the  expression  and  em 
bodiment  of  beauty  by  art.  Schiller  first 
turned  speculation  in  this  direction ;  and 
Schelling,  though  devoting  much  study  to  the 
abstract,  still  contributed  largely  to  the  useful 
endeavor  to  bring  the  beautiful  to  the  actual 
knowledge  of  men,  rather  than  to  analyze  its 
psychological  effects;  and  from  their  time  this 
approach  to  the  identification  of  the  ideal  and 
real  has  formed  the  chief  and  ultimate  aim  of 
the  study  of  aesthetics.  Two  widely  different 
theories  as  to  the  realization  of  the  beautiful 
in  art  have  been  adopted  by  the  different 
schools.  One,  the  method  n  priori,  strives  by 
abstract  reasoning  to  determine  the  laws  of 
the  beautiful,  with  which  artists  must  comply ; 
the  other,  the  method  a  posteriori,  seeks  ten 
th  e  beautiful  in  existing  works  of  art,  and 
from  the  results  of  such  investigation  makes 
practical  rules  for  future  guidance.  The  for 
mer  has  among  its  adherents  most  of  the  Ger 
man,  and  the  latter  nearly  all  the  English  and 
French  writers  on  aesthetics. — Those  German 
authors  whose  works  best  deserve  study  are  as 
follows:  A.  G.  Baumgarten,  d&tlietica  (Frank 
fort  -on -the -Oder,  1750);  Georg  Friedrich 
Meier,  Anfangsgrunde  aller  sclioncn  Wissen- 
schaften  (1748);  Hegel,  Aesthetik  (Berlin,  ed. 
1842-'3);  Weisse,  System  der  Acsthctik  (Leip- 
sie,  1830);  Schiller,  Aesthctixclte  Brief  e,  in 
Cotta's  editions  of  his  works;  Zimmermann, 


154 


^ETHRIOSCOPE 


AETIUS 


Geschichte  der  Aesthetik  (Vienna,  1858) ;  Vi- 
scher,  Aesthetik,  oder  Wissenschaft  des  Schonen 
(Reutlingen,  1846-'57);  Zeising,  Aesthetische 
Forschungen  (Frankfort,  1855)  ;  Kostlin,  Aes 
thetik  (Tubingen,  1863);  Gottfried  Semper, 
Der  Stil  in  den  tcchnischen  und  tektonischen 
Kunsten,  oder  praktische  Acsthetik  (Frankfort, 
1860-'63) ;  J.  Dippel,  Handbuch  der  ^Esthetik, 
&c.  (Regensburg,  1871).  Among  Englishmen, 
Dugald  Stewart,  Hutch  eson,  Alison,  Jeffrey,  and 
Payne  Knight  have  written  on  aesthetics ;  Burke 
wrote  "A  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Ori 
gin  of  our  Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  Beauti 
ful,"  but  the  work  has  little  depth.  The  op 
posing  theories  of  these  older  writers  have 
long  ceased  to  attract  attention ;  and,  as  in 
Germany,  later  works  on  the  subject  have  fol 
lowed  the  method  a  posteriori.  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  it  is  true,  in  his  "  Lectures  on  Meta 
physics,"  considers  in  the  abstract  the  philoso 
phy  of  the  beautiful ;  but  other  recent  writers, 
like  Ruskin,  whose  sBsthetical  works  are  the 
most  voluminous,  treat  of  beauty  in  form  and 
color.  Two  recent  American  works  may  be 
also  noticed:  "The  Science  of  ./Esthetics,"  by 
Henry  N.  Day  (New  Haven,  1872),  and  "  Lec 
tures  on  ^Esthetics,"  by  Professor  John  Bascom 
(New  York,  1872).  One  of  the  best  modern 
writers  on  aesthetics  is  the  French  critic  Ilippo- 
lyte  Adolphe  Taine,  whose  principal  works  on 
art  form  a  series  of  essays  on  the  productions 
of  almost  every  school.  See  his  Philosophic  de 
Tart  (Paris,  1865),  Philosophic  de  Vart  en  Italic 
(1866),  Voyage  en  Italie  (1866),  IS  Ideal  dam 
Tart  (1867),  Philosophic  de  Vart  dans  les 
Pays-Bas  (1868),  &c.,  translated  into  Eng 
lish  by  J.  Durand  (New  York,  1866-'70). 
Among  older  French  writers  on  assthetical 
subjects  are  Cousin  (Le  Krai,  le  ~beau  et  le  bon) 
and  Jouffroy  (Cours  tfesthetiqiie,  Paris,  1842). 
JiTHRIOSCOPE  (Gr.  alQpioq,  clear,  and  anone'iv, 
to  observe),  an  instrument  invented  by  Sir  John 
Leslie  for  measuring  the  relative  degrees  of  cold 
produced  by  the  radiation  toward  a  clear  sky. 


In  a  metallic  cup  standing  upon  a  tall  hollow 
pedestal,  a  differential  thermometer  is  placed 
in  such  a  manner  that  one  of  its  bulbs  is  in  the 


focus  of  the  paraboloid  formed  by  the  cavity  of 
the  cup,  and  the  other  bulb  is  beyond  the  hol 
low  of  the  cup.  The  interior  of  the  cup  is 
highly  poKshed,  and  is  kept  covered  by  a  plate 
of  metal,  and  only  opened  when  an  observation 
is  to  be  made.  As  the  second  bulb  is  out  of  the 
cup,  it  is  not  affected  by  the  radiation,  the  ac 
tion  of  which  is  concentrated  upon  the  first 
bulb.  The  contraction  of  the  air  in  this  bulb 
by  its  sudden  exposure  to  a  clear  sky  causes 
the  liquid  in  the  stem  to  rise.  The  figure  rep 
resents  a  vertical  section  of  the  a?thrioscope. 
A  B  C  D  is  the  parabolic  cup,  of  which  the  inside 
is  plated  with  silver  and  well  polished ;  in  its 
focus  one  of  the  bulbs  F  of  the  differential  ther 
mometer  F  H  T  is  placed  ;  the  other  bulb  T  is 
outside  the  cup.  Any  difference  of  expansion 
between  the  air  in  the  two  bulbs  is  made  visible 
by  tire  motion  of  a  short  column  of  fluid  in  the 
tube,  and  read  off"  on  the  scale  in  II.  The  sup 
port  E  K,  with  a  hinge  in  I,  connects  it  with  the 
heavy  footpiece  G,  so  that  it  may  be  inclined  in 
different  positions,  and  directed  toward  differ 
ent  portions  of  the  sky.  Its  inclination  should 
never  be  made  such  as  to  expose  the  tliermo- 
metric  bulb  in  the  focus  F  to  terrestrial  ob 
jects  above  the  horizontal  line  H  II,  as  these 
would  either  reflect  or  radiate  terrestrial  heat, 
and  so  entirely  or  partially  annul  the  cooling 
of  the  bulb  F  by  its  own  radiation.  The  pol 
ished  surface  of  the  cup,  like  all  such  surfaces, 
cannot  radiate  its  own  heat,  but  only  reflect 
that  of  the  bulb  F ;  it  forms  thus  a  barrier  be 
tween  the  earth  and  the  cup,  impenetrable  to 
terrestrial  heat. — Leslie  could  not  interpret  the 
indications  of  this  instrument  satisfactorily.  Not 
only  a  passing  cloud  checked  the  loss  of  heat, 
but,  he  says,  "sometimes  under  a  fine  blue  sky 
the  asthrioscope  will  indicate  a  cold  of  50  mil 
lesimal  degrees,  while  on  other  days,  when  the 
air  seems  equally  bright,  the  effect  is  scarcely 
30°."  It  has  only  recently  become  known  that 
such  differences  are  due  to  the  presence  of 
aqueous  vapors  in  the  air,  totally  invisible  to  the 
eye,  but  which,  being  more  or  less  opaque  to 
the  feeble  rays  of  radiant  heat,  screen  the  bulb 
and  reflecting  cup  of  the  sethrioscope  against 
loss  of  heat  by  radiation,  while  a  dry  atmos 
phere  admits  this  radiation  to  pass,  and  more 
freely  in  proportion  as  the  air  is  more  dry. 
The  rethrioscope  is  therefore  at  the  present  day 
used  as  a  hydrometer  to  determine  the  amount 
of  invisible  moisture  present  in  the  upper  inac- 
cessjjble  strata  of  our  atmosphere. 

AETIOJV,  a  famous  Greek  painter,  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  2d  century. 
He  was  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  his 
coloring,  and  esteemed  the  first  painter  of  his 
time.  Lucian  gives  a  description  of  a  very  fine 
painting  by  him,  representing  the  nuptials  of 
Alexander  and  Roxana,  which  was  played  at 
the  plympic  games. 

AETIUS,  sur named  the  Atheist,  from  his  sup 
posed  denial  of  the  God  of  revelation,  an  orien 
tal  heresiarch,  born  in  Antioch,  died  in  Con 
stantinople,  A.  D.  367.  In  early  life  he  was 


AETIUS 


155 


successively  the  slave  of  a  vine-dresser's  wife, 
a  travelling  tinker  or  a  goldsmith,  and  a  quack 
doctor,  lie  then  studied  medicine  and  theology 
at  Antioch,  and  became  prominent  as  a  dispu 
tant.  Ills  theories  (the  chief  of  which  were 
the  Anomoean  doctrines  that  the  Son  is  of 
a  nature  unlike  and  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Father,  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  hut  a  crea 
ture  made  by  the  Father  and  Son  before  all 
other  creatures)  incensed  the  Arians,  and  he 
was  thrice  compelled  to  seek  safety  in  flight ; 
but  at  length  he  was  ordained  deacon  by 
Leontius,  bishop  of  Antioch.  He  now  devel 
oped,  in  connection  with  Eunomius,  his  pupil 
and  amanuensis,  a  new  schism  known  as  the 
Aetian  or  Eunomian  heresy,  and  made  many 
disciples.  He  was  condemned  by  the  coun 
cil  of  Seleucia  in  359,  and  banished  by  Con- 
stantius  to-  Amblada,  in  Pisidia.  After  the 
death  of  Constantius  he  was  recalled  to  Con 
stantinople  by  Julian,  and  made  a  bishop.  He 
adopted  every  means  of  spreading  his  heresy, 
but,  having  by  his  intrigues  and  immorality 
alienated  all  his  friends,  died  unpitied  by  any 
but^Eunomius,  who  buried  him. 

AETHS,  a  general  of  the  western  empire,  born 
in  Mcesia  about  A.  D.  396,  murdered  in  454. 
He  was  brought  up,  owing  to  the  influence  of 
his  high-bred  Italian  mother,  in  the  imperial 
body  guard  of  llonorius,  and  after  the  death 
of  his  father  Gaudentius,  an  illustrious  Scythian 
and  master  general  of  cavalry,  who  lost  his 
life  in  a  mutiny,  he  was  given  as  a  hostage  to 
the  king  of  the  Huns.  On  his  return  to  Rome 
he  was  made  count  on  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  Carpileo,  and  became  at 
tached  to  the  household  of  Joannes.  After  an 
ineffectual  support  of  this  usurper  in  425  with 
an  army  of  60,000  Huns,  whom  Aetius  con 
ducted  into  Italy  under  the  guidance,  it  is  said, 
of  the  then  youthful  Attila,  he  turned  traitor 
against  the  treacherous  cause  he  had  espoused, 
and  after  the  death  of  Joannes  he  succeeded  in 
obtaining  from  Placidia,  mother  of  Valentinian 
III.,  the  chief  command  over  the  army  of  Gaul, 
as  the  condition  of  his  procuring  the  peaceful 
retreat  of  the  Huns.  In  this  post  he  displayed 
great  military  skill,  delivering  Aries  from  the 
Visigoths,  recovering  from  Chlodio,  king  of 
the  Franks,  the  parts  of  Gaul  bordering  on  the 
Rhine,  overpowering  the  Juthungi  in  Bava 
ria,  bringing  to  an  end  the  Vindelician  war, 
and  in  the  following  spring  crushing  the  con 
federated  forces  of  the  Burgundians,  Huns, 
Heruli,  Franks,  Sanuatians,  Salians,  and  *Ge- 
loni,  in  one  terrible  encounter.  In  432  his 
rival  Boniface,  who  had  been  urged  to  treason 
and  then  betrayed  by  himself,  returning  from 
the  province  of  Africa,  which  his  treason  had 
thrown  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  and  ob 
taining  the  dignity  of  master  of  the  horse, 
they  fought  a  duel  at  Ravenna  on  the  chal 
lenge  of  Ae'tius,  of  the  wounds  received  in 
which  Boniface  soon  afterward  died.  But 
Aetius,  fearing  for  his  life,  which  was  threat 
ened  by  his  late  rival's  adherents,  fled  into  Pan- 


nonia,   and  led  a  second  army  of  Huns  into 
Italy,   threatened   the  throne  of   Valentinian, 
and,  although  the  feeble  emperor  called  in  the 
j  aid  of  the  Visigoths,  forced  the  empress  and 
her  son,  without  an  engagement,  to  submit  to 
'  his  terms,  and  returned  as  before  with  accumu 
lated  honors,  to  resume  command  of  the  army 
of  Gaul.     Here  he  once  more  displayed  genius 
I  as  a  general,  routing  the  Burgundians  with  ex- 
!  ceeding  slaughter,   and   forcing  their  king  to 
I  throw  himself  on  his  mercy.      In   the   mean 
!  time,  Roas,  king  of  the  Huns,  died,   and   was 
j  succeeded  by  Attila  and  his  brother  Bleda,  the 
latter  of  whom  being  soon  murdered,   Attila 


assumed  the  sole  dominion,  and  was  speedily 


involved  in  hostilities  with  both  the  Roman 
empires.     For  several  years  his  arms  were  di 
rected  chiefly  against  the  eastern  empire,  but 
in  451    he  set  in  motion  his  vast  army  of  a 
thousand  nations,  debouched  from  the  deflles 
I  of  the  Hercynian  forest,  crossed  the  Rhine  on 
!  rafts,  and  fell  like  a  torrent  on  the  rich  plains 
of  Gaul.     Here  for  a  time  all  fell  before  him, 
j  till,  when  he  was  in  the  very  act  of  storming 
I  the  walls   of   Orleans,   while   his   Huns  were 
!  mounting  the  breaches,  the  spears  of  Aetius 
I  and  Theodoric  the  Visigoth  appeared  on  the 
i  horizon,    and,    amid    cries    of    "The    aid    of 
I  God  "  from  the  beleaguered  citizens,  the  siege 
1  was   raised,    and    the    Hurmish    hordes   were 
I  forced    to    retreat.     Some    days   later  a  tre- 
'  mendous  pitched  battle  was  fought  on  the  field 
of  Chalons,  in  Champagne,  in  which  162,000,  or, 
i  according  to  other  accounts,  300,000  men  fell 
I  on  both  sides.     The  Huns  were  so  completely 
I  defeated,   that  Attila  prepared  a  funeral  pile 
;  and  contemplated  burning  himself  alive,  with 
I  his   treasures,    his   women,    and    his    baggage 
i  wagons,  had  the  Romans  renewed  the  battle 
I  on  the  following  day.     But  Theodoric  lay  dead, 
i  and  Aetius  suffered  the  Huns  to  escape.     After 
I  this  he  purposely  remained  inactive  during  the 
I  remainder  of  the  war,  took  no  measures  to  op- 
!  pose  the  invasion  of  Italy,  and  even  advised 
|  Valentinian  to  evacuate  that  country  and  take 
i  refuge  in  Gaul,  which  would  have  left  himself 
master  of  Rome,  where  by  his  great  abilities  he 
would  speedily  have  rid  himself  of  the  Huns 
and  assumed  the   imperial   purple.     Aetius  is 
believed,    according  to    Marcellinus,    to   have 
been  implicated  in  the  sudden  death  of  Attila 
(453) ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  support  this, 
excepting  that  Aetius  always  had  his  emissa 
ries,  in  the  shape  of  confidential  Greek  secreta 
ries,  about  the  person  of  Attila,  who  had  never 
ceased  to  intrigue  with  him.     In  the  end  he 
fell  by  a  crime  and  a  treason  as  base  as  his 
own,   stabbed   by   Valentinian    with    his   own 
hand,  during   a  friendly  interview.     The  cir 
cumstances    of    this   murder    are   not    clearly 
known,  although  a  coin  which  has  been  pre 
served,  bearing  the  inscription  Aetius  Iiujtera- 
tor    Ccesar,   proves  that  he  had  assumed   the 
imperial  purple,  and  actually  declared  himself 
emperor,  before  he  was  killed.     Nominally  a 
Roman,  he  invariably  betrayed  Rome  to  the 


156 


^ETOLIA 


AFER 


barbarians  except  when  it  was  for  his  own  in 
terest  to  defend  her,  and  then  the  ease  with 
which  he  conquered  them  showed  what  he 
might  have  done  had  he  been  honest.  Nomi 
nally  a  Christian,  he  brought  up  one  of  his 
sons,  Carpileo,  in  a  heathen  court,  as  a  heathen, 
and  destined  him  to  wear  the  crown  of  a  hea 
then  nation ;  while  the  other,  Gaudentius,  he 
proposed  to  invest,  after  himself,  with  the  pur 
ple  of  the  western  empire.  Gibbon  says  that 
during  the  decay  of  the  military  spirit,  the 
Roman  armies  were  commanded  by  two  gene 
rals,  Ae'tius  and  Boniface,  who  may  be  de 
servedly  called  the  last  of  the  Romans. 

JETOLIA,  a  western  division  of  the  main 
land  of  Greece,  on  the  N.  shore  of  the  gulf  of 
Corinth  or  of  Lepanto,  W.  of  Doris  and  Lo- 
cris,  and  E.  of  Acarnania,  and  divided  by 
the  narrow  strait  between  Rhium  and  Anti- 
Rhium  from  Achaia.  It  is  bounded  W.  by  the 
Achelous,  now  the  Aspropotamo,  and  N.  by 
Thessaly  and  Epirus.  Its  chief  city  in  antiquity 
was  Thermus,  in  the  interior,  on  the  river 
Evenus,  now  Fidhari.  ./Etolia  is  said  to  have 
been  originally  settled  in  the  ante-heroic  times 
by  the  Curetes,  who  were  conquered  by  the 
hero  /Etolus,  son  of  Endymion,  with  a  band 
of  followers  from  Elis,  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
During  the  mythic  and  heroic  ages  /Etolia  was 
distinguished  as  the  seat  of  many  of  the 
richest  and  most  poetical  of  the  legends  of  early 
Greece.  In  the  days  of  Thucydides,  however, 
the  /Etolians  were  still  a  barbarous  and  un 
couth  tribe.  During  the  Peloponnesian  war 
they  played  no  considerable  part,  nor  do  they 
appear  prominently  in  Greek  history  until 
nearly  a  century  later.  On  the  death  of  Philip 
of  Macedon  and  the  accession  of  Alex 
ander  (336  B.  C.),  the  /Etolians  displayed 
such  hostility  to  the  latter  as  drew  down 
his  signal  vengeance.  According  to  Pausa- 
nias,  Greece  owed  much  to  the  /Etolians  for 
their  energy  in  beating  back  the  Gallic  hordes. 
With  this  exception,  the  /Etolians  seem  to  have 
fought  on  any  side  to  which  the  hope  of  plun 
der  allured  them.  With  Alexander  of  Epirus, 
the  son  of  Pyrrhus,  they  formed  a  coalition  for 
the  sake  of  dismembering  Acarnania  for  their 
own  advantage;  and  again  they  banded 
themselves  with  Cleomenes  III.  of  Sparta, 
hoping  to  overthrow  the  Achnean  league. 
After  tlie  death  of  Antigorms  Doson  of  Mace 
don  (220),  they  carried  their  arms  into  the 
Peloponnesus  in  a  series  of  predatory  incur 
sions,  for  which  they  were  severely  chastised 
by  Philip  V.,  the  successor  of  Antigonus,  who 
sacked  and  destroyed  their  capital,  Thermus. 
In  the  latter  years  of  the  second  Punic  war 
the  Romans  were  hard  set  to  avert  the  conse 
quences  of  the  alliance  between  Hannibal  and 
Philip  V.  of  Macedon ;  the  /Etolians,  with 
their  allies,  attached  themselves  to  the  Romans, 
and  enabled  them,  by  the  employment  of  a  small 
naval  squadron,  and  a  trifling  body  of  forces  un 
der  the  pru?tor  Lrevinus,  to  neutralize  all  the 
preparations  of  Philip,  until  they  had  rid  them 


selves  of  their  principal  opponent  on  the  field 
I  of  Zama  (202).  At  the  battle  of  CynoscephalflB 
I  (197)  their  cavalry  greatly  distinguished  itself, 
charging  home  ten  times  against  the  Mace- 
i  donians,  who  were  at  first  victorious,  and  giv- 
|  ing  the  consul  Flamininus  time  to  bring  up  his 
reserves  and  convert  a  half-lost  day  into  a  com 
plete  victory.  For  this  they  expected  to  reap 
their  reward  in  the  dismemberment  of  Philip's 
dominions ;  but  it  was  denied  to  them  by  the 
Romans.  The  /Etolians  now  attempted  an  al 
liance  against  their  late  allies  with  Antiochus 
the  Great  of  Syria,  who  had  been  prompted  to 
hostilities  against  Rome  by  Hannibal ;  but  after 
I  a  single  defeat  by  the  Roman  consul  Glabrio  in 
j  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  (191),  the  latter  re 
treated  into  Asia,  leaving  his  Greek  confederates 
to  the  mercy  of  the  enemy.  The  polity  of  the 
/Etolians  from  this  time,  and  indeed  before, 
consisted  of  a  federal  government  similar  to  the 
Achaean  league,  at  one  time  embracing  a  num 
ber  of  neighboring  territories;  but  being  swal 
lowed  up  with  the  rest  of  Greece  in  the  univer 
sal  empire  of  Rome  (146),  ./Etolia  followed  her 
fortunes,  and  afterward  shared  the  reverses  of 
the  eastern  empire.  Possessed  on  the  irrup 
tion  of  the  barbarians  by  Slavic  hordes, 
/Etolia  was  reconquered  and  partially  civilized, 
together  with  the  Illyrians  and  Dalmatians,  by 
the  Venetians  during  the  middle  ages,  and  sub 
sequently  became,  like  the  Morea,  the  scene 
of  deadly  conflict  against  the  victorious  Turks. 
In  later  times  it  fell  under  the  power  of  Ali 
Pasha  of  Albania,  and  it  was  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  most  important  events  of  the  Greek  rev 
olution. — The  principal  seaport  town  of  modern 
/Etolia  is  Missolonghi.  The  climate  is  deli 
cious,  but  along  the  seacoast  and  the  swampy 
river  shores  the  autumnal  season  is  marked  by 
fevers.  The  plains  are  rich  and  fertile  in  maize, 
wine,  silk,  and  fruits ;  the  mountain  scenery  is 
magnificent,  (See  ACARXANIA.) 

AFAAASIEFF,  Alexander  Mkolaievitch,  a  Russian 
author,  born  in  Moscow  in  1826,  died  in  Oc 
tober,  1871.  He  studied  at  the  university  of 
Moscow,  and  was  secretary  to  the  council  of  ma 
gistrates  in  that  city.  lie  is  the  author  of 
Narodniya  llmldya  skazld,  ("  Russian  Pop 
ular  Tales,"  4  vols.,  completed  in  1803),  a  series 
of  stories  taken  down  from  the  mouths  of  Rus 
sian  peasants,  with  critical  notes.  His  other 
great  work,  PoetitcJicskiya  rozzrycniya  Slav- 
yan  na  prirodu  ("  Poetic  Views  of  Nature 
entertained  by  the  ancient  Slavs,".  3  vols., 
completed  in  1869),  is  a  mine  of  wealth  on  the 
subject  of  Slavic  legends  and  popular  con 
ceptions  in  respect  to  the  spiritual  and  material 
world.  He  was  also  a  frequent  contributor  to 
the  Russian  press  of  articles  bearing  on  Slavic 
!  history,  literature,  and  archaeology. 

AFER,  Domitins,    a    celebrated     orator,     the 
j  teacher  of  Quintilian,   born  at  Nimes  in  the 
I  reign  of  Tiberius,  died  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
I  A.  D.  60.     His  pupil  speaks  highly  of  his  plead 
ings,  and  mentions  several  of  his  works,  none 
of  which  have  come  down  to  us. 


AFFIDAVIT 


0  4 


AFFIDAVIT  (Lat.,  he  has  sworn  or  deposed), 
a  statement  in  writing,  signed  by  the  depo 
nent  and  verified  by  his  oath  or  affirmation 
made  before  a  person  authorized  to  take  it. 
The  affidavit  is  the  instrument  by  which  the 
action  of  courts  is  invoked  in  proceedings  taken 
in  the  first  instance  ex  parte,  either  with  refer 
ence  to  existing  actions  or  in  special  proceed 
ings  independent  of  such  causes.  Thus  it  is 
used  in  actions  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
attachments  or  injunctions,  or  in  support  of 
motions  of  any  sort  incidental  to  the  suit  in 
its  ordinary  course ;  or  to  obtain  a  writ  of 
mandamus  or  of  habeas  corpus,  or  a  warrant  for 
the  arrest  of  a  criminal ;  or  upon  an  applica 
tion  to  oppose  or  vacate  any  of  these  or  the 
like  proceedings.  As  affidavits  are  in  such 
cases  ex  parte,  that  is  to  say,  when  they  are 
presented  by  the  applicant  for  the  relief,  there 
is  no  final  adjudication  upon  the  matter  in 
volved  until  the  other  party  interested  has  had 
an  opportunity  to  be  heard.  But  the  sworn  • 
allegations  of  the  first  party  are  ordinarily  suf 
ficient  to  set  the  power  of  the  court  in  motion 
in  his  favor.  For  the  reason,  too,  that  an  affi 
davit  is  ex  parte  or  one-sided,  it  is  the  general 
rule  that  the  testimony  of  witnesses  in  causes 
tried  in  courts  cannot  be  received  in  this  form. 
A  party  to  an  action  has  the  right  to  cross-ex 
amine  witnesses  offered  against  him,  and  this 
right  would  be  annulled  by  admitting  affidavits 
against  him. — No  particular  form  of  an  affida 
vit  is  prescribed  by  our  law ;  but  in  England 
very  lately  the  courts  have  made  some  very  ex 
pedient  rules  on  the  subject .which  are  intended 
to  cure  some  of  the  most  frequent  abuses  and 
defects  of  these  instruments.  They  require  that 
the  affidavit  shall  be  framed  in  the  first  person,  j 
and  be  divided  into  paragraphs  consecutively  j 
numbered,  and  each  of  them  containing  as  far  as 
possible  a  distinct  portion  of  the  subject.  The 
occupation  an  1  residence  of  the  deponent  must 
be  inserted.  When  the  paper  is  sworn  to  by 
an  illiterate  person,  the  jurat,  or  certificate  of 
the  officer  who  administers  the  oath,  must 
state  that  the  affidavit  was  read  over  to  the 
party,  and  that  he  seemed  to  understand  its 
contents.  The  jurat  must  also  certify  that  the 
signature  or  mark  of  the  deponent  was  made  | 
in  the  officer's  presence.  The  affidavit  cannot 
be  read  in  court  if  there  are  any  interlineations 
or  erasures  in  the  jurat,  or  if  there  are  any  in 
the  body  of  the  affidavit,  unless  they  are  noted 
with  the  initials  of  the  officer. — As  to  the  form 
and  nature  of  the  instrument  generally :  If  the 
affidavit  is  made  with  reference  to*  any  pend 
ing  action,  it  should  be  headed  with  the  title 
of  that  action  and  the  name  of  the  court.  It 
must  specify  the  state  and  county  in  which  it 
is  made,  in  order  that  it  may  appear  on  the 
face  of  the  paper  that  the  officer  who  took  the 
oath  had  capacity  to  do  so;  for  the  power  of 
the  officer  in  tins  respect  is  confined  to  certain 
limits,  and  an  oath  administered  outside  of  his 
jurisdiction  is  a  nullity.  Then  follows  the 
statement  of  facts,  and  this,  according  to  a 


practice   much   followed  now  in   New  York, 
should  be  a  simple  narrative  in  the  first  person 
!  and  confined  to  facts  which  are  within  the  ac- 
j  tual  knowledge  of  the  deponent.     Facts  corn- 
j  municated  by  third  persons  are  not  proper,  un- 
i  less  the  affidavits  of  those  persons  cannot  be 
obtained  ;  and  in  that  case  the  sources  of  infor 
mation  should  be  given,  and  also  the  reason 
why  the  parties  who  have  actual  knowledge 
do  not  themselves  testify.     The  statement  must 
be  signed  by  the  deponent,  or  marked  if  he 
cannot  write,  though  the  omission  of  the  sig 
nature  or  mark  will  not  be  fatal  if  the  jurat 
shows   that  the  affiant  actually  swore  to  the 
statement.      The  jurat  is  the  clause  which  is 
appended  by  the  officer  taking  the  affidavit,  in 
|  which  he  certifies  the  time  when  and  the  fact 
I  that  the  deponent  made  oath  to  the  instru- 
I  ment  before  him. — The  persons  who  may  take 
j  affidavits  are  designated  by  law.     In  England 
j  they  are  the  judges  and  certain  commissioners 
and  authorized  attorneys  and  solicitors.     The 
authority  of  these  last  must  be  entered  in  a 
book  kept  for  public  reference.     Conveyancers 
who   are   not    attorneys    or    solicitors  of  the 
courts    at   Westminster   cannot    be    qualified. 
In  the  United  States,  judges,  justices  of  the 
peace,  commissioners  of  deeds,  notaries  public, 
and  other  and  similar  officers  have  authority  by 
statute  to  take  affidavits.     All  the  states  also 
appoint  commissioners  residing  in  other  states 
and  territories,  and  give  them  the  same  power 
as  to  such  instruments  to  be  used  in  the  states 
which  appoint  them.     The  certificates  of  these 
officers   are  ordinarily  further  verified  by  the 
secretaries  of  state  of  the  appointing   states, 
•who  keep  a  record  of  all  qualified  commission 
ers.     By  recent  statutes  of  New  York  (1863 
and  1809),  affidavits  to  be  used  there  may  be 
taken  in  foreign  countries  c^nd  an  other  states 
by  any  person  who  is  authorized  there  to  exer 
cise  a  like  power.     Judges  of  the  higher  courts 
in  other  states  are  also  vested  by  most  of  the 
states  with  the  same  powers  given  to  their  com 
missioners.     Generally,  the  authority  of  all  for 
eign  officials  to  administer  oaths  must  be  veri 
fied  by  some  court  or  higher  officer  of  the  for 
eign  state ;  or  when  a  judge  takes  the  affidavit, 
his  signature    must  be   authenticated  by  the 
clerk  and  seal  of -his  court.     Certain  officers  of 
the  United  States  residing  abroad,  the  consuls 
at   London  and  Paris  for  example,  may  also 
take  affidavits,  and  their  consular  seals  suffi 
ciently  authenticate  their  acts.      British  am 
bassadors  and  consuls  have  similar  powers  by 
the  English  law.     In  1802  a  law  was  passed 
in  New  York  authorizing  colonels  of  the  state 
regiments  and  certain  other  military  officers  to 
take  affidavits  of  persons  in  actual  service  out 
of  the  state. — An  affidavit  of    merits  is   one 
I  made  by  a  defendant  which  sets  forth  that  he 
|  has  stated  the  case  to  his  counsel,  and  that  he 
I  is  advised  by  him  that  he  has  a  good  defence 
I  to  the  action  upon  its  merits.     This  affidavit 
j  is  required  by  law,  in  order  that  a  defendant 
I  may  not  delay  a  plaintiffs  remedy  by  making 


158 


AFFINITY 


groundless  defence  to  his  suit ;  but  the  require 
ment  of  it  does  not  always  accomplish  the  de 
signed  object. 

AFFINITY,  the  imputed  relationship  which 
exists  in  consequence  of  marriage  between  the 
husband  or  wife  and  the  kindred  by  blood  of 
the  other.  Thus,  for  example,  the  wife's  kin 
dred  bear  the  same  relation  by  affinity  to  the 
husband  that  they  bear  to  her  by  consanguinity. 
Affinity  also  exists  between  the  husband  and 
one  who  is  connected  by  marriage  with  the 
blood  relations  of  the  wife.  Two  men,  for  in 
stance,  who  are  married  to  sisters  are  related 
by  affinity,  but  there  is  no  such  relationship 
between  the  blood  relations  of  the  husband 
and  those  of  the  wife,  and  it  ceases  properly 
when  the  husband  or  wife  dies  without  leav 
ing  issue.  Affinity  is  significant  in  the  law 
because  it  constitutes  a  disqualification  of 
judges  or  jurors,  equally  with  consanguinity. 
When  such  a  disqualification  exists,  the  judge 
cannot  act  even  with  the  consent  of  both  par 
ties;  and  if  he  does,  the  "judgment  may  be  va 
cated.  Thus  it  has  been  held  in  New  York 
that  there  was  a  disabling  affinity  between  a 
judge  and  the  defendant  in  a  cause  before  him, 
because  the  defendant's  deceased  husband  was 
a  first  cousin  of  the  judge,  and  the  son  of  de 
fendant  by  that  husband  was  still  living.  This 
living  son  preserved  the  affinity,  which  other 
wise  would  have  ceased  on  the  husband's  death. 
Affinity  is  also  significant  in  the  laws  of  mar 
riage.  The  ecclesiastical  law  made  certain 
marriages  unlawful  though  they  were  con 
tracted  between  persons  whose  relationship 
to  each  other  was  very  remote.  Though  the 
statute  of  32  Henry  VIII.,  which  has  virtually 
furnished  the  rules  of  the  English  law  on  the 
subject  ever  since,  forbade  the  ecclesiastical 
court  to  impeach  the  validity  of  any  marriage 
between  parties  who  were  without  the  Leviti- 
cal  degrees,  yet  it  was  always  held  under  it  in 
England  that  affinity  was  an  impediment  to 
the  same  extent  as  consanguinity ;  and  out  of 
this  interpretation  of  the  statute  came  that  rule 
of  the  law  which  has  been  so  much  discussed 
and  assailed  in  England,  that  a  man  may  not 
marry  his  deceased  wife's  sister.  The  reason 
given  was  that  the  marriage  made  the  wife's 
sister  the  husband's  sister;  and  although  in  the 
other  branches  of  the  law,  with  respect  to  ju 
dicial  officers  for  example,  the  death  of  either 
party  destroys  the  affinity  and  the  disqualifi 
cation,  yet  the  same  result  has  not  been  con 
ceded  in  matrimonial  cases. 

AFFINITY,  Chemical,  the  name  given  to  the 
force  which  combines  together  chemical  ele 
ments  so  as  to  form  compounds.  Of  its  real 
nature  or  essence  wTe  are  entirely  ignorant,  as 
we  are  of  the  essential  nature  of  other  material 
forces.  The  term  chemical  attraction  has  also 
been  applied  to  this  force,  on  the  hypothesis 
that  it  draws  together  chemical  atoms.  In 
many  cases  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
chemical  particles  come  nearer  together  when 
they  combine :  thus  if  two  volumes  of  hydro 


gen  and  one  volume  of  oxygen  be  caused  to 
unite,  we  do  not  get  three  volumes  of 'steam, 
but  only  two ;  that  is,  the  particles  have  ap 
proached  so  much  closer  in  combining  as  to 
occupy  but  two  thirds  of  their  former  space.  In 
other  cases,  however,  compounds  are  found  to 
occupy  exactly  the  same  space  that  their  ele 
ments  did  before  combination,  and  sometimes 
they  fill  even  a  greater  space.  Hence  the  term 
chemical  attraction  has  been  thought  objection 
able.  Chemical  affinity  is  that  link  or  tie  which 
binds  together  unlike  kinds  of  matter,  in  such  an 
intimate  manner  that  the  properties  of  the 
elements  are  lost,  and  a  compound  with  new 
properties  is  produced.  It  is  in  this  that  it  differs 
from  cohesion,  which  only  unites  or  aggregates 
similar  particles  without  altering  properties. 
The  particles  in  a  piece  of  iron  or  sulphur  are 
held  in  union  by  cohesion ;  but  when  sulphur 
and  iron  combine  chemically,  both  elements 
disappear,  lose  their  properties  and  identity, 
and  a  new  compound  is  formed — the  sulphuret 
of  iron.  Newness  of  properties  in  the  com 
pounds  formed  is  the  distinguishing  peculiarity 
of  chemical  affinity.  It  obliterates  the  char 
acteristics  of  the  elements,  and  generates  new 
properties  in  the  product.  Cohesion  is  usually 
said  to  act  between  homogeneous  particles,  as  in 
the  cases  just  cited  of  sulphur  and  iron ;  but  it 
may  also  act  between  dissimilar  substances,  as 
where  silver  is  inlaid  with  steel,  or  copper  metal 
united  to  tin,  or  iron  coated  with  zinc,  or  \vood 
joined  to  glue,  or  paper  to  paste,  or  pitch  to  the 
fingers.  These,  however,  are  mechanical  com 
binations  ;  there  is  no  destruction  of  the  prop 
erties  of  the  combined  substances,  and  those  of 
the  combination  are  not  new,  but  are  the  same 
as  the  properties  of  the  constituent  substances, 
each  of  which  retains  its  individuality.  The 
force  of  gravitation  is  brought  into  play  be 
tween  masses  of  matter  at  all  distances ;  chem 
ical  affinity  acts  only  when  the  elements  are 
in  contact  or  at  insensible  distances.  For 
this  reason  affinity  is  most  energetic  when  one 
or  both  of  the  elements  are  in  a  state  of  solu 
tion,  the  approach  of  the  atoms  being  then 
most  perfect.  It  was  once  thought  that  chem 
ical  affinity  could  not  take  effect  without  the 
intervention  of  solution;  and  although  the 
statement  is  generally  true,  yet  there  are  some 
substances  whose  affinities  are  so  intense  that 
they  will  unite  even  in  the  solid  state  when 
made  to  touch  each  other.  The  action  of  affin 
ity  is  heightened,  modified,  and  suspended  by 
various  other  causes.  Among  these  heat  is 
most  potent,  and  most  easily  available  in  the 
laboratory  and  chemical  manufactory.  Thus 
carbonic  acid  and  lime  unite  strongly  at  com 
mon  temperatures,  forming  marble  or  lime 
stone,  but  at  a  red  heat  their  affinity  is  annihi 
lated  and  they  separate.  On  the  other  hand, 
potash  and  sand  will  not  actively  combine  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  while  at  a  red  or  white 
heat,  at  which  they  are  melted,  combination 
takes  place  and  glass  is  formed.  Light  also  in 
fluences  affinity,  promoting  combination  and 


AFFIRMATION 


AFFRE 


159 


decomposition.  If  chlorine  and  hydrogen  gases  j 
be  mixed  in  the  dark  they  will  not  unite,  j 
but  exposed  to  light  they  combine  at  once ;  j 
while  in  every  green  vegetable  leaf  carbonic 
acid  is  decomposed  every  day  under  the  influ 
ence  of  solar  light.  The  recent  investigations 
in  photography  have  greatly  multiplied  the  | 
number  of  substances  over  which  light  is  ; 
known  to  exert  a  chemical  influence.  Elec-  '• 
tricity  also  has  a  governing  action  over  affinity,  j 
An  electric  spark,  shot  through  a  mixture  of  j 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  gases,  causes  them  to  ! 
combine  instantaneously  and  explosively,  pro 
ducing  water;  while  a  steady  electric  stream 
sent  through  the  water  annuls  the  affinity  of 
its  elements  and  sets  them  free  again.  Other 
causes  also,  known  and  unknown,  affect  in  va 
rious  ways  and  degrees  the  play  of  affinity ; 
indeed,  a  fall  statement  of  them  would  involve 
almost  the  whole  science  of  chemistry. — The 
changes  in  the  properties  of  substances  pro 
duced  by  affinity  are  numberless  and  surpris 
ing.  When  solid  charcoal  and  sulphur  com 
bine,  the  compound  formed  is  colorless  as  water, 
and  highly  volatile.  If  yellow  sulphur  and 
bluish  white  quicksilver  be  heated  together, 
they  form  the  bright  red  vermilion.  Waxy 
phosphorus  and  colorless  invisible  oxygen  unite 
to  form  a  white  body  resembling  snow.  Ni 
trogen  and  oxygen  are  tasteless,  separate  or 
mixed ;  yet  one  of  their  compounds,  laughing 
gas,  is  sweet,  and  another,  nitric  acid,  in 
tensely  sour ;  they  are  both  transparent  and 
invisible,  yet  they  form  a  cherry-red  compound 
gas.  Charcoal  and  hydrogen  are  odorless ; 
nevertheless,  many  of  our  choicest  perfumes, 
such  as  oils  of  roses  and  bergamot,  as  well  as 
the  less  agreeable  spirits  of  turpentine  and  il 
luminating  gas,  contain  only  these  elements. 
The  mild  and  scentless  nitrogen  and  hydrogen 
give  rise  to  one  of  'the  most  odorous  and  pun 
gent  compounds,  ammonia ;  while  suffocating 
and  poisonous  chlorine,  united  to  a  bright  metal, 
sodium,  yields  common  salt.  Charcoal,  hydro 
gen,  and  nitrogen,  which  singly  or  mixed  are 
not  injurious  to  life,  yet  combine  to  form  the 
terrible  poison  prussic  acid ;  while  charcoal, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  variously  united,  pro 
duce  sweet  sugar,  poisonous  oxalic  acid,  and 
intoxicating  alcohol. — The  strength  of  affinity 
among  different  elements  is  various.  Thus  the 
chemical  energies  of  sulphuric  acid  are  supe 
rior  to  those  of  carbonic  acid ;  if  the  former  be 
united  to  carbonate  of  lime,  it  takes  the  lime 
away  from  the  carbonic  acid — that  is,  produces 
decomposition  and  a  new  compound.  It  has 
been  attempted  to  establish  a  scale  of  affinities 
among  various  chemical  substances  to  form  the 
basis  of  an  order  of  decomposition ;  but  af 
finity  is  disturbed  and  overcome  by  so  many 
circumstances  that  such  tables  are  of  but  j 
little  value.  For  the  laws  of  affinity  or  chemi-  i 
cal  combination,  see  ATOMIC  THEORY. 

AFFIRMATION,  a  mode  of  solemn  verification 
permitted  by  the  law,  in  the  place  of  an  oath, 
to  persons  who  are  unwilling  from  conscien 


tious  motives  to  be  sworn.  This  departure 
from  the  usual  rule  of  exacting  an  oath  was 
first  introduced  into  the  English  law  in  favor 
of  Quakers ;  but  by  the  present  law  there,  and 
ever  since  17  and  18  Victoria,  ch.  125  (1854), 
any  person  called  as  a  witness  or  desiring  to 
make  an  affidavit  or  deposition,  who  will 
solemnly  declare  that  the  taking  of  an  oath  is, 
according  to  his  religious  belief,  unlawful,  may 
affirm  or  declare  to  the  truth  of  his  statement ; 
and  the  statute  requires  that  the  officer  taking 
the  affirmation  shall  recite  in  his  certificate 
that  the  affirmant  declared  that  an  oath  was 
unlawful  according  to  his  religious  belief.  By 
the  statute  of  24  and  25  Victoria,  ch.  66 
(1861),  all  persons  refusing  to  be  sworn  in 
criminal  proceedings  may  make  their  solemn 
affirmation  instead.  In  the  United  States  an 
affirmation,  even  without  the  suggestion  of  any 
reason  for  preferring  it,  is  probably  everywhere 
received  in  place  of  an  oath.  The  legal  effect 
of  both  is  the  same,  and  perjury  is  committed 
by  affirming  as  well  as  by  swearing  falsely, 
wilfully,  and  corruptly. 

AFFRE,  Denis  Angnste,  archbishop  of  Paris, 
born  at  St.  Rome-de-Tarn,  Sept.  27,  1793,  died 
in  Paris,  June  27,  1848.  He  was  educated  in 
the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  and  was  made 
teacher  of  philosophy  in  that  of  Xantes  before 
he  had  attained  the  age  required  for  the  priest 
hood.  After  his  ordination  he  was  attached 
successively  to  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  and 
to  the  foundling  hospital,  and  subsequently  as 
grand  vicar  assisted  the  bishops  of  Lugon  and 
Amiens.  In  1834  he  was  attached  to  the 
diocese  of  Paris  as  canon  and  honorary  vicar 
general.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  coadjutor 
to  the  bishop  of  Strasburg,  but  never  took 
possession  of  this  office ;  for  the  archbishop's 
see  of  Paris  having  become  vacant,  he  was 
appointed  to  it,  and  consecrated  Aug.  6,  1840. 
In  this  office  he  distinguished  himself  by  zeal 
for  ecclesiastical  education,  and  for  the  allevia 
tion  of  poverty  and  misfortune.  While  the 
insurrection  of  June,  1848,  was  raging  in  the 
streets  of  Paris,  he  determined  to  make  a  per 
sonal  attempt  to  stop  bloodshed.  On  the  25th 
he  called  upon  Gen.  Cavaignac,  and,  although 
warned  by  him  of  the  great  danger  of  his 
undertaking,  repaired  to  the  faubourg  St. 
Antoine,  the  stronghold  of  the  insurgents.  On 
his  appearance  between  the  two  hostile  parties 
at  the  place  de  la  Bastille,  the  firing  was  sus 
pended,  and  he  calmly  and  steadily  proceeded 
toward  the  barricades  without  any  protection 
except  the  gold  cross  on  his  breast  and  a  green 
branch  carried  before  him,  in  token  of  peace, 
by  a  young  attendant.  He  was  admitted  be 
hind  the  barricades,  and  had  just  begun  to 
address  the  insurgents,  when  the  report  of  a 
musket  was  immediately  followed  by  a  renewal 
of  hostilities,  and  in  the  confusion  the  arch 
bishop  fell,  shot  by  some  unknown  hand,  and 
was  transported  to  the  hospital  of  the  Quinze- 
Vingts.  He  expired  two  days  later,  a  martyr 
of  charity,  as  was  proclaimed  by  the  national 


ICO 


AFGHANISTAN 


assembly.     He  was  the  author  of  several  re 
ligions  and  educational  works. 

AFGHANISTAN,  an  extensive  country  of  Asia, 
between  lat,  28°  30'  and  36°  N.,  and  Ion.  00° 
and  71°  30'  E.,  bounded  K  by  Turkistan,  E. 
by  the  Punjaub  and  Sinde,  S.  by  Beloochistan, 
and  W.  l>y  the  Persian  highlands  of  Khorasan. 
Area  estimated  at  upward  of  215,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  upward  of  5,000,000,  and  estimated  even 
as  high  as  9,000,000.  The  surface  of  Af 
ghanistan  is  very  irregular — lofty  table  lands, 
vast  mountains,  deep  valleys,  and  ravines. 
Like  all  mountainous  tropical  countries,  it 
presents  every  variety  of  climate.  In  the 
Hindoo  Koosh  the  snow  lies  all  the  year  on 
the  lofty  summits,  while  in  the  valleys  the 
thermometer  ranges  np  to  130°.  The  heat  is 
greater  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western 
parts,  but  the  climate  is  generally  cooler  than 
that  of  India;  and  although  the  alternations 
of  temperature  between  summer  and  winter, 
or  day  and  night,  are  very  great,  the  country 
is  generally  healthy.  The  soil,  where  not  too 
rocky,  is  very  fertile.  Date  palms  flourish  in 
the  oases  of  the  sandy  wastes ;  the  sugar  cane 
and  cotton  in  the  hot  regions ;  and  European 
fruits  and  vegetables  on  the  hillside  terraces  up 
to  a  level  of  6,000  or  7,000  feet.  The  mulberry 
tree  flourishes  in  the  cool  valleys.  The  moun 
tains  are  clothed  with  noble  forests,  which  are 
frequented  by  bears,  wolves,  and  foxes,  while 
the  lion,  the  leopard,  and  the  tiger  are  found 
in  districts  congenial  to  their  habits.  There  is 
a  fine  variety  of  sheep  of  the  Persian  or  large- 
tailed  breed.  The  horses  are  of  good  size  and 
blood.  The  camel  and  ass  are  used  as  beasts 
of  burden.  The  country  is  rich  in  lead, 
plumbago,  saltpetre,  sulphur,  salt,  and  alum. 
The  iron  is  believed  to  be  equal  to  any  in  the 
world,  while  the  copper  ore  yields  in  some 
localities  nearly  80  per  cent,  of  the  metal. 
Besides  the  Hindoo  Koosh  on  the  northeast, 
there  is  a  chain  called  the  Solyman  mountains 
on  the  east  and  southeast ;  and  between  north 
western  Afghanistan  and  Balkh  there  is  a 
mountain  labyrinth  known  as  the  Paropamisan 
range,  which  has  as  yet  been  little  explored. 
Several  minor  ranges  traverse  the  interior. 
The  rivers  are  few  in  number;  the  Helmund 
and  the  Cabool  are  the  most  important.  These 
take  their  rise  in  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  the  Ca 
bool  flowing  east  and  falling  into  the  Indus 
near  Attock,  the  Helmund  flowing  southwest 
through  the  centre  of  the  country  and  fall 
ing  into  the  lake  of  Ilamoon.  The  Helmund 
overflows  its  banks  annually  like  the  Nile, 
bringing  fertility  to  the  soil,  which,  beyond  the 
limit  of -the  inundation,  is  sandy  desert.  The 
four  principal  cities,  Cabool,  the  capital,  Ghuz- 
ni,  Candahar,  and  Herat,  are  important  sta 
tions  on  the  highway  of  commerce  from  India 
to  central  and  western  Asia.  Cabool  and 
Jelalabad  protect  the  passage  to  India  on  the 
north,  Candahar  on  the  south,  and  Herat,  in  the 
extreme  west,  guards  the  Persian  frontier. — 
The  geographical  position  of  Afghanistan,  and 


the  peculiar  character  of  the  people,  invest  the 
country  with  a  strategical  and  political  im 
portance  that  can  scarcely  be  overestimated  in 
the  affairs  of  central  Asia.  The  government  is 
a  monarchy,  but  the  king's  authority  over  his 
high-spirited  and  turbulent  subjects  is  personal 
and  very  uncertain.  The  kingdom  is  divided 
into  provinces,  each  superintended  by  a  royal 
officer  who  collects  the  taxes.  The  Afghans 
are  a  brave,  hardy,  and  independent  race; 
they  follow  pastoral  or  agricultural  occupations 
only,  eschewing  trade  and  commerce.  They 
are  divided  into  clans,  over  which  the  various 
chiefs  exercise  a  sort  of  feudal  supremacy. 
The  two  principal  tribes  are  the  Durranis  and 
Ghiljies  or  Ghilzais,  who  are  frequently  at  feud 
with  each  other.  The  Durranis  are  the  more 
powerful,  and  the  military  contingents  are 
chiefly  furnished  by  them.  Justice  in  the  towns 
is  administered  by  cadis,  but  the  Afghans 
rarely  resort  to  law.  Avenging  of  blood  is  a 


family  duty ;  and  the  rights  of  hospitality  are  sa 
cred.  In  religion  they  are,  with  the  exception 
of  some  not  purely  national  portions  of  the  pop 
ulation,  Sunnite  Mohammedans,  and  are  conse 
quently  opposed  to  the  Persians,  who  are  Shiahs ; 
but  they  are  not  bigoted,  and  alliances  between 
Shiahs  and  Sunnis  are  by  no  means  uncom 
mon  ;  and  they  are  tolerant  toward  Christians 
and  Hindoos.-r-Afghanistan  was  subjected  for 
centuries  alternately  to  Mongol  and  Persian 
dominion.  Previous  to  the  advent  of  the  Brit 
ish  on  the  shores  of  India,  the  foreign  invasions 
which  swept  the  plains  of  Ilimlostan  always 
proceeded  from  Afghanistan.  Sultan  Mahmoud 
the  Great  of  Ghuzni,  Genghis  Khan,  Tamer 
lane,  and  Nadir  Shah  all  took  this  road.  After 
the  death  of  Nadir  in  1747,  Ahmed  Khan,  who 
had  served  under  him,  liberated  his  country 
from  Persia  and  made  himself  king.  Under 
him  Afghanistan  reached  its  highest  point  of 
greatness  and  prosperity  in  modern  times. 
He  belonged  to  the  Durranis,  and  his  first  act 


AFGHANISTAN 


161 


was  to  seize  upon  the  booty  which  his  late 
>hief  had  gathered  in  India.  His  kingdom 
extended  from  Khorasan  to  Delhi,  and  he 
even  measured  swords  with  the  Mahratta  pow 
ers.  He  died  in  1773,  and  left  his  crown 
to  his  son  Timour,  who  was  unequal  to  the 
weighty  charge.  lie  abandoned  the  city  of 
Candahar,  and  removed  the  seat  of  government 
back  to  Cabool.  During  his  reign  the  internal 
dissensions  of  the  tribes,  which  had  been  re 
pressed  by  Ahmed,  were  revived.  In  1793 
Timour  died,  and  Zemaun  succeeded  him.  This 
prince  conceived  the  idea  of  consolidating  the 
Mohammedan  power  of  India,  and  this  plan 
was  thought  so  important  by  the  English  that 
Sir  John  Malcolm  was  sent  to  the  frontier  to 
keep  the  Afghans  in  check  in  case  of  their 
making  any  movement,  and  at  the  same  time 
negotiations  were  opened  with  Persia,  by  whose 
assistance  the  Afghans  might  be  placed  between 
two  fires.  Zemamrs  plans  were,  however,  frus 
trated  by  a  contest  between  him  and  his  bro 
thers,  which  ended  in  Mahmoud's  accession  to 
the  throne.  The  latter  was  compelled  to  abdi 
cate  in  1823,  and  died  in  1829,  the  last  of  the 
Durrani  dynasty.  Afghanistan  was  now  ruled 
by  three  brothers,  the  eldest  of  whom,  Dost 
Mohammed,  was  in  possession  of  Cabool,  the 
most  important  of  the  three  divisions  of  the 
country.  He  was  soon  involved  in  war  with 
Lahore  on  the  east,  and  on  the  west  with 
the  Persian  invaders  of  Herat,  who  were  be 
lieved  to  be  abetted  by  Russia.  In  1838  Eng 
land  declared  war  against  Afghanistan,  upon  the 
ground  that  Dost  Mohammed  had  attacked  her 
ally  Runjeet  Singh,  who  had  established  an  in 
dependent  kingdom  in  the  Punjaub,  and  that 
Shujah,  whom  the  English  regarded  as  the 
lawful  heir  to  the  throne  of  Afghanistan,  had 
placed  himself  under  British  protection.  In 
December,  1838,  the  Anglo-Indian  army,  under 
Sir  John  Keane,  marched  toward  Sinde,  which 
country  was  coerced  into  submission  and  the 
payment  of  a  contribution  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Sikhs  and  Shujah.  On  Feb.  20,  1839,  the  Brit 
ish  army  passed  the  Indus.  It  was  about  12,000 
strong,  with  40,000  camp  followers,  besides  the 
new  levies  of  Shujah,  and  suffered  severely  on 
the  march.  They  penetrated  through  the  Bo- 
Ian  pass,  and  on  April  25  entered  Candahar, 
which  the  brothers  of  Dost  Mohammed  had 
abandoned.  After  a  rest  of  two  months,  Ghuzni, 
the  impregnable  stronghold  of  Afghanistan,  was 
taken,  July  22,  by  blowing  open  the  only  gate 
which  had  not  been  walled  up.  After  this  dis 
aster  the  army  which  Dost  Mohammed  had 
collected  at  once  disbanded,  and  Cabool  opened 
its  gates  Aug.  6.  Shah  Shujah  was  installed  in 
due  form,  but  the  real  direction  of  government 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  British  envoy,  Sir 
William  McXaghten,  who  also  paid  all  Shujah's 
expenses  out  of  the  Indian  treasury,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  principal  chiefs.  Dost  Mohammed 
surrendered  in  October,  1840,  and  was  sent  to 
india.  The  conquest  of  Afghanistan  seemed 
accomplished,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
VOL.  i. — 11 


troops  were  sent  back.     But  during  the  whole 
of  1840  and  1841  insurrection  followed  insur 
rection  in   every  part   of  the   country.     The 
Anglo-Indian  troops  had  to  be  constantly  on 
the  move.     The  occupation  of  Afghanistan  cost 
the   Indian   treasury   £1,250,000   per   annum. 
McNaghten  was  informed  of  the  impossibility 
of  going  on  at  this  rate  of  expenditure.     He 
attempted  retrenchment,  but  the  only  possible 
way  to  enforce  it  was  to  cut  down  the  allow 
ances  of  the  chiefs.     The  very  day  he  attempted 
this,  the  chiefs  formed  a  conspiracy  for  the  ex 
termination  of  the  British.      The  English  in 
Cabool  were  commanded  by  Gen.  Elphinstone, 
who  had  been  sent  as  English  envoy  in  1835  to 
counteract  the  alleged  anti-English  Perso-Rus- 
sian  intrigues.      He  was  a  gouty,  irresolute, 
helpless  old  man,  whose  orders  constantly  con 
tradicted  each  other.     The  defences  and  com 
missariat  were  neglected,  and  everything  was 
I  in  confusion.     On  Nov.  2,  1841,  the  insurrec- 
I  tion  broke  out  in  Cabool.     The  house  of  the 
{  British  resident,   Sir  Alexander   Burnes,  was 
j  attacked,  and  he  himself  murdered.     On  Nov. 
I  3  the  forts  near  the  camp  were  occupied  by  the 
insurgents.     On  the  9th  the  commissariat  fort, 
garrisoned  by  only  80  men,  was  taken,  and  the 
British  were  thus  reduced  to  starvation.     In 
the  middle  of  November  negotiations  began, 
during  which  McNaghten  was  murdered  in  a 
conference  with  Afghan  chiefs.      On  Jan.  1, 
1.842,  a  capitulation  was  concluded,  the  Brit 
ish  agreeing  to  evacuate  the  country,  paying  a 
large  amount  of  money,  and  surrendering  nearly 
all  their  artillery  and  ammunition.     The  chiefs, 
on  the  other  hand,  promised  a  safe  conduct, 
provisions,  and  baggage  cattle.     On  Jan.  5  the 
British  marched  out,   4,500   combatants  and 
12,000  camp-followers.      The  march,  through 
cold  and  snow,  and  with  scanty  food,  soon  be 
came  completely  disorganized,  while  they  were 
harassed  by  infuriated  Afghan  marksmen,  arm 
ed  with  long-range  matchlocks,  occupying  every 
height.     The  chiefs  who  signed  the  capitulation 
neither  could  nor  would  restrain  the  moun 
tain  tribes.     The  Kurd-Cabool  pass  became  the 
grave  of  nearly  all  the  army,  and  the  remnant, 
less  than  200  Europeans,  fell  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Jugduluk  pass.     Only  one  Englishman, 
Dr.  Brydon,  reached  Jelalabad  to  tell  the  tale. 
Many  officers,  however,  had  been  seized  by  the 
Afghans,  and  kept  in  captivity.     Jelalabad  was 
I  held  by  Sale's  brigade.     He  was  summoned  to 
surrender,  but  refused,  and  made  a  most  gal- 
I  lant  defence ;  so  did  Nott  at  Candahar.    Ghuzni 
I  had  fallen ;  there  was  not  a  man  in  the  place 
I  that  understood  anything  about  artillery,  and 
I  the  sepoys  of  the  garrison  had  succumbed  to 
the  climate.      In  the  mean  time,  the  British 
authorities  on  the  frontier,  at  the  first  news  of 
the  disaster   of  Cabool,  had   concentrated  at 
|  Peshawer  the  troops  destined  for  the  relief  of 
i  the  regiments  in  Afghanistan,  which  were  long 
!  detained  by  lack  of  transportation.     Gen.  Pol- 
j  lock  received  the  command,  and  at  the  end  of 
|  March,  1842,  forced  the  Khyber  pass,  and  ad- 


162 


AFGHANISTAN 


vanced  to  the  relief  of  Sale  at  Jelalabad  ;  but 
Sale  had  a  few  days  before  completely  defeated 
the  investing  Afghan  army.  It  was  not  till 
July  that  Lord  Ellenborough,  now  governor 
general  of  India,  authorized  an  advance  on 
Cabool,  both  from  Candahar  and  Jelalabad; 
and  on  Sept.  15  Gen.  Pollock,  after  several 
battles,  encamped  under  the  walls  of  Cabool. 
On  the  17th  he  was  joined  by  Nott,  who  had 
also  fought  several  battles,  and  had  taken  andr 
destroyed  Ghuzni.  Shah  Shujah  had  long  before 
been  murdered  by  some  of  the  chiefs,  and  since 
then  no  regular  government  had  existed  in 
Afghanistan ;  nominally,  Futteh  Jung,  his  son, 
was  king.  Pollock  despatched  a  body  of  cav 
alry  after  the  Cabool  prisoners,  but  these  had 
succeeded  in  bribing  their  guard,  and  met  him 
on  the  road.  As  a  mark  of  vengeance,  the 
bazaar  of  Cabool  was  destroyed,  on  which  oc 
casion  the  soldiers  plundered  part  of  the  town 
and  massacred  many  inhabitants.  Oct.  12,  the 
British  left  Cabool  and  marched  by  Jelalabad 
and  Peshavver  to  India.  Futteh  Jung,  despair 
ing  of  his  position,  followed  them.  Dost  Mo 
hammed  was  now  dismissed  from  captivity,  and 
returned  to  his  kingdom.  Thus  ended  the  at 
tempt  of  the  British  to  set  up  a  prince  of  their 
own  making  in  Afghanistan.  Dost  Mohammed 
on  his  return  to  Cabool  was  received  with  ova 
tions  as  the  liberator  of  Afghanistan  both  from 
English  and  Perso-Russian  hostility.  As  early 
as  1846  he  availed  himself  of  the  experience  he 
had  gained  during  his  captivity  in  British  India 
to  revive  hostilities.  Entering  into  an  alliance 
with  his  former  enemies  the  Sikhs,  he  set  on 
foot  disturbances  in  the  Punjaub,  which  were 
not  quelled  without  much  hard  lighting.  After 
the  battle  of  Guzerat,  however  (Feb.  21, 1849), 
the  Sikhs,  defeated  by  the  English,  were  for 
saken  by  the  Afghans,  and  Dost  Mohammed 
with  16,000  of  his  warriors  fled  over  the  Indus. 
He  was  not  disturbed  by  the  English  govern 
ment,  and  after  having  conquered  Balkh  (1850) 
and  thus  consolidated  his  forces  in  the  north, 
he  even  succeeded  in  1854  in  subduing  Canda 
har,  and  gaining  the  supremacy  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  country.  He  now  concluded  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  England, 
March  30,  1855  ;  and  goaded  on  by  that  power, 
.as  well  as  encouraged  in  his  ambition  by  the 
death  of  Yar  Mohammed,  the  ruler  of  Herat,  he 
became  involved  in  war  with  Persia  (1856), 
which  ended  in  the  evacuation  of  Herat  (July, 
1857)  by  the  Persians,  and  the  appointment  of 
Ahmed  as  sultan  of  that  country.  In  January, 
1857,  Dost  Mohammed  concluded  a  new  treaty 
with  England.  In  1860  the  sultan  of  Herat  quar 
relled  with  Dost  Mohammed's  son ;  but  on  this 
occasion,  as  in  the  following  year,  in  the  com 
plications  with  the  emir  of  Bokhara,  Dost  over 
came  all  difficulties  by  the  exercise  of  his  wont 
ed  tact  and  moderation.  A  new  Persian  war 
.broke  out  in  1862 ;  but,  supported  by  his  Brit 
ish  allies,  Dost  Mohammed  defeated  the  sultan 
,of  Herat  and  took  possession  of  that  city  after 
;a  protracted  struggle,  May  26,  1863..  Ahmed, 


the  sultan  of  Herat,  and  the  tool  of  Persia  and 
Russia,  died  shortly  before  the  capture  of  his 
capital,  and  Dost  himself  survived  his  victory 
only  a  few  days,  his  death  occurring  May  29, 
1863.  He  bequeathed  the  throne  to  his  son 
Shere  Ali,  who  was  soon  embroiled  in  a  bitter 
contest  for  the  succession  with  his  brothers  and 
nephews,  and  Afghanistan  was  plunged  again 
into  anarchy.  Helpless  against  the  many  pre 
tenders  to  the  throne,  Shere  Ali  appealed  to 
the  English,  but  he  was  regarded  by  them  as 
an  unsafe  ally,  and  Afzul  Khan,  Shere's  half 
brother,  was  recognized  by  Sir  John  Lawrence, 
the  governor  of  British  India,  as  the  lawful 
sovereign.  Yacub  Khan,  Shere's  son,  had  suc 
ceeded  in  retaining  power  at  Herat,  and  sent  as 
sistance  to  his  father,  who,  however,  was  disap 
pointed  in  his  hope  of  making  the  Persians  his 
allies  against  his  antagonists.  In  October, 

1867,  however,  he  succeeded  in  gathering  an 
army  of  17,000  men,  chiefly  through  the  mone 
tary  assistance  accorded  to  him  by  the  widow 
of  Feis  Mohammed  of  Balkh.      On  April  1, 

1868,  he  took  possession  of  Candahar,  and  in 
January,  1869,  he  achieved  a  decided  victory  at 
Ghuzni   over  his  half  brother  Azim  and   his 
nephew  Abd-ul-Rahman.     In  July,  1869,  the 
pretenders  rose   anew   on  the  boundaries  of 
Turkistan ;  but   Azim   Khan,    the   most   mis 
chievous  of  them,  died  in  October,  1869,  and 
the  Anglo-Indian  government,  afraid  of  Russia, 
which  was  all  the  time  accused  of  a  design  to 
use   Persian   supremacy   over   Herat   for   her 
own  designs  on  India,  now  came  over  to  the 
side  of  Shere  Ali.     Earl  Mayo,  the  new  gover 
nor  general  of  India,  entered  into  a  formal  alli 
ance  with  him,  recognizing  him  as  the  legitimate 
sovereign  of  Afghanistan.     At  the  instigation 
of  England,  the  upper  Oxus  was  at  the  same 
time  fixed  upon  as  the  boundary  line  between 
Afghanistan  and  Bokhara  (a  country  virtually 
ruled  by  Russian  influence),  and  a  treaty  to  that 
effect  was  concluded  and  signed  in  Januaiy, 
1871.    By  bringing  the  difficulties  between  these 
countries  to  a  close,  Great  Britain  hoped  to  ar 
rest  the  progress  of  Russia.     Shere  Ali,  how 
ever,  was  still  distrusted  by  his  kinsmen,  the 
pretenders  to  his  throne.     On  Sept.  21,  1870, 
his    own   son    Yacub   rose    in   revolt    against 
his  father,  because  the  latter,  owing  to  a  palace 
intrigue,  resolved   to   appoint  his  second  son 
Abdullah  Jaw  successor  to  the  throne,  in  the 
place  of  Yacub.     In  March,  1871,  the  fortress 
of  Gurian  fell  into  the  hands  of  Yacub,  and 
in  May  he  even  took  possession  of  Herat.     A 
protracted  war  between  father  and  son  was 
now  expected,  but   through  British  diploma 
cy  a  reconciliation  took  place  in  June,  in  con- 
seqence  of  which  Yacub  was  appointed  gov 
ernor  of  Herat. — Afghan  Language  and  Litera 
ture.     Afghan  is  a  Persian  word.     The  term 

Vilayet  is  applied  by  the  people  themselves 
to  their  country,  and  signifies  the  original 
land  of  ancestors.  They  also  designate  it  as 
Cabulistan,  and  by  other  appellations.  The  in 
habitants  call  themselves  Pushtaneh  or  Pukh- 


AFIUM  KARA-IIISSAR 


AFRICA 


163 


taneh,  according  to  the  two  main  dialects  of 
their  language,  the  Pukhtu  and  Pushtu,  which 
are  spoken  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The 
Afghani,  notwithstanding  its  peculiar  sounds, 
retains  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  Iranic 
group  of  the  Indo-European  languages.  Mixed 
with  various  oriental  tongues  and  written  in 
Persian  characters,  it  reveals  the  defective  cul 
tivation  of  the  people.  There  is  a  tradition 
that  Mohammed  described  the  Pukhtu  as  the 
language  of  hell.  Previous  to  the  15th  century 
there  does  not  seem  to  have  existed  any  litera 
ture  at  all ;  but  since  that  period  there  have 
been  several  poets,  who  took  the  high-flown 
Persian  lyrical  writers  as  their  models.  Abder- 
rahman  of  Peshawer  was  one  of  the  earliest 
poets.  In  the  17th  century  Mirza  Khan  An- 
sari  and  Khushhal  Shah  Abdali  distinguished 
themselves  as  Afghan  poets;  and  Ahmed,  the 
founder  of  the  Durrani  dynasty,  was  remark 
able  for  his  literary  efforts.  Writings  on  his 
torical  and  religious  subjects  are  extant  among 
the  Afghans,  but  none  earlier  than  within  the 
last  four  centuries.  Raverty  published  a  gram 
mar  of  the  Pukhtu  language  (London,  1860- 
'68),  and  a  selection  from  the  poetry  of  the  Af 
ghans  (1862).  Among  valuable  works  on 
Afghanistan  are  Elphinstone's  "  Account  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Caubul"  (London,  1815);  Caye, 
"History  of  the  War  in  Afghanistan"  (1851); 
Belly,  "Journal  of  his  Political  Mission  to  Af 
ghanistan  "  (1862) ;  and  the  travels  of  Connolly, 
Burnes,  Ferrier,  and  Belle w. 

AFU3I  KARA-HISSAR  (Black  Castle  of  Opium, 
so  called  from  its  extensive  trade  in  opium, 
which  grows  in  its  vicinity),  or  simply  Kara- 
hissar,  a  city  in  the  Turkish  eyalet  of  Khu- 
davendikiar,  in  Asia  Minor,  capital  of  a  sanjak 
or  district,  50  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Kutaieh ;  pop. 
about  50,000.  It  is  neatly  built  upon  a  moun 
tain  side,  protected  by  a  fortress,  which  is 
perched  upon  a  high  rock  above  it.  Manufac 
tories  of  carpets,  felts,  arms,  stirrups,  and  sad 
dlery  are  carried  on  by  the  inhabitants. 

AFRAGOLA,  a  town' of  Italy,  5  m.  X.  E.  of 
Xaples,  on  the  railroad  to  Rome;  pop.  in  1861, 
16,129.  It  has  manufactures  of  straw  hats, 
and  a  great  annual  fair  commencing  on  the 
second  Sunday  of  May. 

AFRAMIS,  Lucius,  a  Roman  orator  and  writer 
of  comedies,  who  flourished  about  100  B.  C. 
His  genius  and  fluent  style  are  praised  by  Cicero 
and  Quintilian.  In  his  plays  he  depicted 
Roman  life,  and  chiefly  its  lower  features,  with 
admirable  accuracy,  and  was  therefore  regarded 
as  a  worthy  imitator  of  Menander.  Only  some 
fragments  of  his  works  remain. 

AFRICA,  one  of  the  great  continental  divis 
ions  of  the  globe,  situated  in  the  eastern  hem 
isphere,  S.  of  Europe,  from  which  it  is  sepa 
rated  by  the  Mediterranean  sea,  and  S.  W.  of 
Asia,  with  which  it  was  formerly  connected  by 
the  isthmus  of  Suez.  Since  the  opening  of  the 
canal  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red 
sea,  Africa  may  be  described  as  an  insular  con 
tinent.  It  lies  between  lat.  37°  20'  N.  and  34° 


I  50'  S.,  and  Ion.  17°  30'  W.  and  51°  30'  E.,  being 
;  thus   almost   wholly  within  the   tropics.      Its 
figure  resembles  that  of  an  irregular  triangle. 
;  Its  greatest  length,  measured  from  Cape  Agul- 
i  has,  E.  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  Cape 
I  Bianco,   near  Bizerta  in  Tunis,  is  4,330  geo- 
;  graphical  miles ;  and  its  greatest  width,  from 
I  Cape  Verd  on  the  Atlantic  to  Cape  Guarda- 
I  fui,  on  the  Indian  ocean,  is  4,000  geographical 
miles.     The  entire  area  of  the  continent,  ex 
clusive  of  Madagascar  and  the  other  African 
I  islands,  is  estimated  at  11,360,000  statute  square 
I  miles.    The  derivation  of  the  name,  which  was 
I  originally  applied  only  to  the  country  around 
i  Carthage,  is  uncertain.  Within  the  last  25  years 
!  our  knowledge  of  African  geography  has  been 
i  so  largely  increased   that  the   leading   physi- 
j  cal   features   of  the  country   are    now  pretty 
i  well  known. — Southern  Africa  is  a  vast  table 
land,  not  of  great  elevation,  which  on  its  N. 
edge  slopes  down  to  the  rich  equatorial  plain 
I  of  Soodan,  and  thence  to  the  lowland  region 
I  which  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  northern 
Africa.     The  mountain  ridges  of  Senegambia 
on  the  west,  and  the  lofty  plateau  of  Abyssinia 
I  on  the  east,  are  outlying  offshoots  of  the  south- 
|  ern   table  land,  stretching  forth  from  it  like 
i  rocky  promontories  into  a  sea  of  level  country. 
The  Atlas  range  in  the  northwest  is  the  only 
other  elevated  region  of  importance. — The  coast 
line  of  Africa  is  remarkable  for  its  continuity, 
as  well  as  for  its  lack  of  good  harbors.     It  is 
about  16,000  m.  in  length,  so  that  for  every 
710  sq.  m.  of  continental  area,  according  to  the 
estimate  above  given,  there  is  only  one  linear 
mile  of  coast,  a  smaller  proportion  of  seashore 
to  surface  than  in  America,  Asia,  or  Europe. 
The  surrounding  seas  comprise  the  Mediterra 
nean  on  the  north,  the  Red  sea  and  Indian 
ocean  on  the  east,  the  Southern  ocean  on  the 
south,  and  the   Atlantic  on  the   west.      The 
island   of  Madagascar  is  separated  from   the 
S.  E.  portion  of  the  mainland  by  the  Mozam 
bique  channel,  250  m,  wide.      Just  above  the 
equator  the  breadth  of  the  continent  is  consid 
erably  narrowed  by  the  westward  trend  of  the 
Atlantic  coast   through   about  15  degrees  of 
longitude,  from  Cape  Palmas  to  the  head  of  the 
bight  of  Biafra,  where  it  resumes  its  southerly 
course.     The  seaboard  of  this  region  is  washed 
j  by  the  waters  of  the  gulf  of  Guinea.     The  most 
|  prominent  points  on  the  Mediterranean  coast 
j  are  Cape  Bon,  in   Tunis,  opposite  Sicily,  and 
Cape  Spartel,  the  extremity  of  a  spur  from  the 
Atlas  mountains  forming  the  African  side  of 
the  straits  of  Gibraltar.     At  the  gulf  of  Sidra, 
the  Syrtis  Major  of  the  ancients,  in  Tripoli,  the 
sands  of  the  Sahara  reach  the  shore ;  and  E.  of 
this  locality  to  the  delta  of  the  Nile  the  coast 
country  is  flat  and  unproductive.     In  Algeria 
the  Atlas  foot  hills  approach  the  sea,  and  the 
contiguous  district  is  well  adapted  for  cultiva 
tion.     The   Sahara   desert   again   borders  the 
shore  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  northern  Africa; 
and  further  S.  lie  the  luxuriant  but  unhealthy 
lowland  delta  districts  of  Senegambia,  whence 


AFRICA 


projects  Cape  Verd,  so  named  from  its  rich 
green  covering  of  gigantic  baobab  trees.  Ap 
proaching  the  equator,  these  are  succeeded  by 
a  country  still  more  fatal  to  man,  in  the  man 
grove  swamps  and  reedy  shore  growths  of  the 
Guinea  coast.  On  the  Red  sea,  a  range  of 
mountains  originating  in  Abyssinia  skirts  the 
W.  shore  and  descends  on  the  north  to  the 
lower  hills  of  Egypt,  which  are  geologically 
connected  with  the  Sinaitic  peninsula.  The 
maritime  edge  of  the  great  South  African 
plateau  is  bounded  for  the  most  part  by  moun 
tain  chains  of  various  altitude,  with  shelving 
plains  on  their  seaward  slope.  Between  the 
E.  and  W.  coasts  which  border  the  table  land 
there  is  a  marked  difference.  Along  the  At 
lantic  a  series  of  terraces  rises  into  the  interior, 
intersected  in  some  localities  by  low,  level 
plains  and  fever-breeding  swamps,  and  in  others 
by  grassy  tracts  and  extensive  forests.  The 
highest  of  these  terraces  does  not  exceed  2,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  From  Cape  Negro,  in  Ben- 
guela,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orange  river,  the 
coast  is  a  low  desert  backed  by  a  sandstone 
ridge,  beyond  which  extends  the  lofty  but  no 
less  arid  inland  region.  Along  this  900  m.  of 
seaboard  there  is  not  a  single  drop  of  fresh 
water,  and  not  a  spot  of  fertility  except  at 
Walvisch  bay.  The  coast  of  Cape  Colony  is 
bold  and  rocky;  in  Natal  the  surface  rises  grad 
ually  from  the  sea  to  the  Drakenberg  range, 
and  thence  northward  to  the  Zambesi ;  the 
shore  consists  of  highlands  which  in  some  lo 
calities  attain  the  elevation  of  lofty  mountains. 
Well  watered  and  fertile  plains  occur  opposite 
Zanzibar,  but  further  N.  the  country  becomes 
more  sterile,  and  a  desert  occupies  that  portion 
of  the  continent  comprised  between  lat.  4°  N. 
and  Cape  Guardafui,  its  E.  extremity.  The 
strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  20  m.  broad,  separates 
Africa  from  Asia,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Red 
sea.  On  the  African  side  the  coast  is  rugged, 
and  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea,  though  only  to 
the  height  of  380  feet. — Considered  with  refer 
ence  to  continental  location,  the  mountains  of 
Africa  may  be  classed  in  five  systems,  as  fol 
lows  :  1,  the  mountains  of  the  Mediterranean 
basin,  comprising  the  three  ranges  of  the  Atlas ; 
2,  the  mountains  of  the  W.  coast ;  3,  the  parallel 
chains  of  the  Cape  region ;  4,  the  mountains  of 
the  E.  coast;  and  5,  the  Abyssinian  group. 
Isolated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  continent  by 
the  Great  Desert,  the  Atlas  mountains  extend 
across  the  N.  W.  portion,  from  the  Mediterra 
nean  shores  of  Tunis  to  Agadir  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  Morocco.  The  Lesser  Atlas  is  the  low 
est  range  of  this  system  and  nearest  the  Medi 
terranean;  a  little  further  inland  the  broad 
table  land  known  as  the  Middle  Atlas  rises  still 
higher ;  and  above  this  towers  the  jagged  ridge 
of  the  Greater  Atlas,  in  many  points  attaining 
an  elevation  of  12,500  ft.  It  has  commonly 
been  represented  that  these  loftier  peaks  were 
above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow ;  but  according 
to  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker,  the  English  botanist,  who 
succeeded  in  ascending  to  the  crest  of  the  range 


near  the  city  of  Morocco  in  1871,  all  the  snow 
that  falls  on  fairly  exposed  surfaces  melts  in  the 
same  year.  Several  spurs  are  thrown  out  from 
the  main  chain  toward  the  Sahara,  and  one 
trends  northward  to  the  straits  of  Gibraltar. 
Little  is  known  about  the  mountains  of 
western  Africa,  except  those  in  close  proximity 
to  the  coast.  Senegambia  includes  an  elevated 
region  which  forms  the  watershed  whence  flow 
the  Niger  and  the  Senegal ;  while  in  Guinea,  N. 
of  the  gulf,  are  the  Kong  mountains,  nowhere 
exceeding  3,500  ft.  in  height.  The  Cameroons 
rise  from  the  shores  of  the  bight  of  Biafra,  and 
extend  eastward  to  an  unknown  distance,  with 
many  lofty  summits,  some  of  which  are  esti 
mated  at  13,000  ft.,  though  others  do  not  ex 
ceed  4,000  ft.  We  possess  but  little  information 
as  to  the  mountains  which  rise  back  of  the  ter 
raced  W.  coast  S.  of  the  gulf  of  Guinea,  but 
there  are  believed  to  be  extensive  ranges  of 
very  considerable  height.  The  mountain  sys 
tem  of  the  Cape  country  is  peculiar.  The  con 
tinent  is  here  700  m.  in  width,  and  partly  across 
it  stretch  three  crescent-shaped  ranges  parallel 
to  the  S.  coast,  and  increasing  in  elevation  with 
their  distance  from  it.  The  innermost  of  these 
ranges  borders  upon  the  great  interior  table 
land,  and  between  them  are  narrow  tier-like 
flats,  called  karroos,  forming  three  gigantic 
steps  ascending  from  the  ocean  respectively 
2,000,  4,000  and  6,000  ft.  above  its  level.  The 
karroos  are  connected  by  defiles  known  as 
kloofs,  there  being  no  other  means  of  commu 
nication  between  them.  The  names  applied  to 
the  different  sections  of  the  intervening  ranges 
are  numerous.  In  the  southernmost  is  the 
Zwellendam  group,  of  which  the  most  promi 
nent  height  is  Table  mountain,  3,582  ft.  high; 
to  the  middle  range  belong  the  ZAvarteberge, 
with  an  average  elevation  of  4,000  ft. ;  and  on 
the  N.  the  Roggeveld,  Nieuwveld,  Sneeuwveld, 
and  others  make  up  the  third  barrier  on  the 
southern  edge  of  the  great  S.  African  plateau. 
The  Compass  Berg,  in  the  Sneeuwveld,  is  10,000 
ft.  high.  The  mountains  of  the  E.  coast  begin 
with  the  Quatlamba  range,  a  continuous  chain 
extending  between  the  27th  parallel  and  the 
beginning  of  the  delta  of  the  Zambesi,  300  m. 
from  the  Mozambique  channel,  with  an  eleva 
tion  varying  from  4,000  to  10,000  ft.  .  The 
Drakenberg  is  that  portion  of  this  range  which 
borders  the  colony  of  Natal.  At  the  head  of 
the  delta  it  widens  into  a  belt  of  fertile  high 
lands,  and  from  this  spot  other  mountain  chains 
branch  forth  in  various  directions ;  one  west 
ward,  one  northward  toward  Lake  Nyassa,  and 
the  Lupata  mountains  southward  along  the 
coast  of  Sofala  at  a  distance  of  100  m.  from  the 
sea.  The  northward  range  is  distinguished  by 
no  important  peak  S.  of  the  4th  parallel ;  but 
between  lat.  3°  and  4°  S.,  some  200  m.  from 
the  Indian  ocean,  rises  the  beautiful  snow 
capped  summit  of  Mt.  Kilimanjaro,  20,065  ft. 
high,  and  believed  to  be  the  loftiest  mountain 
in  Africa.  It  has  lately  been  partially  ascended 
by  the  Rev.  Charles  New,  an  Englishman,  who 


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AFRICA 


165 


reached  the  snow  line,  and  who  describes  its 
lower  slopes  as  covered  with  forests  of  gigantic 
trees,  above  which  are  rich  growths  of  heath  ' 
and   pasture.      About   200  m.  further  N.  Mt.  j 
Kenia  also  rises  into  the  region  of  perpetual" 
snow,  its  altitude  being  estimated  at  17,000  ft.  j 
A  continuous  chain  is  believed  to  connect  this  | 
range  with  Abyssinia.     The  Abyssinian  system  ! 
of  mountains  comprises  numerous  lofty  summits  j 
clustered   in  groups   on  the   elevated  plateau  I 
which   separates  the  Nile  basin   from  the  E.  I 
African  coast.     This  table  land  sinks  abruptly  ; 
to  the  lowlands  on  the  edg£  of  the  Red  sea,  but  \ 
descends  by  much  gentler  gradations  on  its  "W.  j 
slope.     The   dividing  ridge  of  the  watershed  \ 
averages  8,000  ft.  in  height;   on  the  north  it  is  j 
considerably  lower,  while  it  ascends  to  11,000  j 
ft.  on  the  south.     There  are  said  to  be  peaks 
over  15,000  ft.  high  in  the  Simen  range,  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  country  there  are  known 
to  be  many  higher  than  12,000  ft. — Africa  has 
long  been   regarded  as  distinctively  and  pre 
eminently  the  country  of  deserts.     The  Sahara 
extends  over  almost  all  the  northern  portion 
of  the  continent  between  lat.  15°  and  30°  N. 
With  an  average  width  of  1,000  m.,  and  an  ex 
treme  length  of  3,000  m.,  it  stretches  from  the 
Nile  to  the  Atlantic,  and  from  the  southern  slopes  j 
of  the  Atlas  to  Soodan,  covering  an  area  which  ' 
exceeds  that  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  with  a 
surface  in  some  places  below  the  level  of  that 
sea.     The  southern  limits  of  this  vast  land  of 
desolation  have  never  been  continuously  traced 
by  Europeans,  and  our  knowledge  of  its  track 
less  wastes  is  confined  to  the  ancient  lines  of 
caravan  travel  across  them..     The  surface,  is 
made  up  of  shifting  sand,  rough  gravel,  and 
barren   rock,  variously  distributed,   and  occa 
sionally  traversed  by  low  chains  of  bare  hills. 
Extensive  plains  of  salt  also  occur.     Through 
out  this  sterile  region  rain  is  almost  unknown, 
and  the  heat  is  terrific.      At  the  equinoctial 
seasons  the  easterly  wind,  which  blows  during 
three  fourths  of  the  year,  rises  at  times  to  a 
gale,  and  causes  the  terrific    sand  storms  by 
which  caravans  have  so  frequently  been  over 
whelmed.     The  western  portion  of  the  Sahara, 
called  Sahel,  is  the  wildest  and  most  desolate ; 
in  the  eastern  portion,  to  a  part  of  which  the 
name  Libyan  desert  is  applied,  are  numerous 
oases.     These  differ  greatly  in  extent,  but  all 
contain   springs,   rich  grass,   and   date  palms. 
Many  of  them  are  depressions  below  the  sur 
face  of  the  surrounding  desert.     Some  consist 
of  little  more  than  a  well  of  fresh  water,  a 
clump  of  trees,  and  a  spot  of  verdure ;  others 
cover  many  miles  of  fertile  country.    The  more 
important  are  :    the  Great  Oasis,  or  oasis  of 
Thebes,  120  m.  long  and  about  5  m.  wide;  the 
Lesser  Oasis,  smaller  but  similar  in  outline ;  the 
oasis  of  Darfoor,  constituting  the  monarchy  of  a 
sultan ;  the  oasis  of  Siwah,  in  which  are  the 
ruins  of  the  famous  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  ; 
and  the  oasis  of  Fezzan,  with  the  town   of 
Moorzook  as  its  capital.     All  of  these  except 
the  last  are  situated  in  a  furrow-like  depression, 


parallel  to  the  Nile,  intersecting  the  Libyan 
desert  in  its  gradual  descent  toward  the  Med 
iterranean.  The  dreaded  wind  known  as  the 
simoom  is  a  terrible  scourge  of  the  desert  and 
the  neighboring  countries.  It  is  due  to  the 
high  temperature,  sometimes  200°  F.,  attained 
by  the  surface  sand  of  the  desert  under  the  in 
fluence  of  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  pouring 
down  upon  it  through  an  intensely  dry  atmos 
phere.  The  furnace-like  wind  to  which  this 
gives  rise  is  rendered  still  more  terrible  by  the 
particles  of  burning  sand  with  which  it  is  im 
pregnated  and  which  tinge  the  atmosphere 
with  the  reddish  hue  characteristic  of  the  si 
moom.  Burkhardt  in  1813  recorded  122°  F. 
in  the  shade  during  the  prevalence  of  this  pes 
tilential  blast,  and  114°  was  observed  in  1881 
by  Sir  Samuel  Baker.  Many  other  winds  of 
the  same  class  blow  from  the  desert;  among 
them  the  parching  sirocco,  which  sweeps  from 
northern  Africa  over  Sicily,  southern  Italy,  and 
Syria ;  the  khamsin,  which  blows  in  Egypt  for 
50  days  between  the  end  of  April  and  the  sum 
mer  solstice;  the  harmattan,  which  prevails 
at  regular  intervals  between  November  and 
February  throughout  Senegambia  and  Guinea, 
coming  from  the  western  Sahara;  and  the 
withering  N.  "W.  wind  which  occasionally  visits 
Natal  and  the  Cape.  The  great  desert  of  south 
ern  Africa  is  the  Kalahari,  extending  from  the 
Orange  river  on  the  south  to  the  20th  parallel 
of  S.  latitude,  and  from  the  pastoral  Namaqua 
district  on  the  west  to  a  strip  of  pasture  land 
which  is  believed  to  border  the  inland  slope  of 
the  Quatlamba  mountains.  Its  average  eleva 
tion  above  the  sea  level  is  only  600  ft.  Al 
though  termed  a  desert,  the  Kalahari  is  not. 
wholly  destitute  of  vegetation  ;  indeed,  light 
grass,  an  abundance  of  tuberous  plants,  and 
extensive  patches  of  bushes  are  found  in  many 
localities.  Rain  seldom  refreshes  any  of  these 
j  arid  tracts ;  but  when  it  does,  they  are  at  once 
I  carpeted  with  the  richest  verdure. — Before  the 
I  explorations  of  Dr.  Livingstone,  southern  Africa 
|  was  believed  to  be  a  sterile  wilderness,  in  the 
equatorial  climate  of  which  the  existence  of  an 
j  abundant  animal  or  vegetable  life  was  impossi- 
;  ble.  In  1852,  however,  Sir  Roderick  Murchi- 
I  son,  in  an  address  to  the  royal  geographical  so- 
|  ciety  of  London,  advanced  the  hypothesis  that 
:  the  whole  African  interior  would  prove  to  be  a 
vast  watery  plateau  of  some  elevation  above 
the  sea,  but  subtended  on  the  east  and  west  by 
I  much  higher  grounds.  This  view  was  based 
I  purely  on  geological  reasoning,  for  at  that  time 
|  absolutely  nothing  was  known  of  the  interior 
N.  of  Lake  Ngami ;  it  was  a  blank  on  the  map. 
Livingstone  was  then  engaged  in  his  first  expe 
dition  on  the  Zambesi,  and  its  results  triumph 
antly  confirmed  the  correctness  of  Murchi son's 
speculations.  A  labyrinthine  network  of  rivers 
extends  over  the  whole  table  land  between  the 
10th  and  20th  parallels,  so  that  the  natives  call 
the  region  Linoka-noka,  or  "  rivers  upon  riv 
ers."  "S.  of  the  Kalahari  desert  the  Gariep  or 
Orange  river  is  the  only  considerable  stream. 


16G 


AFRICA 


It  flows  along  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
Cape  region  westward  into  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
but  is  not  navigable  in  any  part  of  its  course, 
being  an  impetuous  torrent  during  the  rains, 
and  in  the  dry  season  little  more  than  a  nar 
row,  slow,  and  shallow  current.     Of  the  rivers  j 
which  flow  into  the  Indian  ocean,  the  Zambesi  j 
or  Leambye  exceeds  all  others  in  magnitude 
and  importance ;  its  name  signifies  "  the  river," 
and  indicates  its  preeminence  in  the   native 
mind.     From  its  origin  among  the  Gilolo  hills 
to  its  junction  with  the  Chobe  river,  in  lat.  18° 
17' S.  and  Ion.  23°  50'  E.,  the  general  course  of 
the  Zambesi  is  from  N.  to  S.,  but  below  this 
point  it  flows  eastward,  making  a  semicircular 
bend  to  the  N.  on  its  way  to  the  sea.    The  area 
of  its  drainage  basin  extends  through  10°  of 
latitude  and  more  than  21°  of  longitude.     At 
the  Victoria  falls,  in  lat.  17°  57'  S.,  Ion.  26°  6' 
E.,  the  river  narrows  from  a  width  of  1,000 
yards  to  a  gorge-like  channel  in  the  rock  about 
75  ft.  broad,  and  leaps  down  a  distance  of  300 
ft.,  forming  one  of  the  most  magnificent  and 
beautiful  cascades  in  the  world.     The   rising 
spray  forms  a  constant  cloud  above  the  cata 
ract.     On  the  upper  portion  of  the  Zambesi 
the  adjacent  country  is  low,  and  villages  are 
built  on  raised  ground  to  protect  the  inhabit 
ant  against  the  annual  overflow.    Further  down, 
the  river  is  a  mile  wide  in  many  places.    It  be-  I 
comes  less  rapid  after  descending  the  falls,  and 
at  the  commencement  of  its  delta,  300  m.  from 
the  Mozambique  channel,  it  is  wide  and  tranquil,  j 
The  extreme  length  of  the  delta  and  its  shal- 
lowness  except  in  the  main  branch  render  ac-  j 
cess  from  the   Indian   ocean   rather   difficult,  j 
.The  Limpopo,  which  reaches  the  E.  coast  about  [ 
midway  between  Delagoa  bay  and  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn,  is  a  river  famed  among  sports 
men   for  the  gigantic  game  which  haunts  its 
banks,  but  worthless  as  an  avenue  to  the  inte 
rior  on  account  of  its  deficient  depth  and  the 
shoals  at  its  mouth.     The  Congo  is  the  south 
ernmost  of  the  great  rivers  of  Africa  which  de 
scend  from  the  plateau  on  the  Atlantic  side.    Of 
its  course  or  character  in  the  interior  we  have 
but  little  authentic  information,  although  it  is  j 
supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  Kasai,  which 
is  said  to  traverse  a  country  of  alternate  forest 
and  pasture  land.     It  is  navigable  in  its  lower 
course,   where  it  is   5  m.  wide  and  of  great  ' 
depth ;  but  at  the  distance  of  160  m.  from  the 
sea  there  is  a  cataract.     The  only  notable  river 
between  this  and  the  delta  of  the  Niger  is  the 
Ogowai,  which  crosses  the  equator,  and  enters 
the  sea  by  the  same  outlet  as  the  Fernan  Vaz.  j 
The  remarkable  facilities  which  it  is  altogether  j 
probable  are  furnished  by  the  Niger  for  direct  j 
water  communication  with  the  most  populous  j 
regions  of  central  Africa,  render  it  by  far  the 
most  important  river  of  the  western  coast.    Pre 
cisely  where  it  rises  is  unknown,  but  the  Bam-  } 
barra  country,  among  the  Kong  mountains  in 
Senegambia,  about  1,300  ft.  above  the  sea,  has 
been  fixed  upon  as  the  most  probable  locality. 
Its  course  from  its  source  to  the  gulf  of  Guinea 


is  very  tortuous,  traversing  some  15  degrees  of 
longitude,  and  an  estimated  distance  of  2,500 
m.,  and  making  a  great  bend  to  the  north  in  the 
vicinity  of  Timbuctoo.  It  is  variously  known 
as  the  Niger,  the  Quorra,  and  the  Joliba.  The 
river  Tchadda,  from  the  heart  of  Soodan,  is  the 
largest  tributary ;  below  its  embouchure  the 
Niger  expands  to  a  great  width,  the  distance 
from  bank  to  bank  sometimes  exceeding  6  m. 
The  delta  through  the  innumerable  streams  of 
which  its  waters  flow  into  the  bights  of  Benin 
and  Biafra,  is  equally  famous  for  its  luxuri 
ant  vegetation  and  its  deadly  climate.  Rising 
like  the  Niger  in  Senegambia,  but  draining  the 
western  declivity  of  the  watershed  of  that 
country,  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Gambia,  and  the 
Senega]  find  their  way  to  the  Atlantic  through 
a  wall  of  coast  mountains  which  forms  an  ob 
stacle  to  extended  inland  navigation  on  these 
rivers.  The  Senegal  is  the  largest,  and  is  more 
than  800  m.  in  length.  Of  all  African  rivers, 
however,  the  Nile  is  at  once  the  most  famous 
and  the  most  wonderful.  It  is  remarkable 
physically  for  the  unfailing  inundation  by  which 
a  rainless  country  is  annually  fertilized ;  it  is 
remarkable  politically  for  the  early  and  elabo 
rate  civilization  which  has  left  imperishable 
monuments  along  its  valley ;  and  it  is  remark 
able  geographically  for  its  vast  length,  which 
probably  exceeds  that  of  any  other  river,  and 
for  the  problem  concerning  its  sources,  which 
remained  unsolved  until  the  third  quarter  of 
the  19th  century.  The  explorations  of  Baker 
have  fixed  the  great  Albert  lake,  which  lies 
directly  under  the  equator,  as  a  proximate 
source,  at  least ;  whether  a  more  remote  origin 
exists  can  only  be  determined  by  future  geo 
graphical  research.  The  Bahr-el-Abiad,  or 
White  river,  as  the  main  stream  of  the  Nile  is 
called,  issues'  from  the  northern  extremity  of 
this  lake,  between  lat.  2°  and  3°  N.,  at  an  alti 
tude  of  2,720  ft.,  and  flows  northward  through 
a  mountainous  and  rocky  region,  over  four 
cataracts,  to  Gondokoro,  in  lat.  5°  54'  N.  Here 
it  emerges  into  a  plain  and  becomes  navigable 
without  serious  interruption  as  far  as  the  upper 
Nubian  cataract.  Near  lat.  9°  30'  N.  it  receives 
the  tributary  Bahr-el-Gazal  from  the  west — an 
important  river,  not  yet  fully  explored.  The 
Blue  Nile,  or  Bahr-el-Azrek,  from  the  lofty 
plateau  of  Abyssinia,  joins  the  White  river  at 
Khartoom;  and  still  further  N.  it  receives  the 
Atbara  from  the  same  country.  Below  this 
point  tropical  rains  are  unknown,  and  not  a 
single  tributary,  not  even  a  rivulet,  enters  the 
Nile.  For  more  than  1,000  rn.  it  alone  irrigates 
the  long  green  valley  which  without  it  would 
be  as  barren  as  the  bordering  desert.  In  Nu 
bia  it  descends  over  three  successive  falls,  each 
of  which  is  in  reality  merely  a  series  of  rapids, 
and  which  are  known  respectively  as  the  first, 
second,  and  third  cataracts,  the  first  named 
and  northernmost  being  at  Syene,  on  the  boun 
dary  between  Egypt  and  Nubia,  about  700  m. 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  GOO  ft.  above  its 
surface.  The  delta  begins  90  m.  from  the  sea, 


AFRICA 


167 


by  the  separation  of  the  river  into  the  Rosetta  i 
aiid  Damietta   branches.      The  width   of  the  j 
Nile  differs  greatly  in  different  sections ;  there 
are  many  places  where  it  is  several  miles  broad. 
The  average  velocity  of  its  current  is  2|-  m.  an 
hour.     In  Egypt  the  maximum  height  of  the 
annual  Hood  is  between  30  and  35  ft.,  and  is 
attained  between  the  middle  of  September  and 
the  middle  of  October,  the  river  being  lowest  in 
April  and  May.— The  lakes  of  Africa  are  closely 
associated  with  the  continental  river  systems, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  Nile.     That  river 
proceeds  from  a  region  of  fresh-water  lakes  ; 
unrivalled  except  by  the  great  lakes   of  N.  j 
America.  Three  of  these  lakes  have  been  visited  j 
by  Europeans,  but  no  one  of  them  has  been 
completely  explored.     In  1858  Lake  Tanganyi-  I 
ka  (so  called  from  a  native  word  meaning  the  | 
meeting  place  of  waters)  was  discovered  by 
R.  F.  Burton  and  J.  H.  Speke,  captains  in  the 
British  army,  whose  names  have  since  become  j 
famous  in  the  history  of  African  exploration.  | 
It  is  a  long  and  narrow  sheet  of  water,  situated  i 
between  lat.  3°  10'  and  7°  50'  S.,  with  its  cen-  ! 
tre  in  about  Ion.  30°  E.  according  to  most,  of  ; 
the  authorities,  although  Kiepert  places  it  con-  j 
siderably  W.  of  that  meridian.     Burton  esti-  | 
mates  its  total  length   at  250  m.,  its  mean  j 
breadth  at  20m.,  and  its  altitude  above  the  sea  I 
at  1,850  ft.    Its  waters  are  pure  and  deep.    The 
Victoria  N'yanza,  which  was  seen  by  Speke  ! 
in  1858,  and  subsequently  visited  by  him  in  j 
company  with  Oapt.  Grant,  lies  some  200  m.  j 
N.  E.  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  with  a  lofty  moun-  [ 
tain  district   intervening.      Among  its  native  ! 
names  are  Nyanja,  Ukere,  and  Ukerewe.     Ac-  | 
cording  to   Speke's  observations  in  18G2,  its  ! 
height  above  the  ocean  is  3,308  ft.     Its  north-  j 
ern  outlet,  which  flows  over  a  picturesque  cat-  ! 
aract  called  Ripon  Falls,  in  the  immediate  vicin-  j 
ity  of  the  lake,  was  believed  by  Speke  to  be  the  | 
veritable  White  Nile,  although  he  was  told  by  ] 
the  natives  that  this  stream  passed  into  another  I 
vast  inland  sea,  which    they  called   the  Luta  j 
Nzige.  This  statement  was  confirmed  by  the  dis-  j 
coveries  of  Sir  Samuel  Baker  and  his  wife  in  1 864,  ' 
when  they  traversed  the  eastern  shores  of  the  ! 
Luta  Nzige— on  which  they  bestowed  the  name  ; 
Albert  N'yanza— traced  its  connection  with  the  I 
Victoria  lake  on  the  east,  and  beheld  the  Nile  | 
emerging  from  it  on  the  north.     This  vast  ex-  j 
panse  is  embosomed  amid  noble  mountains  of  j 
great  beauty,  and  is  2,720  ft.  above  the  level  of  i 
the  sea — much  lower  than  the  Victoria  N'yanza.  | 
Its  area  is  unknown,  though  Baker  estimated  ; 
its  width  near  the  northern  end  at  60  m.     Still 
another  lake  belonging  to  this  aggregation  and  ; 
called  Bahari  Xgo,  or  Baringo,  is  supposed  to  lie  ! 
E.  of  the  Victoria  N'yanza.    Capt.  Burton  per 
sistently  asserts  a  belief  that  the  latter  will  ul 
timately  be  ascertained  to  be.  not  a  single  lake,  \ 
but  a  vast  marshy  region  of  many  lakes.     Far 
removed  from  this  system,  in  lat.  20°   19'  S.  ! 
and  Ion.  22°  E.,  is  Lake  Ngami,  about  midway 
between  the  respective  coasts  of  the  continent. 
It  is  3,713  ft.  above  the  ocean,  from  50  to  70 


m.  long,  quite  shallow,  and  supposed  to  b« 
gradually  contracting  its  shores.  Livingstone 
discovered  it  in  1849,  and  followed  its  outlet, 
the  river  Zooga,  some  distance  toward  the  dis 
trict  now  known  to  be  watered  by  the  Limpopo. 
Ten  years  later  Livingstone  also  discovered 
the  more  important  Lake  N'yassa,  which  is  sit 
uated  about  300  m.  from  the  E.  coast  and  N. 
of  the  Zambesi  delta,  with  which  it  is  connect 
ed  by  the  river  Shire.  It  lies  in  a  valley  sur 
rounded  by  eminences,  at  a  height  above  the 
sea  of  about  1,500  ft.  Its  width  is  from  20  to 
60  m.,  and  its  entire  length  is  estimated  at  not 
less  than  200  m.,  although  the  northern  ex 
tremity  has  never  yet  been  visited  by  white 
men.  Its  waters  are  very  deep.  In  the  clear, 
dry  season  their  surface  is  ruffled  by  boisterous 
southeasterly  gales,  which  render  navigation 
perilous.  Shirwa,  a  much  smaller  lake  than 
N'yassa,  but  exceeding  it  in  elevation  by  about 
500  ft.,  is  situated  among  the  mountains  on  the 
S.  E.,  30  m.  distant.  The  principal  lake  of 
Abyssinia  is  Tsana  or  Dembea,  covering  an 
area  of  1,400  sq.  m.  in  the  centre  of  a  plain 
over  6,000  ft.  in  altitude,  on  which  the  climate 
is  that  of  perpetual  spring.  In  the  same  coun 
try  is  also  the  beautiful  little  lake  of  Ashangi, 
enclosed  on  all  sides  by  mountains  towering 
above  the  plateau  on  which  it  rests.  The 
chief  body  of  water  in  central  Africa  is  Lake 
Tchad,  which  is  extremely  shallow,'  being  only 
from  8  to  15  ft.  in  depth.  Its  area  appears  to 
vary  somewhat  in  different  seasons.  Its  eleva 
tion  above  the  sea  is  840  ft. — The  geology  of 
Abyssinia  is  better  known  than  that  of  any 
other  single  region  of  Africa,  The  foundation 
of  the  plateau  is  metamorphic  rock  extending 
to  a  height  of  some  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  surmounted  principally  by  bedded  traps, 
although  in  a  few  instances  limestones  and 
sandstones  are  enclosed  between  these  forma 
tions.  A  line  of  rocks  of  volcanic  origin 
skirts  the  Red  sea  coast,  along  which  there  is 
also  a  fringe  of  coral,  embracing  Massowa  and 
the  neighboring  islands.  The  precipitous  gor 
ges  through  which  so  many  of  the  Abyssinian 
rivers  flow  have  probably  been  worn  down 
through  the  solid  rock  to  their  present  depth 
by  tlie  ceaseless  action  of  water  exerted 
through  enormous  periods  of  time.  The  ra 
vine  of  the  Tacazze.  one  of  the  streams  which 
unite  to  form  the  Blue  Nile,  is  3,000  ft.  deep. 
A  firm  clay  underlies  the  deserts  of  N.  Africa. 
On  the  W.  boundary  of  Egypt  limestones  oc 
cur,  and  granite,  sandstone,  and  argillaceous 
slates  are  found  in  Nubia,  The  deltas  of  all 
the  great  rivers  are  alluvial  deposits.  The 
geological  structure  of  the  S.  African  table  land, 
according  to  Murchison,  is  unique  in  having 
maintained  the  same  terrestrial  and  lacustrine 
conditions  since  the  secondary  epoch.  No  fos 
sil  bones  have  been  found  in  this  territory  ex 
cept  such  as  belong  to  species  of  animals  which 
still  inhabit  it.  There  are  tertiary  rocks  at  the 
Mombas  mission  in  Zanzibar,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Zambesi,  and  at  the  Cape ;  but  these 


168 


AFRICA 


are  coast  formations  distinct  from  those  of  the 
interior,  in  which  marine  fossils  have  been 
sought  in  vain.  Every  known  fact  connected 
with  the  geology  or  paleontology  of  this  re 
gion  indicates  that  it  has  remained  practically 
unchanged  through  ages  which  have  witnessed 
the  rise  and  fall  of  other  continents.  Within 
its  borders  all  traces  of  glacial  drift  are  ab 
sent  ;  and  there  are  no  volcanic  mountains  ex 
cept  the  Gamer oons  near  the  W.  coast,  and 
Mt.  Kilimanjaro,  which  has  probably  been  in 
active  since  prehistoric  times.  The  precious 
metals  do  not  seem  to  be  very  generally  dis 
tributed  throughout  Africa,  and,  so  far  as  at 
present  known,  the  mineral  productions  are 
neither  abundant  nor  varied.  Until  the  dis 
covery  of  gold  in  Australia  and  California, 
however,  the  gold  fields  of  Guinea,  in  the 
Kong  mountains,  were  esteemed  as  among  the 
most  important  sources  of  the  world's  supply. 
Iron  and  copper  occur  in  many  parts  of  inter- 
tropical  Africa,  and  Livingstone  found  seams 
of  coal  cropping  out  along  the  banks  of  the 
Zambesi.  Salt  is  said  to  be  plentiful  in  al 
most  every  country  on  the  continent.  Exten 
sive  diamond  fields,  producing  many  stones  of 
fine  quality  and  great  size,  were  discovered  in 
1867  in  the  districts  N.  of  the  Orange  river 
and  near  its  continence  with  the  Vaal.  Some 
controversy  arose  between  the  authorities  of 
Cape  Colony  and  the  government  of  the  neigh 
boring  Orange  Free  State  as  to  which  was  en 
titled  to  exercise  jurisdiction  over  this  territory, 
and  was  finally  settled  in  favor  of  the  British 
claim.  The  diamond  called  "  the  Star  of 
South  Africa,"  which  was  found  shortly  after 
the  opening  of  the  diggings,  was  sold  in  its 
rough  state  for  £11,500  sterling. — Among  the 
distinguishing  features  of  the  fauna  of  Africa 
may  be  noted  the  numerical  preponderance  of 
terrestrial  over  aquatic  species  of  mammals ; 
the  large  proportion  of  quadrupeds  exclusively 
African  in  their  origin  or  habitat;  and  the 
number  of  gigantic  pachyderms.  Considered 
with  reference  to  the  geographical  distribution 
of  animals,  Africa  is  partially  included  in  each 
of  two  great  provinces  recognized  by  natural 
ists  :  the  paheo-arctic  region,  which  comprises 
nearly  all  northern  Asia  and  the  African  con 
tinent  X.  of  the  Sahara,  and  the  Ethiopian  re 
gion,  containing  the  remainder  of  Africa  and 
the  whole  of  Madagascar.  The  affinities  be 
tween  the  existing  arid  fossil  animals  of  S.  Af 
rica  and  India  strongly  indicate  that  these  now 
widely  sundered  countries  must  once  have 
been  connected  witli  each  other  more  intimate 
ly  than  at  present.  Two  of  the  three  known 
genera  of  anthropoid  apes,  the  chimpanzee  and 
the  gorilla,  are  found  only  in  Africa.  The 
habitat  of  the  chimpanzee  comprehends  the 
whole  western  region  between  the  Sahara  and 
the  Congo  river,  but  that  of  the  gorilla  is  lim 
ited  to  the  tropical  delta  districts  on  the  At 
lantic  seaboard  near  the  equator.  Baboons, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions  about  which  there 
is  some  doubt,  are  also  confined  to  Africa. 


Everywhere  in  Abyssinia  is  found  the  great 
dog-faced  baboon  (cynocephalus  hamadryas), 
remarkable  for  its  long  hair.  These  monkeys 
traverse  the  country  in  bands  numbering  from 
200  to  300,  with  a  venerable  male  at  the  head 
of  the  line  of  march.  The  galagos  of  Senegal, 
Gambia,  S.  Africa,  and  Sennaar  are  the  conti 
nental  representatives  of  the  lemurs  of  Mada 
gascar.  Of  the  rhinoceros  there  are  five  Afri 
can  species,  all  with  two  horns,  and  all  re 
stricted  to  the  region  S.  of  the  Great  Desert, 
the  two  white  species  never  having  been  en 
countered  N.  of  the  equator.  The  range  of 
the  elephant  (elephas  Africunus),  which  differs 
from  its  Asiatic  congener,  and  has  never  been 
domesticated  like  him,  is  similarly  limited. 
Multitudes  of  hippopotami  are  met  with  on 
the  Nile,  the  Niger,  the  Senegal,  and  in  nearly 
all  the  equatorial  rivers  and  lakes,  the  animal 
being  peculiar  to  the  continent.  Sir  Samuel 
Baker  saw  immense  herds  of  them  in  the  Al 
bert  N'yanza.  Among  the  pachydermata  are 
also  the  hyrax  and  the  wart  hog.  In  Bornoo, 
Abyssinia,  and  the  Galla  country,  the  ox  is  re 
markable  for  the  extraordinary  size  and  length 
of  his  horns.  Buffaloes  are  numerous,  and  the 
Cape  variety  is  quite  fierce  and  formidable. 
The  giraffe  or  camelopard,  perhaps  the  most 
singular  of  African  ruminants,  and  found  in  no 

I  other  land  on  the  globe  except  as  a  fossil,  is  a 

|  timorous  creature  of  gregarious  habits,  which 
roams  over  the  interior  beyond  the  Orange 
river,  in  flocks  seldom  amounting  to  100  in 
number.  The  zebra  and  quagga  abound  in  S. 
Africa.  Five  sixths  of  the  known  species  of 
antelopes  are  said  to  be  natives  of  Africa ;  of 
these,  the  most  noteworthy  are  the  eland,  the 
springbok,  the  klipspringer,  and  the  Abyssin 
ian  Beni  Israel  (A.  saltiana\  one  of  the  small 
est  of  antelopes,  a  specimen  measured  by  Blan- 
ford  being  only  1  ft.  4  in.  high  at  the  shoulder. 

!  The  more  ferocious  carnivora  abound.  The 
lion,  although  somewhat  circumscribed  in  his 
range,  is  still  found  in  the  Atlas  mountains  on 
the  north,  and  throughout  a  great  portion  of 
the  table  land.  According  to  Dr.  Kirk,  every 
tribe  has  a  name  for  him.  The  tiger  is  not 
found  in  any  part  of  Africa,  but  leopards,  pan 
thers,  and  the  smaller  cats  are  common,  as 
also  are  hyenas,  jackals,  and  foxes.  It  is  wor 
thy  of  note  that  the  domestic  cat  is  exceeding 
ly  rare  in  Africa.  The  single-humped  camel 
is  the  most  useful  of  the  domesticated  animals, 

!  being  almost  indispensable  for  the  perform 
ance  of  the  long  desert  journeys  to  which  it  is 
so  perfectly  adapted.  Tame  goats  and  several 
varieties  of  coarse-wooled  sheep  are  numerous 
in  certain  districts.  The  birds  of  N.  Africa  are 
almost  identical  with  those  of  Europe,  but  the 
ornithology  of  the  ton-id  section  is  represented 
by  some  forms  of  uncommon  interest,  such  as 
the  ostrich,  the  guinea  fowl,  and  the  serpent- 
slaying  secretary  bird.  The  ostrich  inhabits 
the  deserts  and  adjacent  plains  throughout  the 
interior,  and  is  also  met  with  in  Arabia,  which 

i  is  the  only  country  of  Asia  where  it  occurs. 


AFRICA 


109 


Innumerable  flocks  of  guinea  fowls  haunt  the 
underbrush  on  the  river  banks  within  the 
tropics  and  on  the  island  of  Madagascar. 
Among  the  smaller  birds  are  the  little  honey  bird 
of  Cape  Colony,  several  peculiar  species  of 
parrots,  many  magnificently  colored  kingfishers, 
and  the  indicator  family,  so  called  from  the  as 
sertion  of  the  natives  that  the  birds  belonging 
to  it  invariably  lead  the  follower  of  their  flight 
to  bees'  nests.  In  Egypt  is  found  the  sacred 
ibis  of  the  ancients,  and  many  other  water 
birds  frequent  the  streams  and  lake  basins. 
Reptiles  are  everywhere  abundant.  The  pro 
portion  of  venomous  serpents  to  those  which 
are  harmless  is  greater  than  elsewhere,  and  the 
enormous  python  of  the  tropics,  corresponding 
to  the  American  boa,  is  sometimes  25  ft.  long. 
The  true  crocodile  is  found  all  along  the  Nile 
up  to  an  elevation  of  4,000  ft.  above  the  sea; 
lizards  and  chameleons  are  also  very  plentiful. 
Africa  is  richer  in  tortoises  than  all  the  other 
regions  of  the  globe  combined.  The  celebrated 
tsetse  fly  of  S.  Africa,  which  fortunately  is  re 
stricted  to  limited  districts,  is  one  of  the  most 
noxious  of  known  insects,  its  bite  being  inevi 
tably  fatal  to  horses,  cattle,  and  dogs,  but, 
singularly  enough,  productive  of  no  injury  to 
the  mule,  the  ass,  wild  animals,  or  man.  The 
locust  from  time  immemorial  has  been  the 
scourge  of  the  agricultural  territories.  The 
termites,  commonly  but  erroneously  called 
white  ants,  dwell  in  dome-like  hills  of  clay, 
which  they  raise  to  a  height  of  ten  feet  and 
upward,  on  the  W.  coast,  being  careful  to  build 
them  above  the  high-water  mark  of  the  yearly 
floods. — The  flora  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
continent  appears  to  differ  essentially  from  that 
of  the  Niger,  and  the  Cape  may  be  regarded  as 
a  botanical  province  differing  from  them  both. 
A  considerable  majority  of  the  plants  found  in 
the  territories  bordering  the  Mediterranean  are 
common  to  Europe.  In  all  the  green  places  of 
the  desert  grows  the  date  palm,  with  its  abun 
dance  of  rich  fruit  and  grateful  shelter.  Egypt 
produces  the  famous  lotus,  Senegal  the  mighty 
baobab  and  curious  pandanus  candelabrum, 
Guinea  the  valuable  oil-yielding  palm,  and  Cape 
Colony  many  species  of  finely  colored  aloes. 
Immense  tracts  of  thorny  thicket  cover  the 
E.  frontier  of  the  latter  country,  and  from 
them  is  derived  the  name  Bosjesmans  or  Bush 
men,  applied  by  the  Dutch  boers  to  the  na 
tives  who  dwell  there.  Xearly  every  attempt 
to  introduce  the  cereals  of  other  zones  and  re 
gions  into  tropical  Africa  has  been  rewarded 
with  success.  Maize,  coffee,  indigo,  rice,  and 
tobacco  flourish,  and  excellent  cotton  has  been 
raised  on  artificially  irrigated  soil  in  Egypt. 
The  character  of  the  vegetation  varies  of  course 
with  the  elevation  above  the  sea  and  the  dis 
tance  from  the  equator. — The  entire  absence 
of  trustworthy  statistics  is  a  serious  obstacle 
to  a  correct  estimate  of  the  aggregate  popula 
tion,  which  has  been  placed  by  some  authori 
ties  as  high  as  200,000,000,  and  by  others  as 
low  as  100,000,000.  '  The  ethnological  classifi 


cation  of  the  native  races  also  presents  many 
difficulties,  especially  since  the  scientific  accu 
racy  of  the  old  division  of  the  human  family 
into  the  Caucasian,  the  Mongol  Tartar,  and 
kindred  groups,  has  been  impeached.  Under 
that  system  the  inhabitants  of  Africa  N.  of 
the  20th  parallel  of  N.  latitude  were  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  Caucasian  variety,  which 
included  therefore  the  Moors,  the  Arabs,  the 
Berbers,  the  Copts,  and  the  Egyptians.  Ex 
cept  the  Abyssinians,  who  are  also  said  to  be 
of  Caucasian  origin,  all  the  nations  and  tribes 
S.  of  the  same  parallel  belong  to  the  Ethiopian 
stock,  and  exhibit  the  black  color,  high  cheek 
bones,  thick  lips,  and  woolly  hair  which  dis 
tinguish  it.  They  comprise  the  negroes  proper, 
who  occupy  Soodan,  Senegambia,  the  Guinea 
coast,  and  the  interior;  the  degraded  Hotten 
tots  and  Bushmen;  and  the  tall  and  warlike 
Caffres  and  Gallas.  There  are  many  other  sub 
divisions. — Of  the  political  divisions  of  Africa, 
Egypt  is  certainly  the  oldest.  It  embraces  an 
area  of  about  200,000  sq.  m.,  situated  on  both 
sides  of  the  Kile  X.  of  lat.  24°  N.,  and  since 
1517  has  been  a  dependency  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  under  the  sway  of  a  viceroy,  now 
known  as  the  khedive,  who  is  virtually  an  in 
dependent  monarch.  The  population  of  the 
country,  including  the  dominant  Turks,  is  over 
5,000,000  according  to  the  Egyptian  officials, 
but  in  reality  is  probably  much  smaller.  Alex 
andria  is  the  chief  seaport,  and  contains  238,000 
inhabitants.  The  Suez  ship  canal,  from  Port 
Sa'id  on  the  Mediterranean  to  the  gulf  of  Suez 
on  the  Red  sea,  was  opened  in  18G9.  Cairo, 
the  capital,  has  a  population  of  300,000.  Mo 
hammedanism  is  the  prevailing  religion.  The 
whole  northern  coast  W.  of  Egypt  is  denomi 
nated  Barbary,  and  comprehends  Tripoli,  Tu 
nis.  Algeria,  and  Morocco.  Tripoli  is  a  tribu 
tary  province  to  Turkey,  under  the  rule  of  a 
governor  general  appointed  by  the  sultan,  and 
is  situated  between  Egypt  and  Tunis,  having 
an  area  variously  estimated  at  from  61,7(50  to 
105,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  1,500,000. 
The  capital,  bearing  the  same  name,  is  a  seaport 
town  of  30, 000  inhabitants.  Barca  and  the  oasis 
of  Fezzan  are  subject  to  the  Tripoli  tan  govern 
ment.  Tunis,  the  adjoining  state  on  the  west, 
is  likewise  a  Turkish  dependency,  also  with  a 
capital  of  the  same  name.  It  covers  50.000 
sq.  m.,  and  the  population  numbers  2,000,000. 
The  city  of  Tunis  is  about  13  m.  S.  E.  of  the 
ruins  of  Carthage.  The  ruler  bears  the  title 
of  bey.  Algeria,  formerly  called  Algiers,  is  a 
French  colonial  province,  having  been  con 
quered  from  the  Turks  in  1830.  There  are 
2,900,000  inhabitants,  200,000  of  whom  are 
Europeans.  The  estimated  area  is  170,000  sq. 
m.  Morocco,  the  westernmost  and  largest  of 
the  Barbary  states,  is  an  empire  under  the  in 
dependent  and  absolute  rule  of  a  sultan,  who 
resides  sometimes  in  the  city  of  Morocco  and 
sometimes  in  Fez.  His  dominions  extend  over 
more  than  200,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  of 
from  3,000,000  to  5,000,000,  composed  mainly 


170 


AFRICA 


of  Moors.  Tangier  is  the  leading  seaport,  and 
in  European  wars  has  frequently  been  resorted 
to  as  a  convenient  and  secure  naval  station. 
The  W.  coast  of  Africa,  from  the  Sahara  to 
Cape  Negro,  comprises  three  divisions  known 
as  Senegambia,  Upper  Guinea,  and  Lower 
Guinea,  each  of  which  contains  a  number  of 
native  states  and  various  European  colonial  es 
tablishments.  Thus  the  English  have  Gambia 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  with  the  main 
settlement  at  Bathurst ;  Sierra  Leone,  a  penin 
sula  18  in.  long  and  12  m.  broad,  with  a  white 
population  in  1807  of  129  persons;  Gold  Coast, 
a  territory  of  0,000  sq.  m.  in  Upper  Guinea, 
with  its  principal  fort  at  Cape  Coast  Castle ; 
and  Lagos,  250  m.  from  the  Niger,  a  station  es 
tablished  to  secure  the  more  complete  suppres 
sion  of  the  slave  trade.  The  French  colonies 
are :  Fort  St.  Louis,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sen 
egal  river;  Goree,  just  S.  of  Cape  Yerd ; 
Grand  Bassam,  on  the  Ivory  Coast ;  and  As- 
sinie,  on  the  Gold  Coast.  There  are  also  sev 
eral  Danish  and  Dutch  settlements  in  Guinea ; 
but  by  a  treaty  completed  in  1872  the  latter 
were  transferred  by  the  government  of  the 
Netherlands  to  the  British  crown.  Liberia,  a 
republic  founded  for  emancipated  negroes  from 
the  United  States,  occupies  a  portion  of  the 
coast  N.  W.  of  Cape  Palmas.  The  most  promi 
nent  and  powerful  native  states  of  Upper 
Guinea  are  the  Ashantee  territory  and  the 
kingdom  of  Dahomey.  In  Lower  Guinea  the 
Portuguese,  who  occupy  many  important 
towns,  exercise  supremacy  over  about  300,000 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  there  are  also  four  in 
dependent  negro  sovereignties,  Loango,  Con 
go,  Angola,  and  Benguela.  Cape  Colony  is  the 
largest  of  Great  Britain's  possessions  in  Africa, 
and  since  18GG  has  included  British  Calfraria, 
which  was  formerly  under  a  separate  govern 
ment.  It  was  conquered  from  the  Dutch  in 
1800,  and  now  extends  over  an  area  of  about 
200,000  sq.  m.,  having  a  population  in  1809  of 
500, 158  souls,  among  whom  there  were  187,- 
.439  Europeans.  A  short  railway  runs  from 
Cape  Town  into  the  interior  as  far  as  Welling 
ton.  Natal,  also  an  English  colony,  owes  its 
name  to  the  fact  that  land  was  discovered  here 
on  Christmas  day  in  1497  by  Vasco  da  Gama. 
Its  seacoast  of  170  m.  is  penetrated  by  only 
one  good  harbor,  which  is  at  D'Urban  or  Port 
Natal,  and  even  this  will  not  admit  the  largest 
vessels.  The  Orange  Free  State  and  Trans 
vaal  Republic  are  two  democratic  governments 
organized  by  malcontent  boers  and  others  who 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  British  colonial  rule. 
N.  of  the  Cape  countries  the  E.  coast  is  di 
vided  into  three  parts :  Mozambique,  under 
Portuguese  dominion ;  Zanguebar,  in  which 
the  principal  town  is  Zanzibar,  governed  by 
the  sultan  or  imam  of  Muscat ;  and  Ajan,  a 
wild  tract  extending  to  Cape  Guardafui  and 
inhabited  by  the  Somauli.  Far  to  the  north 
and  west  lies  Abyssinia,  where  a  debased  form 
of  Christianity  is  generally  professed,  and  has 
been  to  some  extent  the  established  religion 


for  many  centuries.  Nubia,  which  connects 
Abyssinia  with  Egypt,  has  been  subject  to  the 
viceroy  of  the  latter  country  since  1822.  The 
population  is  Mohammedan.  Comparatively 
little  is  known  concerning  Soodan,  a  name 
which  is  applied  to  the  vast  land  of  central 
Africa  bounded  N.  by  the  Sahara,  W.  by  Sen- 
egambia,  S.  by  Upper  Guinea  and  the  table 
land,  and  E.  by  Darfoor.  Among  its  king- 

|  doms  are  Bornoo,  Ilaussa,  and  Wadai ;  and 
the  celebrated  cities  of  Sackatoo  and  Timbuc- 
too  are  within  its  boundaries. — To  the  ancients 
all  of  Africa  except  Egypt  and  the  northern 
coast  was  known  as  Libya.  Herodotus  says 
that  an  expedition  circumnavigated  the  conti 
nent  in  the  reign  of  Pharaoh  Necho,  and  there 
are  traditions  of  Carthaginian  exploration  far 
inland  ;  but  whatever  knowledge  was  gained 
by  these  efforts  had  been  lost  to  the  world 
long  before  the  voyages  of  those  Portuguese 
navigators  of  the  15th  century  who  followed 
the  entire  coast  from  Egypt  to  the  Indian 
ocean,  and  led  the  way  for  the  numerous  col 
onies  of  Portugal  afterward  established  upon  it. 
Vasco  da  Gama  was  the  most  distinguished  of 
these  discoverers,  and  was  the  first  to  double 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  he  did  on 
Nov.  20,  1497.  lie  continued  his  voyage  in 
African  waters  as  far  as  Mombas,  and  then 
proceeded  to  India.  Many  of  the  expeditions 
of  the  earlier  epoch  were  sent  out  under  vari 
ous  commanders  by  Prince  Henry  the  Naviga 
tor.  The  French  colonization  of  the  W.  coast 
dates  from  the  17th  century;  the  Dutch  East 
India  company  founded  its  first  post  at  the 
Cape  in  1050;  and  the  African  company,  in 
corporated  by  the  English  parliament  in  1750, 
did  not  long  delay  the  establishment  of  trading 
stations  in  Guinea.  In  1772  Bruce,  the  Scotch 
traveller,  visited  the  sources  of  the  Blue  Nile, 
and  after  exposure  to  the  utmost  hardship  and 
greatest  danger  returned  to  England  to  find 
his  plain  and  truthful  narrative  discredited  on 
every  hand.  Mungo  Park,  also  a  Scotchman, 
was  killed  on  his  second  trip  to  the  Niger  in 
180(5,  after  reaching  Timbuctoo.  The  impor 
tant  expedition  of  Denhani  and  Clapperton  to 
Bornoo  set  out  from  Tripoli  in  1822,  and  re 
sulted  in  numerous  discoveries.  They  were 
the  first  white  men  who  ever  saw  Lake  Tchad. 
In  a  subsequent  attempt  to  trace  the  course  of 

j  the  Niger  up  from  the  coast  Capt.  Clapperton 
died  at  Sackatoo  in  1827,  having  in  his  two  jour 
neys  travelled  over  the  entire  distance  between 
Tripoli  and  Cape  Coast  Castle.  Soodan  has 
since  been  much  more  thoroughly  explored  by 
Barth,  Yogel,  and  Overweg,  and  the  Niger  by 
the  brothers  Lander,  one  of  whom  had  been 
Clapperton's  servant.  Our  earliest  knowledge 
of  the  S.  African  interior  came  from  adventu 
rous  native  merchants  who  were  bold  enough 
to  cross  from  Loanda  on  the  Atlantic  to  the 
shore  of  the  Mozambique  channel ;  and  since 
1849  the  almost  uninterrupted  journeys  of  Dr. 
Livingstone  ov?r  the  great  plateau  have  copi 
ously  increased  our  information  in  regard  to  it 


AFRICA,  LANGUAGES  OF 


AGADEZ 


171 


by  such  discoveries  as  those  of  Lake  Ngami, 
Lake  N'yassa,  and  the  Victoria  falls  of  the 
Zambesi.  The  explorations  of  Speke,  Baker, 
and  Barton  have  already  been  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  sources  of  the  Nile  ;  and 
the  travels  of  Petherick  on  the  Bahr-el-Gazal, 
and  of  Du  Chaillu  in  equatorial  Africa,  should 
not  be  forgotten.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  has  re 
cently  been  commissioned  by  the  khedive  to 
destroy  the  slave  trade  and  extend  the  author 
ity  of  Egypt  on  the  upper  Nile,  and  furnished 
with  a  military  force  for  that  purpose. 

AFllIfA,  Languages  of.  The  languages  of 
Africa  fall  into  five  groups:  1.  The  Semitic 
idioms  of  Abyssinia,  exhibiting  special  rela 
tions  with  the  Himyaritic  of  southwestern 
Arabia,  from  which  region  the  Abyssinians  are 
unquestionably  immigrants,  across  the  strait  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb.  One  of  these  idioms,  the  Ethi- 
opic  or  Geez,  was  long  a  language  of  literary 
cultivation,  under  Christian  influence,  and  pos 
sesses  a  considerable  body  of  literature.  More 
recently,  the  Amharic,  a  kindred  dialect,  has 
been  the  official  and  learned  language  of  the 
country.  2.  The  Egyptian  and  the  dialects 
related  with  it.  Between  these  and  the  Semit 
ic  there  are  generally  held  to  exist  evidences 
of  an  ultimate  but  exceedingly  distant  connec 
tion.  The  Berber  language  (descendant  of  the 
ancient  Libyan),  occupying,  except  so  far  as  it 
has  been  displaced  by  the  Arabic,  the  whole 
north  of  the  continent,  and  a  group  of  dialects 
south  of  Abyssinia,  of  which  the  Galla  is  the 
most  prominent  member,  are  the  other  rela 
tives  of  the  Egyptian.  3.  The  Hottentot  and 
Bushman  dialects,  in  the  extreme  south.  Bleek 
has  within  a  few  years  declared  that  these  are 
branches  of  the  Egyptian  group,  and  that  those 
degraded  communities,  almost  the  lowest  and 
most  savage  of  men,  are  therefore  a  fragment 
from  the  same  stock  which  produced  the  cul 
ture  of  Egypt ;  and  many  linguistic  and  ethno 
logical  writers  have  accepted  his  view,  but  the 
most  recent  authorities  reject  it.  4.  The  South 
African  group  or  family,  sometimes  called  the 
Catfre,  or  Zingian,  or  Bantu.  This  fills  the 
whole  southern  part  of  the  continent  (except 
the  territory  of  the  preceding  group),  and  is 
made  up  of  a  considerable  number  and  variety 
of  dialects  —  tke  Zulu,  Sechuana,  Suaheli, 
Mpongwe,  &c. — all  plainly  and  closely  related. 
Its  most  striking  peculiarity  is  its  prevailing 
use  of  prefixes  instead  of  suffixes ;  a  word 
without  a  formative  prefix  is  as  rare  here  as  in 
the  older  languages  of  our  own  family  one  with 
out  a  suffix ;  and  the  grammatical  agreement 
of  words  is  in  their  prefixes,  or  alliterative,  in 
stead  of  in  their  suffixes,  or  rhyming.  A  pho 
netic  peculiarity  shared  by  some  of  the  dialects 
of  this  group  with  those  of  the  preceding  is 
their  use  of  clicks,  or  sounds  made  with  the 
tongue  by  suction,  as  consonants  composing 
words.  5.  There  remains  a  broad  band  across 
the  middle  of  the  continent,  filled  with  a  large 
number  of  widely  diverse  languages — so  diverse 
that  between  them,  for  the  most  part,  no  con- 


i  nections  can  be  clearly  traced;    although,  as 

I  sharing  to  a  certain  degree  the  peculiarity  of 

formation  by  prefixes  with  the  South  African 

family,   they  are  probably  ultimately  related 

1  with  the  latter  and  with  one  another.     Con- 

!  spicuous  among  them  are  the  Bornoo,  Haussa, 

Mandingo,  Grebo,  Yoruban,  and  Foolah. 

AFRICAXUS,  Sextus  Julius,  a  Christian  writer 

of  the  3d  century.     Though  of  African  birth  or 

|  descent,  he  lived  in  the  city  of  Emmaus,  Pales- 

i  tine,  of  which,  in  a  mission  to  Rome  about  220, 

he  procured  the  rebuilding  after  it  had  been 

|  burned.     The  new  city  was  called  Nicopolis. 

He  is  said  to  have  been  afterward  a  bishop. 

I  He  composed  a  Chronicon  in  five  books,  com- 

i  mencing  with  the  creation  and  closing  with  the 

;  year  221  of  the  present  era,  fragments  of  which 

j  have  been  preserved  by  Eusebius,  Syncellus,  and 

i  others.     Two  letters  by  him  are  also  extant. 

AFZELIUS.     I.  Adam,  a   Swedish   naturalist, 
born  in  West  Gothland,  Oct.  18,  1750,  died  Jan. 
!  30,  1836.    He  was  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus.    In  1792 
!  he  visited  the  English  colony  of  Sierra  Leone, 
|  and  made  some  valuable  collections  illustrating 
the  botany  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa.     After 
his  return  in  1794  he  was  secretary  of  the 
Swedish  embassy  at  London,  and  in  1812  be- 
|  came  professor  of  materia   medica   at  Upsal. 
!  He  wrote  several  works  on  botany,  and  pub 
lished    the    autobiography    of    Linnneus.      II. 
|  Arvid  August,  a  Swedish  author,  born  at  Brod- 
detorp,    May    G,     1785,    died    in    Enkjoping, 
Sept.   25,  1871,  where   he  was  pastor  for  49 
years.      With    Geijer    he    published    Svcnska 
|  Folkmsor    ("Swedish    Folk    Songs,"    3    vols., 
Stockholm,  1814-'lo),  of  which  a  selection  ap 
peared  in  German  (Berlin,  1830).     lie  is  also 
the  author  of  a  collection  of  original  poems 
in  the  style  of  the  ancient  ballads,   wrote  a 
|  tragedy,  translated  into  Swedish  the  Ilervarar 
Saga  and  the  Samundar  Edda,  and  prepared 
with  the  assistance  of  Rask  an  Icelandic  edi 
tion  of  the  latter.     His  principal  work  is  Sven- 
sl-a  Folkets  SagaJiafder  (1839-"70),  ending  with 
Charles  XII.     Ludwig  Tieck  wrote  a  preface  to 
Ungewitter's  German  translation  of  the  first  3 
vols.  of  this  work  (Volkssagcn  mid  Voll^lie- 
der  aus   Schwedens  dlterer  und  neuerer  Zeit, 
Leipsic,  1842). 

AGA,  originally  the  appellation  of  an  elder 

j  brother,  no\v  a  title  of  distinction,  among  the 

I  Turks  and  Tartars.     The  aga  of  the  janissaries 

wras  the  commandant  of  that  corps.     The  title 

is  also  given  to  wealthy  men  of  leisure. 

AGA!)EZ,  the  capital  of  the  sultanate  of  Ai'r 
i  or  Asben,  Africa,  in  lat.  16°  40'  N.,  Ion.  7°  30' 
|  E.,  about  400  m.  N.  W.  of  Lake  Tchad ;  pop. 
j  about   8,000.     It   is    believed    to    have    been 
;  founded   at  the  end  of  the   loth  century  by 
|  Berbers,  as  an  entrepot  for  their  commercial 
i  intercourse  with   the  capital  of  the  Songhay 
empire.     The   principal   article   of  trade  was 
gold,  the  town  having  its  own  standard  weight, 
which  still  regulates  the  circulating  medium. 
But  the  commerce  of  the  present  day  is  incon 
siderable,  and  its  chief  importance  to  the  world 


172 


AGADIR 


AGAPEMONE 


consists  in  its  lying  on  the  most  direct  road  to 
Sackatoo  and  contiguous  parts  of  Soodan. 

AGADIR,  the  southernmost  seaport  town  of 
Morocco,  on  the  Atlantic,  in  the  province  of 
Sus,  23  m.  S.  E.  of  Cape  Ghir,  in  lat.  30°  26' 
35"  N.,  Ion.  9°  35'  56"  W. ;  pop.  about  600.  It 
has  the  best  harbor  in  Morocco,  and  was  for 
merly  a  large  and  strongly  fortified  city ;  but 
in  a  revolt  against  Sidi  Mohammed  in  1773  it 
was  captured  and  nearly  destroyed,  and  the  in 
habitants  were  transferred  to  Mogador.  In  the 
16th  century  it  was  held  by  the  Portuguese  and 
called  iSanta  Cruz. 

AGAMEMAOX,  king  of  Mycenae,  one  of  the 
foremost  figures  in  the  Iliad,  was  the  son  of 
Atreus  according  to  Homer,  but  his  grandson 
according  to  others.  He  commanded  the  com 
bined  forces  of  Greece  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 
He  married  Clytemnestra,  half  sister  of  Helen, 
the  wife  of  his  brother  Menelaus.  The  Grecian 
fleet  being  detained  at  Aulis,  its  sailing  place, 
by  unfavorable  winds,  the  priest  Calchas  de 
clared  that  the  gods  must  be  propitiated  by 
the  sacrifice  of  the  king's  daughter  Iphigenia, 
on  account  of  his  having  offended  l)iana  by 
killing  her  favorite  stag.  Agamemnon  yielded 
to  the  will  of  the  gods,  but  his  daughter  was 
saved  by  Diana.  His  quarrel  with  Achilles 
forms  one  of  the  most  interesting  portions  of 
the  Iliad,  which  opens  with  'an  account  of  it. 
On  his  return  from  Troy  he  was  murdered  by 
his  wife,  who  had  formed  an  adulterous  rela 
tion  with  xEgisthus  during  his  absence,  and 
avenged  by  his  son  Orestes. 

AGAMI  (psophia  crepitans),  a  bird  of  tropical 
America,  also  termed  the  gold-breasted  trum 
peter.  It  has  been  classed  among  the  cranes, 


Agami,  or  Gold-breasted  Trumpeter. 

but  subsequently  among  the  pheasants.  By 
Temminck  it  is  classed  as  the  first  genus  in  the 
order  ahctorides.  Its  body  is  about  the  size 
of  the  pheasant,  to  which  it  bears  some  resem 
blance  in  its  plumage ;  but  it  is  much  higher 
on  its  legs,  which  resemble  those  of  the  gral- 


latores  or  wading  birds,  being  naked  far 
above  the  knee.  It  has  also  a  long  neck,  and 
in  all  respects,  at  first  sight,  has  the  appear 
ance  of  a  water  fowl ;  but  it  never  visits  fens  or 
water  margins,  frequenting  rather  the  uplands 
and  dry  mountains.  Its  breast  is  of  a  beautiful 
iridescent  green  and  gold,  in  which,  as  in  the 
bare  space  of  scarlet  skin  which  surrounds  its 
eye,  it  resembles  the  pheasant.  Its  tail,  how 
ever,  is  short,  and  partially  covered  by  the 
loose  silky  plumes  of  its  light-colored  scapula- 
ries.  It  is  easily  domesticated,  and  becomes 
attached  to  its  master,  whom  it  will  follow 
about  like  a  dog.  Its  name  of  trumpeter  ( pso 
phia)  is  given  on  account  of  its  remarkable  cry, 
performed,  with  the  bill  closed,  by  aid  of  a  pe- 
I  culiar  conformation  of  the  larynx.  The  agarui, 
I  like  the  rest  of  the  (tlcctorides,  makes  no  nest, 
but  deposits  its  eggs,  which  are  of  a  light 
green  color,  to  the  number  of  10  up  to  16,  in  a 
hollow  place  scratched  at  the  foot  of  a  tree. 
The  down  remains  very  long  on  the  young  bird, 
and  then  changes  into  long,  close,  silky  plumes. 
AGANIPPE,  in  ancient  geography,  a,  fountain 
of  Boeotia,  near  Mount  Helicon,  flowing  into 
the  river  Permessus.  It  was  believed  to  have 
the  power  of  inspiring  those  who  drank  of  it, 
and  was  sacred  to  the  muses,  who  hence  de 
rived  their  name  Aganippides.  In  mythology, 
Aganippe  was  a  nymph,  the  daughter  of  the 
river  god  Permessus. 

AGAPJE  (Gr.  ayairrj,  plur.  hyairai,  love;  gene 
rally  used  in  the  plural),  feasts  of  love,  originally 
a  simple  meal,  taken  by  the  primitive  Chris 
tians,  at  first  in  their  places  of  worship  and 
in  connection  with  the  eucharist.  It  usually 
followed  the  sacrament,  but  there  is  reason  to 
suppose  that  it  sometimes  preceded  it,  espe 
cially  in  the  earliest  times.  Extravagance  and 
disorder  seem  to  have  been  early  introduced 
at  these  feasts  in  some  places,  and  were  re 
buked  by  St.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  xi.  In  the  2d  cen 
tury  the  eucharist  came  to  be  commonly  cele 
brated  alone.  The  agapro  were  suspected  by 
the  Roman  government  as  scenes  of  secret 
intrigue.  They  were  regulated  by  various 
councils  down  to  the  9th  century,  and  gradu 
ally  disappeared.  In  modern  times  they  have 
been  revived,  under  the  name  of  love  feasts, 
by  the  Moravians  and  Methodists. 

"AGAPEMOAE,  or  Abode  of  Love  (Gr.  ayfafy 
love,  and  //ozv/,  abode),  an  establishment  at 
Charlynch,  Somersetshire,  England,  about  9  m. 
from  Taunton,  where  a  number  of  persons  as 
sociated  themselves  together  in  18-10  under  the 
name  of  "Family  of  Love,"  and  under  the 
guidance  of  several  clergymen,  the  principal 
of  whom  are  Henry  James  Prince  and  a  Mr. 
Starkey,  the  former  allowing  himself  to  be  ad 
dressed  as  "the  Lord."  The  prevailing  idea 
of  the  sect  is  that  perpetual  enjoyment  is  the 
sole  aim  of  spiritual  and  material  existence. 
The  relations  between  the  sexes,  however,  are 
said  to  be  governed  by  mutual  affinities  and  at 
tractions,  but  members  of  the  family  of  love 
maintain  matrimonial  unions  while  the  attrac- 


AGAPET.E 


AGASSIZ 


173 


tion  lasts,  and  polygamy  is  forbidden.  The 
life  at  the  Agapemone  soon  became  a  matter 
of  public  notoriety  in  consequence  of  a  law 
suit  for  the  custody  of  a  child  between  a  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Thomas,  two  of  Prince's  converts. 
In  1859  Prince  published  his  "Journal,"  in 
which  he  states  that  he  considers  himself  per 
fect  and  incapable  of  further  improvement. 

AGAPETK  (Gr.  aya^rai,  beloved),  in  the 
early  church,  virgins  and  widows  who,  from 
pious  motives,  devoted  their  time  to  waiting 
upon  ecclesiastics.  Men  holding  the  same  re 
lations  to  societies  of  women  were  called  aga- 
peti.  For  some  time  the  relation  was  main 
tained  pure  and  blameless;  but  it  resulted  in 
immorality,  and  was  condemned  and  prohibit 
ed  by  several  councils. 

AGARD,  Arthur,  an  English  antiquary,  born 
about  1540,  died  in  London,  Aug.  22,  1615. 
He  held  the  office  of  deputy  chamberlain 
45  years.  His  name  headed  the  list  of  mem 
bers  of  the  society  of  antiquaries  formed  by 
Archbishop  Parker  in  1572,  and  six  impor 
tant  papers  by  him  are  included  in  Hearne's 
collection  (Oxford,  1720).  They  treat  largely 
of  the  early  organization  and  manners  of  Eng 
land.  Agard  bequeathed  all  his  manuscripts 
to  his  friend  Robert  Cotton. 

AGARDH.  I.  Karl  Adolf,  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
born  at  Bastad,  Jan.  22,  1785,  died  in  Carlstad, 
Jan.  28,  1859.  In  1807  he  was  appointed 
teacher  of  mathematics  in  the  university  of 
Lund,  and  in  1812  professor  of  botany  and  nat 
ural  sciences.  He  was  admitted  to  holy  orders 
in  1816,  and  was  made  bishop  of  Carlstad  in 
1834.  lie  devoted  considerable  attention  to 
political  economy,  and  also  wrote  on  theologi 
cal  and  other  subjects,  but  his  reputation  chiefly 
rests  on  his  botanical  works,  especially  Systema, 
Species,  and  Icones  Algarum  (1824,  1820-'28, 
and  1828-'3o).  The  greatest  part  of  his  "Man 
ual  of  Botany  "  (2  vols.,  Malmoe,  1829-'32)  has 
been  translated  into  German.  II.  Jacob  Gcorg, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Lund  in  1813, 
has  been  since  1854  professor  of  botany  there. 
His  principal  work,  Species,  Genera  et  Ordines 
Algarum  (4  vols.,  Lund,  1848-'63),  is  regarded 
as  a  standard  authority. 

AGARIC,  Mineral,  a  marly  earth,  akin  in  color 
and  texture  to  the  vegetable  of  that  name. 

AGARICTS,  the  genus  of  fungi  which  com 
prises  the  common  mushroom,  A.  campestris 
(see  MUSHROOM),  many  of  the  toadstools,  and 
a  few  poisonous  species.  The  genus  is  dis 
tinguished  by  the  radiating  gills  bearing  the 
spores  on  the  under  side  of  the  pileus  or  cap. 
Several  hundred  species  have  been  described, 
most  of  them  edible,  some  easily  cultivated. — 
The  name  is  often  applied  to  the  more  solid 
portions  of  fungi  of  other  families,  as  the  birch 
agaric,  polyporus  letulmiis,  which  is  cut  in 
strips  and  used  to  sharpen  delicate  instruments. 
From  P.  formentarius  amadou  is  prepared  by 
cutting  the  fungus  into  slices  and  steeping  in  a 
solution  of  saltpetre ;  it  then  makes  excellent 
tinder.  In  medicine  several  species  of  polypo- 


rits  were  formerly  much  used  as  cathartics  un 
der  the  name  of  agaric,  but  have  given  place 
to  better  remedies.  The  powdered  pileus  of 
P.  igniarius  is  mixed  with  snuff  by  the  Ostiaks 
of  the  river  Obi  to  improve  its  narcotic  proper 
ties.  Both  in  the  pulverized  form  and  when 
beaten  into  thin  sheets  it  is  used  as  lint.  When 
old  the  polypori  often  attain  a  diameter  of  two 
or  three  feet,  and  become  quite  hard  and 
woody.  An  approximate  analysis  shows  much 
resinous  matter  and  a  peculiar  substance  called 
fungine  (see  FUNGI),  but  less  nitrogenous  mat 
ter  than  is  usual  in  this  order  of  vegetables.  As 
they  grow  on  the  stems  of  many  trees  valued 
for  their  timber,  and  as  their  presence  indicates 
decay,  which  they  hasten  by  penetrating  the 
wood  with  their  mycelium,  the  portion  answer 
ing  to  roots,  it  is  desirable,  in  order  to  stop  the 
progress  of  decay,  to  remove  the  external  fun 
gus  and  destroy  the  mycelium  by  a  strong  solu 
tion  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

AGASIAS,  a  Greek  sculptor  of  Ephesus,  who  is 
presumed  to  have  lived  at  or  before  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  The  statue  now  at  Rome, 
known  as  the  u  Borghese  Gladiator,"  is  his 
work.  It  represents  a  warrior  on  foot  contend 
ing  with  a  mounted  combatant. 

AGASSIZ,  Louis  John  Rudolph,  an  American 
naturalist,  of  French  descent,  born  in  Metiers, 
canton  of  Fribourg,  Switzerland,  on  the  lake 
of  Morat,  May  28,  1807.  His  family  was 
among  the  Huguenots  who  were  driven  from 
France  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
and  took  refuge  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud.  For  six 
generations  the  lineal  ancestors  of  Agassiz  have 
been  clergymen.  His  father  was  pastor  of  St. 
Imier,  a  Protestant  parish  in  the  ancient  bish 
opric  of  Basel,  and  removed  to  Metiers  on  ac 
count  of  the  severity  of  the  climate  at  the 
former  place ;  his  mother  was  Mile.  Rose 
Mayor,  the  daughter  of  a  physician  in  the  can 
ton  of  Vaud.  She  superintended  the  education 
of  her  son  Louis  until  he  reached  the  age  of  11, 
when  he  was  sent  to  the  gymnasium  of  Bienne, 
a  small  town  in  the  canton  of  Bern.  In  the 
mean  time  his  father  had  removed  from  Metiers 
to  the  little  town  of  Orbe,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Jura.  Here,  during  the  vacations,  the  student's 
attention  was  drawn  to  the  natural  sciences, 
under  the  influence  of  a  young  clergyman 
named  Fivaz.  His  studies  were  first  directed 
to  plants.  Having  studied  four  years  at  Bienne, 
Louis  entered  the  college  of  Lausanne,  where 
he  passed  two  years,  and  then  went  to  Zurich 
in  1824,  where  he  remained  two  years  in  the 
medical  school.  He  continued  his  medical 
studies  at  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  de 
voting  himself  chiefly  to  anatomy  and  physi 
ology  under  Tiedemann,  zoology  under  Leuck- 
art,  and  botany  under  Bischoff.  In  the  autumn 
of  1827  he  entered  the  university  of  Munich, 
which  had  recently  been  reorganized.  Among 
the  eminent  men  assembled  there  Agassiz 
formed  intimate  friendships.  He  studied  the 
organization  of  plants  and  their  geographical 
distribution  with  Martius ;  he  lived  in  the 


174 


AGASSIZ 


house  of  Dollinger,  with  whom  he  studied  the  ' 
embryonic  development  of  animals ;  he  was  in-  ; 
tirnate  with  Wagler ;  with  Okeri  he  discussed 
the  principles  of  classification;  with  Fuchs  he  ' 
studied   mineralogy ;    and   for   four  successive  j 
years  he  attended  all  the  lectures  of  Schelling 
on  philosophy.     He  was  the  leading  spirit  in  a  ; 
select  circle  of  young  men  who  met  to  discuss 
scientific  subjects.     This  society  was  called  the 
little  academy,  and  so  interesting  were  the  lee-  ' 
tures  and  discussions  that  the  professors  were  j 
glad  to  take  part  in  them.     When  Dom  Pedro  i 
of  Brazil  married   an  Austrian  princess,  the  j 
Austrian  and  Bavarian  governments  seized  the 
opportunity  of  sending  to  that  country  a  scien 
tific  exploring  expedition.     The  naturalists  of  j 
the  expedition  were  Martins,  Spix,   Natterer,  j 
and  Pohl.     Agassiz,  still  a  student,  had  already  i 
published  a  few  special  papers.     On  the  return  , 
of  the  scientific  corps,  Martins  occupied  him-  ! 
self  with  the  publication  of  his  great  work  on  > 
Brazil.     The  zoological  portion  was  intrusted 
to  Spix,  but  he  had  not  completed  it  at  the  time 
of  his  death.      Martius  immediately  selected 
young  Agassiz  to  elaborate  the  ichthyological 
department,  upon  which  very  little  had  been 
done,  and  the  manner  in  which  he  accomplished 
the  task  placed  him  at  once  in  the  foremost  rank 
of  naturalists.    These  studies  and  labors  divert 
ed   him   from   the  profession   of  medicine,  to 
which  he  had  been  destined  by  his  parents. 
The  allowance  he  had  hitherto  received  from 
his  father,  on  which,  moderate  as  it  was,  he 
had  not  only  subsisted,  but  had  employed  a 
distinguished   young  artist,   Dinkel,   was  now 
withdrawn.    Agassiz  then  applied  to  Cotta,  the 
publisher,  who,  struck  by  the  value  of  the  ma 
terials  Agassiz  had  collected  for  a  "Natural 
History  of  the  Fresh-water  Fishes  of  Europe," 
and  no  doubt  impressed  with  the  genius  of  the 
young  naturalist,  enabled  him  by  a  timely  sup 
ply  of  funds  to  complete  the  work.     This  was 
his  second  great  undertaking.     Meantime  he 
presented  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  philosophy,  which  he  took  at  Er- 
langen,  after  passing  a  very  severe  examination 
with  distinction.     In  the  same  year  he  took  at 
Munich  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  on 
which  occasion  he  maintained  the  superiority 
of  woman  in  a  Latin  dissertation   upon   the 
thesis,  Femina  humana  superior  mari.      The 
great  work  on  the  fresh-water  fishes  was  ad 
vancing.      After  the   double  examination   for 
degrees,   Agassiz    visited   Vienna,    where    he 
prosecuted  his  studies  in  the  museum,  and  de 
voted  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  the 
fishes  of  the  Danube.     In  that  city  he  became 
acquainted  with  the  leading  naturalists,   and 
particularly  Fitzinger,     While  studying  living 
fishes,  his  attention  was  drawn  to  the  fossil 
species  found  in  the  fresh-water   deposits  of 
Oeningen  and  Glarus  in  Switzerland,  and  of 
Solenhofen  in  Bavaria.     Immediately  after  the 
completion  of  the  work  on  the  fishes  of  Brazil, 
he  commenced  his  researches  upon  the  fossil 
fishes,  and  devoted  seven  years  to  the  study  be- 


fore  beginning  the  publication.  This  was  con 
tinued  through  ten  years,  and  was  brought  to  a 
close  in  1 844.  In  the  course  of  his  preparation  for 
this  work,  Agassiz  visited  the  principal  muse 
ums  of  Europe,  accompanied  by  a  skilful  artist ; 
and  so  great  was  the  interest  felt  universally  in 
these  researches,  and  the  confidence  which  the 
author  inspired,  that  he  was  allowed  to  take 
with  him  for  examination  and  comparison  the 
most  valuable  specimens  of  more  than  80  pub 
lic  and  private  museums,  some  of  which  he  was 
permitted  to  retain  from  five  to  ten  years.  He 
was  enabled  to  visit  Paris  and  to  prosecute  his 
researches  in  the  collections  of  that  capital, 
by  a  most  disinterested  act  on  the  part  of  a 
clergyman  and  friend  of  his  father,  Mr.  Chris- 
tinat,  who  at  a  later  period  visited  Agassiz  in 
America,  and  passed  some  years  in  his  house. 
This  gentleman  had  just  come  into  possession 
of  a  small  sum  of  money,  which  he  offered  in 
aid  of  his  young  friend's  pursuits.  Agassiz  at 
once  became  acquainted  with  Humboldt,  who 
was  then  residing  in  Paris,  and  with  Cuvier, 
the  eminent  naturalist,  who  had  just  commenced 
his  work  on  fishes.  The  drawings  of  Agassiz 
so  delighted  Cuvier,  that  he  offered  to  relin 
quish  to  the  young  man  all  the  materials  he 
had  himself  collected;  and  from  that  time  to 
his  death  he  cherished  a  warm  friendship  for 
the  Swiss  naturalist,  and  received  him  in  his 
family  on  the  most  intimate  terms.  In  his  in 
vestigations  of  the  fresh-water  fishes,  the  rivers 
and  lakes  of  Europe  were  thoroughly  explored 
by  Agassiz,  in  order  to  compare  those  of  the 
different  water  basins,  especially  the  Rhine,  the 
Rhone,  and  the  Danube,  with  their  tributaries. 
These  investigations  had  mostly  been  made 
while  he  was  still  a  student  in  Heidelberg  and 
Munich,  during  the  vacations,  when  he  trav 
elled  on  foot  over  the  whole  of  southern  Ger 
many  and  Switzerland.  Some  time  after  the 
death  of  Cuvier,  1882,  Agassiz  returned  to 
Switzerland,  on  the  invitation  of  citizens  of 
Neufchfitel,  where  preparations  were  making 
to  reorganize  the  college.  lie  received  the  ap 
pointment  of  professor  of  natural  history  in 
that  establishment,  and  began  preparations  for 
the  publication  of  the  work  on  which  he  had 
been  occupied  so  long.  He  also  extended  his 
researches  to  other  departments  of  zoology. 
In  1833  he  was  enabled  by  the  liberality  of 
Humboldt,  who  had  been  his  devoted  friend 
since  the  commencement  of  their  acquaintance 
in  Paris,  to  begin  the  publication  of  the  great 
work  on  the  fossil  fishes.  This  is  in  5  volumes, 
with  a  folio  atlas  containing  about  400  plates. 
About  1,000  species  are  described  and  figured 
in  the  natural  size,  with  the  colors  of  their 
beds,  and  there  are  short  indications  of  about 
700  more.  The  discovery  and  description  of 
so  many  new  species  led  to  the  recognition  of 
new  types,  and  an  entirely  new  classification, 
based  chiefly  on  the  characters  of  importance 
in  the  fossils.  The  great  generalizations  to 
which  these  researches  led  have  stood  the  test 
of  time,  and  have  been  strengthened  and  ex- 


AGASSIZ 


175 


tended  by  lat^r  investigations.  The  geological 
results  of  those  researches  were  remarkable. 
The  relative  ages  of  the  formations  in  which 
the  fossil  fishes  were  found  were  more  clearly 
established  by  comparisons  of  their  structures. 
Moreover,  the  fossil  species  differ  from  those 
now  living,  and  differ  in  different  stages  of  the 
same  formation,  as  well  as  in  different  forma 
tions,  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  our  globe 
has  been  peopled  by  a  series  of  creative  acts; 
and,  as  peculiar  species  occur  in  certain  regions 
and  not  elsewhere,  that  these  creations  were 
not  only  successive  but  local,  each  having 
assigned  to  it  a  natural  limit — man  alone,  and 
the  animals  associated  with  him,  forming  the 
exceptions  to  this  last  general  law.  From  this 
general  survey  Agassiz  drew  several  very  im 
portant  conclusions  respecting  the  relation  of 
the  Creator  to  the  universe.  The  existence  of 
a  superior  intelligence,  whose  power  alone 
could  establish  and  sustain  such  an  order  of 
things,  he  considers  to  have  been  established 
by  rigid  demonstration,  and  on  a  truly  scientific 
foundation.  He  believes  that  species  do  not 
insensibly  pass  into  each  other,  but  each  has  its 
appointed  period,  and  is  not  connected,  except 
in  the  order  of  time,  with  its  predecessor. 
"  An  invisible  thread,  in  all  ages,  runs  through 
this  immense  diversity,  exhibiting  as  a  general 
result  the  fact  that  there  is  a  continual  progress 
in  development,  ending  in  man,  the  four  classes 
of  vertebrates  presenting  the  intermediate 
steps,  and  the  invertebrates  the  constant 
accessory  accompaniment.  Have  we  not  here 
the  manifestations  of  a  mind  as  powerful  as 
prolific  ?  the  acts  of  an  intelligence  as  sublime 
as  provident  ?  the  marks  of  goodness  as  infinite 
as  wise?  the  most  palpable  demonstration  of 
the  existence  of  a  personal  God,  author  of  all 
things,  ruler  of  the  universe,  and  dispenser  of 
all  good  ?  This,  at  least,  is  what  I  read  in  the 
works  of  creation."  Such  is  the  tone  of  the 
closing  part  of  the  chapter  on  classification. 
Prof.  Agassiz  visited  England  several  times, 
and  was  everywhere  received  with  respect  and 
enthusiasm.  The  universities  of  Edinburgh 
and  Dublin  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
LL.D.,  and  the  corporations  enrolled  him 
among  their  citizens.  He  was  the  guest  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  and  Lord  Egerton,  afterward 
Lord  Ellesmere,  and  Sir  Philip  Egerton,  hon 
ored  him  with  a  lifelong  friendship.  Of  the 
eminent  naturalists,  Buckland,  Owen,  and  Sir 
Roderick  Murchlson  should  be  enumerated  as 
among  his  friends.  In  1834  his  "Prodromus 
of  the  Echinoderms"  appeared,  which  was 
soon  followed  by  his  monographs  on  that  class 
of  animals,  in  the  preparation  of  which  he 
was  aided  by  Prof.  Valentin  and  Mr.  Desor. 
During  this  period  he  continued  to  collect 
materials  for  his  '•  History  of  the  Fresh-water 
Fishes."  lie  formed  a  lithographic  establish 
ment  at  Xeufchatel,  where  the  plates  for  the 
atlas  of  this  work  were  executed,  and  the 
prints  struck  off  under  his  own  eye.  The 
great  expense,  however,  exhausted  his  pecu 


niary  resources,  and  he  not  only  found  it  im 
possible  to  continue  it  on  the  original  plan,  but 
it  entailed  upon  him  a  heavy  debt,  which  cost 
him  the  labors  of  many  subsequent  years  to 
pay  off.  In  the  elaboration  of  some  portions 
of  the  subject  he  was  assisted  by  Karl  Vogt,  a 
Swiss  naturalist,  distinguished  for  his  zeal  and 
attainments  in  zoology.  The  publication  of 
the  "  Fresh-water  Fishes,"  in  1839-'40,  was 
followed  by  the  Nomenclator  Zoologicus,  con 
taining  an  enumeration  of  all  the  genera  in  the 
animal  kingdom,  with  the  etymology  of  their 
names,  the  names  of  those  who  first  proposed 
them,  the  date  of  their  publications,  &c.  This 
work  was  founded  upon  registers,  in  which 
Agassiz  entered  the  names  of  the  animals  as 
they  occurred  in  his  studies.  They  were  then 
methodically  arranged,  the  nomenclature  of 
each  class  being  submitted  to  the  revision  of 
naturalists  distinguished  for  their  investigations 
in  each  special  branch.  This  was  accompanied 
by  another  extensive  and  important  work,  the 
Bibliotheca  Zoologies  et  Geologice,  containing  a 
list  of  the  authors  mentioned  in  the  former, 
with  notices  of  their  writings.  This  work, 
published  at  the  expense  of  the  Ray  society  in 
England,  has  appeared  since  the  author's  resi 
dence  in  the  United  States,  with  emendations 
and  additions  by  II .  Strickland  and  Sir  TV. 
Jardine,  in  4  large  octavo  volumes. — From 
1836  to  1845  Agassiz  spent  his  summer  vaca 
tions  among  the  Alps,  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
study  of  the  glaciers  and  the  geological  phe 
nomena  they  produce.  The  indications  of 
their  greater  extension  in  a  former  period,  and 
the  traces  they  have  left  upon  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  were  carefully  followed  through  the 
countries  adjoining  Switzerland,  as  well  as 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Before  him, 
De  Saussure,  Venetz,  Charpentier,  and  others, 
had  written  upon  the  glaciers,  and  the  distri 
bution  of  bowlders  over  the  valley  of  Switzer 
land.  De  Saussure's  theory  of  their  distribution 
referred  it  to  the  action  of  water.  The  idea 
of  glacial  agency  in  transporting  bowlders 
appears  to  have  originated  among  the  chamois 
hunters,  who  had  noticed  the  fact  that  every 
year  huge  masses  of  rock  were  moved  by 
glaciers  from  their  original  position.  This 
idea  was  adopted  by  Venetz,  and  extended  by 
Charpentier,  who  explained  the  distribution  of 
the  bowlders  throughout  the  valley  of  Switzer 
land,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  Jura,  by  the 
extension  of  glaciers  beyond  their  present 
limits  in  a  former  period.  In  1836  Agassiz 
visited  Charpentier,  and  accompanied  him  to 
the  glacier  of  the  Diablerets,  where  he  saw 
the  actual-  transportation  of  the  bowrlders  by 
the  glacier,  and  the  rounding  and  polishing  of 
the  rocks  at  its  sides.  These  observations 
removed  his  former  doubts.  It  was  obvious 
that  such  an  accumulation  of  ice  as  would 
extend  the  glaciers  from  the  Alps  to  the  Jura, 
covering  the  valley  of  Switzerland  to  the 
depth  of  more  than  2,500  feet,  would  require  a 
depression  of  temperature  which  must  have 


176 


AGASSIZ 


been  widely  felt,  producing  similar  phenomena  ' 
over  other  portions  of  the  earth's  surface ;  that  , 
the  north  of  Europe  must  have  been  at  the  j 
same  time  covered  with  a  similar  sheet  of  ice.  j 
Agassiz  first  announced  his  glacial  theory  in  a  ' 
discourse  delivered  before  the  Helvetic  society 
in  1837;  but  in  order  to  investigate  the  facts  ! 
more  thoroughly,  he  first  visited  most  of  the  , 
Alpine  glaciers,  and  then  established  his  head-  • 
quarters  on  the  glacier  of  the  Aar,  where  for  i 
eight  consecutive  summers   he   continued  the 
researches  which  formed  so  large  a  part  of  his 
scientific  labors  in  Europe.     These  researches  j 
are  embodied  in  two  works.     The  first,  entitled  j 
Etudes  sur  leu  glaciers,  published  in  1840,  with  i 
plates,    contains   a   description   of  the   glacial  j 
phenomena   and   a   statement  of  the  author's 
views   of  their   former   extent.     The   second,  i 
published  at  Paris  in  1847,  under  the  title  of  j 
Systeme  glaciaire,  contains  an  account  of  the  ! 
investigations  made  during  his  last  five  visits, 
1841-'45,  upon  the  mode  of  progress  of  the 
glaciers,  and  is  accompanied  by  plates  and  a  | 
topographical  chart.     An  excellent  and  graphic 
account  of  these  visits  and  researches  is  given 
in  a  little  work  by  his  companion,  Mr.  Edward 
Desor,  Excursions  et  sejours  de  M.  Agassiz  etde 
ses  compagnons  de  voyage  dans  les  glaciers  et 
les  hautes  regions  des  Alpes.      Since  his  resi 
dence  in  the  United  States,  Professor  Agassiz 
has  occupied  himself  with  investigations  of  the 
distribution  of  the  bowlders  and  the  smooth 
surface  of  beds  of  rock  over  the  North  Amer 
ican  continent,  which  he  also  attributes  to  the 
action  of  glaciers,  extending  from  the  north. 
The  results  of  these  investigations  are  chiefly 
recorded  in  the  volume  containing  an  account 
of   an    excursion    to    Lake    Superior. — From  j 
1846  the  biography  of  Mr.  Agassiz  belongs  to 
the  scientific  history  of  the  United  States.     In 
the  autumn  of  that  year  he  arrived  in  Boston, 
from  Paris.     The  object  of  his  visit  was,  in  the 
first  place,  to  make  himself  familiar  with  the 
natural  history  and  geology  of  this  country,  in 
fulfilment  of  a  mission  suggested  to  the  king  of 
Prussia  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  and  in 
the   second  place  to  meet  an  invitation  from 
Mr.  John  Amory  Lowell  to  deliver  a  course  of 
lectures  in  Boston.     Eighteen  months  or  two 
years  had  been  allotted  to  the  first  task,  and 
ample  means  were  provided  by  the  Prussian 
government  for  that  purpose.     Soon  after  his  | 
arrival  in  Boston  Prof.  Agassiz  delivered  his  ! 
first  course  of  Lowell  lectures,  consisting  of  a  j 
general  review  of  the  animal  kingdom.     These  ! 
lectures  were  listened  to  by  audiences  of  1,500  to  I 
2,000   hearers,    embracing  all  that  was  most  j 
cultivated  in  science  and  letters  in  the  society  i 
of  Boston  and  the  vicinity.     Immediately  after 
ward,  by  special  request,  he  delivered  another  ! 
course  upon  the  glaciers  and  the  phenomena  j 
connected  with  their  former  greater  extension.  | 
Having  completed  these  labors,  he  visited  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston,  to   com-  j 
pare  the  animals  of  the  northern  shores  with  | 
those   of  the  more  southern  latitudes  of  this 


continent.  On  his  return  to  the  north  early 
in  the  summer  of  1847,  he  met  with  Prof.  A. 
D.  Bache,  superintendent  of  the  United  States 
coast  survey.  Mr.  Bache  invited  him  to  avail 
himself  of  the  facilities  presented  by  the  oper 
ations  of  the  coast  survey  for  the  further  pros 
ecution  of  his  researches.  The  offer  was  so 
liberal  and  of  such  importance  in  a  scientific 
point  of  view,  that  Agassiz  could  hardly  credit 
his  good  fortune  ;  and  upon  being  assured  that 
he  might  without  difficulty  visit  at  will  every 
point  of  the  coast  in  the  well-equipped  coast 
survey  vessels,  he  exclaimed  that  this  would 
decide  him  to  remain  to  the  end  of  his  days  in 
the  United  States.  He  spent  part  of  the  sum 
mer  of  1847  on  board  the  Bibb,  commanded 
by  Capt.  C.  II.  Davis,  on  the  coast  of  Nantuck- 
et  and  Martha's  Vineyard.  The  immediate  re 
sult  of  this,  and  a  second  cruise  along  the  same 
coast,  was  several  papers  upon  the  medusa  of 
Massachusetts,  and  upon  a  coral  found  near 
Ilolrnes's  Hole.  In  the  same  summer  he  vis 
ited,  in  company  with  Mr.  J.  A.  Lowell,  Niag 
ara  falls  and  the  White  Mountains.  During 
the  next  three  winters  he  delivered  courses  of 
lectures  before  the  Lowell  institute  upon  com 
parative  embryology  and  the  successive  devel 
opment  of  the  animal  kingdom.  At  the  close 
of  1847  Mr.  Abbot  Lawrence  founded  the 
scientific  school  in  Cambridge,  and  a  professor 
ship  of  zoology  and  geology  was  offered  Mr. 
Agassiz,  which  he  accepted,  after  having  ob 
tained  from  his  government  an  honorable  dis 
charge.  He  entered  upon  his  duties  in  Cam 
bridge  in  the  spring  of  1848,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  academic  year  started  with  12  of  his 
pupils  upon  a  scientific  exploration  of  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior.  The  results  of  this 
journey  are  contained  in  the  volume  entitled 
"  Lake  Superior,"  the  narrative  part  of  which 
was  written  by  Mr.  J.  Eliot  Cabot,  together 
with  the  reports  of  the  lectures  the  professor 
delivered  at  the  close  of  each  day.  Dr.  J.  Le 
Conte  contributed  the  account  of  the  coleop- 
tera.  In  1848,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  A.  A. 
Gould,  he  published  "Principles  of  Zoology," 
for  the  use  of  schools  and  colleges.  From  that 
period  Prof.  Agassiz  has  devoted  his  time  alter 
nately  to  teaching  and  making  original  investi 
gations.  Besides  his  university  lectures  he  has 
delivered  in  the  winters  courses  of  lectures  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  while  exploring 
its  natural  history.  In  these  excursions  he  has 
been  accompanied  by  assistants,  and  the  col 
lections  he  has  made  are  the  most  complete  ex 
tant,  embracing  the  whole  range  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  In  this  manner  he  has  traversed  the 
country  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  gulf  of  Mex 
ico,  and  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi,  delivering  courses  of  lectures 
in  Savannah,  Mobile,  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis, 
Cincinnati,  and  many  other  places,  besides 
those  already  mentioned.  In  1850  he  spent 
the  winter  upon  the  reef  of  Florida,  in  the 
service  of  the  coast  survey,  ascertaining  the 
mode  of  growth  and  the  direction  of  the  in- 


AGASSIZ 


AGATE 


ITT 


crease  of  the  reef.     In  the  following  summer  • 
he  explored  the  state  of  New  York  with  Prof.  I 
James  Hall,  and  afterward  he  visited  again  the 
most  important  localities  with  his  pupils.     In 
1852  he  accepted  a  professorship  of  compara 
tive  anatomy  in  the  medical  college  of  Charles 
ton,  S.  C.,  which  he  retained  for  two  successive  i 
winters,  making  at  the  same  time  a  thorough  j 
study  of  the  marine  animals  of  that  coast,  and  i 
extending  his  excursions  to  Georgia  and  North  I 
Carolina;  but  finding  the  climate  injurious  to  | 
his  constitution,  he  resigned  the  situation,  and  j 
returned  to  reside  permanently  at  the  north.  | 
In  1808  he  was  appointed  a  non-resident  pro-  j 
fessor  in  Cornell  university,  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y. — 
Since  1855  his  attention  has  been  largely  de-  ! 
voted  to  the  arrangement  of  the  materials  col-  | 
lected  in  these  explorations.     To  form  an  ade-  j 
quate  idea  of  the  extent  of  his  collections,  it  [ 
ought  to  be  known  that  besides  his  own  efforts,  j 
and   the   assistance  he  has  derived  from   the 
young  men  accompanying  him  everywhere,  he 
has  been  much  assisted  by  the  friends  he  has  ; 
made  in  every  state  during  his  excursions.     The 
collections  embrace  also  the  western  coast ;  he 
has  regularly  received  large  contributions  from 
California    through     his    brother-in-law,    Mr. 
Thomas  G.  Cary,  Jr.,  who  has  collected   for 
him    extensively   there.      The    results    of    all 
these  explorations  and  investigations  are  now 
publishing  in  the  work  entitled  "Contributions 
to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States." 
Four  volumes  out  of  ten  of  this  extensive  work 
have  already  passed  through  the  press.     The 
subscription   list   extends   to  the   unexampled  ; 
number  of  2,500   names,   in  all  parts  of  the  i 
United   States ;    a   magnificent    support    of  a 
purely   scientific   undertaking,    executed  on  a  i 
grand  and  expensive  scale,  and  an  appreciation  j 
of  the  labors  of  a  great  original  investigator, 
such  as  has  never  before  been  exhibited  to  the 
world. — Prof.  Agassiz1s  eminence  as  a  scientific  ! 
man  was  early  recognized  in  Europe.     In  1836  ; 
he  was  elected  into  the  academy  of  sciences  in  j 
Paris  and  the  royal  society  of  London,  and  soon  > 
after  received  similar  honors  from  all  the  other  ! 
great  learned  societies  in  Europe  and  America,  j 
He  has  received  from  the  academy  of  sciences  ] 
in  Paris  the  Monthyon  prize  for  experimental  j 
physiology,  and  the  Cuvier  prize ;  the  Wollas- 
ton  medal  from  the  geological  society  of  Lon 
don  ;  and  the  medal  of  merit  from  the  king  of 
Prussia.     He  has  been  a  copious  contributor  to 
the  leading  scientific  journals  of  Europe  and 
America,  and  has  made  numerous  communica 
tions  to  the  learned  societies  of  which  he  is  an  | 
active  member.     In  the  United  States,  his  ac-  : 
tivity  has  been  most  beneficial  in  the  American  i 
scientific  association,  the  American  academy  of  ! 
arts  and  sciences,  and  the  Boston  natural  history  '< 
society,  the  proceedings  and  transactions  of  all  ! 
of  Avhich  have  been  constantly  enriched  from  j 
his  boundless  resources.     He  is  a  man  of  great  I 
physical   vigor,   but  his   constant   labors  have  | 
more  than  once  been  followed  by  imperative  ] 
calls  for  rest.      The  vacations  of  a  naturalist 
VOL.  i.— 12 


are  often  more  productive  than  the  term  time 
of  most  men,  and  science  lost  nothing  when  in 
the  winter  of  1805  he  accepted  the  liberal  offer 
of  a  Boston  merchant,  who  undertook  to  pro 
vide  for  the  entire  expenses  of  six  assistants 
?md  the  transportation  of  specimens,  if  the  va 
cation  journey  should  be  to  Brazil.  The  labors 
of  his  youth  on  the  great  Brazilian  collections 
of  Spix  had  created  in  him  a  strong  desire  to 
study  the  fauna  of  this  region,  and  on  the  1st  of 
April,  1805,  he  started  on  an  expedition  whose 
results  are  seen  in  the  immense  collections  now 
stored  in  the  Cambridge  museum.  At  liio  de 
Janeiro  he  was  cordially  welcomed  by  the  em 
peror  and  received  all  possible  assistance  from 
the  Brazilian  government,  a  river  steamer  be 
ing  assigned  for  his  especial  use.  After  some 
time  devoted  to  excursions  in  the  environs, 
during  which  he  settled  the  disputed  question 
of  the  existence  of  drift  phenomena  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  he  sailed  for  Para,  and 
thence  ascended  the  Amazon  to  Tabatinga 
on  the  Peruvian  frontier.  Here  the  party 
divided,  and  while  Agassiz  went  down  the  river 
again,  stopping  at  Ega  or  Teffe,  Manaos,  and 
other  points,  to  pursue  his  researches  into 
the  ichthyology  of  the  region,  some  of  his 
assistants  continued  the  exploration  of  the 
upper  waters.  Returning  to  Rio  after  a  year's 
absence,  he  made  some  interesting  excursions 
among  the  Oreran  mountains,  and  in  July, 
1866,  sailed  for  the  United  States.  The  narra 
tive  of  this  journey,  written  mainly  by  Mrs. 
Agassiz,  was  published  in  1808;  and  one  of  his 
assistants  two  years  later  published  the  geolo 
gical  report  of  the  survey.  Since  his  return 
from  Brazil  Agassiz  has  made  a  short  excur 
sion  to  the  Rocky  mountains.  His  arduous 
labors  in  extending  the  museum  of  compara 
tive  zoology  at  Cambridge  have  again  shown 
him  the  need  of  rest;  and  early  in  December, 
1871,  he  started  on  a  voyage  around  Cape 
Horn  in  the  coast  survey  steamer  Ilassler,  in 
company  with  several  other  men  of  science. 
The  results  of  this  voyage,  undertaken  for  deep- 
sea  dredging,  have  already  proved  to  be  of 
great  importance  in  the  study  of  oceanic  fauna). 
— The  influence  of  Agassiz  upon  the  scien 
tific  development  of  the  United  States  has 
been  profound  and  far-reaching.  lie  has 
called  into  energetic  action  the  minds  of  a 
large  body  of  young  men  of  science,  who  are 
laboring  in  every  field  of  investigation  with  the 
enthusiasm  he  has  inspired  in  the  methods  ho 
has  taught,  and  whose  faithful  study  lias  con 
tributed  largely  to  the  works  since  published 
by  the  master. 

AGATE  (from  the  river  Achates,  nowDirillo,  ir. 
Sicily,  near  which  it  was  found),  one  of  the  mod 
ifications  in  which  silica  presents  itself  nearly 
in  a  state  of  purity,  deposited,  not  crystalline, 
but  massive  and.  slightly  transparent.  Agate, 
onyx,  chalcedony,  carnclian,  sard,  chrysoprase, 
and  many  others  are  but  varieties,  differing 
only  in  external  form  and  appearance  from 
each  other,  of  the  one  family,  quartz.  When 


ITS 


AGATE 


other  ingredients,  as  alumina  or  oxide  of  iron, 
are  found  associated  with  the  silica,  it  appears 
that  their  presence  is  never  in  any  fixed  pro 
portion,  and  is  therefore  regarded  as  acciden 
tal.  Agates  are  distinguished  from  the  other 
varieties  by  the  veins  of  different  shades  of 
color  which  traverse  the  stone  in  parallel,  con 
centric  layers,  often  so  thin  as  to  number  50  or 
more  in  an  inch.  When  these  stripes  alter 
nated,  an  opaque  band  with  one  transparent, 
the  stone  was  called  onyx,  from  a  fancied  re 
semblance  to  the  alternating  lines  upon  the 
finger  nail,  from  the  Greek  bw^.  The  modern 
distinction  between  agate  and  onyx  refers  to 
the  direction  in  which  the  stone  may  be  cut; 
when  vertical  to  the  stratification,  so  as  to 
show  stripes  or  bands,  it  is  called  agate ;  and 
the  same  stone,  if  cut  parallel  with  the  strata, 
is  termed  onyx,  and  forms  the  material  of  the 
true  cameo.  The  veins  of  the  agate  are  no 
doubt  produced  by  successive  deposition  of  one 
layer  of  silicious  matter  upon  another,  intro 
duced  in  a  sublimated  or  soluble  form  into  the 
cavities  of  the  rocks,  where  the  agates  are  now 
found.  These  rocks  are  mostly  amygdaloids, 
the  cavities  of  which  are  filled  by  a  variety  of 
minerals.  As  the  rock  disintegrates,  or  wears 
away  by  the  action  of  atmospheric  agencies, 
the  hard  nodules  of  agate  drop  out,  and  are 
then  found  upon  the  surface,  or,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  strewn  along  a  sea  beach  or  in  the 
beds  of  mountain  streams.  Externally  they 
are  rough,  and  exhibit  no  appearance  of  their 
beautiful  veined  structure,  which  is  exposed  on 
breaking  them,  and  still  more  perfectly  after 
polishing.  The  largest  nodules  seldom  exceed 
a  foot  in  diameter.  Various  processes  arc 
adopted  for  increasing  the  lustre  and  height 
ening  or  darkening  the  colors  of  agates.  They 
are  boiled  in  oil,  or  kept  in  warm  honey,  and 
then  dropped  into  sulphuric  acid.  The  lay 
ers  being  unequally  porous,  the  absorbed  car 
bonaceous  matter  becomes  charred  and  black 
ened  by  the  acid,  and  the  white  stripes,  impen 
etrable  to  the  oil,  appear  clearer  and  brighter 
by  the  contrast.  Agates  are  thus  made  to  as 
sume  the  onyx  character,  which  is  desired  by 
the  lapidary  for  the  production  of  cameos  and 
intaglios,  in  imitation  of  the  antique  sculptured 
gems.  In  these  the  figures,  whether  in  relief 
or  intaglio,  are  of  a  different  color  from  the 
ground.  Digestion  for  a  few  weeks  in  hydrochlo 
ric  acid,  kept  at  a  moderate  heat,  gives  a  beau 
tiful  clear  yellow  color  to  the  streaks  that  were 
before  a  dirty  brown.  Stones  of  a  reddish  hue 
are  greatly  improved  in  brilliancy  of  color  by 
first  thoroughly  drying  them  for  weeks  in  ovens, 
then  dipping  in  sulphuric  acid,  heating  to  full 
red  heat,  and  afterward  slowly  cooling.  The 
changes  that  take  place  in  both  these  processes 
are  upon  the  oxide  of  iron,  which  is  the  color 
ing  matter.  They  may  suggest  other  modes  of 
producing  other  analogous  effects. — Though  the 
varieties  of  agate  are  mostly  very  common  min 
erals  in  this  country,  as  well  as  in  the  old  world, 
those  localities  onlv  are  of  interest  which  have 


long  been  famous  for  their  production,  and 
Avhich  still  furnish  all  the  agates  required  by 
commerce.  The  value  of  the  stones  depends 
upon  the  work  put  upon  them,  which  from 
their  extreme  hardness  is  very  laborious,  and 
in  the  sculptured  gems  requires  the  greatest 
patience  and  skill.  Such  operations  are  not 
yet  introduced  into  the  United  States,  and  the 
agates  found  everywhere  accompanying  the 
trap  rocks  meet  no  demand  except  from  speci 
men  hunters.  The  principal  works  for  cut 
ting  and  polishing  agates  are  at  Oberstein,  a 
small  town  not  far  from  Mayence,  in  south 
Germany.  Here  are  numerous  water  mills 
running  the  coarse  stones  for  grinding  down 
the  surface  of  the  agates,  and  the  wheels  of 
soft  wood  on  which  they  are  polished  with  the 
powder  of  tripoli,  found  in  the  neighborhood. 
They  are  made  into  trinkets,  cups,  seals,  rings, 
handles  for  swords,  knives  and  forks,  and  small 
mortars  for  grinding  very  hard  substances  used 
by  chemists. — Moss  agate,  or  Mocha  stone,  is 
grayish  white  or  brownish  yellow,  with  pe 
culiar  markings  of  dark  metallic  oxide,  assum 
ing  varied  fanciful  forms.  Landscapes,  trees, 
mosses,  and  animals  have  been  traced  in  the 
lines  formed  by  the  arborescent  deposit  of  the 
foreign  mineral,  chiefiy  oxides  of  iron  or  man 
ganese.  The  numerous  silicious  springs  of 
our  western  territory,  at  no  distant  date,  have 
produced  these,  now  generally  known  as  Rocky 
mountain  agates,  some  of  which  are  of  ex 
traordinary  beauty  and  wonderful  resemblance, 
rivalling  those  in  the  museums  of  Europe  that 
for  ages  have  excited  the  admiration  of  the  curi 
ous.  Many  of  the  latter,  however,  are  such  re 
markable  likenesses,  that  they  must  be  regarded 
as  exceedingly  ingenious  works  of  art.  One  in 
the  British  museum  presents  a  likeness  of  the 
poet  Chaucer;  another  in  the  church  of  St. 
Mark  in  Venice  represents  a  king's  head  with 
a  diadem.  De  Boot,  in  his  treatise  De  Gem- 
mis,  describes  one  which  represents  the  figure 
of  a  bishop  with  his  mitre,  placed  in  the  centre 
of  a  perfect  circle.  By  turning  the  stone  a 
little  another  figure  appears,  and  turned  still 
further  the  figures  of  a  man  and  woman  are 
seen.  Pliny  mentions  one  belonging  to  Pyr- 
rhus,  in  which  were  pictured  the  nine  muses, 
with  their  proper  attributes,  and  Apollo  in  the 
middle  of  the  figure  playing  on  the  harp. 
While  nature  has  formed  remarkable  coinci 
dences  of  resemblance,  yet  the  credulous  have 
been  imposed  upon  by  stone  engravers,  from 
the  loth  century  to  our  own  day,  by  engrav 
ing  a  device  on  a  soft  chalcedony,  with  a  uni 
form  depth  of  cutting,  and  staining  the  stone 
as  before  described  ;  then  grinding  off  the  sur 
face  to  the  depth  of  their  cutting,  leaving  the 
stone  smooth,  but  showing  stain  where  the  en- 
graved  lines  had  been.  The  same  means  were 
used  to  heighten  natural  marks,  as  well  as  the 
more  legitimate  mode  of  curving  or  waving  the 
surface,  so  as  to  erase  or  bring  out  desired  fea 
tures. — Agate  frequently  occurs  as  a  geode,  or 
hollow  nodule,  explained  by  the  theory  of  gas 


AGATHA 


AGAVE 


179 


entering  a  silieions  solution.  Change  of  tem 
perature  and  pressure  account  for  the  crys 
talline  interior,  and  the  various  strata  are  evi 
dently  aggregations,  usually  concentric.  The 
veins  of  color  are  sometimes  polygonal,  when, 
from  resemblance  to  the  angles  of  a  fortress, 
it  is  called  fortification  agate. 

AGATHA,  Saint,  a  Christian  martyr  of  Paler 
mo.  Her  beauty  attracting  the  attention  of 
Quintianus,  the  pagan  governor  of  Sicily,  he 
made  overtures  to  her.  Enraged  at  their  re 
jection,  he  subjected  her  to  the  most  cruel  tor 
tures,  and  she  died  in  prison,  Feb.  5,  251. 

AGATIIARCHIDES,  or  A«?atiiardms,  a  Greek  ge 
ographical  writer,  a  native  of  Cnidos  in  Asia 
Minor,  who  flourished  about  130  B.  C.,  and 
was  guardian  to  one  of  the  kings  of  Egypt  dur 
ing  his  minority.  Of  his  numerous  works,  frag 
ments  of  a  description  of  the  Erythraean  sea 
alone  remain. 

AGATHARCHUS,  an  Athenian  artist  of  the  early 
part  of  the  5th  century  B.  C.,  said  to  have  in 
vented  scene  painting,  and  to  have  painted  a 
scene  for  yEschylus.  Scene  painting  was,  how 
ever,  not  generally  used  until  the  time  of  So 
phocles. 

AGATHIAS,  a  Byzantine  writer  of  the  6th  cen 
tury,  surnamed  Scholasticus  on  account  of  his 
extensive  legal  knowledge,  born  in  Myrina,  in 
Asia  Minor.  He  received  his  early  education  at 
Alexandria,  and  in  554  went  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  practised  as  an  advocate  and  won  re 
nown  as  a  poet  and  historian.  Of  his  writings, 
about  90  poems  are  extant,  as  well  as  a  history 
of  the  government  of  Justinian,  which  was  in 
tended  for  a  continuation  of  Proeopins.  It  was 
first  published  in  1594,  and  afterward  with  Xie- 
bahr's  amendments  in  1828. 

AGATHOILES,  a  Syracusan  adventurer  and 
military  despot,  died  in  289  B.  C.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  potter  in  the  Sicilian  town  of  Thermco, 
an  exile  from  southern  Italy,  and  in  early  life 
worked  at  his  father's  trade,  then  became 
a  leader  of  banditti,  and  afterward  a  soldier 
under  Damas,  a  prominent  Syracusan,  with 
whom  he  subsequently  served  as  a  chiliarch  or 
commander  of  1,000  men,  in  the  war  with  Ag- 
rigentum.  On  the  death  of  Damas  Agathocles 
married  his  widow,  and  thereby  became  one 
of  the  wealthiest  citizens  of  Syracuse,  lie 
obtained  an  ascendancy  in  the  democratic 
p:irty,  was  twice  driven  into  exile,  but  re 
turned,  and  after  terrible  bloodshed  became 
autocrat  of  Syracuse  in  317  B.  C.  Debts 
were  abolished,  and  the  property  of  the  rich 
was  confiscated  and  distributed  among  the  peo 
ple.  He  aimed  to  drive  the  Carthaginians  out 
of  Sicily,  and  annex  the  whole  island  to  the 
state  of  Syracuse ;  but  he  was  defeated  by 
Hamilcar,  the  Carthaginian  governor,  near  Ili- 
mera,  and  shut  up  in  Syracuse  on  the  land  side. 
The  sea  being  open  to  him,  he  carried  the  war 
into  Africa  in  310,  burnt  his  ships  on  landing, 
and  obtained  many  successes  over  the  Cartha 
ginian  troops  and  cities.  The  subject  allies 
of  Syracuse-  in  Sicily  revolted,  headed  by  the 


powerful  city  of  Agrigentum,  and  placed  them 
selves  under  command  of  Dinocrates,  a  Syra 
cusan  Greek.  Agathocles  hurried  home,  but 
achieved  nothing  decisive  in  Sicily,  and  re 
turned  to  Africa,  where  he  found  his  troops 
mutinous  from  want  of  pay.  His  eloquence 
saved  him.  Defeated  by  the  Carthaginians,  he 
and  his  sons  fied  to  the  coast,  leaving  the  army 
to  look  out  for  itself  (307).  The  sons  were 
caught  and  massacred  by  the  troops,  who  then 
made  terms  with  the  Carthaginians.  Agatho 
cles  escaped  to  Sicily,  made  peace  with  the 
Carthaginians,  turned  his  energies  against  the 
revolters,  defeated  them,  butchered  thousands 
after  they  had  laid  down  their  arms  on  promise 
of  amnesty,  and  took  Dinocrates  into  his  ser 
vice.  He  next  set  on  foot  an  expedition 
against  the  Bruttii  in  Italy,  laid  the  Lipari 
islands  under  contribution,  made  himself  mas 
ter  of  Crotona  on  the  peninsula,  and  had  ad 
vanced  far  toward  raising  Sicily  to  a  gre;.it 
naval  power  when  he  died. 

AGATHON,  a  tragic  poet  of  Athens,  a  friend 
of  Euripides,  born  about  447  B.  C.,  died  about 
400.  He  won  his  first  dramatic  triumph  in 
416.  Aristophanes  ridicules  his  affectations, 
and  brings  him  on  the  stage  in  a  woman's 
dress.  Plato  and  Aristotle  speak  well  of  his 
talents,  but  the  latter  remarks  the  mild,  humane 
spirit  of  his  tragedies  as  a  sign  that  the  vigor 
of  the  anci2nt  drama  was  departing.  He  went 
with  Euripides  to  the  Macedonian  court  in  407, 
and  fixed  his  abode  in  the  palace  of  King  Arche- 
laus.  The  dinner  which  Agathon  gave  to  cel 
ebrate  his  dramatic  victory  was  made  by  Plato 
tho  groundwork  of  his  Symposium.  Of  his 
writings  a  few  fragments  only  are  extant. 
Wieland  made  Agathon  the  hero  of  a  philo 
sophical  novel. 

AGAVE,  a  genns  of  plants  of  the  order  am- 
\  aryllidacece,  known  as  American  aloes.     The 
'  plant  produces   a   circle  of  stiff,  erect,  fleshy 
leaves,  often  7  to  10  inches  long  and  5  to  7 
inches  thick  at  the  base,  growing  on  the  top 
of  a  short,  woody  trunk,  bearing  flowers  in  a 
long,  terminal,  woody  spire.     There  are  seve 
ral  species,  but  only  one  merits  especial  notice. 
The  agave  Americana,  American  aloe  (called 
maguey  in  South  America  and  mezcal  in  Mex- 
|  ico),  has  a  short  cylindrical  stem,  terminating 
|  in    a    circular    cluster    of  hard,  fleshy,   spiny, 
sharp-pointed,    bluish-green    leaves,    each    of 
j  which  lives  for  many  years,  so  that  but  few 
j  have  withered  when  the  plant  has  arrived  nt 
I  its  maturity.     It  is  a  popular  error  that  this 
!  only  occurs   at  the  expiration  of  a    hundred 
I  years,  when  the  tree   flowers,   and  again  lies 
I  dormant,  so  far  as  its  efflorescence  is  concern- 
I  ed,  for  another  century.     The  American  aloe 
j  varies  in  the  period  of  its  coming  to  maturity, 
!  according   to    the    region    in  which  it  grows, 
I  from  10  to  70  years.    In  hot  climates,  otherwise 
!  favorable  to  its  rapid  development,  it  grows 
|  quickly,  and  early  attains  its  perfect  state.     In 
j  colder  countries,  where  it  is  cultivated  as  an 
:  exotic,  it  often  requires  the  full  period  popularly 


180 


AGDE 


AGE 


assigned  to  it  before  it  has  attained  its  matu 
rity.  So  soon  as  it  does  so,  it  sends  forth  a 
stem  40  feet  in  height,  which  puts  out  numer 
ous  branches,  forming  a  cylindrical  pyramid  of 


Agave  (American  Aloe). 

perfect  symmetry,  each  crowned  with  a  cluster 
of  greenish-yellow  flowers,  which  continue  in 
perfect  bloom  for  several  months.  But  at  what 
ever  period  of  the  plant's  existence  this  occurs, 
it  is  never  repeated ;  as  soon  as  the  flowers  fall, 
the  plant  withers  and  dies.  The' natural  habi 
tat  of  the  American  aloe  is  the  whole  inter- 
tropical  region  of  America,  in  which  it  flour 
ishes  from  the  sandy  plains  on  the  level  of  the 
sea  to  the  table  lands  of  the  mountains,  at  a 
height  of  9,000  to  10,000  feet.  In  England, 
the  United  States,  and  France,  it  is  a  tender 
greenhouse  plant;  but  in  Spain,  Italy,  Sicily, 
and  the  Barbary  states,  it  is  perfectly  natural 
ized. — The  American  aloe  is  applied  to  many 
uses.  From  its  sap,  drawn  from  incisions  in 
its  stem,  is  made  pulque,  a  fermented  liquor 
highly  esteemed  by  the  Mexicans;  and  from 
that,  again,  is  distilled  an  ardent  and  not  dis 
agreeable,  although  singularly  deleterious  spirit, 
known  as  vino  mescal.  A  coarse  sort  of  thread 
is  made  from  the  fibres  of  the  leaves,  known  as 
the  pita  flax.  The  dried  flower  steins  consti-  | 
tute  a  thatch  which  is  perfectly  impervious 
to  the  heaviest  rain.  From  an  extract  of  the  I 
leaves  balls  are  manufactured  which  can  be 
made  to  lather  with  water  like  soap;  and  from 
the  centre  of  the  stem,  split  longitudinally,  a  j 
substitute  is  obtained  for  a  hone  or  razor  strop,  ! 
which,  owing  to  the  particles  of  silica  which  I 
form  one  of  its  constituents,  has  the  property  j 
of  speedily  bringing  steel  to  a  fine  edge. 

AGDE   fane,    Agatha),    a    city   of    southern 
France,  department  of  Ilerault,  95  m.  W.  of  | 
Marseilles;  pop.  in  1866,  9,586.     It  lies  a  short 
distance  from  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  left  ! 
bank  of  the  river  Ilerault,  into  which  the  Lan-  ; 
guedoc  canal  (canal  du  Midi)  flows  at  this  point.  ! 


The  town  is  entirely  built  of  basaltic  lava  from 
a  neighboring  mountain.  It  is  the  seat  of  con 
siderable  trade  with  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa. 
It  was  founded  by  the  Greeks  of  Massilia  (Mar 
seilles)  about  590  B.  C.  Alaric  II.,  king  of  the 
Visigoths,  held  a  council  here  in  506. 

AGE,  any  particular  period  in  the  existence 
of  organic  beings,  of  collective  humanity,  of 
nations,  or  of  the  globe.  The  age  of  the  world 
has  been  variously  computed  by  geologists,  but 
nothing  positive  is  known  of  the  real  length  of 
time  allotted  to  each  period,  so  strongly  marked 
by  changes  in  the  structure  of  its  crust,  and  in 
the  forms  of  animals  and  plants  which  have  left 
fossil  traces  of  their  existence.  Many  periods 
of  inorganic  change,  and  numerous  mutations 
of  animal  and  vegetable  forms  of  life,  are  known 
to  have  occurred  upon  our  globe  before  the 
slightest  trace  of  man  appears  upon  its  crust ; 
and  hence  it  is  inferred  that  human  life,  com 
pared  with  the  inferior  forms  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  is  of  comparatively  recent  date. 
The  age  of  the  world,  then,  has  two  distinct 
bearings,  one  referring  to  the  origin  and  growth 
of  the  earth  in  its  cosmological  and  geological 
existence,  the  other  to  the  origin  and  history 
of  man  and  of  society  upon  its  surface.  Certain 
periods  remarkable  for  some  particular  devel 
opment  in  the  life  and  progress  of  the  race,  or 
of  a  nation,  are  distinguished  by  particular 
names,  such  as  the  golden  age,  the  silver  age, 
the  copper  or  the  brazen  age,  and  the  iron  age 
of  heathen  mythology,  the  Augustan  age  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  Elizabethan  age  of  English 
history,  and  the  age  of  steam  and  iron  in  the  pro 
gress  of  our  own  time.  (See  AGES.) — The  life  of 
man  has  been  divided  into  seven  ages  by  Shake> 
speare,  and  into  four,  five,  six,  seven,  or  eight, 
by  men  of  science.  Some  make  four  distinct 
periods  only,  such  as  infancy,  youth,  maturity^ 
decline ;  others  follow  more  closely  each  physi 
ological  transition,  and  divide  existence  into 
infancy,  childhood,  boyhood  or  girlhood,  ado 
lescence,  virility,  maturity,  decline,  and  old  age 
or  second  childhood.  The  most  natural  divis 
ions  are  those  which  distinguish  the  ascending^ 
the  culminating,  and  the  declining  periods  of 
life.  Each  of  these  may  be  further  subdivided, 
according  to  physiological  changes  which  mark 
the  transitions  from  one  period  to  another. 
Infancy,  childhood,  and  boyhood  or  girlhood 
mark  the  first  stage  of  ascending  progress  from 
birth  to  puberty ;  youth,  adolescence,  and  man 
hood  or  womanhood  mark  the  second  stage  of 
ascent  in  the  growth  and  evolution  of  the 
powers  of  life ;  virility  may  be  applied  to  tho 
culminating  period  ;  and  the  descending  stages 
of  maturity  and  decline  might  well  be  subdi 
vided  into  lesser  and  marked  periods  of  transi 
tion,  as  are  the  two  ascending  stages.  Infancy 
applies  to  the  first  two  years  of  life,  during 
which  the  first  complete  set  of  teeth  is  devel 
oped  ;  childhood  to  the  age,  between  2  and  7  or 
8,  when  the  first  teeth  are  shed,  and  a  more 
complete  set  replaces  them ;  boyhood  and  girl 
hood  from  7  to  14  or  15,  the  average  time  of 


AGE 


181 


puberty,  which  forms  a  marked  transition, 
closing  the  first  general  phase  of  ascending 
progress.  Here  youth,  properly  defined,  begins, 
and  lasts  until  the  age  of  20  or  21,  when  the 
physical  development  becomes  complete ;  the 
bones  are  firmly  set  in  all  their  parts ;  the  mind 
is  also  more  or  less  developed ;  and  the  sexes 
have  attained  "  majority  "  in  social  life.  Ado 
lescence  is  applied  to  the  first  period  of  adult 
life,  from  21  to  28,  and  manhood  to  the  riper 
period,  from  28  to  35  or  30.  The  culminating 
period  of  physical  and  mental  force  combined 
is  termed  virility,  and  this  may  vary  in  differ 
ent  individuals,  some  waxing  feebler  soon, 
while  others  retain  all  their  vigor  from  36  to 
48.  The  body  then  begins  to  lose  its  energy, 
and  gradually  declines  through  the  descending 
periods  of  maturity  and  old  age.  The  mind 
may  still  retain  its  power,  and  even  acquire 
more  knowledge  and  experience,  but  the  body 
will  not  maintain  so  vigorous  an  exercise  of 
thought  and  nervous  action  as  in  former  years. 
The  subdivisions  of  descending  life  are  not  so 
strongly  marked,  apparently,  as  those  of  the 
ascending  phases ;  but  in  woman's  life  there  is 
a  critical  period  called  "the  change  of  life," 
which  corresponds  inversely  to  that  of  puberty. 
The  capability  of  child-bearing  begins  with  one 
and  ends  with  the  other.  The  "  critical  period,1' 
however,  is  not  so  fixed  as  that  of  puberty. 
"With  some  it  occurs  at  40  or  42,  while  with 
others  it  extends  exceptionally  to  50,  55,  or  60, 
and  in  some  rare  instances  still  later,  the  aver 
age  being  45.  This  period  of  sterility  is  less 
marked  and  regular  in  man  than  in  woman. 
Whatever  be  the  length  of  the  descending 
phase  of  life  in  different  individuals,  the  ascend 
ing  periods  are  nearly  uniform  in  their  average 
duration.  The  female  sex  is  usually  more 
precocious  than  the  male,  and  women  average 
longer  lives  than  men;  but  that  is  probably 
because  they  are  less  exposed  to  accident  and 
danger  in  the  common  course  of  things,  for  the 
extreme  cases  of  old  age  recorded  are  more  nu 
merous  in  males  than  females. — Individuals  be 
come  legally  qualified  for  certain  acts  at  given 
ages,  and  these  vary  in  different  countries  ac 
cording  to  the  laws  and  institutions.  A  child 
under  10|-  years  of  age  is  not  amenable  to  the 
laws  of  England  for  serious  olfcnces ;  the  pa 
rents  are  responsible  for  its  actions  in  minor 
cases.  Above  that  age  the  offender  is  respon 
sible,  when  deemed  competent  to  distinguish 
between  right  and  wrong.  The  age  of  14  is 
fixed  by  the  civil  law  as  the  age  of  criminal 
responsibility ;  capital  punishment,  however, 
was  inflicted  for  murder  in  1629  on  a  boy  of  8 
years  of  age,  who  had  most  artfully  concealed 
tli3  body  of  his  victim.  The  oath  of  allegiance 
may  be  taken  after  12,  and  youths  of  either 
HSX  may  chooso  a  guardian  at  the  age  of  14; 
but  no  person  under  21  can  execute  a  valid 
will.  The  nubile  age  was  fixed  by  the  Roman 
law  at  14  for  males  and  12  for  females,  and  at 
these  respective  ages  either  sex  may  in  Eng 
land  consent  to  marriage,  with  the  appro val'of 


guardians.     By  the  Code  Napoleon,  the  nubile 
age  in  France  is  18  for  males  and  15  for  fe 
males,  with  the  approval  of  guardians;  at  IT 
a  person  of  either  sex  may  be  an  executor  or 
!  an  executrix;  and  at  16  a  minor  may  devise 
|  one  half  of  his  property.     In  the  United  States 
either  sex  may  choose  a  guardian  at  14;  the 
nubile  age  is  14  for  males  and  12  for  females. 
The  age  of  majority,  which  gives  both  sexes 
the  free  disposal  of  themselves  and  their  prop 
erty,  and  the  enjoyment  of  all  civil  rights  be 
longing  to  their  sex  and  condition,  is  21  in  the 
United    States,    Great    Britain,    and    modern 
European  countries  generally ;   but  in  ancient 
Rome  minority  continued  till  the  age  of  25. 
— Some  philosophers  believe  that,  under  well 
j  devised  rules  of  conduct  and  favorable  exter- 
|  nal  conditions,    the  natural   period  of  human 
j  life  might  be  extended  to  100  years,  in  lieu  of 
the  "  threescore  years  and  ten  "  of  the  Bible; 
and  M.  Flourens,  a  French  physiologist  of  high 
standing,  has   published  a  work  in  which  he 
treats  of  u  human  longevity  "  as  dependent  upon 
human  prudence  mainly,  and  easily  prolonged 
by  care  to  the  limit  of  100  years.     The  ages  of 
the   patriarchs  before  the  flood  have  been  a 
subject  of  critical  dispute.     "With  the  exception 
I  of  Enoch,  whom  i.'  God  took  "  at  the  age  of 
j  365,  they  are  all  represented  in  the  Bible  to 
!  have  lived  seven  or  eight  centuries.     Methuse- 
j  lab's  age  was  969,   which  is  the   greatest  on 
j  record.     After  the  deluge  life  gradually  grew 
shorter.      Shem    died    at    600,    Abraham    at 
175,   Isaac   at   180,  Jacob   at   147,  Joseph  at 
i  110.      Commentators   who    reject    the   literal 
I  interpretation  of  the  statements  concerning  the 
j  earlier  patriarchs  suppose  either  that  the  name 
I  of  each  patriarch  denotes  a  clan  or  family  in- 
\  stead   of   an    individual,    or   that    the   sacred 
biographies    are    allegorical.      History    shows 
that     the     natural   term    of  life     has    varied 
little  during  some  4,000  years,  and  the  propor- 
]  tion  of  extraordinary  cases  of  longevity  contin- 
|  ues  much  the  same  at   present  as  it  was  in 
!  former  times.     The  average  duration  of  exist 
ence  is,  however,  quite  another  question ;  and 
!  this  varies  with  the  favorable  or  unfavorable 
habits  of  the  people  with  regard  to  industry, 
morality,  and  civilized  culture.     Xor  has  lati 
tude  or  longitude  much  to  do  with  the  dura 
tion  of  life,  either  with  regard  to  average,  or 
natural,   or   extraordinary  periods;  for  in  all 
i  latitudes  and  longitudes,  where  natural  condi 
tions  are  otherwise  equally  favorable,  natural, 
!  exceptional,  and  average  periods  maintain  re 
spectively  a  similar  ratio.     The  average  dura 
tion  of  life  in  Europe,  according  to  statistical 
•  calculations,  lies  somewhere  between  26   and 
i  33  years ;  the  highest  average  occurs  in  coun 
tries  where  wealth,  commerce,  and  civilization 
i  are  most  generally  diffused  ;  the  lowest  where 
poverty  and  ignorance  and  despotism  prevail. 
!  These  facts  have  been  carefully  observed  in  our 
i  times  by  life  insurance  companies,  as  the  basis 
i  of  commercial  calculations.      In  England  the 
|  rate  of  mortality  is  said  to  be  2£  per  cent,  per 


AGE 


annum;  while  in  Russia  the  returns  of  1842 
gave  3^-  per  cent,  for  the  mortality  of  the  whole 
empire,  and  considerably  more  than  this  for 
certain  provinces,  including  the  basins  of  the 
Volga,  the  Dnieper,  and  the  Don.  The  aver 
age  duration  of  life  is  therefore  higher  in  Eng 
land  than  in  Russia;  but  we  might  probably 
find  as  many  cases  of  exceptional  longevity  in 
Russia  as  in  England,  if  statistical  returns  were 
made  with  equal  care  in  the  two  countries. 
Comparative  longevity  has  not  received  as 
much  attention  as  the  averages  of  mortality  and 
the  mean  duration  of  existence  in  civilized 
states,  but  numerous  authentic  records  of  indi 
vidual  cases  may  be  found  in  every  nation. 
Pliny  gives  some  instances  of  longevity  taken 
exclusively  from  the  region  between  the  Apen 
nines  and  the  Po,  as  found  on  the  record  of  the 
census  instituted  by  Vespasian ;  and  within 
these  narrow  limits  he  enumerates  54  persons 
who  had  reached  the  age  of  100  years  ;  14,  the 
age  of  110;  20,  125;  40,  130;  40,  135;  and 
GO,  140  years.  In  the  single  town  of  Valcia- 
tium  near  Placentia,  he  mentions  G  persons  of 
110,  4  of  120,  and  1  of  150  years  of  age, 
Among  the  ancient  philosophers  and  men  of 
note,  not  to  mention  women,  we  find  some 
cases  of  comparative  longevity.  Sophocles  is 
said  to  have  lived  90  years ;  Zeno,  98 ;  De- 
mocritus,  99;  Pyrrho,  90;  Diogenes,  90;  Isoc- 
rates,  98 ;  Gorgias  and  Hippocrates,  upward 
of  100 ;  and  numerous  other  instances  of  com 
parative  longevity  are  recorded  of  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome,  as  well  as  of  modern  times 
and  nations.  Dr.  Van  Oven  gives  17  examples 
of  age  exceeding  150  years;  and  Mr.  Bailey, 
in  his  records  of  longevity,  gives  a  catalogue  of 
8,000  or  4,000  cases  of  old  age,  verging  closely 
on  100  or  exceeding  it,  and  not  a  few  of  them 
reaching  as  high  as  150  years.  Many  of  these 
cases  may  be  more  or  less  satisfactorily  authen 
ticated,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  occa 
sional  prolongation  of  human  life  beyond  the 
age  of  100,  even  up  to  170,  and  in  at  least  one 
instance  to  185,  the  age  of  Peter  Czartan,  a 
peasant  of  Hungary,  who  was  born  in  1539  and 
died  in  1724.  But  these  cases  are  always  ex 
ceptional  in  comparison  with  the  average  du 
ration  of  life,  and  therefore,  as  judicious  writ 
ers  have  observed,  "no  fit  exponents  of  the 
universal  natural  capacity  for  life  in  man." 
The  average,  which  falls  below  the  natural 
term,  might  certainly  be  raised  by  due  atten 
tion  to  the  laws  of  nature  and  the  known  re 
quirements  of  healthy  life  in  states  and  cities, 
families  and  individuals.  The  natural  term  of 
life  differs  to  some  extent,  no  doubt,  in  differ 
ent  persons,  though  not  as  the  natural  stature 
differs  in  different  families;  for  all  men  attain 
to  virility  about  35  or  40,  however  slowly  they 
decline  into  old  age.  To  this  extent  we  may 
regard  the  natural  term  of  human  development 
as  normal  or  constant ;  but  some  maintain  their 
vigor  many  years,  and  then  decline  most  rapid 
ly  and  die,  while  others  decline  slowly  and 
enjoy  a  long  evening  of  life.  This  view  of  the 


fact  might  give  some  plausibility  to  the  theory 
of  continuing  for  all  by  artificial  means  that 
slow  decline  which  nature,  unassisted,  mani 
fests  in  some  rare  instances ;  but  nothing  being 
known  of  the  causes  of  such  exceptional  lon 
gevity,  nothing  can  be  logically  predicated  of 
the  possible  results  of  any  human  scheme  for 
lengthening  the  descending  period  of  human 
life. — Little  is  known  of  the  age  of  animals,  es 
pecially  the  non-domesticated  tribes.  Some 
isolated  facts,  however,  have  been  noted  with 
regard  to  the  age  attained  by  certain  birds, 
fishes,  reptiles,  elephants,  &c.  The  East  In 
dians  believe  that  the  elephant  lives  about  300 
years,  and  instances  are  on  record  of  the  ani 
mals  having  been  kept  in  captivity  as  long  as 
130  years,  their  age  being  unknown  when  they 
were  first  taken  wild  from  the  forest.  Camels 
live  from  40  to  50  years ;  horses  average  from 
25  to  30,  oxen  about  20,  sheep  8  or  9,  and 
dogs  from  12  to  14  years.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  larger  types  of  animals  live  longer  than  the 
smaller,  in  the  vertebrated  classes,  quadrupeds, 
birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes.  Some  kinds  of  birds 
attain  to  a  great  age ;  the  swan  has  been 
known  to  live  100  years;  and  there  are  in 
stances  on  record  of  the  raven  having  exceeded 
that  age.  Birds  of  prey  attain  to  great  lon 
gevity  ;  the  eagle  has  survived  a  century.  Par 
rots  have  been  known  to  live  GO,  and  as  long 
as  80  years.  The  gallinaceous  tribes  live  not 
so  long.  Pheasants  and  domestic  poultry  rare 
ly  exceed  12  or  15  years.  Reptiles  of  some 
kinds  live  very  long.  A  tortoise  was  placed 
in  the  garden  of  the  arcliiepiscopal  palace  of 
Lambeth  in  1633,  during  the  life  of  Archbishop 
Laud,  and  lived  till  1753,  when  it  perished  by 
accident.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  age  oif 
large  serpents,  such  as  the  boa,  but  small  batra- 
chians,  as  the  toad,  are  known  to  live  about  15 
years.  Fishes,  and  animals  that  live  in  the 
water,  attain  in  many  instances  to  a  great  age. 
The  carp  has  been  known  to  live  200  years. 
Common  river  trout  have  been  confined  in  a 
well  30  and  even  50  years.  A  pike  has  been 
known  to  live  in  a  pond  90  years  \  and  Gesner 
relates  that  in  1497  an  enormous  pike  was 
caught  in  a  lake  near  Ileilbronn,  in  Swabia, 
with  a  brass  ring  attached  to  it,  recording  that 
it  was  put  into  the  lake  in  1230.  The  pike 
must  have  lived,  therefore,  at  least  267  years. 
The  ring  is  still  preserved  at  Mannheim.  The 
age  of  the  whale  is  known  by  the  size  and 
number  of  Iamina3  of  certain  organs  in  the 
mouth,  formed  of  a  horny  substance,  commonly 
called  whalebone.  These  lamimx)  increase 
yearly,  and  if  the  mode  of  computation  be  cor 
rect,  they  indicate  in  certain  cases  that  the  an 
imal  attains  to  an  age  of  400  years.  Little  is 
known  of  the  age  attained  by  animals  of  the 
lower  types,  such  as  articulata,  mollusca,  and 
radiata.  That  of  insects  has  received  some  at 
tention,  and  it  has  been  remarked  that  though 
the  first  period  of  life,  passed  in  the  grub  or 
caterpillar  state,  extends  to  several  months  or 
even  years,  the  great  majority  live  but  a  few 


AGE 


days  or  weeks  after  the  metamorphosis  by 
which  they  attain  to  a  more  perfect  form.  The 
ephemera,  when  it  leaves  its  grub-life  in  the 
water,  and  assumes  a  higher  form  and  an  aerial 
existence,  liv^s  but  a  few  hours,  and  dies  the 
very  day  on  which  it  was  born  into  its  new 
life ;  whence  its  name,  ephemera,  passing  in  a 
day. — The  age  of  the  hors^  in  his  ascending 
phase  of  life  is  known  chiefly  by  the  growth 
and  appearance  of  the  teeth,  and  more  espe 
cially  of  the  incisors,  commonly  called  nippers. 
In  each  jaw  of  the  horse  there  are  six  of  these 
nippers,  broad,  thin,  and  trenchant  in  the  foal ; 
while  in  the  adult  animal  the  crowns  become 
flat,  and  marked  in  the  centre  with  a  hollow 
disk.  The  foal  or  milk  teeth  appear  about  15 
days  after  birth.  At  2^  years  of  age  the  mid 
dle  pair  drop,  and  are  replaced  by  the  corre 
sponding  pair  of  permanent  teeth.  At  3-J-  years 
the  two  next,  one  on  each  side,  are  likewise 
replaced.  At  4£  years  the  two  external  nip 
pers  or  excisors  drop  and  make  room  for  the 
corresponding  pair  of  permanent  teeth.  All 
these  permanent  nippers  are  flattened  on  the 
crown  or  upper  surface,  and  marked  in  the 
centre  with  a  circular  hollow  pit;  this  pit  is 
gradually  effaced,  as  the  tooth  wears  slowly 
down  to  a  level  with  the  bottom.  By  the  de 
gree  of  this  detrition,  or  wearing  of  the  teeth, 
the  age  of  the  animal  is  determined  up  to  the 
8th  year,  when  the  marks  are  generally  quite 
effaced.  The  external  pair  of  nippers,  how 
ever,  appearing  a  year  or  two  after  the  inter 
mediate  pair,  preserve  their  original  form  pro 
portionately  later.  The  age  of  a  horse  may 
still  be  determined  for  a  few  years,  after  the 
8th  year,  by  the  appearance  and  comparative 
length  of  the  canine  teeth,  or  tushes;  these, 
however,  are  sometimes  wanting,  particularly 
in  the  lower  jaw,  and  in  mares  they  are  rarely 
developed  at  all.  The  tushes  of  the  under  jaw 
appear  at  the  age  of  3^  years,  those  of  the  up 
per  jaw  at  4.  They  are  sharp-pointed  until  the 
age  of  6,  and  at  10  become  blunt  and  long,  be 
cause  the  gums  begin  about  that  time  to  recede 
from  the  roots  of  the  teeth,  leaving  them  naked 
and  exposed.  After  this  period  there  are  no 
certain  means  of  determining  the  age  of  a 
horse,  but  some  conjecture  may  be  made  from 
the  comparative  size,  bluntness,  and  discolored 
appearance  of  the  tushes. — The  age  of  horned 
cattle  is  more  readily  determined  by  the  growth 
of  the  horns  than  by  the  growth,  succession, 
and  detrition  of  the  teeth."  But  the  horns  of 
oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  antelopes,  being  hollow 
and  permanent,  differ  widely  in  form,  struc 
ture,  and  manner  of  growth  from  those  of  the 
deer  tribe.  The  deer  kind  shed  their  horns  an 
nually,  and,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
reindeer,  the  males  alone  have  horns.  At  first 
they  have  them  in  the  form  of  simple  prickets, 
without  any  branches  or  antlers ;  but  each  suc 
ceeding  year  adds  one  or  more  branches,  ac 
cording  to  the  species,  up  to  a  certain  fixed 
period,  beyond  which  the  age  of  the  animal 
can  only  be  conjectured  from  the  size  of  the 


I  horns  and  the  thickness  of  the  burr  or  knob  at 
I  their  roots,  which  burr  connects  them  with  the 
(  skull.  The  prickets  or  first  horns  of  the  com 
mon  stag  fall  during  the  2d  year  of  the  ani- 
I  mal's  life,  each  one  being  replaced  by  one  with 
I  a  single  antler,  and  thence  called  the  fork.  This 
|  falls  during  the  3d  year,  and  is  replaced  by  the. 
I  3d  kind,  which  has  commonly  3  or  4,  and  some- 
j  times  5  branches.  The  4th  and  following  pair 
j  have  a  like  number  of  branches,  and  the  num- 
|  her  of  antlers  goes  on  increasing  in  the  same 
|  manner  till  the  8th  year  of  the  animal's  life; 
|  after  which  they  follow  no  fixed  rule,  but  con 
tinue  to  increase  in  number,  particularly  near 
the  summit  of  the  horn,  where  they  arc  some 
times  grouped  in  the  form  of  a  coronet,  and 
thence  called  "  royal  antlers."  The  fallow  deer, 
the  roebuck,  and  other  species  of  this  genus, 
present  similar  examples  of  development ;  the 
number  of  the  antlers  increasing  in  a  fixed 
ratio  up  to  a  certain  time,  beyond  which  the 
age,  as  in  the  stag,  can  only  be  determined  by 
the  comparative  size  of  the  burr  and  that  part 
of  the  shaft  or  horn  from  which  the  antlers 
grow.  In  the  fallow  deer,  the  prickets  of  the 
2d  year  are  replaced  by  horns  bearing  two 
antlers  already  indicating  the  p'almated  form 
which  afterward  distinguishes  them  from  the 
antlers  of  other  deer.  This  palm  increases  in 
breadth,  and  assumes  an  indented  form  on 
the  superior  and  posterior  borders,  and  the  4th 
pair  of  horns,  shed  in  the  5th  year  of  the  ani 
mal's  life,  are  replaced  by  others  in  which  the 
palm  is  cloven  or  subdivided  irregularly  into 
distinct  parts,  assuming  in  old  animals  a  great 
diversity  and  singularity  of  form.  Finally,  the 
horns  begin  to  shrink  in  size,  and  are  said  to 
end  in  becoming  simple  prickets  as  in  the  1st 
year.  The  horns  of  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  an 
telopes  are  hollow  and  permanent.  They  con 
sist  of  a  sheath  of  horn  covering  a  bony  core 
or  process  of  the  skull,  and  growing  from  the 
root,  where  an  additional  knob  or  ring  is  formed 
each  year ;  and  thus  the  number  of  these  rings 
is  a  sure  indication  of  the  animal's  age.  The 
growth  of  the  horns  is  not  uniform  throughout 
the  year,  but  varies  with  the  seasons.  The  in 
crease  takes  place  in  the  spring,  and  there  is  no 
further  addition  until  the  following  year.  In 
the  cow  kind,  the  horns  appear  to  grow  uni 
formly  during  the  first  3  years,  and  up  to  that 
period  they  are  smooth  and  without  wrinkles ; 
but  after  the  age  of  3  years,  each  succeeding 
year  adds  a  ring  to  the  root  of  the  horn.  The 
age  is  determined,  therefore,  in  this  species,  by 
allowing  3  years  for  the  smooth  part  of  tho 
horn,  and  1  for  each  of  the  rings,  where  they 
exist.  In  sheep  and  goats  the  horns  show  their 
first  knob  or  ring  in  the  2d  year,  whence  tho 
top  or  smooth  part  counts  for  only  1.  Theso 
peculiarities  have  not  been  sufficiently  ob 
served  in  antelopes  to  give  us  a  rule  for  deter 
mining  the  age  of  the  animal  by  the  growth 
and  appearance  of  the  horn. — Some  plants  and 
trees  run  their  whole  career  in  a  year  or  two, 
as  the  families  of  annual  and  biennial  plants, 


184 


AGE 


while  a  few  species  of  the  larger  growth  of 
trees  live  centuries,  and  even  tens  of  centuries. 
The  oriental  plane,  the  baobab,  the  chestnut 
tree,  the  great  sequoia  of  California,  and  the 
deciduous  cypress  are  said  to  furnish  individual 
specimens,  the  age  of  which  attains  to  several 
thousand  years;  as  much,  in  fact,  as  4,000  or 
5,000  years  or  more.  Yew  trees  are  reported 
to  flourish  in  certain  cases  after  a  life  of  1,500 
or  2,000  years.  Adanson  found  trees  of  the 
baobab  species  in  Africa  which  he  computed  to 
be  5,150  years  of  age;  and  the  younger  De 
Oandolle  reports  the  deciduous  cypress  of  Cha- 
pultepec,  in  Mexico,  to  be  still  older.  The 
baobab  of  Senegal,  measuring  90  feet  in  girth, 
and  the  gigantic  dracaena  draco  at  Orotava  in 
Tenerifie,  which  Humboldt  classes  with  the 
baobab,  are  supposed  to  be  among  the  oldest 
inhabitants  of  the  earth.  The  famous  sweet 
chestnut  trees  on  Mount  Etna,  one  of  which 
measures  160  feet  in  circumference,  another  70, 
and  another  64,  are  said  to  be  as  old  as  the 
baobabs  just  mentioned  ;  and  the  oriental  plane 
tree  in  the  valley  of  Buyukdere,  near  Constan 
tinople,  having  a  girth  of  150  feet  and  an  in 
ternal  cavity  80  feet  in  circumference,  is  deemed 
as  old  as  any  other  tree  existing.  The  great 
sequoia  gigantea  of  the  Mariposa  and  Calave- 
ras  groves  of  California,  measuring  90  feet  in 
circumference,  and  attaining  a  height  of  over 
300  feet,  without  doubt  lives  over  2,000  years. 
Eight  olive  trees  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the 
mount  of  Olives,  at  Jerusalem,  which  historical 
documents  prove  to  have  existed  before  the 
Seljuk  Turks  took  possession  of  that  city, 
800  years  ago ;  and  the  yew  trees  at  Fountain 
abbey,  in  Yorkshire,  were  reported  to  be  old 
when  the  abbey  was  erected,  in  1132.  They 
are  probably  more  than  1,000  years  of  age 
now ;  and  the  old  yew  tree  formerly  in  Foth- 
eringhill  churchyard  in  Perthshire,  and  meas 
uring  56^  feet  in  circumference,  was  believed 
to  have  existed  more  than  20  centuries.  At 
Ankerwyke  house,  near  Staines,  is  a  celebrated 
yew  tree,  older  than  the  meeting  of  the  English 
barons  at  Runnymede,  in  June,  1215,  the  date 
of  Magna  Gharta ;  and  many  other  cases  of 
extreme  antiquity  are  well  authenticated  with 
regard  to  the  trees  of  the  yew  species.  The 
trunk  of  the  Ankerwyke  house  yew  tree  meas 
ures  9  feet  3  inches  in  diameter  at  3  feet  from 
the  ground,  and  its  branches  overshadow  an. 
area  of  207  feet  in  circumference.  Many  oaks 
have  been  cut  down  in  the  Xew  Forest  which 
presented  as  many  as  300  or  400  concentric 
rings,  each  of  which  denotes  a  year's  growth ; 
and  oaks  exist  much  larger  in  dimensions  and 
of  greater  age,  some  exceeding  probably  1,200 
years.  Dr.  Plott  mentions  an  oak  felled  at 
Norbury  which  measured  45  feet  in  circum 
ference.  The  Broddington  oak,  in  the  vale  of 
Gloucester,  was  54  feet  in  girth,  and  Damory's 
oak  in  .Dorsetshire  68  feet.  The  age  of  the  lat 
ter  was  computed  to  be  about  2,000  years. 
Wallace's  oak  at  Ellersley,  near  Paisley,  in 
Scotland,  is  believed  to  be  more  than  700  years 


of  age,  and  is  still  flourishing.  At  Trons,  in  the 
Grisons,  a  lime  tree  measuring  51  feet  in  girth, 
planted  in  1284,  was  still  existing  in  1792,  and 
was  therefore  known  to  be  nearly  508  years  of 
age;  and  in  1776  some  famous  cypresses  called 
cuprcsos  de  la  sultana,  in  the  palace  garden  of 
Granada,  were  reputed  to  be  800  or  900  years 
old.  An  elm  tree  planted  by  Henry  IV.  was 
standing  in  the  garden  of  the  Luxembourg  pal 
ace,  in  Paris,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
French  revolution,  1789  ;  and  others  are  known 
to  be  of  more  than  a  century's  growth ;  but  it  is 
not  well  ascertained  that  they  sometimes,  as  af 
firmed,  attain  to  the  age  of  300  years.  Bacon's 
elms,  in  Gray's  Inn  walk,  London,  planted  in 
1600,  decayed  prematurely  in  1720;  and  the 
elms  of  the  long  walk  at  Windsor,  planjted  early 
in  the  last  century,  though  still  line  trees,  are 
evidently  past  their  prime.  The  way  in  which 
the  age  of  some  of  these  trees  has  been  com 
puted  is  twofold:  first,  by  comparison  with 
other  very  old  trees,  the  rate  of  growth  of 
which  was  known ;  and  secondly,  by  cutting 
out  a  portion  of  the  trunk  from  the  circum 
ference  to  the  centre,  and  counting  the  number 
of  concentric  rings  that  are  visible.  In  exoge 
nous  trees,  the  woody  cylinder  of  one  year's 
growth  is  divided  from  the  succeeding  and  pre 
ceding  by  a  denser  substance,  which  marks  dis 
tinctly  the  lines  of  separation  between  each 
year.  The  first  of  these  methods  is  sufficiently 
trustworthy  to  give  an  approximation  to  the 
truth,  and  the  second  would  be  still  better  if 
care  were  taken  to  avoid  all  cause  of  error; 
but  Dr.  Lindley  states  in  his  "Introduction  to 
Botany,"  that,  owing  to  the  extreme  inequality 
of  thickness  in  the  annual  layers  of  wood 
on  opposite  sides  of  a  stem  or  trunk,  an  exami 
nation  made  on  the  stunted  or  less  developed 
side  only  might  lead  to  a  miscalculation  of  the 
age;  the  error  thus  induced  being  in  some 
cases  as  much  as  60  per  cent,  or  more.  There 
is  no  good  reason  to  suppose,  however,  that 
such  mistakes  are  common,  or  that  the  ages  of 
celebrated  specimens,  authenticated  as  above, 
have  been  obtained  by  such  miscalculations. 
The  palm  trees,  and  some  tropical  tribes  of  en 
dogenous  plants,  are  said  to  attain  to  an  age  of 
100  or  200  years,  and  it  has  been  supposed  that 
certain  Brazilian  cocoanut  palms  may  be  as 
much  as  600  or  700  years  old ;  but  the  method 
of  computing  their  age  is  hardly  to  be  relied 
on.  This  consists  in  counting  the  number  of 
rings  externally  visible  upon  their  rind,  be 
tween  the  base  and  the  summit  of  the  stem,  or 
by  comparing  the  oldest  specimens,  the  age 
of  which  is  unknown,  with  young  trees,  of  a 
known  age  and  like  species ;  but  no  confidence 
can  be  placed  in  such  a  method.  The  date 
palm,  which  is  best  known  to  Europeans,  does 
not  attain  to  a  very  great  age.  The  Arabs  do 
not  assign  to  it  a  longevity  exceeding  two  or 
three  centuries.  The  mode  of  growth  seems 
to  preclude  even  the  possibility  of  attaining  to 
a  great  age,  compared  with  the  exogenous  class. 
(See  ENDOGENS,  and  EXOGENS.) 


AGES 


185 


AGEN  (anc.  Arjinniim,  or  Agennuni),  the 
chief  town  of  the  department  of  Lot-et-Ga- 
ronne,  France,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Garonne,  73  m.  8.  E.  of  Bordeaux ;  pop.  in 
1866,  18,222.  The  old  quarter  of  the  town  is 
composed  chiefly  of  narrow  streets.  The 
houses  in  the  modern  quarter  are  built  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  adorned  with  trees  and  vine 
yards.  Agen  has  been  the  see  of  a  bishop 
since  347.  Among  the  distinguished  natives  of 
the  town  were  Sulpicius  Severus,  Lacepede, 
and  the  younger  Sealiger,  whose  more  emi 
nent  father  Julius  removed  hither  from  Verona. 
The  last  representative  of  the  troubadours,  the 
poet  Jasmin,  was  also  a  native  and  resident  of 
Agen.  It  is  famous  for  its  prunej  and  its  man 
ufacture  of  serges. 

AGE\T,  in  law,  a  person  appointed  to  perform 
an  act  for  another,  lie  may  be  either  special 
or  general,  or  may  be  appointed  either  ex 
pressly  or  impiiedly.  Xo  form  of  appointment 
is  required.  An  agent  may  be  created  either 
by  deed,  or  by  a  simple  letter,  or  by  word  of 
mouth.  To  execute  legal  instruments,  the 
authority  must  be  equal  in  value  with  the 
instrument  to  be  executed ;  thus  a  power  to 
sign  and  execute  deeds  must  be  created  by  a 
power  under  seal.  Some  persons  are  agents 
by  the  very  nature  of  their  business,  such  as 
attorneys,  auctioneers,  bailiffs,  brokers,  ship 
masters,  factors,  and  others.  The  agent  may 
bind  his  principal  by  his  acts.  Such  liability 
must  necessarily  be  brought  within  the  scope  of 
his  authority ;  thus,  the  captain  of  a  ship  could 
not  bind  his  owners  in  the  purchase  of  a  piece 
of  land.  The  agent  entering  into  a  contract 
on  behalf  of  a  principal  whose  name  he  dis 
closes  is  protected  from  personal  liability; 
but,  if  acting  on  behalf  of  a  principal  un 
known,  he  is  himself  liable,  unless  the  third 
party  elect  to  proceed  against  the  principal. 
A  professional  agent  is  bound  to  exercise  due 
diligence,  and  to  bring  a  fair  degree  of  skill 
and  knowledge  to  the  discharge  of  the  duties 
he  undertakes.  If  he  be  an  unprofessional 
agent,  he  is  still  bound  to  exercise  the  ordinary 
judgment  of  a  prudent  man  in  the  conduct  of 
liis  own  aifairs.  The  circumstance  of  his 
being  a  gratuitous  agent  does  not  alter  the 
liability  of  the  agent  to  the  principal  in  this 
respect.  The  limits  of  an  agent's  powers  must 
be  determined  by  the  nature  of  his  instruc 
tions.  If  special,  ho  is  limited  to  their  strict 
letter;  if  general,  he  must  act  for  the  best 
interest  of  his  principal,  and  the  usages  of 
trade  and  commerce  will  have  considerable 
weight  in  determining  the  propriety  of  his 
conduct.  He  is  bound  to  give  early  notice  of 
all  occurrences  affecting  his  principal's  inter 
ests  ;  he  is  bound  to  account  for  funds  imme 
diately  on  their  receipt,  and  even  for  the 
usufruct  of  the  same  if  retained  or  employed 
by  him ;  he  may  not  buy  from  nor  sell  to  his 
principal,  unless  by  express  assent;  and  in 
some  cases  contracts  for  the  benefit  of  a  person 
acting  in  a  fiduciary  capacity  are  absolutely 


void.  The  rights  of  an  agent  are  to  reimburse 
ment  of  all  charges  and  expenses  which  he 
may  have  incurred  in  the  proper  discharge  of 
his  duties,  and  not  caused  by  his  own  careless 
ness  or  negligence.  He  is  also  entitled  to  re 
muneration  of  a  reasonable  character  for  his 
services ;  and  lastly,  he  is  entitled  to  indemnity 
against  the  consequences  of  all  acts  done  by 
him  on  behalf  of  his  principal  within  his 
powers,  provided  that  such  acts  are  not  wrong 
ful  to  third  parties,  in  which  case  the  agent  is 
personally  liable.  For  the  more  complete  pro 
tection  of  his  rights  in  these  respects,  he  has  a 
lien  upon  all  property  of  his  principal  placed 
in  his  hands. — The  position  of  third  parties 
may  be  inferred  from  the  foregoing.  The 
agent  may,  in  his  dealings  with  third  parties, 
bind  his  principal  in  all  matters  fairly  within 
the  scope  and  object  of  his  employment.  If 
he  exceed  his  powers,  the  third  party  has  no 
claim  whatever  on  the  principal ;  the  claim 
which  the  third  party  may  have  on  the  agent 
must  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  case,  and  in 
particular  on  the  fact  of  his  principal  being 
disclosed.  Public  officers,  whether  acting 
within  their  powers  or  not,  are  not  liable  for 
contracts  entered  into  as  such  public  officers. 
For  wrongful  acts  and  injuries  (not  of  a  crim 
inal  character)  committed  by  agents,  such  as 
trespasses  under  color  of  law,  or  accidents 
resulting  from  negligence,  the  principal  may 
be  made  liable,  provided  that  the  agent's  acts 
be  incontestably  within  the  line  of  his  duty. 
But  the  perpetrator  of  a  wrong  not  being 
entitled,  by  the  policy  of  the  law,  to  shield 
himself  behind  a  principal,  the  agent  is  liable 
as  well  as  the  principal. 

AGES,  a  term  used  to  designate  various  epochs 
in  the  civilization  of  the  human  race.  Ilesiod 
mentions  five,  and  Ovid  four.  The  golden  age, 
synchronous  with  the  reign  of  Saturn,  was  a 
period  of  patriarchal  simplicity,  when  the 
earth  yielded  its  fruits  spontaneously  and  spring 
was  eternal;  the  silver  age,  governed  by 
Jupiter,  was  a  lawless  time,  in  which  the 
seasons  were  first  divided,  agriculture  took 
its  rise,  and  men  began  to  hold  property 
in  land ;  the  brazen  age,  or  reign  of  Xep- 
tune,  was  an  epoch  of  war  and  violence;  in 
the  heroic  age  (omitted  by  Ovid)  the  world 
began  to  aspire  toward  better  things ;  and  in 
the  iron  or  Plutonian  age,  in  which  Ilesiod 
believed  himself  to  be  living,  justice  and  piety 
had  disappeared  from  the  earth.  Fichte  divid 
ed  human  history  into  five  ages,  of  which  he 
conceived  that  we  were  in  the  third;  while 
Hegel  and  Comte  reckoned  three,  placing  us  in 
the  last. — European  archaeologists  have  divided 
the  prehistoric  period  into  the  age  of  stone,  so 
called  because  men  are  supposed  to  have  been 
at  that  time  unacquainted  with  the  use  of 
metals,  and  to  have  made  their  rude  imple 
ments  of  the  chase  and  husbandry  exclusively 
of  stone ;  and  the  age  of  bronze,  when  a  com 
pound  of  copper  and  tin  was  employed.  The 
recent  discoveries  among  the  remains  of  the 


186 


AGESILAUS 


lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland  have  afforded 
strong  confirmation  of  this  theory,  and  sup 
ported  the  further  opinion  that  the  men  of 
stone  and  the  men  of  bronze  were  entirely 
distinct  races.  To  the  bronze  age  succeeded 
the  men  of  iron.  The  antiquity  of  these  ages 
is  a  matter  of  conjecture. — The  term  MIDDLE 
AGES  is  applied  to  the  period  of  several  cen 
turies  separating  the  ancient  and  modern  epochs 
of  European  history,  considered  by  some  as  ex 
tending  from  the  fall  of  the  western  empire  in 
470  to  the  discovery  of  America  in  1492 ;  but 
other  nearly  synchronous  events  have  been  fixed 
upon  for  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  period. 
Properly  speaking,  there  is  no  middle  age  in 
oriental  history,  but  Hallam  applies  that  term, 
for  the  Greeks  and  their  eastern  neighbors,  to 
the  era  of  Mohammed. — The  DAEK  AGES  is  a 
term  applied  in  its  widest  sense  to  that  period 
of  intellectual  depression  in  the  history  of 
Europe  from  the  establishment  of  the  barbarian 
supremacy  in  the  5th  century  to  the  revival  of 
learning  about  the  beginning  of  the  loth,  thus 
nearly  corresponding  in  extent  with  the  middle 
ages.  The  last  of  the  ancient  authors  was 
Boithius,  after  whose  death,  about  524,  the 
decline  of  literature,  prepared  during  several 
previous  centuries,  became  inconceivably  rapid. 
The  darkest  period  for  Europe  generally  was 
about  the  7th  century.  The  earliest  sign  of  revi 
val,  however,  was  seen  in  Ireland  as  far  back  as 
the  Gth.  In  the  10th  Italy  and  England  were 
in  a  deplorable  condition  of  barbarism,  while 
in  France  and  Germany  there  was  more  or  less 
culture,  which  increased  considerably  during 
the  llth.  The  comparative  prosperity  of  scho 
lastic  learning  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries 
was  followed  by  a  relapse  in  taste  and  classical 
knowledge  which  lasted  through  the  13th 
and  14th. 

AGESILAUS,  king  of  Sparta,  was  the  son  of 
Archidamus  II.,  and  the  successor  of  Agis  II.  in 
898  13.  0.  He  was  not  the  legitimate  heir  to 
the  throne,  but  Leoty chides,  his  nephew,  being 
suspected  of  illegitimacy,  was  set  aside  on  the 
death  of  Agis,  by  the  influence  of  Lysander, 
and  Agesilaus  substituted  for  him.  Agesilaus, 
having  received  only  the  ordinary  education  of 
a  Spartan  citizen,  was  very  popular  with  the 
mass  of  his  countrymen,  but  he  was  lame  and 
of  small  stature.  Objection  was  made  to  him 
on  this  ground  when  Lysander,  the  conqueror 
of  Athens,  proposed  him  for  the  succession, 
and  an  augur  prophesied  against  him.  Lysan 
der  replied  that  a  lame-footed  king  was  better 
than  a  man  who  was  not  of  pure  Heraclidan 
blood.  Agesilaus  submitted  to  the  restraints 
of  a  constitutional  king  and  paid  court  to  the 
ephori.  Soon  after  his  accession  an  expedi 
tion  against  Persia  was  determined  upon. 
Agesilaus,  accompanied  by  Lysander,  accepted 
the  command,  and  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  council  of  war.  He  burst  into  Asia  Minor, 
396  B.  0.,  and  forced  Tissaphernes,  the  Persian 
satrap,  to  beg  for  a  three  months1  truce,  which 
was  sworn  to  by  both  parties.  It  was  treach 


erously  broken  by  Tissaphernes,  but  kept  by 
Agesilaus  from  considerations  both  of  principle 
and  policy.  After  many  successes  in  Asia 
Minor,  he  inarched  his  army  into  the  govern 
ment  of  the  satrap  Pharnabazus.  In  a  two 
years'  campaign  he  brought  his  troops  into  the 
highest  state  of  efficiency,  and  never  allowed 
them  to  desecrate  the  temples  of  the  foreign 
gods.  Having  overcome  all  the  satraps  in  the 
neighborhood,  Agesilaus  conceived  the  gigantic 
scheme  of  penetrating  to  the  heart  of  the  Per 
sian  empire,  and  meeting  the  king  of  Persia 
face  to  face,  as  Alexander  afterward  did.  The 
money  of  the  Persian  monarch,  freely  used  in 
Athens  and  Thebes,  had  meantime  stirred  up 
in  Greece  itself  a  coalition  against  Sparta  and 
her  allies,  and  the  ephori  sent  a  messenger  to 
Agesilaus  recalling  him.  He  returned  from  Asia 
Minor  by  way  of  the  Hellespont  through 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Thessaly,  fighting  his 
way  when  he  was  opposed,  and  making  the 
inarch  in  30  days.  Xenophon  accompanied 
him.  He  met  the  anti-Spartan  allies  at  Coro- 
nea  in  Boeotia  (394),  and  won  a  well  contested 
battle,  in  which  he  was  severely  wounded  and 
many  of  his  choice  body  guard  of  Spartans 
were  slain.  He  regretted  the  Corinthian  war, 
because  it  weakened  in  a  fratricidal  struggle 
those  forces  which,  in  his  opinion,  should  have 
been  turned  against  Persia.  His  bitter  ani 
mosity  against  Thebes  led  him  to  screen  and 
support  Phoebidas,  the  Spartan  who  treach 
erously  seized  the  citadel  of  Thebes;  and  he 
also  saved  the  life  of  Sphodrias,  who  made 
an  equally  unprincipled  but  less  successful  at 
tempt  upon  the  Piraeus.  This  conduct  to  states 
with  which  Sparta  was  at  peace  united  Thebes 
and  Athens,  and  they  jointly  declared  war 
against  the  Lacedemonians.  Agesilaus  was 
not  present  at  the  defeat  of  Leuctra  (371), 
after  which  his  state  never  regained  its  ancient 
ascendancy ;  but  he  defended  the  city  of  Sparta 
with  success  against  Epaminondas  and  his  al 
lied  army.  His  son  Archidamus  soon  after 
ward  gained  an  easy  victory  over  the  Arcadi 
ans,  which  revived  the  drooping  courage  of  the 
Lacedemonians.  The  impoverished  condition 
of  Sparta  after  Leuctra  was  partly  remedied 
by  the  benefactions  of  Agesilaus,  who  gave  up 
to  the  state  all  the  money  and  presents  which 
he  had  received  from  various  oriental  poten 
tates.  The  last  scene  of  his  life  was  held  by 
the  Greeks  to  have  been  unworthy  of  his  re 
nown.  He  agreed  to  aid  Tachos,  an  Egyptian 
revolter  against  the  Persian  monarch,  with  a 
band  of  Laconian  mercenaries.  When  he 
landed  he  slept  on  the  shore  on  straw  and 
under  the  open  sky,  though  more  than  80  years 
old.  The  Egyptians  could  hardly  believe  that 
the  ill-clad,  mean-looking  little  old  man  whom 
they  saw  before  them  was  he  who  once  held 
the  destinies  of  Greece  and  Persia  in  his  hands. 
Tachos  would  not  give  him  the  supreme  con 
trol  of  the  land  forces,  but  offered  him  the  post 
of  second  in  command  after  himself.  This  dis- 
;  gusted  the  old  soldier,  and  when  Nectanabis 


AGGERIIUUS 


AGIS 


1ST 


/  revolted  from  Tachos  he  declared  for  the 
former.  Xectanabis  subjected  him  to  new  hu 
miliations,  but  Agesilaus  rescued  him  from  a 
perilous  position,  and  seated  him  firmly  in 
power.  The  Egyptian  gave  him  220  talents 
for  his  services,  with  which  he,  in  the  winter 
of  301-3(50,  hastened  homeward  to  lay  them  at 
the  feet  of  his  beloved  Sparta,  then  engaged  in 
war.  He  never  reached  home,  but  died  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  whither  he  had  been  driven 
by  a  tempest,  at  the  age  of  about  80,  after  a 
reign  of  38  years.  His  body  was  embalmed  in 
melted  wax  and  taken  to  Sparta,  where  he  was 
splendidly  buried. 

AGGERIHTS,  or  Akerslmns,  a  S.  E.  bailiwick 
of  Xorway,  in  the  diocese  of  Christiania ;  area, 
2,012  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1805,  104,804.  It  abounds 
in  beautiful  scenery,  mountains,  lakes,  and  wa 
terfalls.  The  chief  trade  is  in  pitch  and  lum 
ber;  with  some  iron,  tallow,  and  hides.  The 
whole  diocese  of  Christiania  was  formerly  called 
Aggerhuus. 

AGIIRDI,  or  Antrim,  a  village  in  the  coun 
ty  .of  Gal  way,  Ireland,  30  m.  E.  of  Gal  way, 
famous  for  the  crowning  victory  of  William  III. 
over  James  II.,  July  12,  1091.  The  marquis 
St.  Ruth,  a  French  general,  commanded  the 
forces  of  James  25,000  strong,  while  Ginkel 
led  those  of  William,  18,000.  St.  Ruth  had 
made  ajble  dispositions  for  the  battle,  but,  jeal 
ous  of  the  Irish  generals,  had  kept  his  plans  to 
himself,  and  when  he  was  killed  by  a  cannon 
shot  early  in  the  action  there  was  no  one  to 
succeed  him.  The  English  troops,  in  spite  of 
the  well  chosen  position  of  their  opponents, 
compelling  them  to  advance  through  a  deep  bog, 
totally  routed  them,  killing,  it  is  said,  7,000, 
and  taking  450  prisoners,  while  their  own  loss 
was  only  1,700  killed  and  wounded. 

AGIXCOIRT,  now  Azinconrt,  a  village  in  the 
department  of  Pas  de  Calais,  France,  7  m.  X. 
E.  of  Ilesdin,  on  the  plains  near  which,  on  Oct. 
25,  1415,  Henry  V.  of  England,  with  only 
15,000  men,  defeated  the  French  army  of  more 
than  50,000,  sent  against  him  by  the  dauphin 
(son  of  the  insane  king,  Charles  VI.)  and  com 
manded  by  D'Albret,  constable  of  France, 
aided  by  many  famous  captains.  The  battle, 
which  lasted  three  or  four  hours,  was  won 
chieliy  through  the  superiority  of  the  English 
archers,  who  almost  annihilated  the  cavalry  of 
the  enemy  when  these  had  been  drawn,  by  the 
excellent  strategy  of  the  English,  into  a  swamp 
that  lay  between  the  armies.  In  this  despe 
rate  conflict  the  French  lost  the  dukes  of  Alen- 
c.on,  Brabant,  and  Barre,  the  high  constable, 
grand  master,  arid  high  admiral  of  France,  the 
master  of  the  crossbows,  above  120  princes  of 
the  blood  and  nobles,  and  8,400  belted  knights, 
esquires,  and  gentlemen  of  birth  ;  of  the  lower 
ranks  there  fell  only  1,000  men.  Of  the  Eng 
lish,  there  fell  only  the  duke  of  York,  the  earl 
of  Suftblk,  one  knight,  one  esquire,  and  about 
000  men  of  all  ranks  and  arms.  The  dukes  of 
Orleans  and  Bourbon  and  the  high  marshal  of 
France,  with  1,500  knights  and  nobles,  were 


I  captured,  and   languished  for   many  years  in 
«  English  prisons. 

AGLMOIRT,   Jeaa    Baptiste   Lonis  George   Se- 
i  ronx  d',  a  French  arclueologist,  born  at  Beau- 
I  vais,   April  5,   1730,  died  in  Rome,  Sept.  24, 
,  1814.     His  reputation  rests  on  a  work  executed 
i  in    Rome,   entitled  Hixtoire  de  fart   par    Ics 
'  monuments,  depids  set,  decadence  an  quatrienie 
\  siecle  jusqiCa,  son  renouvellement  au  xeizieme 
(6  vols.  folio,  with  325  engravings,   1823),   to 
I  which  are  added  analytical  tables  by  M.  Gence. 
AGIS,  the  name  of  four  kings  of  Sparta. — 
Agis  I.,  who  gave  name  to  the  Agid  line  of 
|  the  joint  kings  of  Sparta,  is  of  uncertain  his- 
I  tory,  but  is  said  to  have  reigned  about  1,000 
i  B.  C.,  to  have  deprived  the  conquered  people 
:  of  Laconia  of  their  equality  with  the  Spartans, 
;  and  to  have  made  slaves  of  the  revolted  Helots 
i  (citizens  of  Helos).     The  following  were  all  of 
I  the    Proclid  line.  — Agis  II.   (427-398    B.   C.), 
son  of  Archidamus  II.,  was  actively  engaged 
:  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,   and  repeatedly  in- 
,  vaded   Attica.      His    son    Leotychides   being 
I  considered  illegitimate,   he  was   succeeded  by 
.  his    brother    Agesilaus.—  Agis    III.    (338-331 
\  B.  C.)  reigned  at  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great's  expedition  into  Asia.     In  the  absence  of 
I  that  conqueror,  he  made  an  irruption  into  Ar- 
|  cadia,  but  was  defeated  with  great  slaughter 
I  by  Antipater,   the   viceroy  whom   Alexander 
!  had     left     behind   him,    and    fell    lighting. — 
j  Agis  IV.  (244-240   B.  C.),  son   of  Eudamidas 
I  II.,  having  ccme  to  the  throne  when  he  was 
!  but  20  years  of  age,  conceived  a  liberal  system 
!  of  political  and  social  change.     The  privileged 
I  class,  who  engrossed  all  the  power  of  the  state, 
I  and  almost  all  its  wealth,  and  who  were  alone 
i  entitled  to  call  themselves  Spartans,  had  dwin- 
I  died  down  to  700  heads  of  families,  of  whom 
not  more  than  100  were  wealthy.     As  by  the 
laws  of  Lycurgns  no  Spartan  citizen  could  pos 
sess  more  than  one  lot  of  land,  three  fourths  of 
these    100  wealthy  proprietors  were   women, 
who  were  not  deemed  to  be  affected  by  the 
Lycurgian  laws,  and  in  whose  hands  most  of  the 
landed  estates  had  accumulated.    Agis  himself, 
his  mother,  and  his  grandmother  were  among 
the  wealthiest  proprietors.     His  plan  was,  that 
I  the  great  proprietors  should  give  up  all  their 
|  estates  above  the  limit  prescribed  by  Lycurgus, 
i  and  that  this  surplusage  should  be  divided  in 
this  way:   4,500  estates,  situated  in  the  dis 
tricts  adjoining  the  city  of  Sparta,  to  be  given 
to  the  poorer  Spartan  citizens  and  the  most 
!  respectable  aliens,  and  15,000  estates  to  be  cut 
I  out   from   the   outlying   portions    of  Laconia, 
|  and  bestowed  on  as  many  Perioeci  capable  of 
bearing   arms,   who  were  to  be   admitted  to 
Spartan  citizenship ;  all  debts  to  be  cancelled, 
|  and  the  whole  community  to  start  with  a  fresh 
[  score.     He  gained  over  his  mother  Agesistrata 
and  his   grandmother  Archidamia,  and  after- 
j  ward  his  other  relatives  and  private  friends. 
I  The  senate  rejected  the  project  by  a  majority 
!  of  one,  but  a  public  meeting  was  called,  when 
j  Agis  spoke,  and  offered  to  give  up  his  property. 


188 


AGLAOPHON 


AGXOLO 


Leonidas,  joint  king  with  Agis,  who  with  a 
majority  of  the  property  holders  was  opposed 
to  the  scheme,  was  soon  after  condemned  and 
deposed  for  having  married  a  foreigner  and  re 
sided  in  a  foreign  land.  A  plot  was  laid  to  as 
sassinate  him,  but  Agis  protected  him,  and  al 
lowed  him  to  leave  Sparta  unhurt.  The  ephor 
Agesilaus,  who  was  deeply  in  debt,  procured  a 
decree  to  abolish  all  debts,  and  all  acknowledg 
ments  of  debt  were  publicly  burned  in  the  mar 
ket  place ;  but  while  Agis  was  absent  in  com 
mand  of  an  army  against  the  ^Etolians,  Agesi 
laus  intrigued  successfully  against  the  fulfil 
ment  of  the  original  design.  Leonidas  was 
recalled  and  reinstated,  and  Agis  fled  to  a 
sanctuary.  The  conservatives,  not  daring  to 
take  his  life  in  a  temple,  kidnapped  him  while 
he  stole  out  to  t:ike  a  bath,  and  threw  him  into 
prison.  An  impromptu  trial  was  held,  and  he 
was  hurried  to  execution.  His  mother  and 
grandmother  shared  his  fate. 

AGLAOPHON,  a  painter  of  the  island  of  Thasos, 
flourished  about  500  B.  C.  He  was  the  father 
and  instructor  of  Polygnotus  and  Aristophon. 
There  was  a  later  painter  of  the  same  name, 
probably  his  grandson. 

AGMEGUE,  or  Gagmegne,  the  proper  name  of  the 
Mohawks,  one  of  the  Five  Nations  of  the  Ho- 
tinonsionui  or  Iroquois.  As  a  tribe  they  called 
themselves  Ganniagwari,  "  the  She  Bear," 
whence  they  were  termed  by  the  neighboring 
Algonquin  tribes  Mahaqua,  a  name  corrupted 
by  the  English  into  Mohawk.  The  French 
joined  the  Canada  tribes  against  them  in  1609  ; 
but  the  Dutch  made  a  treaty  with  them  in  1618 
at  Norman's  Kill,  which  proved  lasting,  and 
the  English  also  secured  their  friendship.  Yet 
French  Catholic  missionaries  won  many  converts 
among  them,  who  subsequently  contributed  to 
build  up  their  three  villages  on  the  St.  Law 
rence.  During  the  French  and  English  wars 
they  did  good  service  against  Canada,  but  in  the 
revolutionary  war  the  tribe  under  Brant  joined 
the  English  and  committed  great  ravages'in  the 
American  settlements.  In  1784  they  retired  to 
Grand  River,  Upper  Canada,  where  they  now 
are.  The  "Mohawk  Radicals"  of  Bruyas  is 
the  fullest  published  dictionary  of  their  lan 
guage,  though  Marcoux's  grammar  and  dic 
tionary  are  the  most  complete.  Brant  trans 
lated  the  "  Book  of  Common  Prayer  "  and  a 
part  of  the  Bible  into  Mohawk. 

AGNANO,  a  lake  betAveen  Naples  and  Poz- 
zuoli,  about  60  feet  deep.  The  waters  are 
strongly  impregnated  with  mineral  matter,  and 
the  lake  is  probably  the  crater  of  an  extinct 
volcano.  Tradition  says  there  was  formerly 
a  town  here,  which  was  destroyed  by  an  earth 
quake  ;  and  some  antiquaries  conjecture  that  it- 
was  the  fish  pond  of  Lucullus,  who  had  a  villa 
in  the  neighborhood.  Mosaics  and  ruins  of 
baths  are  found.  On  the  shores  of  the  lake 
are  natural  sulphur  baths  (Stufe  di  San  Ger- 
mano),  useful  in  gout,  rheumatism,  &c. ;  and 
100  paces  from  there  is  the  celebrated  Grotta 
del  Cane.  (See  GEOTTO.) 


AGNES,  Saint,  according  to  ecclesiastical  tra 
dition,  a  Christian  martyr,  of  a  noble  Roman 
|  family,  beheaded  in  the  persecution  of  Diocle 
tian  in  303,  at  the  age  of  16.  Her  uncom 
mon  beauty  had  tempted  a  son  of  the  praetor 
Symphronius,  from  whose  brutality  she  was 
saved  by  a  miracle.  He  was  struck  blind,  and 
recovered  his  sight  through  her  prayers. 

AGNES  SOREL,  mistress  of  Charles  VII.  of 
France,  born  at  Fromenteau,  Touraine,  about 
1409,  died  in  1450.  She  was  introduced 
at  court  in  1431,  soon  captivated  the  king, 
though  she  for  some  time  resisted  his  advances, 
and  retained  her  influence  to  the  last.  So  re 
markable  was  her  life  and  conduct  in  her  pe 
culiar  position,  that  for  some  time  she  enjoyed 
the  warm  friendship  of  Charles's  queen,  the 
virtuous  Marie  of  An] on.  It  has  been  gener 
ally  asserted  that  to  her  was  mainly  attributa 
ble  Charles  VII. 's  recovery  from  the  lethargic 
despair  into  which  he  had  fallen,  in  the  hope 
less  state  of  public  affairs  after  the  English 
victories  of  Henry  V.  and  the  generals  who 
commanded  for  his  infant  son.  But  her 
luxury  and  wealth  excited  the  animosity  of 
the  court  and  the  people ;  and  after  her  sudden 
death  suspicions  were  entertained  against  the 
dauphin,  afterward  Louis  XL,  of  having  poi 
soned  her.  She  had  three  daughters  by  the  king. 
AGNESI,  Maria  Gaetana,  a  learned  Italian  lady, 
born  in  Milan,  March  16,  1718,  died  Jan.  9,  1799. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  professor  of  mathe 
matics  at  the  university  of  Bologna.  From  her 
childhood  she  spoke  Latin  with  facility,  and 
was  also  skilled  in  other  dead  and  living  lan 
guages.  While  still  very  young  she  was  in  the 
habit  of  maintaining  theses  at  her  father's 
house,  191  of  which  he  collected  and  published 
under  the  title  of  Propositiones  Philosophical 
(Milan,  1738).  In  1748  she  published  her 
Imtituzioni  analitiche  (2  vols.  4to),  an  educa- 
!  tional  work  on  the  higher  mathematics,  partly 
|  translated  into  French  in  1775.  In  1750,  her 
father  having  fallen  sick,  she  was  permitted  by 
dispensation  of  the  pope  to  take  his  place  as 
lecturer  in  the  university.  She  ended  her  life 
in  a  convent. — MAEIA  TEEESA,  sister  of  the 
preceding,  composed  the  operas  of  "  Sopho- 
nisba,"  "Cyrus  in  Armenia,"  and  "Nitocris," 
besides  many  cantatas. 

AGNOETJE  (Gr.  ayvoeZv,  to  be  ignorant  of),  a 

sect  of  heretics  in  the  4th  century,  followers 

of  Theophronius  of  Cappadocia,  and    another 

in  the  6th,  of  Tliemistius  of  Alexandria,     The 

!  former  denied  the  omniscience  of  God,  and  the 

j  latter  held  that  the  union  of  Christ's  human 

and  divine  natures  did  not  make  his  human 

nature  omniscient. 

AGNOLO,  Bacdo  d>,  a  Florentine  architect, 
born  in  1460,  died  in  1543.  His  best  works 
are  the  Villa  Borgherini  near  Florence,  and 
the  campanile  of  the  church  of  the  Santo 
Spirito  in  that  city.  He  first  introduced  the 
use  of  frontispieces  for  the  windows  and  doors 
of  private  mansions,  which  before  his  time  had 
been  confined  to  church  architecture. 


AGXOXE 


AGOSTA 


AGXOXE,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  province  of  Mo- 
lise,  18  m.  X.  X.  E.  of  Isernia;  pop.  in  1861, 
9,355.  It  has  live  monts  deplete,  which  make 
loans  of  seed  corn  to  the  peasants,  and  is  the 
seat  of  the  principal  copper  manufactures  in 
the  kingdom. 

AGXTS  DEI.  I.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  a  cake  of  wax  bearing  the  image  of  a 
lamb  holding  the  banner  of  the  cross,  and 
blessed  by  the  pope.  Fragments  of  such 
cakes,  enclosed  in  the  figure  of  a  heart,  are 
worn  around  the  neck  by  devout  Catholics.  II. 
A  cloth  embroidered  with  the  figure  of  a  lamb, 
with  which,  in  the  Greek  church,  the  cup  at 
the  Lord's  supper  is  covered. 

AGOBARD,  Saint,  a  Frankish  theologian,  born 
in  779,  died  June  6,  840.  He  became  arch 
bishop  of  Lyons  in  816,  and  was  deposed  by 
the  council  of  Thionville  in  835  for  the  part  he 
had  taken  in  the  revolt  of  Lothaire  against 
Louis  le  Debonnaire  (833),  but  was  promptly 
restored,  having  become  reconciled  with  the 
emperor.  He  wrote  several  controversial  theo 
logical  works  against  image  worship,  the  belief 
in  witchcraft,  and  duelling ;  his  principal  oppo 
nent  in  discussing  these  questions  was  Felix  of 
Urgel.  Editions  of  Agobard's  works  were 
published  in  1605  and  in  1G66  in  Paris,  and  a 
book  of  his  against  the  Jews  was  translated 
into  German  in  1852. 

AGOXIC  LL\E  (Gr.  a,  without,  and  -yavia,  an 
gle),  a  word  introduced  by  the  modern  investi 
gators  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  applied  to 
a  line  uniting  all  points  where  the  declination 
of  the  compass  needle  is  zero,  that  is,  where  it 
points  exactly  north  and  south.  As  the  mag 


netic  poles  of  the  earth  do  not  coincide  with 
the  geographical  poles,  the  magnetic  meridians 
are  different  from  the  geographical  meridians  ; 
and  as  the  former  are  determined  by  the  decli 
nation  of  the  compass  needle,  they  are.  by  no 
means  regular  arcs  of  great  circles,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  latter,  the  magnetic  force  which  di 
rects  the  compass  needle  being  very  irregular 
over  the  earth's  surface.  Therefore  the  agonic 
line  is  not  that  geographical  meridian  which 
passes  through  the  magnetic  poles  of  our  earth, 
but  an  irregular  line  at  present  crossing  the  east 
ern  portion  of  South  America  at  about  20°  S. 
latitude  and  30°  of  longitude  E.  of  Washington, 
skirting  the  Antilles,  entering  North  Carolina 
near  Cape  Lookout,  passing  over  Virginia,  Ohio, 
Lakes  Erie  and  Huron,  crossing  through  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  and  reaching  Hudson  bay 
and  the  magnetic  north  pole.  At  the  other  side 


I  of  this  pole  it  passes  through  the  unexplored 

I  regions  of  the  geographical  north  pole  till  it 

reaches  the  northern  coast  of  Siberia  in  about 

Ion.  115°  E.  of  Washington,  and  lat.   75°  X., 

I  passes  south  through  the  Caspian  sea  and  the 

j  Persian    gulf,  then   bends   southeast    through 

j  the  Indian  archipelago,  crosses  the  continent 

I  of  Australia  in  about  Ion.  190°  E.,  and  then 

j  takes  a  more  southern  direction  to  the  as  yet 

I  undiscovered    magnetic    south    pole,    beyond 

j  which  it  undoubtedly  passes  through  the  south 

S  polar  regions  to  unite  again  with  the  agonic 

line  in  the  southern  Atlantic  ocean.     A  most 

perplexing  fact  is  the  discovery  that  there  is 

I  in  the  eastern  hemisphere  a  second  agonic  line, 

!  independent  of  the  main  one  just  described. 

It  enters  China  from  the  south  in  Ion.  185°  E., 

runs  north  through  Tartary,  reaches  Siberia  in 

!  lat.  65°  X.,  then  bends  toward  the  east,  then 

I  southeast,  when  it  enters  the  ocean;  it  runs 

|  southward  over  Japan,  then   southwest,  and 

finally  west,  and  unites  with  the  line  entering 

the  south  of  China.      It  thus  forms  a  .closed 

I  elliptical  ring,  nearly  2,500  m.  long  and  1,500 

|  m.  wide,  inside  of  which  the  declination  of  the 

compass  needle  is  eastward.     If  the  modern 

theory  be  correct,  that  the  earth's  magnetism 

|  is  caused  by  electric   currents   running  from 

I  east  to  west  through  the  earth's  crust,  and  to 

I  which,  according  to  the   law  of  Oersted,  the 

compass   needle  places  itself  at  right  angles, 

these  peculiarities  would  only  indicate  that  the 

direction  of  these  currents  is  somewhat  irregu- 

l  lar,  and  that  they  only  run  exactly  east  and 

I  west  at  the  localities  through  which  the  agonic 

I  lines   have   been   traced.     The   most   difficult 

phenomenon,  however,  is  the  fact  that  both 

this  agonic  line  and  the  magnetic  pole  have  a 

I  slow  motion  from  east  to  west;  in  1580  it  ran 

!  through  Sweden  and  Germany,  in  1620  through 

|  Holland,  in  1660  through  London,  England,  in 

I  1700  through  the  western  coast  of  Ireland;   it 

I  arrived  on  the  American  continent  about  1780, 

|  and  in  Pennsylvania  in  1800  ;  it  is  now  in  Ohio, 

and   constantly  moves  west  with   a  velocity 

I  which  seems  to  indicate  that,  if  persisted  in,  it 

j  will  make  one  revolution  around  the  earth  in 

!  about  600  years.      Trustworthy  observations, 

j  however,  extend  thus  far  over  too  short  a  period 

1  of  time  to  warrant  any  legitimate  conclusion. 

AGOXISTICI,  a  sect  of  Donatist  ascetics  who 
inhabited  the  northern  part  of  Africa  in  the 
j  4th  century.  They  were  opposed  to  labor,  and 
to  marriage  as  well  as  to  monasticism,  which 
i  was  then  just  beginning  to  gain  ground, 
i  They  were  mostly  rough,  uneducated  peasants, 
;  who  begged  among  the  inhabitants,  and  often 
;  destroyed  the  idols,  regardless  of  the  martyr- 
;  dom  which  was  frequently  their  reward.  They 
I  eagerly  sought  a  voluntary  death  by  means  of 
i  fire  or  water.  Upon  the  invasion  of  the  A^an- 
i  dais  the  sect  was  totally  extinguished. 

AGOSTA,  or  Angnsta,  a  seaport  town  on  the 

i  E.  coast  of  Sicily,  12  m.  X.  of  Syracuse,  and 

18  m.  S.  of  Catania;  pop.  in  1861,  9,223.     It 

is  built  on  a  low  peninsula  in  the  Mediter- 


190 


AGOSTINO 


AGRA 


ranean,  and  in  consequence  of  its  liability  to 
earthquakes,  by  one  of  which  it  was  almost 
totally  destroyed  in  1093,  the  houses,  with  a 
few  striking  exceptions,  are  built  low.  On  the 
west  side  of  the  peninsula  it  has  a  commodious 
harbor,  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  in  Sicily.  The 
knights  of  Malta  at  one  time  had  extensive  mag 
azines  at  this  port.  Agosta  has  a  trade  in  wine, 
flax,  olive  oil,  salt,  honey,  and  sardines.  The 
remarkable  caves  of  Timpa  are  near  the  town. 
It  was  founded  in  the  13th  century  by  the  em 
peror  Frederick  II.,  who  destroyed  the  town  of 
Centuripa  and  removed  its  inhabitants  hither. 

AGOSTINO  and  A-znolo  or  Angelo,  two  brothers, 
sculptors  and  architects,  born  at  Siena  about 
1269.  Educated  in  their  profession  by  Giovan 
ni,  a  Pisan  architect,  they  were  named  archi 
tects  of  their  native  city,  where  they  con 
structed  many  edifices  for  secular  and  religious 
uses.  They  also  executed,  from  the  plans  of 
Giotto,  the  tomb  of  Guido,  bishop  of  Arezzo, 
one  of  the  finest  architectural  monuments  of 
the  14th  century. 

AGOILT,  Marie  Catherine  Sophie  de  FlaYigny, 
countess  d',  a  French  authoress,  known  by  the 
pseudonyme  of  Daniel  Stern,  born  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main  in  1805.  Her  father,  the  vis 
count  de  Flavigny,  emigrated  to  Frankfort  dur 
ing  the  revolution.  She  was  educated  in  Paris, 
and  in  1827  married  Count  Hector  Philippe 
d'Agoult.  She  subsequently  travelled  much  in 
Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Germany,  separated 
from  her  husband,  and  lived  with  Liszt,  the 
pianist,  by  whom  she  had  children.  She  was 
afterward  reconciled  with  her  husband  (who 
died  in  1850)  and  regained  her  social  standing 
in  Paris.  She  wrote  a  series  of  novels  some 
what  after  the  style  of  George  Sand.  Her 
principal  work  is  IRstoire  de  la  revolution  de 
1848  (2  vols.,  1851;  new  edition,  illustrated, 
1800).  She  has  also  published  Trois  Journees 
de  la  me  de  Marie  Stuart  (1856),  Florence  et 
Turin  (artistic  and  political  essays,  1862),  and 
Dante  et  Gccthe  (dialogues,  1860)1 

AGOUTI  (dasyprocta  of  Illigcr ;  cliloromys 
of  Cuvier),  a  genus  of  animals  belonging 
to  the  class  mammalia,  order  rodentia,  dis- 


Agouti  (Dasyprocta  aguti). 

tinguished  principally  by  their  feet  and  toes,  j 
which  are  furnished  with  powerful  claws,  simi-  i 
lar  to  those  of  the  burrowing  animals.  The  j 
agoutis,  however,  neither  burrow  nor  climb,  j 


roaming  at  large  in  the  forests,  and  sheltering 
themselves  among  any  casual  defences  they 
may  find.  They  use  their  fore  paws  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  their  food,  sitting  erect  on 
their  haunches  while  eating,  and  assuming  the 
same  attitude  when  looking  about  them  or  lis 
tening  in  alarm  or  surprise.  The  agouti  is  of 
nearly  the  size  of  a  large  hare,  and  like  that 
animal  has  its  hind  legs  longer  than  the  fore, 
but  not  so  disproportionately,  for  which  reason 
it  stands  more  erect.  The  common  agouti,  D. 
aguti,  measures  about  1  foot  8  inches  in  length, 
and  stands  11  or  12  inches  high  at  the  croup. 
Its  head  resembles  that  of  the  rabbit ;  its  face  is 
convex ;  its  nose  swollen ;  its  upper  lip  cleft ; 
its  ears  round  and  naked;  its  eyes  large;  its 
upper  jaw  longer  than  the  lower ;  and  its  tail 
a  mere  naked  stump.  The  hairs  on  the  upper 
parts  are  annulated  alternately  with  black, 
brown,  and  yellow,  producing  a  speckled  yel 
low  and  green  appearance  on  the  neck,  head, 
backhand  sides.  The  croup  is  golden  yellow; 
the  breast,  belly,  and  inner  part  of  the  arms 
and  thighs  are  straw  color ;  the  moustaches 
and  feet  black.  The  hair  on  the  fore  parts  is 
about  an  inch  long;  on  the  rump  nearly  four 
times  that  length,  whence  the  generic  name 
of  dasyprocta  (hairy-rumped) ;  and  is  every 
where,  except  on  the  breast  and  belly,  of  a  stiff 
and  bristly  character.  These  animals  inhabit 
Guiana  and  Brazil,  and  are  also  found  in  the 
West  India  islands,  and  as  far  south  as  Para 
guay.  On  the  islands,  at  the  time  of  their  first 
discovery,  they  were  the  largest  known  quad 
rupeds,  and  constituted  the  principal  food  of 
the  dense  Indian  population.  It  is  asserted 
and  denied,  by  different  authors,  that  they 
breed  many  times  in  each  year,  and  produce 
many  young  at  each  birth ;  but  the  great  num 
bers  in  which  they  are  still  found  in  all  the 
hotter  parts  of  America,  in  spite  of  their  de 
struction  by  the  small  carnivora  and  by  the 
Indian  races,  together  with  their  affinity  to  the 
rabbit  and  cavy,  seem  to  countenance  the  af 
firmative  proposition.  Their  flesh  is  white  and 
tender,  and  is  cooked  like  that  of  the  hare  or 
rabbit.  The  other  varieties  of  this  animal  are 
the  black  or  crested  agouti,  D.  cristata,  of 
Guiana  and  Brazil ;  the  acouchy,  or  olive  agouti, 
D.  acuchi,  of  the  West  India  isles,  Guiana,  and 
the  northern  parts  of  Brazil ;  the  white-toothed 
agouti,  D.  croconata,  of  the  Amazon  ;  the 
black-rnmped  agouti,  D.  prymnoloplia ;  the 
sooty  agouti,  D.  fuliginosa,  of  northern  Brazil, 
easily  distinguished  by  its  black  color  and  great 
size;  and,  lastly,  the  Azara's  agouti,  D,  Azarce, 
of  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  and  the  south  of  Brazil. 
They  are  perfectly  harmless,  and  appear  to 
form  a  link  between  the  families  of  the  rabbit 
and  cavy  or  Guinea  pig. 

AGRA.  I.  One  of  the  six  Northwestern  Prov 
inces  of  British  India  (which  constitute  one  of 
the  eight  separate  administrations  into  which 
India  is  divided),  lying  nearly  in  their  centre; 
area,  9,479  sq  m. ;  pop.  about  4,500,000,  all 
Hindoos,  except  nearly  400,000  Mohammedans. 


AGRA 


AGRARIAN   LAWS 


191 


It  is  watered  by  the  Jumna,  Ganges,  and  Chum- 
bul,  is  generally  flat,  almost  treeless,  and  arid, 
but  by  irrigation  produces  good  crops  of  millet 
and  other  grains,  indigo,  cotton,  pulse,  &«.  II. 
One  of  the  six  districts  or  zillahs  of  the  province 
of  Agra;  area,  1,805  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  1,000,- 
000.  III.  A  city,  capital  of  the  preceding  prov 
ince  and  district,  and  formerly  of  the  Xorth  west 
ern  Provinces,  on  the  S.  W.  bank  of  the  Jumna, 
connected  by  railway  with  the  principal  Indian 
cities,  115  in.  S.  S.  E.  of  Delhi  and  783  in.  N. 
W.  of  Calcutta ;  pop.,  including  the  two  sub 
urbs  and  the  garrison,  about  125,000.  It  is  the 
centre  of  an  extensive  trade,  chiefly  in  cotton, 
sugar,  indigo,  salt,  and  silks.  The  ancient 
walls  embrace  an  area  of  nearly  11  sq.  in., 
about  half  of  which  is  occupied.  Inside  Fort 
Akbar  are  the  palace  of  Shah  Jehan  and  the 
famous  pearl  mosque.  Near  the  river,  about 
1  m.  E.  of  the  fort,  is  the  celebrated  Taj  Mahal, 
a  mausoleum  built  bv  Jehan  for  himself  and  his 


The  Taj  Mahal,  Agra. 

wife  Xoor  Mahal,  in  the  construction  of  which 
20,000  men  are  said  to  have  been  employed  22 
years ;  the  cost  was  estimated  at  over  $4,000,000. 
It  is  of  white  marble,  100  feet  in  diameter  and 
200  in  height,  built  in  the  form  of  an  irregular 
octagon,  and  rising  from  a  high  marble  terrace 
which  rests  upon  another  of  red  sandstone. 
At  the  corners  of  the  marble  terrace  are  lofty 
minarets,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  main  build 
ing  rises  a  dome,  flanked  by  cupolas  of  similar 
form.  Both  the  interior  and  exterior  are  deco 
rated  with  mosaics  of  precious  stones  and  the 
most  beautiful  tracery.  The  whole  Koran  is 
said  to  be  written  in  mosaic  of  precious  stones 
on  the  interior  walls.  The  sarcophagi  of  Jehan 
and  Xoor  Mahal  lie  in  the  crypt  below.  Among 
the  European  public  buildings  is  the  govern 
ment  house,  the  seat  of  the  lieutenant  governor 
of  the  Northwestern  Provinces,  who  is  some 
times  called  lieutenant  governor  of  Agra,  the 
province  having  been  at  first  destined  (in  1833) 
V?  i'jrm  a  separate  presidency.— In  the  16th 


century  Agra  was  embellished  and  fortified  by 
Akbar,  whose  tomb  is  6  m.  from  the  city.  In 
1058  the  capital  was  removed  to  Delhi.  From 
that  time  the  population,  then  estimated  at 
nearly  500,000,  began  to  decline,  but  it  has  in 
creased  since  the  British  occupation.  In  the 
18th  century  Agra  was  held  by  various  native 
rulers,  and  eventually  by  Madhaji  Sindia,  the 
Mahratta  chief,  patron  of  the  French  adven 
turer  Pirron,  who  during  the  conflict  in  1803 
with  the  East  India  company  employed  in  his 
turn  the  Dutch  adventurer  Ilessing.  Anarchy 
prevailed  in  the  garrison,  and  several  Mahratta 
regiments  joined  the  English  forces  under  Gen. 
Lake,  who  occupied  the  city  in  September,  and 
the  fort  in  October,  1803.  During  the  sepoy 
mutiny  of  1857  most  of  the  European  houses 
were  destroyed.  The  English  and  other  for 
eign  residents,  however,  shut  themselves  up  in 
the  fort  and  sustained  a  gallant  defence  until  re 
lieved  by  Col.  Greathed. — Agra  is  venerated  by 
the  Hindoos  as  the  city  of  the  incarnation  of 
Vishnu  under  the  name  of  Parasu  Rama. 

AGRAM  (Croat.  Zagreb  ;  II  un.  Zdgrdb},  a  town 
of  the  Atistro-IIungarian  monarchy,  capital  of 
Croatia  and  of  a  county  of  its  own  name,  about 
a  mile  from  the  river  Save,  and  160  m.  S.  of 
Vienna;  pop.  in  1869,  20,637.  It  is  the  resi 
dence  of  the  ban  of  Croatia,  and  the  see  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  archbishop.  It  carries  on  an 
important  trade  in  salt,  tobacco,  grain,  and 
wines.  In  its  vicinity  is  one  of  the  finest  parks 
ot  the  monarchy. 

AGRARIAN  LAWS,  enactments  framed  at  vari 
ous  times  by  the  Romans  to  regulate  the  ager 
puljlicus,  or  public  domain.  In  the  first  epoch 
of  the  growth  of  Rome,  when  the  city  had  not 
yet  extended  beyond  the  Palatine  hill,  the 
whole  soil  of  the  state  was  ager  puMicus,  or 
undivided  public  property ;  and  from  the  state, 
or  the  pop ulvs  Romanus,  consisting  exclusively 
of  citizens,  every  citizen  received  a  share  for 
his  private  use.  In  principle  all  the  land  was, 
therefore,  ager  pitltUcns,  and  the  citizen  could 
only  acquire  possession  as  tenant  at  will  of  the 
state ;  but  in  course  of  time  the  descend 
ants  of  the  original  founders,  or  the  patricians, 
transformed  these  primitive  concessions  into  an 
absolute  right,  called  in  the  Roman  law  de  jure 
qmritio.  Still  the  principle  remained,  and 
was  recognized  during  the  whole  epoch  of  the 
republic,  that  all  lands  and  booty  acquired  by 
conquest  were  acquired  for  the  state,  and  could 
only  become  the  property  of  individuals  through 
the  cession  to  them  of  the  rights  of  the  state. 
As  conquest  increased  the  public  possessions, 
and  the  class  of  plebeians  was  formed,  the  Ro 
man  people  gave  them  lands  in  the  ager  puh- 
licvs,  as  private  property,  on  condition  of  their 
paying  a  tribute,  and  undertaking  other  pub 
lic  services;  but  the  patricians  always  pre 
served  their  ancient  right  of  receiving  in  pos 
session  and  using  parts  of  the  public  domain, 
on  paying  to  the  public  treasury  a  tithe  of  its 
product.  From  the  first  epoch  of  Roman  so 
ciety,  lands  thus  held  could  pass  as  an  inherit-- 


AGRARIAN  LAWS 


AGRICOLA 


ance  to  children,  and  were  even  sold  under 
this  precarious  tenure,  though  in  principle  the 
state  could  always  resume  their  possession. 
These  public  lands  were  also,  on  their  conr 
quest,  often  transformed  into  common  pastur 
age.  Such  lands  had  various  technical  names, 
as  occupati,  oceupatorii,  conccssi,  areifinales, 
&c. ;  but  the  general  name  was  that  of  posses- 
siones,  and  the  -payment  or  tithe  given  to  the 
state  for  their  use  was  called  fructm  or  vecti- 
galia.  The  possession  of  all  such  lands  by  in 
dividuals  was  permissive,  and  differed  wholly 
from  the  absolute  right  of  property,  by  which 
each  Roman  citizen,  whether  an  original  pa 
trician  or  one  of  the  plebeians  who  were  first 
admitted  to  private  and  then  to  public  rights, 
held  landed  property  by  the  various  titles  and 
denominations  known  in  the  Roman  law.  But 
the  patricians,  the  original  shareholders  in  the 
public  domain,  became  by  long  use  accustomed 
to  consider  their  grants  as  absolute  property, 
especially  as  they  had  improved  them  in  vari 
ous  ways ;  and  accordingly  they  often  refused 
to  pay  the  tithe  due  to  the  treasury.  In  the 
early  period  of  the  republic,  previous  to  the 
twelve  tables,  Spurius  Cassius,  a  patrician,  on 
becoming  consul,  procured  a  law  that  some 
parts  of  the  public  domain,  long  before  con 
quered,  but  occupied  by  the  patricians,  should 
be  surrendered  to  the  state  and  assigned  to  the 
necessitous  citizens.  The  patricians  resisted  it, 
and  the  law  remained  a  dead  letter.  The  pa 
tricians  not  only  prevented  new  divisions  of 
the  public  lands,  but  by  violence  or  usury  ac 
quired  those  of  the  plebeians.  This  led  to 
agitation  for  a  revival  of  the  law  of  Spurius 
Cassius,  which  the  celebrated  decemvir  Appius 
Claudius  strongly  opposed.  Next,  the  inva 
sion  of  the  Gauls  under  Brennus  ruined  the 
numerous  small  free  tenants  and  freeholders, 
and  obliged  them  to  sell  their  landed  property 
to  the  wealthy  patricians.  Those  among  the 
small  freeholds  which  were  not  thus  absorbed 
were  overwhelmed  by  the  surrounding  large 
estates.  The  keeping  of  large  flocks  of  cattle 
ruined' the  saltus  publici,  or  common  pasture 
lands,  and  in  fact  excluded  the  small  farmers 
from  them.  This  abuse  occasioned  the  publi 
cation,  in  867  B.  C.,  of  the  Licinian  law  (roga- 
tiones  Licinw),  so  called  from  Licinius  Stolo, 
its  originator.  This  law  is  considered  as  form 
ing  the  basis  and  containing  the  essence  of  the 
agrarian  idea.  The  technical  name  of  this  law 
was  De  Modo  Agri.  It  prescribed,  under  a  pen 
alty  of  heavy  fines,  that  no  one  should  possess 
more  than  500  jugera  (about  330  acres)  of  the 
public  domain  ;  and  that  no  one  should  send  to 
graze  on  the  public  pastures  more  than  100  large 
or  500  small  animals.  This  law  was  put  in 
force  for  a  brief  period,  after  which  it  was  neg 
lected  for  nearly  two  centuries,  when  it  was 
renewed  by  Tiberius  Gracchus,  with  some  addi 
tions  and  modifications  in  favor  of  the  wealthy, 
who  were  mostly  patricians.  Any  one  having 
one  or  two  sons  could  hold  from  250  to  500 
jugera  in  the  public  domain  above  his  original 


right,  as  established  by  the  Licinian  law.  The 
attempt  to  execute  these  laws  occasioned  the 
tragical  end  of  the  two  Gracchi  (133  and  121 
B.  C.).  In  succeeding  times,  an  agrarian  law 
was  mooted  by  a  certain  Saturninus,  having  for 
its  object  the  distribution  of  lands  conquered 
in  Cisalpine  Gaul.  Another  was  proposed  by 
Drusus  to  distribute  all  the  conquered  lands 
i  among  the  poor;  and  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
I  Servians  Rullus  proposed  that  the  public  do- 
j  mains  out  of  Italy  conquered  by  Pornpey  should 
be  sold,  and  out  of  the  proceeds  lands  bought  in 
Italy  for  needy  citizens.  Not  one  of  all  the 
Roman  agrarian  laws  was  ever  executed,  and 
not  one  of  them  had  that  confiscatory  or  level 
ling  character  so  frequently  attributed  to  them. 
Not  one  of  these  laws  aimed  at  the  equal  division 
of  landed  property  owned  by  individuals  in  their 
own  absolute  right,  or  intended  any  limitation 
upon  such  ownership. 

AGREDA,  Maria  de  (Coronel),  a  Franciscan  nun, 
lady  superior  of  the  convent  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  (founded  by  her  mother)  at  Agreda, 
in  Spain,  born  in  that  town  in  1602,  died  there, 
May  24,  1665.  She  professed  to  receive  reve 
lations  direct  from  heaven.  At  the  command 
of  God,  who  appeared  to  her  in  a  dream,  as 
she  said,  she  undertook  to  write  the  life  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  It  was  first  published  in  1690, 
under  the  title  Mistica  Ciudad  de  Dios  (4 
vols.).  Every  word,  according  to  her  attesta 
tion,  had  been  written  under  inspiration.  The 
reading  of  it  was  forbidden  at  Rome,  and  the 
Sorbonne  in  Paris  censured  the  individual  who 
translated  a  portion  into  French.  Bossuet  ex 
posed  the  indecencies  of  the  work.  It  has  been 
translated  into  German. 

AGREEMENT.     See  CONTRACT. 

AGRIB,  Agreed,  or  Gharib,  Mount,  a  remarka 
ble  conical  mountain  in  central  Egypt,  in  lat. 
28°  12'  N.,  Ion.  32°  42'  E.  It  is  situated  about 
16  miles  inland  from  the  gulf  of  Suez,  opposite 
Mt.  Sinai,  is  about  6,000  feet  high,  and  can  be 
seen  at  a  distance  of  100  miles. 

AGRICOLA,  Cneins  Julias,  a  Roman  general, 
born  at  Forum  Julii  (now  Frejus  in  Provence), 
June  13,  A.  D.  37,  died  Aug.  23,  93.  He  re 
ceived  his  education  atMassilia  (Marseilles),  and 
his  military  training  under  Suetonius  in  Brit 
ain.  On  Vespasian's  election  by  his  legions  (69), 
Agricola,  then  quaastor  in  Asia,  was  one  of  the 
first  to  acknowledge  him,  and  that  emperor  in 
gratitude  appointed  him  governor  of  Aquitania. 
lie  was  next  made  consul,  and  subsequently 
governor  of  Britain.  During  this  governor 
ship  he  conquered  Wales  and  the  island  of  An- 
glesea,  built  a  wall  from  the  Clyde  to  the  frith 
of  Forth  to  keep  oft'  the  incursions  of  the 
northern  barbarians,  and  defeated  the  British 
Galgacus  in  Scotland,  and  thus  brought  Britain 
under  complete  subjection.  The  Roman  fleet 
now  for  the  flrst  time  sailed  round  the  whole 
island.  He  was  recalled  by  Domitian,  and  lived 
in  retirement  till  his  death,  which  was  attrib 
uted  to  the  emperor's  jealousy  of  his  military 
reputation  and  popularity.  Ilis  daughter  Do- 


AGPJCOLA 


AGKICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY    193 


mitia  married  Tacitus  the  historian,  who  wrote 
his  life. 

AGRICOLA.  I.  Georjr,  a  German  mineralo 
gist  and  physician,  born  at  Glauchau,  Saxony, 
March  24,  1490,  died  in  Chemnitz,  Xov.  21, 
1555.  II  is  name  was  originally  Bauer  (peas 
ant),  of  which  he  adopted  the  Latin  equivalent, 
lie  was  at  first  rector  of  a  school  in  Zwickau, 
afterward  studied  medicine  at  Leipsic,  devoted 
himself  to  metallurgy,  and  in  1531,  on  the  invi 
tation  of  Duke  Maurice,  settled  at  Chemnitz. 
He  attempted  to  reduce  mineralogy  and  metal 
lurgy  to  a  science,  and  introduced  considerable 
improvements  in  the  previously  rude  art  of 
mining.  He  first  made  chemical  analyses  of 
the  different  earths.  His  mind  was,  however, 
deeply  tinged  with  the  superstitions  of  his  age. 
Having  renounced  Protestantism  before  his 
death,  his  body  was  refused  burial  in  Chem 
nitz.  He  wrote  De  Re  Metallica,  De  Ortu  et 
Causis  Subterraneorum,  and  De  Mensuris  et 
Ponder  ibus  Romanorum  atque  Grcecorum.  II. 
Johaim  Friedrich,  a  German  musician  and  com 
poser,  born  near  Altenburg,  Jan.  4,  1720,  died 
in  Berlin,  Xov.  12,  1774.  He  studied  music 
under  Sebastian  Bach,  was  chapelmaster  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  wrote  several  operas, 
among  them  "  Iphigenia  in  Tauris."  He  was 
husband  of  the  vocalist  Mme.  Molteni.  III. 
Johannes  (originally  SCHXITTEE  or  SCHXEIDEE), 
a  German  theologian,  born  in  Eisleben,  whence 
he  is  called  Magister  Islebius,  April  10,  1492, 
died  in  Berlin,  Sept.  22,  1566.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg  and  Leipsic,  and  acquired  the 
friendship  and  esteem  of  Luther,  who  in  1525 
sent  him  to  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  to  institute 
Protestant  worship  there.  On  his  return  he 
was  parish  priest  of  Eisleben,  and  here  he  com 
menced  that  Antinomian  controversy  which  he 
subsequently  renewed  from  his  professorial 
chair  in  Wittenberg  (1536-'8),  and  for  which 
he  was  dismissed  from  that  university.  He  next 
became  chaplain  and  general  superintendent  to 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  wrote  several 
theological  works,  as  well  as  an  account  of  the 
common  German  proverbs.  IV.  Rudolf,  an 
eminent  scholar,  born  in  Groningen  in  1442  or 
1443,  died  in  Heidelberg,  Oct.  28,  1485.  He 
travelled  in  France  and  Italy,  and  won  the  es 
teem  and  patronage  of  Ercole  d'Este,  duke  of 
Ferrara.  On  his  return  he  was  chosen  profes 
sor  of  philosophy  at  the  university  of  Heidel 
berg.  He  wrote  various  works  of  a  miscella 
neous  character,  the  most  remarkable  of  which, 
perhaps,  is  an  essay  entitled  Tractatm  de  In- 
ventione  Dialectica,  in  which  he  devotes  con 
siderable  space  to  the  discussion  of  the  ability 
of  deaf  mutes  to  acquire  such  knowledge  of 
language  as  to  be  able  to  converse  with  others 
by  writing.  He  was  among  the  first  to  intro 
duce  the  study  of  Greek  into  Germany,  and 
gave  lectures  on  Greek  literature  at  Worms 
and  Heidelberg. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY,  the  study  of  the 
chemical  relations  "of  substances  concerned  in 
agricultural  production.  The  whole  natural 
VOL.  i. — 13 


'  science  of  vegetable  and  animal  production  ip 
usually  called  agricultural  chemistry,  although 
it  includes  much  of  physics,  meteorology,  vege- 
|  table  and  animal  physiology,  and  geology.  It 
'  is  impossible  to  separate  these  subjects,  with 
out  grave  errors;  and  hence  those  works 
which  give  the  justest  view  of  the  chemistry 
of  agriculture  are  not  strictly  treatises  on  ag 
ricultural  chemistry.  The  object  of  agricul 
ture  is  to  develop  from  the  soil  as  large  a  quan 
tity  as  possible  of  useful  vegetable  products; 
or  indirectly,  of  animal  products.  To  assist  in 
this,  agricultural  chemistry  must  inquire  into 
the  composition  of  the  plant  and  animal.  It 
finds  that  all  vegetable  and  animal  substances 
contain  a  variable,  usually  large  proportion  of 
water,  which  is  essential  to  their  life,  but  may 
be  separated  from  them  by  heat  without  other 
wise  affecting  their  chemical  composition.  At 
a  high  temperature,  dry  animal  or  vegetable  tis 
sues  are  resolved  into  two  portions ;  one  passes 
into  the  air  as  volatile  gases  or  vapors ;  another, 
indestructible  by  heat,  remains  as  ashes.  In 
most  vegetable  and  animal  substances,  the  com 
bustible  or  organic  part  forms  90  to  99  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  dry  matter ;  the  proportion 
of  inorganic  substances  (ash)  being  small.  The 
organic  matter  mainly  consists  of  four  elements, 
viz. :  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen. 
These  simple  bodies  are  united  in  the  plant  and 
animal  into  thousands  of  combinations,  the  ex 
tended  study  of  which  belongs  to  organic  chem 
istry.  Most  agricultural  products,  however, 
consist  chiefly  of  but  a  few  of  these  combina 
tions  or  proximate  elements.  These  may  be 
specified  under  four  classes:  1.  The  oils  and 
resins,  including  wax.  2.  Cellulose  (cell  tissue, 
woody  fibre);  starch;  the  sugars,  cane  and 
grape;  the  gums,  arabine,  bassorine,  dextrine 
(starch  gums).  3.  Pectose  (the  pulp  of  green 
fruits)  and  its  derivatives.  4.  The  nitrogenous 
or  sanguigenous*  principles,  viz. :  albumen,  case- 
ine  (legumine,  avenine),  emulsine,  and  fibrine 
(gluten).  The  first  three  groups  are  com 
posed  exclusively  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen  (some  of  the  oils,  of  carbon  and  hydro 
gen  only),  while  all  the  members  of  the  fourth 
group  contain  15  to  18  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
most  of  them  small  quantities  of  sulphur,  and 
phosphorus  also,  in  addition  to  the  three  ele 
ments  above  named.  The  whole  growing  part 
of  the  plant  is  a  porous  substance,  as  easily 
penetrable  by  air  as  a  sieve,  and  a  hygroscopic 
substance,  absorbing  and  retaining  the  vapor 
of  water  from  the  air  or  soil  with  great  force 
and  obstinacy.  When  a  vegetable  is  destroyed 
by  burning,  it  is  mostly  resolved  into  air.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  it  is  formed  by  growth, 
its  substance  is  mostly  derived  from  air.  The 
atmosphere  which  perpetually  bathes  and  pene 
trates  the  leaves  of  plants  supplies  them  with 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen.  The 
atmospheric  source  of  carbon  is  carbonic  acid. 
This  gas  is  a  constant  ingredient  of  the  atmos- 

* BloorJ -producing;  so  called  from  the  function  of  these 
bodies  in  animal  nutrition. 


194: 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY 


phere  to  the  extent  of  ^-sVo  °f  tne  volume  of 
the  latter.  It  is  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  leaves 
of  growing  plants  under  the  influence  of  sun 
light,  and  undergoes  decomposition  in  the  vege 
table  cells,  carbon  being  retained  and  assimi 
lated,  while  the  oxygen  is  set  free  wholly  or  in 
part,  and  exhales  from  the  leaves.  Water, 
which  always  exists  in  the  atmosphere  in  the 
state  of  vapor,  is  an  abundant  source  of  both 
oxygen  and  hydrogen.  Ammonia,  a  compound 
of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  is  the  chief  source 
of  nitrogen  to  the  plant.  It  is  ever  present 
in  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  carbonate, 
though  in  exceedingly  small  quantity.  Nitric 
acid,  which  is  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  am 
monia,  is  also  a  source  of  nitrogen.  The  plant 
being  fixed  and  at  rest,  its  food  must  necessa 
rily  be  in  perpetual  motion  around  the  organs 
destined  to  take  it  up.  The  atmospheric  food 
is  kept  in  motion,  not  only  by  the  winds,  but 
more  effectually  by  the  osmotic  force  (exosmose 
and  endosmose).  When  two  or  more  gases  of 
unequal  density  are  brought  in  contact  in  a 
confined  space,  they  will  gradually  diffuse  into 
each  other,  until  they  form  a  homogeneous 
mixture.  If  into  a  mixture  of  gases  any  solid 
or  liquid  body  be  introduced,  which  can  com 
bine  with  and  remove  one  of  the  gases,  it  first 
takes  up  those  particles  of  this  gas  which  are 
in  its  immediate  vicinity ;  but  as  fast  as  the 
uniformity  of  the  mixture  is  thus  disturbed,  the 
absorbable  gas  diffuses  into  the  space  which 
has  become  void  of  it ;  and  as  new  portions  are 
removed,  other  new  ones  are  presented,  until 
the  whole  is  absorbed.  All  the  forms  of  plant 
food  are  soluble  in  water.  In  virtue  of  these 
physical  laws,  it  is  plain  that  the  tissues  of  a 
growing  plant  must  be  constantly  surrounded 
with  water,  and  with  carbonic  acid  and  ammo 
nia  dissolved  in  this  water ;  and  as  these  are 
removed  by  the  assimilating  processes  of  the 
vegetable,  they  are  restored  by  osmotic  diffu 
sion,  so  long  as  the  atmospheric  supply  suffices. 
— The  ash  of  agricultural  plants  consists  of  the 
phosphates,  sulphates,  silicates,  and  carbonates 
of  potash,  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia,  with  small 
quantities  of  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese,  and 
alkaline  chlorides.  Other  bodies,  as  alumina, 
copper,  and  zinc,  are  found  in  some  kinds  of 
land  plants.  The  living  plant  contains  sulphur 
(and  perhaps  phosphorus)  in  a  state  of  organic 
combination,  in  the  various  nitrogenous  princi 
ples,  or  in  sulphurized  oils.  On  burning  these 
compounds,  sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acid  re 
sult.  Portions  of  the  potash,  soda,  lime,  and 
magnesia  are  combined  with  vegetable  acids 
(oxalic,  tartaric,  malic)  in  the  living  plants,  but 
these  compounds  are  converted  into  carbonates 
by  burning.  Silica  exists  probably  in  the  un- 
combined  state  in  many  cases,  as  in  the  bam 
boo  (tabashcer),  stalks  of  grasses,  and  scouring 
rush ;  but  in  burning  it  combines  with  potash, 
lime,  &c.,  so  that  it  is  found  as  a  silicate  in  the 
ash.  That  these  ingredients  of  the  ash  are  in 
dispensable  to  the  development  of  vegetation, 
is  proved  no*  only  by  their  invariable  occur 


rence  in  normally  developed  plants,  but  by 
direct  experiment.  The  cereal  grains,  for  ex 
ample,  will  not  mature  in  a  soil  which  is  defi 
cient  in  any  one  of  the  following  substances, 
viz. :  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of 
iron,  oxide  of  manganese,  silica,  sulphuric  acid, 
phosphoric  acid,  chlorine.  These  kinds  of 
plant  food  are  all  derived  from  the  soil,  and 
enter  the  plant  through  its  roots.  The  medium 
of  their  transmission  into  the  vegetable  organ 
ism  is  water,  which  is  assisted  in  its  solvent  ac 
tion  by  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia.  The  same 
law  of  osmotic  diffusion,  which  accumulates  the 
gaseous  food  of  the  plant  in  the  tissues  of  the 
leaves,  keeps  up  a  supply  of  food  from  the  soil. 
Evaporation  from  the  surface  (foliage  and  stems) 
removes  from  the  plant  a  portion  of  the  water 
which  the  cells  contain.  Capillary  action  re 
stores  this  waste  of  water,  bringing  up  from  the 
soil  a  fresh  supply,  which  always  contains  min 
eral  matters  in  solution.  The  vague  idea  of 
the  older  vegetable  physiologists,  according  to 
which  there  is  a  constant  circulation  of  sap  in 
plants,  an  upward  and  a  downward  flow — the 
sap  ascending  in  the  outer  wood  to  the  leaves, 
there  being  elaborated,  and  returning  through 
the  inner  bark  to  the  roots,  depositing  new 
matter  on  its  way — must  be  noticed  here,  as  an 
exploded  but  still  oft-repeated  error.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  there  exists  any  but  an 
upward  and  outward  current — a  current  to 
ward  the  vaporizing  surfaces.  The  amount  of 
ash  and  the  proportion  of  its  ingredients  are 
different  in  different  classes  of  plants,  and  in 
the  various  parts  of  the  same  plant.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  exterior  or  terminal  parts  of 
plants,  as  the  bark,  leaves,  and  chaff  or  fruit 
envelopes,  give  the  most  ash,  7  to  28  per  cent. ; 
while  the  wood  of  trees  is  poorest,  yielding  but 
T2^  to  3  per  cent.  The  same  organ  contains 
different  quantities  of  mineral  matters  at  differ 
ent  stages  of  its  growth.  Doubtless,  part  of 
the  substances  which  wre  find  in  the  ash  of  a 
mature  plant  have  finished  their  active  func 
tions,  and  have  been  secreted  as  waste  matters. 
Doubtless,  too,  a  part  of  the  ash  is  accidental, 
not  necessary  to  or  employed  by  the  plant,  but 
having  entered  the  vegetable  circulation  merely 
from  being  dissolved  in  the  w^ater  which  the 
plant  has  absorbed.  For  these  reasons  there  is 
often  little  agreement  between  the  numerous 
analyses  which  have  been  executed  on  the 
ashes  of  the  same  species  or  even  variety  of 
plant,  its  composition  being  to  a  certain  extent 
influenced  by  the  kind  of  soil  in  which  it  grows. 
Yet  there  is  a  general  uniformity  of  composi 
tion,  and  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  or 
ganization  of  the  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  into  the  cell  tissues,  and 
their  contents,  requires  the  cooperation  of  the 
ingredients  of  the  ash,  and  that  the  relation 
between  them  is  quantitative  and  definite, 
though  we  may  never  be  able  to  determine  it 
accurately.— The  atmosphere  is  invariable  in 
composition,  and  furnishes  supplies  of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen  (water,  car- 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY 


195 


bonic  acid,  and  ammonia),  beyond  what  the  1 
natural  vegetation  of  any  country  needs.     The  j 
soil    13   exceedingly   variable    in   composition. 
When  it  can  supply  sufficient  quantities  of  ash 
ingredients,  it  will  produce  most  of  the  plants 
indigenous  to  its  locality.     It  then  is  fertile.  ! 
When  there  is  a  deficiency  of  ash  ingredients 
in  available  form,  or  the  absence  of  any  one 
of    them,    the   soil   is   barren.      There    is   an  | 
important   difference   between   natural,    spon-  | 
taneous  growth,  and  artificial,  forced  produc-  i 
tion.    Xatural  growth  in  general  is  slow.    Cul-  | 
tivated  growth  is  rapid.     For  the  former,  nat-  ; 
ural   supplies   are   sufficient;    for    the    latter,  \ 
artificial  supplies  must  be  provided.     For  the  j 
former  the  supplies  of  atmospheric  food  are  in 
excess  compared  to  those  of  ash  ingredients 
yielded  by  the  soil  (telluric  food),  so  that  in 
forests  and  prairies  the  former  accumulate  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil  as  dead  foliage,  which  in 
its  decay  becomes  a  telluric  source  of  atmos-  j 
pheric   food.     In  the  latter  the  reverse  most  ! 
usually  occurs,  so  that  the  organic  matter  of 
the  soil  diminishes  and  must  be  renewed  by  j 
manures.     To  repeat,  in  artificial  growth  (in-  j 
tensive  culture)  the  soil  is  made  to  perform  not 
only  its  natural  function  of  furnishing  ash  in-  ! 
gradients,  but  also  a  part  of  the  office  naturally 
left  to  the  atmosphere,  viz. :  the  supply  of  car-  | 
bonic  acid  and  ammonia. — Soils  consist  of  the 
more  or  less  comminuted  fragments  of  rocks,  ' 
mixed  with  certain  products  of  their  chemical 
decomposition,  and  with  some  organic  matter — 
debris  of  vegetation.     The  composition  of  the  ; 
soil  varies  according  to  the  rocks  from  which  \ 
it  originates.     It  is  rare  that  large  tracts  of  | 
soil  are  exclusively  derived  from  the  rocks  that  j 
now  underlie  them.     Most  of  the  soils  of  our 
northern  and  middle  states  are  partly  composed 
of  materials   transported   from  the   far  north 
during  what  geologists  term  the  drift  period.  ! 
The  soils  of  valleys  are   constantly  enriched  : 
from  the  rocks  of  surrounding  hills,  so  that  the  ' 
composition  of  soils  is  thus  more   uniform  in  ; 
a  general  sense  than  it  otherwise  could  be.    We 
constantly  meet,  however,  with  limited  areas 
having  soils  of  peculiar  characters.     We  find 
beds  of  sand,  gravel,  clay,  marl,  and  peat  or  j 
muck.     The  mechanically  coarser  parts  of  soil,  ! 
the  gravel  and  sand,  consist  of  the  still  unde-  | 
composed  fragments  of  the  rocks  from  which  it  ; 
has  been  formed.     A  part  of  the  finest  (impal 
pable)  portion  of  every  productive  soil  is  usually 
made  up  of  clay,  which  is  a  product  of  the 
chemical   decomposition   of   certain  minerals,  i 
and  which  possesses  properties  of  the  highest 
moment  in   agriculture.      Under   the   general 
name  humus  is  comprehended  the  organic  mat-  i 
ter   of  the  soil  which  has  resulted  from  the 
partial  decay  of  previous  generations  of  plants. 
The  mechanical    texture   and   other  physical 
characters  of  the  soil  have  a  controlling  influ 
ence  on  its  fertility.    Unless  the  soil  be  perme 
able  by  the  roots  of  plants,  and  preserve  the  j 
proper  degrees  of  warmth  and  moisture,  vege-  j 
tation  cannot  attain  its  maximum  development,  ! 


no  matter  how  favorable  may  be  its  chemical 
composition.  Assuming  then  that  the  soil  is 
physically  adapted  for  a  cultivated  vegetation, 
its  fertility  depends  upon  its  furnishing  the 
growing  plant  with  continuous  and  abundant 
supplies  of  the  different  bodies  that  have  been 
named  as  the  elements  of  vegetable  nutrition. 
The  quantity  of  ash  ingredients  that  the  heavi 
est  crop  removes  from  a  soil  is  small,  compared 
with  the  whole  weight  of  the  soil  taken  to  such 
a  depth  as  is  penetrated  by  the  roots  of  plants. 
In  average  crops  of  the  usually  cultivated  plants, 
those  portions  which  are  removed  from  the 
field  as  the  valuable  part  of  the  crops  do  not 
carry  off'  more  than  200  to  600  Ibs.  of  ash  in 
gredients  per  acre  yearly,  while  the  soil  taken 
to  the  depth  of  one  foot  weighs  three  to  four 
millions  of  pounds  per  acre.  That  part  of  the 
soil  which  is  soluble  in  the  water  of  rain  repre 
sents  its  available  plant  food.  Large  quanti 
ties  of  water  pass  through  the  vegetation  of 
every  acre  of  highly  cultivated  grounc}.  It  is 
only  needful,  then,  that  this  water'  should 
contain  a  few  thousandths  of  ash  ingredients 
in  solution,  in  order  to  supply  the  mineral 
matters  in  an  average  crop,  since  even  root 
crops,  e.  g.  beets,  remove  but  about  600  Ibs. 
of  these  substances  from  the  acre.  In  culti 
vated  soils  there  is  a  constant  removal  of 
available  ash  ingredients,  both  by  the  harvests 
that  are  taken  off,  and  by  the  rains  which 
soak  through  or  run  over  them.  In  a  pro 
ductive  soil  there  is  a  constant  renewal  of 
available  plant  food,  by  the  mechanical  and 
chemical  disintegration  of  the  insoluble  por 
tion  (the  pulverization  of  the  soil  by  the  oper 
ations  of  tillage),  by  the  alternate  contractions 
and  expansions  of  water  (frost),  and  by  the 
affinities  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid.  In  a 
few  rare  soils  the  disintegrating  and  solvent 
processes  are  so  rapid  (act  on  such  finely  di 
vided  or  easily  decomposable  materials),  that 
they  always  present  a  surplus  of  food  to  the 
plant.  Such  are  certain  soils  of  southern  Rus 
sia  (tcJicrnozem  or  black  earth),  and  of  the 
Scioto  valley,  Ohio.  They  yield  successive 
crops  for  many  years  without  manure.  In 
most  cases,  however,  the  removal  of  a  few 
crops  exhausts  the  store  of  available  plant  food. 
— Soils,  when  reduced  in  fertility,  may  be  re 
stored  to  productiveness  by  lying  in  fallow ; 
mechanical  and  atmospheric  agencies  thus 
bring  into  solution  enough  of  ash  ingredients 
for  a  new  crop.  A  soil  consisting  entirely  of 
coarse  sand  is  infertile,  because  it  is  too  dry, 
and  because  there  can  occur  in  it  no  sufficient 
accumulations  of  available  plant  food.  A  soil 
consisting  of  fine  sand  may  be  highly  produc 
tive,  especially  if  it  originates  from  easily  de 
composable  rocks,  because  the  amount  of  sur 
face  that  the  grains  expose,  and  the  close  tex 
ture  of  the  soil,  maintain  it  in  a  proper  degree 
of  moisture  (by  capillarity),  and  allow  a  suffi 
cient  solution  and  accumulation  of  food  for 
crops.  Clay  has  a  remarkable  porosity  and 
retentiveness  for  water,  for  ammonia,  and  for 


196 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY 


most  soluble  salts.     If  dilute  solutions  of  am-  J 
monia,  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  &c.,  be  agitated  j 
for  a  few  moments  with  clay,  or  allowed  to  til-  j 
ter  through  it,  a  portion   of  these   bodies  is  , 
removed  from  solution,   and  absorbed  by  the  j 
clay.     Putrid  urine  loses  both  odor  and  color 
by  "such  treatment.     The  use  of  salts  of  alu 
mina  as  mordants,  and  for  the  preparation  of  | 
lakes,  is  another  example  of  the  same  effect.  | 
Soils  too  rich  in  clay  are  heavy,   and  in  wet 
climates  intractable  from  their  physical  proper-  | 
ties  ;  but  in  dry  countries  like  Egypt,  or  when 
mixed  with  enough  sand  to  render  them  physi 
cally  adapted  to  the  growth  of  plants,  they 
usually  possess  a  great  and  durable   fertility, 
since  they  naturally  abound  in  the  aliment  of 
vegetation,  and  are  not  liable  to  suffer  loss  of 
their  soluble  matters  from  the  washing  effects 
of  rains  or  floods.  .  Organic  matter  (humus), 
when  formed  in  wet  places,  constitutes  muck 
and  peat,  which  are  not  fertile ;  but  as  it  oc-  I 
curs  in  arable  soils,  in  quantities  usually  not 
exceeding  3  to  10  per  cent.,  it  is  of  great  value,  j 
not  only  on  account  of  its  power  of  absorbing  ; 
water,  &c.,  but  also  from  the  fact  that  in  its  | 
decay  it  is  a  continuous  source  of  carbonic  acid  ' 
and  ammonia,  thus  satisfying  to  some  extent  ; 
one  condition  of  rapid  growth,  already  insisted  \ 
upon,  viz. :  supplies  of  atmospheric  plant  food  ; 
by  the  soil.     The  carbonic  acid  formed  in  the  ; 
soil  by  the  slow  oxidation  of  humus  acts  also,  i 
according  to  the  amount  of  its  production,  in  i 
the   chemical   disintegration   of  the   insoluble  j 
parts  of  the  soil,  and  thus  indirectly  furnishes  j 
to  the  plant  increased  quantities  of  ash  ingredi 
ents.     Until  Liebig  turned  his  attention  to  the  | 
applications  of  chemistry  to  agriculture,  it  was  j 
thought  by  the  most  eminent  philosophers  that  • 
humus  in  some  of  its  forms  was  the  chief  nu 
triment  of  plants.     Liebig  denied.its  immediate  j 
value  as  plant  food,  but  recognized  its  use  as  an  ; 
indirect  supply  of  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia.  | 
The  best  soils  always  contain  soluble   organic 
matter,  and,  although  it  has  not  been  proved  | 
that  cultivated  plants  are  directly  fed  upon  it,  j 
yet  there  is  evidence  that  some  of  the  lower 
orders  of  vegetation  do  assimilate  it,  and  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  may  not  be 
appropriated  by  agricultural  plants,  since  it  is 
sufficiently  soluble  to  find  its  way  into  their 
circulation. — Analysis  of  Soils  for  Economical 
Purposes.     When  chemistry  first  indicated  the 
relation  between  the  composition  of  the  soil 
and  that  of  the  plant,  and  showed  that  certain 
instances   of  barrenness    and   fertility   in   the 
former  could  be  explained  by  the  results  of 
chemical   analysis,   the   idea  that .  the   farmer 
might  profitably  employ  analysis  in  improving 
his  soil  took  deep  root.     A  few  considerations 
will  suffice  to  show,  however,  that  as  a  general 
rule  even  the  most  accurate  analysis  can  be  of 
no  practical  benefit.      Saying  nothing  of  the 
facts  that  the  productiveness  of  a  soil  often  de 
pends  on  its  physical   or   chemical   condition 
irrespective  of  composition,  that  it  is  in  most 
cases  impracticable  to  get  a  specimen  of  soil  ! 


that  shall  fairly  represent  a  large  field  or  farm, 
and  that  the  expense  of  a  thorough  and  faith 
ful  analysis  is  considerable,  it  is  impossible  in 
the  present  state  of  science  to  distinguish  from 
each  other  two  soils,  one  of  which  is  just  fer 
tile  and  the  other  just  barren ;  for  the  processes 
tli at  have  been  usually  employed  in  soil  analysis 
are  not  nice  enough  to  estimate  quantitatively 
differences  of  l-10th  per  cent,  with  invariable 
accuracy.  Now,  since  an  acre  of  soil,  taken 
to  the  depth  of  only  7  or  8  inches,  weighs  at 
least  2,000,000  Ibs.,  and  since  the  total  amount 
of  matter  withdrawn  from  the  soil  by  the 
heaviest  crops  rarely  exceeds  500  Ibs.,  1 -4000th 
of  the  whole,  it  is  folly  to  expect  that  analysis 
can  indicate  any  difference  in  the  composition 
of  a  soil  before  and  after  one,  two,  or  even 
three  crops  have  been  removed  from  it.  Again, 
there  are  numerous  instances  of  soils  naturally 
sterile,  which,  after  application  of  400  Ibs.  of 
guano,  manifested  a  wonderful  productiveness. 
Now,  the  largest  of  the  active  ingredients  of 
guano  never  amounts  to  20  per  cent. ;  so  that 
to  trace  its  action,  or  distinguish  between  two 
soils,  one  barren  and  the  other  made  fertile  by 
guano,  the  chemist  must  be  able  to  estimate 
100  parts  in  2,000,000,  or  a  fraction  so  small 
as  i-ovihro.  The  only  method  of  chemical  ex 
amination  that  promises  to  be  useful  is  the  fol 
lowing:  A  large  quantity  of  soil,  say  10  or 
even  100  Ibs.,  is  digested  and  exhausted  with 
water  saturated  at  ordinary  temperatures  with 
carbonic  acid.  In  this  way  we  dissolve  all  its 
"  presently  available  plant  food."  The  analysis 
of  this  dissolved  portion  might  be  expected  to 
give  insight  into  the  value  of  the  soil  so  far  as 
dependent  on  chemical  composition.  Dr.  Pe 
ter,  chemist  to  the  Kentucky  geological  sur 
vey,  has  recorded  in  his  report  some  results 
obtained  in  this  way,  except  that  instead  of 
exhausting  10  Ibs.  of  soil,  he  used  but  1,000 
grains.  The  amount  of  dissolved  matters  in 
his  trials  in  no  case  exceeded  7  grains,  while  it 
usually  fell  below  2  grains,  quantities  too  small 
for  accurate  analysis.  For  practical  purposes 
there  are,  however,  other  and  in  general  sim 
pler  means  of  ascertaining  the  ability  of  a  soil 
to  supply  food  for  remunerative  crops.  Thus 
the  character  and  amount  of  vegetation  which 
it  naturally  produces  generally  suffice  to  indi 
cate  with  certainty  the  value  of  a  new  soil  in 
this  respect.  In  nearly  all  cases  of  unproduc 
tive  soils,  the  difficulty  is  less  of  a  chemical 
than  of  a  physical  nature.  The  great  deserts 
are  sterile,  not  because  they  cannot  yield  the 
soil  food  required  by  vegetation,  but  because 
they  are  destitute  of  water.  Wherever  a 
spring  arises  in  them,  -there  is  formed  a  spot 
of  verdure,  notwithstanding  the  incessant  sun 
shine  and  parching  winds.  Some  soils,  how 
ever,  with  every  external  sign  of  fertility,  are 
nevertheless  barren,  because  deficient  in  some 
one  or  several  of  the  indispensable  constituents 
of  the  ash  of  plants.  To  ascertain  and  remedy 
these  deficiencies,  it  is  best  to  proceed  in  a 
synthetical  rather  than  in  the  analytical  man- 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 


197 


ner,  viz. :  to  make  trials,  on  separate  plots  of  j 
ground,  of  the  effect  of  adding  to  the  soil  those  , 
ingredients  which  are  most  likely  to  be  want 
ing.      The   improvement  of  the  soil   involves 
numerous    changes,  both    in  its  physical   and 
chemical   characters.      The  correction   of  the  | 
physical  qualities  of  the  soil  usually  effects  a  j 
marked  improvement  in  its  chemical  condition,  j 
It  is  at  any  rate  indispensable  to  the  full  sue-  j 
cess  ot  chemical  improvements  (manures)  that  j 
the  soil  be  first  brought  to  those  degrees  of  j 
division,  porosity,  dryness,  and  depth,  that  are 
most  favorable  to  vegetable  growth.     Besides  | 
rendering   the   soil  so   dry,   warm,   deep,   and 
penetrable,  that  the  plant  finds  a  genial  root-  j 
ing  place,  these  operations  more  or  less  facili 
tate  the  solution  and  elaboration  of  the  food  of  j 
the  plant,  since  the  soil  is  thereby  divided,  and 
more   thoroughly  subjected   to  the  action  of 
water  and  air. —  Theory  of  Manuring.     When 
the  soil  is  deficient  in  those  ingredients  which 
favor  the  growth  of  the  plant,  the  deficiencies 
may  be  supplied  by  manures.     The  principles  \ 
on  which  manuring  depends  are  the  following : 
1.  Plants  require   various  kinds  of  solid  min 
eral  matters,  and  derive  the  same  exclusively 
from   the  soil.     2.  Some   plants  which  in  the 
natural  state  derive  the  gaseous  elements  of 
their  organic  structure,  viz.,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,   and   oxygen,  from  the   atmosphere, 
must  be  supplied  with  more  or  less  of  these 
matters  from  the  soil,  in  agricultural  produc 
tion.      3.    Different  plants    require    different 
proportions  of  these  substances  in  order  to  lux 
uriant  growth.      4.    Different   plants  require  j 
different  quantities  of  these  substances  to  ma-  j 
ture  a  full  crop.     5.  Different  plants,  from  pe-  I 
culiarities  of  structure,  draw  differently  on  the 
same   stores   of  nutriment.     6.  Different  soils  j 
abound  or  are  deficient,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  in  one  or  many  needful  ingredients  of 
the  plant.     7.    The  same  soil  has  a  different 
composition  in  different  years,   caused  by  the  j 
removal  of  matters  in  the  crops,  or  by  the  in-  ! 
crease  of  available  food  from  weathering  (till 
age).     The  substances  usually  classed  together 
as  manures  may  have  three  distinct  functions : 
1st.  They  may  chiefly  serve   to   improve   the 
physical  characters  of  the  soil.     Such  are  some 
manures  that  are  applied  in  large  quantity,  as 
lime,    marl,   and  organic    matters.     2d.    They 
may  act  partly  as  solvents  or  absorbents,  and 
thus   indirectly  supply  the   plant   with   food ; 
e.  (j.,    lime,   gypsum,    salts   of  ammonia.      3d. 
Finally,  they  may  enter  the  plant  as  direct  nu 
trition.      If  manures   acted   merely   as   direct 
nutrition,  it  would  be  possible  to  judge  of  the 
manuring  value  of  any  substance  by  comparing 
its  composition  with  that  of  the  ashes  of  culti 
vated  plants;  but  since  many  fertilizers  pro 
duce  all  the  above-mentioned  effects,  the  ques 
tion  becomes  a  more  complicated  one.     Xot- 
withstanding  the  facts  which  practice  has  ac 
cumulated   concerning   the   action  of  a  great 
variety  of  fertilizing  substances,  and  the  close 
scientific  study  of  their  effects,  we  are  yet  in  ! 


the  infancy  of  our  knowledge  respecting  them. 
In  agricultural  periodicals  are  reports  of  thou 
sands  of  experiments  on  the  value  of  manures ; 
we  find,  however,  the  most  conflicting  state 
ments,  and  a  chaos  of  results.  There  are  in 
stances  of  nearly  every  proposed  fertilizer  in 
creasing  crops,  and  as  many  instances  of  failure. 
Farmers,  however,  continue  to  experiment  as  if 
there  were  a  possibility  of  proving  that  for  each 
kind  of  crop,  or  each  variety  of  soil,  there  is  a 
specific  and  unfailing  fertilizer.  The  principles 
above  stated,  taken  together  with  the  fact  that 
the  physical  adaptation  of  soils  to  crops  is 
indefinitely  varied  and  constantly  changing,  de 
monstrate  that  there  can  be  no  fertilizing  pa 
nacea.  They  likewise  make  evident  that  what 
is  this  year  a  good  application  for  a  certain 
crop  and  soil,  may  have  no  action  next  year ; 
and  that  what  is  now  inefficacious,  may  prove 
highly  useful  at  some  future  time.  The  most 
generally  useful  manures  are  those  which  con 
tain  the  largest  number  of  ingredients,  and 
present  them  in  the  greatest  variety  of  forms. 
Stable  manure  occupies  the  first  rank  among 
fertilizers,  because  it  contains  everything  that 
is  needful  for  the  nutrition  of  plants.  It  is  in 
fact  the  debris  of  a  previous  vegetation,  and 
contains  all  the  ingredients  of  plants,  though 
in  proportions  altered  from  the  original  ones, 
and,  indeed,  advantageously  altered.  The  hay, 
roots,  and  grain  which  mature  cattle  receive 
every  day  as  food,  are  in  part  digested  and 
assimilated ;  but  since  full-grown  animals  do 
not  increase  in  weight,  unless  fattened,  they 
excrete  daily  as  much  as  they  ingest.  The 
most  combustible  portions  of  their  food  are, 
in  consequence  of  the  respiratory  process,  ex 
haled  as  water  and  carbonic  acid  gas;  while 
the  ash  ingredients,  and  the  larger  share  of 
the  nitrogen,  are  accumulated  in  the  excreta. 
In  this  way  there  is  a  concentration  of  con 
stituents  which,  after  they  have  served  the 
nutritive  function  for  the  animal,  become  the 
proper  food  of  the  plant.  Among  the  various 
ingredients  of  manures,  two  in  particular  have 
acquired  a  special  significance  in  late  years, 
viz.,  phosphoric  acid  and  ammonia.  These 
bodies  are  commercially  the  most  valuable  of 
all  fertilizing  substances,  a  necessary  result  of 
their  scarcity ;  and  in  general,  phosphoric  acid 
is  a  smaller  ingredient  of  cultivated  soils  than 
any  other  of  the  components  of  the  asli  of 
plants.  Ammonia,  especially  in  the  form  of 
carbonate,  not  only  powerfully  stimulates  vege 
table  growth,  but  it  probably  exerts  a  strong 
solvent  effect  on  the  minerals  which  compose 
the  soil.  Hence,  guano  and  other  animal  ma 
nures  which  contain  or  yield  much  ammonia 
and  phosphoric  acid,  are  in  such  large  demand 
among  those  who  practise  "high  farming." 
But  the  exclusive  use  of  fertilizers  which  sup 
ply  to  vegetation  only  a  small  portion  of  its 
ash  ingredients,  must  sooner  or  later  be  found 
inadequate  to  produce  profitable  returns ;  must, 
in  fact,  reduce  the  soil  to  a  minimum  of  fer 
tility.  The  true  system  of  manuring  is  to  main- 


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AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY 


tain  in  excess  a  supply  of  all  forms  of  plant 
food,  and  indeed  of  all  materials  which  expe 
rience  proves  to  have  a  good  effect  on  vege 
tation,  whether  this  effect  be  chemical  or 
physical. — When  chemical  analysis  first  de 
monstrated  that  different  classes  of  plants  yield 
an  ash  of  different  composition,  the  idea  of 
special  manures  had  its  origin.  By  special 
manures  were  meant  mixtures  containing  just 
the  quantity  of  each  ash  ingredient  removed 
from  the  soil  by  an  average  yield  of  each  crop. 
But  investigation  has  demonstrated  that  there 
are  in  general  no  practical  advantages  in  these 
attempts  to  feed  the  plant  by  ration.  Lawes 
and  Gilbert,  of  Rothamstead,  England,  believed 
they  had  established  by  a  multitude  of  field 
experiments  that  ammonia  is  specially  suited 
to  the  production  of  wheat,  and  phosphoric 
acid  to  the  growth  of  turnips ;  but  there  are 
other  authentic  trials  which  as  fully  prove  just 
the  reverse.  While  on  a  certain  soil,  and  under 
a  certain  set  of  circumstances,  experience  may 
without  difficulty  establish  a  rule,  science  is 
not  yet  for  enough  advanced  to  lay  down  a 
universally  applicable  principle  concerning  the 
special  nutrition  of  the  various  classes  of  cul 
tivated  plants. — Rotation  of  Crops.  The  great 
est  return  from  the  soil  is  generally  secured, 
not  by  continuously  growing  one  plant,  even 
though  it  command  the  highest  market  price, 
but  by  an  alternation  or  rotation  of  crops. 
There  is  no  difficulty  in  cultivating  any  agri 
cultural  plant  successively  for  any  number  of 
years  on  the  same  ground,  provided  enough 
be  expended  in  putting  the  soil  into  the  right 
physical  and  chemical  condition.  But  such  a 
procedure  is  usually  more  expensive  than  al 
ternating  the  crops.  When  a  light  virgin  soil 
comes  under  the  hand  of  the  former,  it  yields 
good  crops  for  a  few  years,  but  then  foils  to  a 
low  state  of  productiveness.  At  first  it  may 
have  yielded  wheat ;  when  no  longer  able  to 
support  that  crop,  it  may  still  give  fair  crops 
of  barley ;  the  next  year,  if  put  to  turnips  or 
potatoes,  it  may  seem  to  recover  its  fertility 
somewhat,  and  produce  a  good  burden  of  roots; 
but  now  it  will  not  yield  again  a  good  crop  of 
wheat,  though  probably  clover  would  flourish 
on  it.  The  causes  of  such  facts  lie  partly  in 
the  soil,  and  partly  in  the  plants  themselves. 
As  for  the  soil,  as  already  stated,  its  compo 
sition  and  texture  are  perpetually  changing. 
The  quantity  of  organic  matter,  especially, 
rapidly  diminishes  when  the  soil  is  under  cul 
tivation,  and  the  soluble  mineral  matters  are 
in  most  cases  removed  by  cropping  faster  than 
they  are  supplied  by  weathering  or  disintegra 
tion.  Practical  men  have  classed  cultivated 
plants  according  to  their  demands  on  the  soil, 
as  follows:  Enriching  crops,  clover,  lucern, 
and  esparsette ;  non-exhausting  crops,  peas  and 
beans,  also  cereals  when  cut  green ;  exhaust 
ing  crops,  cereals,  beets,  turnips,  carrots,  and 
potatoes ;  very  exhausting  crops,  tobacco,  flax, 
hemp,  and  hops.  Among  the  causes  of  the 
different  exhaustive  effect  of  various  plants  are 


the  following:  1.  Different  extent  or  structure 
of  roots  and  leaves.  The  enriching  crops  expose 
to  the  air  an  enormous  surface  of  foliage,  and 
throw  out  very  large,  long,  and  numerous  roots. 
The  cereals  have  much  less  leaf  and  root  sur 
face.  2.  Different  rapidity  of  growth.  Clover 
and  root  crops  continue  in  foliage  during  the 
whole  season,  while  the  cereals  ripen  in  July 
or  August.  3.  Periods  or  crises  of  growth; 
seed  production.  Plants  which  ripen  seed  re 
quire  a  better  soil  than  those  which  only  pro 
duce  foliage,  because  the  rapidity  of  assimila 
tion  seems  to  increase  when  the  reproductive 
function  comes  into  activity.  Plants  which 
ripen  seed  may  require  a  richer  soil,  not  be 
cause  they  remove  more  from  it,  but  because 
they  need  more  in  a  given  time.  4.  Some 
crops  are  entirely  removed  from  the  soil,  as 
flax ;  while  others  leave  the  ground  filled  with 
an  enormous  mass  of  roots,  as  clover,  or  strewn 
with  stalks  and  foliage,  as  the  potato  and  beet. 
5.  The  quantity  of  ash  ingredients  removed 
from  the  soil  by  different  plants  is  widely  un 
like.  In  the  light  of  the  above  statements,  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  when  a  soil  refuses  to  yield  re 
munerative  crops  of  shallow-rooted  and  quick- 
growing  wheat,  it  may  still  produce  a  luxuri 
ant  growth  of  deep-rooted,  large-leaved,  and 
slow-growing  clover.  It  is  evident,  too,  that 
when  a  clover  ley  is  broken  up  and  sown  to 
wheat,  this  grain  may  yield  well,  because  the 
decaying  turf  and  roots  are  a  ready  source  of 
every  kind  of  plant  food.  This  preparation  of 
the  soil  for  an  exhausting  crop,  by  the  inter 
vention  of  one  of  easy  growth,  is  shown  in  the 
practice  of  green  manuring,  which  is  in  fact 
a  rotation  of  crops,  but  is  also  a  fertilizing  pro 
cess,  because  the  first  crop  is  entirely  sacrificed 
for  the  sake  of  the  succeeding  ones.  Green 
manuring  consists  in  ploughing  under  clover, 
buckwheat,  spurry,  or  other  crops,  when  in 
blossom,  so  that  the  soil  shall  be  enriched  by 
their  decay.  As  these  plants  (the  last  named 
especially)  will  grow  on  poor  soils,  it  is  possi 
ble  by  their  help  to  reclaim  the  lightest  sands, 
and  bring  them  up  to  a  fair  degree  of  produc 
tiveness  in  the  course  of  a  few  years. —  Compo 
sition  of  Crops,  and  their  Value  as  Food.  There 
are  definite  and  unalterable  relations  between 
the  character  and  habits  of  the  animal  and  the 
composition  and  physical  qualities  of  its  food. 
In  rearing  and  sustaining  domestic  animals, 
four  distinct  conditions  occur,  viz. :  growth, 
I  or  general  development ;  fattening,  or  increase 
j  of  flesh  and  fat ;  yielding  milk ;  and  perform 
ing  labor.  Different  species  of  animals  possess 
different  degrees  of  aptitude  in  turning  their 
food  into  one  or  other  of  these  directions. 
Thus,  the  hog  fattens  most  readily,  the  cow 
yields  most  milk,  and  the  horse  performs  the 
greatest  amount  of  labor.  All  these  animals 
might  be  fed  alike  on  a  certain  diet,  and  yet 
manifest  their  characteristic  tendencies  in  a 
good  degree,  for  the  functions  of  all  animals 
are  the  same  to  a  certain  point.  That  food, 
i  however,  which  best  develops  fat  in  the  hog, 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY 


199 


is  not  best  adapted  to  sustain  the  labor  of  the 
horse.  Where  the  animal's  functions  are  re 
quired  to  differ  in  their  essential  nature,  there 
the  food  must  also  differ ;  and  we  cannot  carry 
the  peculiar  aptitude  of  an  animal  to  the  high 
est  pitch  without  particular  attention  to  the 
quality  of  the  food.  In  fact,  by  a  careful  se 
lection  of  the  food  we  can  change  the  charac 
ter  of  the  animal ;  and  when  at  the  same  time 
other  physiological  circumstances,  climate,  &c., 
are  suitably  regulated,  it  is  possible  in  the 
course  of  a  few  generations  to  impress  new 
characters  on  a  race.  In  this  way  the  various 
breeds  of  cattle,  swine,  &c.,  have  originated. 
A  thorough  understanding  of  the  reciprocal 
relations  between  food  and  functional  develop 
ment  is  therefore  of  the  highest  consequence 
to  the  practical  agriculturist.  It  cannot  be 
pretended  that  science  in  its  present  state  fur 
nishes  very  extensive  or  satisfactory  knowledge 
on  these  points.  But  physiological  chemistry 
has  developed  some  truths  which  warrant  the 
hope  of  progress  in  this  direction.  The  study 
of  changes  in  the  animal  body  has  shown  that 
there  are  two  chief  processes  concerned  in  the 
maintenance  of  life,  viz.,  nutrition  and  respira 
tion.  We  use  the  word  nutrition  in  a  some 
what  qualified  sense,  understanding  by  it  the 
support  of  the  working  parts  of  the  animal — 
the  muscular,  nervous,  and  cartilaginous  tis 
sues.  These  tissues  contain  nitrogen  as  an  in 
variable  ingredient,  and  for  their  development 
nitrogenous  food,  or  food  containing  albumen, 
caseine,  and  fibrine,  is  indispensable.  Xo  work 
can  be  done  on  food  consisting  exclusively  of 
starch,  sugar,  and  oil,  because  these  bodies 
cannot  supply  the  nitrogen  which  is  required 
for  the  organization  of  the  working  tissues. 
In  the  normal  growth  of  active  animals,  the 
non-nitrogenous  principles  of  the  food  are  con 
sumed  in  the  respiratory  process.  These  bodies 
are  brought  into  contact  with  the  oxygen  in 
haled  by  the  lungs,  and  are  burned  into  car 
bonic  acid  and  water,  which  pass  off  in  the 
expired  breath.  The  heat  of  the  animal  is 
sustained  by  this  combustion.  In  sluggish 
animals  which  ingest  large  quantities  of  non- 
nitrogenous  food,  the  excess  accumulates  in 
their  bodies  in  the  form  of  fat.  Great  activity 
and  full  respiration  are  incompatible  with  this 
accumulation.  The  application  of  these  facts 
is  obvious.  To  keep  a  horse  or  an  ox  in  work 
ing  condition,  we  give  a  food  rich  in  nitrogen, 
as  oats ;  to  fatten  an  animal,  we  use  a  food 
richer  in  starch,  sugar,  and  oil.  Experiments 
have  been  made  with  a  view  to  determine 
what  should  be  the  relation  between  the  nitro 
genous  and  non-nitrogenous  elements  of  the 
food  for  working,  fattening,  and  milk-giv 
ing  animals,  as  well  as  for  otherwise  deter 
mining  the  statics  of  nutrition.  In  Saxony 
much  attention  has  been  devoted  to  these  sub 
jects,  nnd  experiments  in  feeding,  conducted 
in  that  country,  have  shown  that  breeding  and 
dairy  cattle  thrive  best  when  each  animal  re 
ceives  daily  for  every  100  Ibs.  of  its  live  weight 


2-5  to  2-8  Ibs.  of  food  (calculated  in  the  dry 
state),  which  contains  0-25  to  0'30  Ib.  of  ni 
trogenous  or  nutritive,  and  1*25  to  1'40  Ib. 
of  non-nitrogenous  or  respiratory,  fat-forming 
material.  The  stomachs  of  cattle  are  adapted 
for  a  food  containing  a  large  quantity  of  woody 
fibre,  which  is  mostly  indigestible,  and  seems 
to  perform  a  merely  mechanical  function  in 
exciting  the  digestive  apparatus.  In  the  trials 
just  alluded  to,  the  best  proportion  of  woody 
fibre  was  found  to  be  one  fifth  of  the  whole  dry 
matter.  Years  ago  attempts  were  made  to 
construct  from  chemical  analyses  tables  of  nu 
tritive  equivalents,  for  exhibiting  the  compar 
ative  value  of  different  sorts  of  food.  The  first 
essays  of  this  kind  were  very  crude.  Later 
results  more  nearly  accord  with  experience, 
being  founded  on  more  complete  analyses,  and 
with  a  better  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  the 
animal;  but  there  are  many  circumstances 
whose  effect  on  the  nourishing  capacity  of  the 
different  kinds  of  food  has  not  yet  been  thor 
oughly  studied.  It  has  been  proved  that  the 
use  of  nitrogenous  manures  increases  the  rela 
tive  as  well  as  absolute  quantity  of  blood- 
forming  substances  in  the  grain.  The  digesti 
bility  and  consequent  nutritive  effect  of  the 
grasses  is  greatest  when  they  are  cut  just  after 
attaining  full  flower,  or,  at  any  rate,  before 
the  seeds  have  hardened,  as  at  this  period  they 
contain  the  maximum  of  soluble  matters.  Af 
terward  the  quantity  of  woody  fibre  increases. 
The  cereals  yield  more  and  better  flour  when 
cut  while  the  berry  is  still  in  the  milk,  and  for 
a  similar  reason.  The  use  of  cooked  food  for 
cattle  depends  upon  the  fact  that  the  cooking 
of  food  by  boiling  or  steaming  is  equivalent  to 
the  preliminary  processes  of  digestion;  as  in 
both  cases  cellulose,  starch,  dextrine,  and  the 
gums  are  progressively  converted  into  grape 
sugar. — Toward  the  end  of  the  last  century 
the  vague  and  ancient  notions  that  air,  water, 
oil,  and  salt  formed  the  nutrition  of  plants, 
began  to  be  modified  with  some  truer  ideas. 
In  1761  Wallerius,  a  S  \vede,  in  his  treatise 
Fundamenta  Agricultures  Ghemica,  recognized 
to  some  extent  the  connection  between  the 
composition  of  the  ash  of  plants  and  that  of 
the  soil.  Bergman,  the  great  Swedish  chem 
ist,  Palissy,  and  Reaumur  also  sought  to  study 
the  chemical  conditions  of  vegetable  growth. 
In  1802  Sir  Humphry  Davy  was  invited  to  lec 
ture  before  the  English  board  of  agriculture, 
and  thereafter  made  numerous  important  ob 
servations.  He  recognized  the  fertilizing  effects 
of  ammonia,  and  analyzed  numerous  manures, 
including  guano.  About  the  same  time  Sen- 
nebier  and  De  Saussure  laid  the  foundations  of 
vegetable  physiology,  demonstrated  the  assimi 
lation  of  carbonic  acid  and  water  from  the 
air,  and  indicated  atmospheric  ammonia  as 
the  probable  source  of  nitrogen  to  the  plant. 
De  Saussure  also  fully  recognized  the  nature, 
importance,  and  source  of  the  ingredients  of  the 
ash,  and  studied  the  life  of  the  plant  in  all  its 
phases.  In  1832  Sprengel  made  numerous 


200 


AGRICULTURE 


analyses  of  the  ash  of  plants  and  of  soils,  em 
ploying  more  perfect  methods  than  had  been 
previously  known.  It  was  reserved  for  the 
splendid  genius  of  Liebig  to  unite  the  frag 
ments  of  truth  into  an  organic  whole.  The 
force  of  his  rhetoric,  not  less  than  of  his  logic, 
excited  intense  interest  in  the  chemistry  of 
agriculture ;  and  being  the  most  popular  teach 
er  that  this  science  has  ever  employed,  he  has 
contributed  vastly  to  the  enlistment  of  laborers 
in  this  important  field.  While  Liebig  discussed 
only  "the  applications  of  chemistry  to  agri 
culture  and  physiology,"  his  celebrated  work 
under  that  title  having  been  written  at  the 
request  of  the  British  association  for  the  ad 
vancement  of  science,  Boussingault,  a  French 
man  of  genius  and  wealth,  occupied  himself 
with  the  special  study  of  the  practical  opera- 
ations  of  agriculture,  and  in  1842  issued  his 
Economic  r  it  rale,  a  mine  of  valuable  obser 
vations  and  experimental  results.  From  that 
time  on,  the  number  of  those  devoted  to  the 
study  of  agriculture  has  rapidly  increased. 

AGRICULTURE,  the  art  of  cultivating  the 
ground,  and  of  obtaining  from  it  the  products 
necessary  for  the  support  of  animal  life.  The 
change  from  a  state  of  nature,  in  which  the 
human  race  must  have  first  lived,  to  the  pasto 
ral,  or  to  any  higher  mode  of  living,  must  have 
been  gradual,  the  work  perhaps  of  ages.  The 
race  was  doomed  to  toil,  and  necessity  soon 
sharpened  the  power  of  invention.  In  the 
course  of  time,  during  which  man  multiplied 
and  wandered  about  from  place  to  place,  the 
countries  watered  by  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris, 
and  the  Nile  were  found  to  be  most  productive, 
and  the  dwellers  in  their  valleys  engaged  in 
tilling  the  soil ;  while  the  dwellers  in  the  hilly 
countries  of  Syria  and  the  lands  east  of  the 
Mediterranean,  which  were  better  adapted  to 
grazing,  became  the  owners  of  flocks  and  cattle. 
The  chief  riches  of  the  early  Jewish  patriarchs 
consisted  of  cattle  and  fruits.  Chaldea  and 
Egypt,  from  the  remotest  recorded  times,  were 
noted  as  the  lands  of  corn.  The  fertility  of  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  a  strip  of  country  from  7  to 
8  miles  in  width,  gradually  sloping  down  to  the 
river,  and  extending  from  400  to  500  miles,  is 
well  known.  It  was  overflowed  from  about  the 
beginning  of  August  to  the  end  of  October, 
and  the  subsiding  waters  left  the  richest  possi 
ble  top-dressing  of  slime  and  mud.  Then  the 
cultivator  had  only  to  cast  the  seed,  turn  on  a 
herd  of  swine  to  tread  it  in,  and  await  the 
harvest.  The  agriculture  of  a  people  must  be  | 
influenced  by  the  climate  and  natural  features  ' 
of  the  country.  Its  progress  must  also  depend 
in  a  great  degree  on  the  density  of  the  popula-  j 
tion.  The  processes  employed  must  have  been 
extremely  simple  at  first,being  confined  without 
doubt  to  merely  preparing  the  ground  for  seed, 
without  any  attempt  to  stimulate  its  productive 
ness.  So  far  as  we  know,  Egypt,  Chaldea,  and  j 
China  were  among  the  first  nations  which  ex-  j 
tended  the  limits  of  agricultural  practice  in  an-  ' 
cient  times.  In  these  countries,  probably,  ani-  i 


|  mal  power  was  first  applied  to  agriculture ;  and 
I  among  the  hieroglyphics  on  the  ancient  tombs 
of  Egypt  is  found  the  representation  of  an  im 
plement  resembling  a  pick,  which  was  used  as 
a  plough.  From  Egypt  a  knowledge  of  agri 
culture  extended  to  Greece,  and  we  find  it  in  a 
tolerably  flourishing  state  1,000  years  before 
Christ,  if  we  may  believe  the  testimony  of  He- 
si  od,  who  describes  a  plough  consisting  of  a 
beam,  a  share,  and  handles.  We  may  infer  that 
the  early  settlers  of  Sparta  possessed  a  knowl 
edge  of  draining,  since  the  site  of  the  city  was 
surrounded  by  swamps  and  marshes,  and  must 
have  been  well  drained  before  it  could  be  made 
even  habitable.  In  Greece  the  art  of  farming 
gradually  advanced,  until  in  the  days  of  her 
glory  it  may  be  said  to  have  attained  in  some 
provinces  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  The 
Greeks  had  fine  breeds  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep, 
and  swine ;  many  of  the  implements  of  hus 
bandry  in  use  among  them  were  not  very  un 
like  in  principle  those  of  modern  construction  ; 
and  extensive  importations  were  made  from 
foreign  countries  of  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry, 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  stock.  The 
use  and  value  of  manures  were  known  also. 
The  Greek  farmers  composted  with  skill,  and 
saved  the  materials  for  the  compost  with  care. 
The  importance  of  a  thorough  tillage  was  well 
understood  by  them ;  they  ploughed  three 
times  with  mules  and  oxen,  and  sometimes  sub- 
soiled,  and  often  mixed  different  soils,  as  sand 
and  clay;  they  cultivated  the  apple,  pear, 
cherry,  plum,  quince,  peach,  nectarine,  and 
other  varieties,  together  with  figs,  lemons,  and 
many  other  fruits  suited  to  the  climate.  The 
names  of  several  of  their  agricultural  writers 
have  come  down  to  us,  though  the  works  of 
only  a  few  of  them  are  extant,  and  of  these  the 
treatise  of  Xenophon  is  the  most  valuable. 
But,  in  comparison  with  many  other  countries, 
Greece  was  not  well  fitted  for  tillage.  Agri 
culture  was  not  a  source  of  pride  with  the 
Greeks,  as  it  afterward  became  with  the  Ro 
mans.  One  cause  of  this  was  the  fact  that  the 
land  was  tilled  mainly  by  a  subdued  and  menial 
race,  the  dominant  race  cultivating  other  arts, 
and  caring  more  for  building  up  their  cities 
than  for  cultivating  the  soil.  On  the  contrary, 
a  high  appreciation  of  agriculture  seems  to  have 
been  a  fundamental  idea  among  the  early  Ro 
mans.  A  tract  of  land  was  allotted  to  every 
citizen  by  the  state  itself,  and  each  one  was 
carefully  restricted  to  the  quantity  granted.  It 
was  said  by  the  orator  Curius,  that  "he  was 
not  to  be  counted  a  good  citizen,  but  rather  a 
dangerous  man  to  the  state,  who  could  not 
content  himself  with  seven  acres  of  land."  The 
Roman  acre  being  about  one  third  less  than 
ours,  the  law  actually  limited  the  possession  to 
about  five  acres.  This,  however,  was  only  in 
the  early  days  of  Rome,  and  afterward,  as  the 
nation  became  more  powerful,  and  extended 
its  limits  by  conquest,  the  citizen  was  allowed 
to  hold  50  acres,  and  still  later  he  could  be  the 
holder  of  500.  The  limitation  of  the  freehold 


AGRICULTURE 


201 


in  the  earlier  history  of  the  nation,  in  con 
nection  with  the  old  Roman  love  of  agriculture, 
led  to  a  careful  and  exact  mode  of  culture, 
probably  with  the  spade,  and  hence  large  and 
abundant  crops  were  obtained.  No  greater 
praise  could  be  bestowed  upon  an  ancient  Roman 
than  to  give  him  the  name  of  a  good  husband 
man.  Cincinnatus  was  called  from  the  plough 
to  tight  the  battles  of  his  country,  and  Cato  the 
censor,  distinguished  as  an  orator,  a  general, 
and  a  statesman,  is  most  loudly  commended 
for  having  written  a  book  on  farming.  The 
Roman  senate  ordered  the  28  books  of  Mago, 
the  most  voluminous  writer  on  agriculture  in 
Carthage,  to  be  translated  into  Latin  for  the 
use  of  the  Roman  people.  Rome  had  in  later 
times,  including  a  century  previous  to  the 
Christian  era,  an  agricultural  literature  unsur 
passed  by  that  of  any  other  country,  ancient  or 
modern,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  Ger 
many,  France,  and  England  of  the  present  day. 
The  works  pf  her  best  writers,  or  such  of  them 
at  least  as  have  been  transmitted  to  us,  abound 
in  sound  maxims.  u  Our  ancestors,"  says  Cato, 
"  regarded  it  as  a  grand  point  of  husbandry  not 
to  have  too  much  land  in  one  farm,  for  they 
considered  that  more  profit  came  by  holding 
little  and  tilling  it  well."  And  Virgil  says: 
"  The  farmer  may  praise  large  estates,  but  let 
him  cultivate  a  small  one."  Speaking  of  the 
planting  of  trees  as  a  means  of  protecting  fields 
from  high  winds  and  storms,  Pliny  says :  "Men 
should  plant  while  young,  and  not  build  till 
their  fields  are  planted ;  and  even  then  they 
should  take  time  to  consider,  and  not  be  in  too 
great  haste.  It  is  best,  as  the  proverb  says,  to 
profit  by  the  folly  of  others."  The  Roman  far 
mers  also  paid  much  attention  to  the  breeding 
of  stock.  Columella  mentions  the  points  of  a 
good  milch  cow  to  be  "  a  tall  make,  long,  with 
very  large  belly,  very  broad  head,  eyes  black 
and  open,  horns  graceful,  smooth,  and  black, 
ears  hairy,  jaws  straight,  dewlap  and  tail  very 
large,  hoofs  and  legs  moderate."  The  same 
writer  prescribes  a  curious  treatment  of  work 
ing  oxen,  as  follows  :  ':  After  oxen  get  through 
ploughing,  and  come  home  heated  and  tired, 
they  must  have  a  little  wine  poured  down  their 
throats,  and,  after  being  fed  a  little,  be  led  out  to 
drink ;  and  if  they  will  not  drink,  the  boy  must 
whistle  to  make  them."  The  Roman  agricul 
turists  whose  works  have  come  down  to  us  are 
Cato,  Yarro,  Yirgil,  Columella,  Pliny,  and 
Palladius.  But  there  were  obstacles  in  the 
nature  and  constitution  of  Roman  society 
which  made  it  impossible  for  the  agriculture  of 
Rome  to  reach  a  very  high  development.  In 
the  earlier  days  of  the  state,  as  we  have  seen, 
it  was  honored,  but  then  the  nation  was  in  its 
infancy,  extremely  rude,  and  with  a  small  pop 
ulation  and  a  small  territory.  It  was  a  time, 
too,  when  commerce  was  looked  upon  as  de 
grading,  and  Avar  and  agriculture  engaged  the 
whole  attention  of  the  Roman  citizen,  the  far 
mer  thinking  himself  able  both  to  till  and  to 
defend  his  little  farm.  As  the  empire  grew  in 


power  and  wealth,  the  operations  of  agriculture 
were  intrusted  mainly  to  the  hands  of  bondmen, 
who  had  little  or  no  interest  in  the  soil  they 
tilled,  and  this  alone  was  sufficient  to  prevent 
the  art  from  reaching  its  most  perfect  condi 
tion.  This  imperfect  cultivation  was,  without 
doubt,  characteristic  of  the  agriculture  of  Italy 
to  some  extent  during  the  whole  history  of  the 
Roman  empire.  We  have,  however,  the  state 
ments  of  many  successful  crops,  which  show 
the  interest  manifested  by  individuals  in  differ 
ent  places.  Thus  Pliny  says  that  400  stalks  of 
wheat,  all  grown  from  one  seed,  were  sent  to 
the  emperor  Augustus;  and  at  another  time 
340  from  one  seed  were  sent  to  the  emperor 
Xero  from  Byzacium  in  Africa,  accompanied 
by  the  statement  that  "the  soil  when  dry  was 
so  stiff  that  the  strongest  oxen  could  not  plough 
it,  but  after  a  rain  I  have  seen  it  opened  by  a 
share  drawn  by  a  wretched  ass  on  the  one  side 
and  an  old  woman  on  the  other."  As  time 
passed  on,  improvements  were  made  in  the 
plough  and  other  agricultural  implements.  The 
Roman  plough,  the  exact  model  of  which  is 
still  used  in  Italy,  the  south  of  France,  and  part 
of  Spain,  consisted  of  a  beam  to  which  the  yoke 
was  attached,  a  handle  or  cross  piece  by  which 
the  ploughman  held  a  share  fixed  into  a  share 
beam,  two  mould  boards  or  one  at  pleasure,  a 
coulter,  and  sometimes  a  wheel,  which  could 
be  used  or  not  at  will.  There  were  ploughs 
for  heavy  soils  and  ploughs  for  light  ones,  and 
indeed  nearly  every  variety,  so  far  as  the  prin 
ciples  of  construction  were  concerned,  which  is 
known  at  the  present  day.  The  Romans  also 
used  spades,  hoes,  harrows,  rakes,  and  some 
other  farm  implements.  With  all  these,  how 
ever,  the  farmer's  work  advanced  but  slowly. 
The  first  ploughing  required  two  days  for  a 
jiicjerinn  (f  of  an  acre),  and  the  second  one  day. 
The  difference  of  soils  and  their  adaptation  to 
particular  crops  were  well  understood.  Ma 
nures  were  saved  with  care.  The  excrements 
of  birds  were  especially  valued,  and  judicious? 
ly  applied;  composts  were  made  in  suitable 
places,  hollows  being  scraped  out  in  the  form 
of  a  bowl  to  receive  the  wash  from  the  house, 
and  properly  protected  from  the  heat  of  the 
sun ;  lupines  and  clover  were  sown  to  plough 
in  green,  and  the  grain  stubbles  were  often 
burnt  over  for  the  sake  of  the  ashes.  With 
these  appliances  they  raised  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
oats,  flax,  millet,  pease,  beans,  turnips,  the 
grape,  and  the  olive.  But  perhaps  the  an 
cients  suffered  more  inconvenience  in  their 
agricultural  operations  from  their  failure  to 
apply  the  mechanical  forces  of  nature  as  a  sub 
stitute  for  hard  labor,  than  from  any  other 
cause.  Even  the  water  wheel  was  not  known 
till  more  than  100  years  after  Christ,  and  the 
wind  swept  over  the  hills  of  Europe  till  the 
llth  century  without  turning  a  single  mill. 
With  the  exception  of  some  casual  allusions  by 
Roman  writers,  we  have  no  accounts  of  the 
agriculture  of  other  nations  at  or  before  the 
time  when  the  Roman  empire  had  begun  to 


202 


AGRICULTURE 


decline.  But  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  art  had  reached  a  greater  decree  of 
perfection  in  countries  east  of  the  Mediterra 
nean  and  in  Egypt,  than  in  Italy.  It  is  certain 
that  the  inhabitants  of  the  East  were  familiar 
with  many  mechanical  appliances  unknown  to 
the  Romans,  and  probably  their  agricultural 
systems  were  more  complete.  Rome  herself, 
in  the  later  days  of  her  greatness,  was  sup 
plied  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  agricultural 
products  of  her  conquered  provinces.  Then 
set  in  that  vast  tide  of  conquest  from  the 
north,  pouring  over  Italy,  France,  and  Spain 
a  race  of  harharians,  who  gradually  became 
absolute  masters  of  nearly  every  country  into 
which  they  penetrated.  Agriculture  was  ex 
tremely  depressed,  and  the  condition  of  the 
serf  to  whom  the  tillage  of  the  soil  was  left 
was  in  some  cases  even  more  hopeless  and  piti 
able  than  that  of  the  Roman  slave  who  had 
tilled  the  soil  before  him.  Scarcely  a  gleam 
of  sunshine  in  the  shape  of  improved  culture 
lights  up  the  gloom  of  this  period,  with  the 
important  exception  of  the  introduction  of  an 
extensive  system  of  irrigation  in  Spain,  under 
the  Saracens.  These  eastern  invaders  from 
the  well-watered  lands  of  western  Asia  and 
Egypt  established  in  the  peninsula  what  has 
been  termed  the  southern  system  of  agricul 
ture,  in  distinction  from  the  more  peculiarly 
northern  system  of  drainage,  and  developed 
the  agricultural  resources  of  Spain  to  an  ex 
tent  wholly  unparalleled  at  that  time  in  Eu 
rope,  building  reservoirs,  canals,  and  aqueducts 
with  immense  labor  and  skill,  and  raising  the 
annual  revenues  of  that  part  of  Spain  under 
their  dominion  to  nearly  $30,000,000— "a 
sum,"  as  Gibbon  says,  "which  in  the  10th 
century  probably  surpassed  the  united  reve 
nues  of  all  the  Christian  monarchs."  The 
traces  of  these  gigantic  works  still  remain. 
Bruges  and  Ghent  were  important  manufactur 
ing  and  commercial  towns  as  early  as  the  llth 
century,  and  agriculture  and  manufactures 
there  grew  up  together,  even  before  a  large 
part  of  Europe  had  risen  from  a  state  of  bar 
barism  ;  but  the  agriculture  of  Belgium  and 
Holland  was  long  in  attaining  the  perfection  to 
which  it  has  now  arrived.  In  Britain,  the 
Romans  had  made  many  alterations  for  the  bet 
ter  during  their  400  years  of  occupation,  as  they 
were  accustomed  to  do  in  all  their  provinces ; 
but  the  agriculture  of  the  island  was  extremely 
rude  even  when  they  left  it,  by  far  the  greater 
part  being  covered  with  forests  and  marshes. 
Then  the  Saxons  overran  the  country,  subsist 
ing  mainly  by  the  chase  and  by  keeping  large 
numbers  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  especially  swine, 
which  readily  fattened  on  the  mast  of  the  oak 
and  the  beech.  In  general,  the  only  grains 
raised  were  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  and  they 
had  but  small  quantities  of  these.  The  results 
of  their  labor  were  so  uncertain  and  insecure, 
on  account  of  the  inability  of  the  government 
to  protect  property  and  life,  that  all  attempts 
fit  improved  agriculture  would  have  been  in 


vain,  even  if  individuals  had  been  disposed  to 
engage  in  them.  The  suffering  among  the  peo 
ple  was  often  intense,  famines  frequently  oc 
curred,  and  so  little  was  done  to  furnish  suita 
ble  winter  food  and  shelter  for  the  stock,  that 
a  large  part  of  the  cattle  perished  every  winter, 
especially  in  the  more  northerly  parts  of  the 
island.  The  proportion  thus  dying  annually 
has  been  estimated  at  one  fifth  of  the  whole 
number  in  the  country,  while  frequently  the 
most  terrible  murrain  swept  off  a  far  larger 
proportion.  No  hoed  crops  or  edible  vegeta 
bles  were  cultivated,  and  even  as  late  as  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Queen  Catharine  was 
obliged  to  send  to  Flanders  or  Holland  for  salad 
to  supply  her  table.  Neither  Indian  corn,  nor 
potatoes,  nor  squashes,  nor  carrots,  nor  cab 
bages,  nor  turnips  were  known  in  England  till 
after  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century.  The 
peasants  subsisted  chiefly  upon  bread  made  of 
barley,  ground  in  the  quern  or  hand  mill,  and 
baked  by  themselves.  The  tenant  peasantry 
had  no  security  for  their  property  till  after 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century.  If  the  estate 
was  sold  by  the  landlord,  they  were  obliged  to 
quit  all,  giving  up  even  their  standing  crops 
without  compensation.  They  were  liable  for 
the  debts  of  the  landlord  to  an  amount  equal  to 
their  whole  property,  and  it  was  not  till  after 
that  time  that  they  were  held  only  for  the 
amount  of  rent  due  from  them.  This  picture 
of  the  misery  and  suffering  which  prevailed  in 
Britain  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  state  of  things 
in  Europe  generally  at  the  same  time.  Rather 
more  attention,  however,  was  paid  to  the  cul 
ture  of  the  soil  in  the  religious  establishments, 
whose  tenancy  was  more  secure.  Under  the 
direction  of  the  monks  extensive  improvements 
were  made  in  draining  swamps  and  reclaiming 
extensive  tracts  from  the  sea.  The  feudal  sys 
tem,  introduced  into  England  soon  after  the 
Norman  conquest  in  the  latter  part  of  the  llth 
century,  checked  progress  in  agricultural  im 
provement.  The  crusades  elevated  the  condi 
tion  of  the  peasant  in  some  degree,  by  increas 
ing  the  value  and  importance  of  his  labor,  by 
making  the  acquisition  of  land  somewhat  easier, 
and  by  withdrawing  from  the  country  many 
ignorant  and  despotic  nobles,  some  of  whom 
returned  with  a  profitable  recollection  of  the 
far  higher  culture  and  fertility  of  the  East. 
But  the  agriculture  of  this  whole  period  was 
generally  as  low  as  was  possible  in  an  age 
making  any  pretension  to  civilization. — We  may 
fix  upon  the  16th  century  as  the  time  when 
Europe  awoke  from  its  long  slumber.  From 
that  time  to  the  present,  the  gradual  elevation 
of  the  middle  and  lower  classes  has  continued, 
and  agriculture  has  steadily  advanced.  The 
first  work  on  agriculture  published  in  England 
was  the  "Boke  of  Ilusbandrie,"  in  1523,  by 
Sir  Anthony  Fitzherbert,  who  styles  himself 
"a  farmer  of  40  years'  standing."  This  was 
followed  by  another  volume  by  the  same  au 
thor  on  land  surveying.  In  these  works  Fitz 
herbert  pomes  out  the  prevailing  practices  of 


AGRICULTURE 


203 


his  time,  condemning  some  and  approving  oth-  ! 
ers.  "  A  housebande  cannot  thryve,"  says  he, 
"by  his  come  without  cattell,  nor  by  his  cattell 
without  corne;"  and  he  adds,  "  Shepe,  in  myne 
opinion,  is  the  most  profitablest  cattell  that 
any  man  can  liave."  From  him  it  appears  that 
marl  was  in  common  use  in  his  day,  as  it  had 
been  in  the  island  even  when  it  was  invaded 
by  the  Romans  before  the  Christian  era. 
Thomas  Tusser's  "Five  Hundred  Points  of  ; 
Good  Husbandry,"  in  a  sort  of  doggerel  verse, 
followed  a  quarter  of  a  century  later,  and  went 
through  many  editions.  The  editor  of  one 
published  in  1812  says  that  lie  found  difficulty 
in  procuring  a  complete  copy,  "a  proof  that 
what  was  intended  for  practical  use  had  been 
sedulously  applied  to  that  purpose.  The  copies 
were  passed  from  father  to  son,  till  they  crum 
bled  away  in  the  bare  shifting  of  the  pages, 
and  the  mouldering  relic  only  lost  its  value  by 
the  casual  mutilation  of  time."  Tusser  mentions 
carrots,  cabbages,  and  turnips,  as  having  just 
been  introduced  as  kitchen  vegetables.  Then 
appeared  "The  Whole  Art  of  Husbandry,"  by 
Barnaby  Googe;  "The  Jewel  House  of  Art; 
and  Xature,"  by  Sir  Hugh  Platt,  from  whom  ' 
we  first  hear  of  the  introduction  of  white  clover 
into  cultivation  in  England;  and  in  1649  ap 
peared  the  "English  Improver"  of  Walter 
Blithe  (afterward  revised  and  called  the  "Im-  ! 
prover  Improved"),  a  work  full  of  judicious 
maxims  and  sound  advice,  giving  us  an  insight 
into  the  prevailing  practices  of  that  time.  Sir 
Richard  Weston  wrote  about  the  same  time 
on  the  husbandry  of  Brabant  and  Flanders, 
under  the  name  of  Samuel  Hartlib,  who  him 
self  made  important  contributions  to  agricul 
tural  literature.  But  the  experiments  and 
writings  of  Jethro  Tull,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
18th  century,  are  among  the  iirst  important 
attempts  at  real  progress  in  the  agriculture  of 
modern  times.  Writers  before  his  time  had 
confined  themselves  mainly  to  plain  statements 
of  the  practical  details  of  farming,  recommend 
ing  such  new  practices  as  appeared  to  them 
worthy  of  adoption,  and  condemning  the  errors 
of  their  contemporaries.  Tull  struck  out  new 
paths  of  practice,  invented  new  modes  of  cul 
ture,  and  his  investigations  into  the  principles  of 
fertility  fairly  entitle  him  to  the  credit  of  being 
a  great  original  discoverer,  though  the  errors 
into  which  he  fell  in  his  zealous  enthusiasm 
brought  more  or  less  temporary  discredit  upon 
his  whole  theory.  But  we  can  excuse  his  mis 
takes  when  we  consider  that  he,  like  all  his  pre 
decessors,  was  groping  in  the  dark,  before  chem 
istry  and  geology  had  made  known  the  ele 
ments  of  the  soil  and  of  plants,  and  shown  how 
the  latter  derive  their  support  and  nourish 
ment.  Tull  invented  and  introduced  the  horse 
hoe  and  drill  husbandry.  The  latter  had,  in-  | 
deed,  been  known  previously  in  Spain*  and 
according  to  some  in  Germany  also,  but  i£  was 
not  known  to  any  extent  in  England.  He  also 
invented  the  threshing  machine,  though  the 
flail  was  almost  universally  used  in  England 


till  the  close  of  the  last  century.  His  doctrine 
that  plants  derive  their  nourishment  from  mi 
nute  particles  of  soil,  and  that  repeated  and 
thorough  pulverization  is  therefore  necessary 
not  only  as  a  preliminary  preparation,  but  dur 
ing  the  growth  of  the  plant,  led  directly  to  the 
practice  of  drilling  grain  crops,  and  the  awk 
wardness  and  prejudice  of  his  workmen  led  to 
the  introduction  of  the  drilling  machine  and 
the  horse  hoe  as  substitutes  for  hand  labor.  So 
far  Tull  was  right  in  practice,  however  incor 
rect  his  theory  may  have  been.  The  best  prac 
tical  farmers  of  the  present  day  believe  in  fre 
quent,  deep,  and  thorough  pulverization  of  the 
soil,  not  because  the  plant  is  supposed  to  live 
on  minute  particles  of  earth,  but  to  admit  air 
and  moisture  freely  to  the  roots.  TulFs  theory 
of  the  nutrition  of  plants  has  not  been  without 
its  followers,  however,  Duhamel  himself  having 
labored  to  spread  it.  Tull  believed  to  some 
extent  in  the  use  of  manures,  but  chiefly  as  di 
viders  of  the  soil,  as  a  means  of  improving  its 
physical  texture,  and  not  because  he  supposed 
them  to  furnish  any  nutriment  to  the  plants 
themselves.  His  system  of  husbandry  found 
very  few  followers  at  first,  and  those  who 
adopted  it  were  in  many  cases  obliged  to  return 
to  the  old  methods,  for  want  of  the  necessary 
mechanical  instruments  for  following  his  direc 
tions  ;  but  it  has  been  more  recently  revived, 
mechanical  skill  making  it  practicable  and  com 
paratively  easy  of  .application,  while  thorough 
drainage,  trenching,  and  subsoil  ploughing  have 
gained  the  assent  of  most  intelligent  farmers. 
Even  his  drilling  system  for  wheat  and  other 
grain  crops  has  been  extensively  adopted  in 
Great  Britain,  and  is  fast  gaining  favor.  After 
Tull,  we  find  little  progress  in  agricultural  lit 
erature  till  toward  the  close  of  the  last  cen 
tury.  The  chief  gain  in  the  art  in  the  inter 
mediate  time  was  occasioned  by  an  active 
competition  in  cattle  breeding  by  Bakewell  and 
others  in  England,  which  led  to  the  most  im 
portant  practical  results.  Arthur  Young,  to 
whom  perhaps  the  world  is  more  indebted  for 
the  spread  of  agricultural  knowledge  than  to 
any  other  man,  was  born  in  1741,  and  died  in 
1820.  His  journeys  to  obtain  information  on 
agricultural  subjects,  and  his  writings,  had  a 
powerful  influence  in  creating  a  love  for  agri 
cultural  pursuits  among  the  learned.  His 
searching  inquiries  and  experiments  on  differ 
ent  soils,  to  ascertain  the  real  causes  of  fertility 
(1783-'6),  laid  the  foundation  at  least  for  more 
exact  researches  into  the  principles  of  fertility 
afterward.  He  first  established  the  fact  that 
common  salt  is  a  valuable  manure,  though  it 
had  been  recommended  before  his  day.  Previ 
ous  to  his  time  ammonia  was  thought  to  be  in 
jurious  to  vegetation,  and  natural  philosophers 
had  asserted  that  the  food  of  plants  was  con 
tained  in  acids.  Young  tried  it  in  very  many 
cases,  and  always  with  great  success.  He 
made  experiments  to  learn  the  effect  of  the 
sun's  rays  on  the  soil,  and  came  to  the  conclu 
sion  "that  covering  the  soil  is  beneficial  to  it." 


£04 


AGRICULTURE 


Hence  we  may  infer  the  error  of  the  ancient 
practice  of  summer  fallowing,  which  left  the 
ground  wholly  unoccupied  with  crops  every 
second  or  third  year ;  a  practice  which  contin 
ued  in  England  down  to  a  comparatively  re 
cent  period,  and  even  now  prevails  in  many 
parts  of  Europe.  lie  found  that  nitrogenous 
manures  increased  the  power  of  plants  to  avail 
themselves  of  mineral  manures,  thus  showing 
the  advantage  of  a  proper  use  of  both  classes,  a 
conclusion  whose  truth  has  been  still  more  re 
cently  established  by  Lawes  and  others.  He 
also  tried  the  effect  of  different  gases  on  vege 
tation.  In  1786  he  says:  "To  imagine  that 
we  are  ever  to  see  agriculture  rest  on  a  scien 
tific  basis,  regulated  by  just  and  accurately 
drawn  principles,  without  the  chemical  quali 
ties  of  soils  and  manures  being  well  under 
stood,  is  a  childish  and  ignorant  supposi 
tion."  Such  were  some  of  the  efforts  of 
Arthur  Young ;  they  may  be  found  embodied 
in  the  "Annals  of  Agriculture,"  and  other 
useful  treatises.  But  one  of  the  first  systematic 
works  on  the  subject,  which  can  be  said  to  have 
really  advanced  the  art  of  agriculture,  was 
the  "  Practical  Agriculture,  or  Complete  Sys 
tem  of  Modern  Husbandry,"  by  R.  W.  Dick- 
son  (1805),  which  Thaer,  who  had  it  translated 
and  published  in  Berlin  in  1807,  calls  the  first 
truly  scientific  work  of  the  English,  not  even 
excepting  Young's  writings.  Dickson's  chief 
merit,  however,  is  his  excellent  collection  of 
the  many  valuable  experiments  and  statements 
of  distinguished  members  of  the  board  of  ag 
riculture,  and  other  farmers.  In  the  period 
embracing  the  close  of  the  last  century  and 
the  beginning  of  the  present,  we  find  many 
important  additions  to  the  literature  of  agri 
culture.  Such  are  the  works  of  Mai-shall ;  the 
admirable  works  of  Young  already  alluded  to ; 
Elkington's  "Mode  of  Draining  Land,"  de 
scribed  by  Johnstone  ;  "  Davison's  Phytolo- 
gy,"  "  Modern  Agriculture,"  and  "  Synopsis 
of  Husbandry,"  by  Donaldson;  the  "Gentle 
man  Farmer,"  by  Lord  Kames  ;  "Anderson's 
Essays";  the  "Communications  to  the  Board 
of  Agriculture,"  and  numerous  agricultural  re 
ports.  "  The  Experienced  Farmer  "  and  many 
others  might  be  mentioned,  all  of  which  con 
tributed  more  or  less  to  awaken  the  spirit  of 
inquiry  and  improvement  which  has  eminently 
characterized  English  agriculture  for  the  last 
50  years,  and  made  it  a  model  for  the  rest  of 
the  world.  Nor  has  the  agriculture  of  Scot 
land  felt  the  influence  of  the  spirit  of  progress 
in  a  less  degree.  In  1768  Lord  Kames,  in  the 
"  Gentleman  Farmer,"  very  forcibly  described 
its  imperfect  condition  at  that  time.  He  says : 
"  Our  draught  horses  are  miserable  creatures, 
without  strength  or  mettle  ;  our  oxen  scarcely 
able  to  support  their  own  weight,  and  two 
going  in  a  plough,  led  on  by  two  horses ;  the 
ridges  in  the  fields  high  and  broad,  in  fact, 
enormous  masses  of  accumulated  earth,  that 
could  not  admit  of  cross  ploughing  or  culti 
vation  ;  shallow  ploughing  universal  ;  ribbing, 


by  which  half  the  land  was  left  unfilled,  a 
general  practice  over  the  greater  part  of  Scot 
land  ;  a  continual  struggle  between  corn  and 
weeds  for  superiority;  the  roller  almost  un 
known  ;  no  harrowing  before  sowing,  and  the 
seed  sown  into  rough,  uneven  ground,  where 
j  the  half  of  it  was  buried ;  no  branch  of  hus- 
I  bandry  less  understood  than  manure ;  potatoes 
I  generally  planted  in  lazy  beds ;  swine  but  lit 
tle  attended  to ;  and  very  few  farms  in  Scotland 
proportioned  to  the  skill  and  ability  of  the 
tenant!"  "What  a  contrast,"  exclaims  Sir 
John  Sinclair,  40  years  after,  "  to  the  present 
state  of  Scotch  husbandry ;  and  it  is  singular 
that,  with  hardly  an  exception,  these  imperfec 
tions  have  been  removed.  Had  it  not  come 
from  so  high  an  authority,  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  credit,  that  within  the  memory  of  so  many 
persons  now  living  our  agriculture  could  have 
been  so  miserably  deficient  as  it  seems  to  have 
been  at  that  time."  But  in  the  course  of  these 
40  years  the  Scotch  farmers  had  acquired  a 
habit  of  reading,  and  agricultural  books  were 
extensively  distributed  among  them.  Besides 
|  this,  many  of  them  visited  other  countries  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  information,  and  ob 
served  the  improved  practices  prevailing  there, 
to  return  and  introduce  them  at  home.  Sir 
John  Sinclair  was  born  in  1754,  and  died  at 
Edinburgh  in  1835.  His  writings  were  numer 
ous  and  important.  Hartlib,  a  century  and  a 
half  before,  and  more  recently  Lord  Kames  in 
the  "  Gentleman  Farmer,"  had  pointed  out  the 
utility  of  a  board  of  agriculture,  but  it  was 
left  to  the  zeal  and  untiring  effort  of  Sir  John 
Sinclair  to  call  into  life  that  valuable  auxiliary 
to  agricultural  progress,  and  the  board  was 
created  in  1793.  To  its  establishment,  more 
than  to  any  other  movement  of  that  day,  Eng 
land  is  indebted  for  the  present  high  and  pros 
perous  state  of  her  agriculture.  It  brought 
men  together  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
made  them  acquainted  with  each  other's  views, 
and  with  the  modes  of  culture  prevailing  in 
sections  of  which  they  had  previously  been  ig 
norant.  It  was  through  the  encouragement  of 
the  board  of  agriculture  chiefly  that  Sir  Hum 
phry  Davy  was  led  to  investigate  the  elements 
of  the  soil,  and  to  apply  the  science  of  chemis 
try  to  the  improvement  of  agriculture.  And 
here  begins  properly  the  real  progress  of  the 
art ;  for  without  a  knowledge  of  the  simple 
substances  of  nature,  agriculture  could  not  be 
I  expected  to  attain  the  rank  of  ,a  science.  The 
lectures  of  Davy  before  the  board  of  agricul 
ture  from  *1802  to  1812,  therefore,  mark  an 
important  epoch  in  the  history  of  modern 
agriculture.  The  substance  of  these  lectures 
!  was  embodied  in  his  "Elements  of  Agricultu- 
|  ral  Chemistry,"  published  in  1813,  and  trans- 
!  lated  into  German  in  1814,  and  into  French  in 
i  1829.  This  work  opened  to  the  reflecting  far- 
|  mer  new  and  interesting  vieAvs  of  the  princi 
ples  of  fertility  and  vegetation.  Davy  showed 
•  how  plants,  soils,  and  manures  could  be  ana- 
i  lyzed,  and  manures  selected  which  would  fur- 


AGRICULTURE 


205 


nish  the  elements  needed  by  the  different  vari 
eties  of  plants.  We  find  him  in  1807  trying  to 
ascertain  the  effects  of  various  salts  on  barley, 
grass,  etc.,  in  light,  sandy  soils,  applying  twice 
a  week  diluted  solutions  of  sulphate,  acetate,  bi 
carbonate,  and  muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of 
soda,  and  nitrate,  muriate,  sulphate,  and  car 
bonate  of  ammonia;  finding,  as  Young  had 
found,  that  plants  furnished  with  carbonate  of 
ammonia  grew  most  luxuriantly,  a  result  which  ! 
had  been  anticipated  from  the  composition  of 
carbonate  of  ammonia.  Davy  experimented  j 
on  specimens  of  guano  sent  to  the  board  of 
agriculture  in  1805,  the  existence  of  it  in  large  i 
quantities  on  the  South  sea  islands  having  been 
pointed  out  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt.  In 
180(5  elaborate  analyses  of  guano  were  published 
by  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin.  Davy,  writing  at 
this  time,  says:  "The  dung  of  sea  birds  has 
never  been  used  in  this  country."  Davy  re 
commended  the  use  of  bones  as  a  manure,  not 
so  much  because  they  contained  phosphate  of 
lime,  as  because  they  were  filled  with  decom 
posable  animal  matter,  as  gelatine,  cartilage, 
fat,  &c.  But  though  the  results  obtained  by  Da-  ! 
vy  were  imperfect,  and  in  some  cases  erroneous, 
they  made  important  advances  in  an  almost 
untrodden  path  of  investigation.  The  facts 
established  by  his  researches  as  to  the  effect  of 
ammonia  on  vegetation,  may  be  regarded  as 
the  starting  point  of  modern  scientific  investi 
gations  into  the  properties  of  this  substance 
when  used  as  a  manure ;  for,  though  Young 
first  led  the  way  in  observing  its  practical  ef 
fect  on  plants,  his  conclusions,  from  his  want 
of  chemical  skill,  had  not  the  scientific  cer 
tainty  which  characterized  Davy's,  and  which 
was  necessary  to  give  them  their  highest  val 
ue.  It  may  indeed  be  said  that  he  was  the 
means  of  drawing  the  attention  of  chemists  to 
this  particular  branch  of  their  science  ;  for 
through  the  influence  of  the  reputation  he 
gained,  the  thoughts  of  other  scientific  men, 
and  especially  of  the  chemists  on  the  conti 
nent,  were  turned  in  this  direction. — In  gen 
eral,  the  literature  of  agriculture  had  advanced 
more  rapidly  on  the  continent  than  in  Eng 
land.  In  Germany  especially  man\  writers  had 
treated  of  the  subject,  more  particularly  in 
works  on  political  economy.  In  the  latter 
half  of  the  last  century  many  treatises  of  prac 
tical  value  appeared,  such  as  those  of  Kretsch- 
mar,  Reich  art,  Stisscr,  and  Sprenger.  At  the 
same  period  Duhamel  wrote  in  France,  and 
adopted  the  views  of  Tull  in  regard  to  the 
nourishment  of  plants.  In  his  treatise  on  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  he  endeavors  to  deter 
mine  the  principles  of  agriculture  by  theories 
deduced  from  experiments,  which  subsequently 
received  a  more  scientific  form  in  the  "  Ele 
ments  of  Agriculture,''  published  in  Paris  in 
1771.  Duhamel,  Buffon,  and  others,  by  their 
superior  genius,  made  the  study  of  rural  econ 
omy  attractive  to  scientific  men  in  France ; 
and  hence  there  has  been  there  more  original 
research  in  agricultural  chemistry,  vegetable 


physiology,  and  other  kindred  branches,  than 
in  any  other  country  except  Germany.  As 
early  as  1730  there  were  13  agricultural  so 
cieties  in  France,  with  about  19  auxiliary  so- 

|  cieties.  The  survey  of  France  by  Arthur 
Young,  in  1787  and  1789,  also  did  much  to  ex- 

I  cite  an  interest  in  the  improvement  of  the 
soil,  and  to  make  the  peculiarities  and  wants 
of  the  country  more  familiarly  known  even  to 

i  Frenchmen  themselves.  Merino  sheep  were 
brought  into  France  in  1770,  and  kept  under 

i  charge  of  the  government  for  the  improvement 
of  the  stock  of  the  country.  Bonaparte  great- 

i  ly  increased  the  number  of  societies,  establish 
ed  professorships,  botanical  gardens,  &c.,  all  of 
which  concurred  to  elevate  the  study  of  agri 
culture  in  the  estimation  of  those  capable  of 
bringing  to  its  aid  the  principles  of  the  ab 
stract  sciences;  and  this  tendency  has  influ- 

,  enced  the  scientific  minds  of  France  to  the 
present  day,  though  the  practice  of  the  coun 
try  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  development  of 
theory.  This  is  owing  partly  to  the  division 
of  property  since  the  revolution,  the  holdings, 
as  a  general  thing,  being  very  small. — The  ear 
liest  settlers  of  the  United  States  found  the 
country  a  wilderness,  with  many  varieties  of 
climate  and  soil  to  which  the  knowledge  they 
had  obtained  in  the  mother  country  did  not 
apply.  Thus  they  had  to  contend  with  innu 
merable  obstacles,  with  the  wilclness  of  nature, 
and  their  ignorance  of  the  climate,  in  addition 
to  the  hostility  of  the  Indians,  the  depredations 
of  wild  beasts,  the  difficulty  and  expense  of 
procuring  seeds  and  farming  implements,  &c. 
These  various  difficulties  are  quite  sufficient  to 
explain  the  slow  progress  they  made  in  the 
way  of  improvement.  For  many  years  agri 
culture  was  exceedingly  backward.  Stock 
and  tools  were  poor,  and  there  were  obstacles 
and  prejudices  against  any  "  innovations  "  in 
the  established  routine  of  practice.  This  state 
of  things  continued  for  many  years,  with  very 
little  change.  Jared  Eliot,  a  clergyman  of 
Connecticut,  one  of  the  earliest  agricultural 
writers  of  America,  published  the  first  of  a 
series  of  valuable  essays  on  field  husbandry  in 
1747;  but,  with  this  and  a  few  other  excep 
tions,  no  real  efforts  were  made  to  improve 
farming  till  after  the  revolution,  when  the 
more  settled  state  of  the  country  and  the 
gradual  increase  of  population  began  to  im 
press  the  intrinsic  importance  of  the  subject 
upon  the  minds  of  a  few  enlightened  men. 
The  South  Carolina  agricultural  society  was 
established  in  1784,  and  still  exists;  and  the 
Philadelphia  society  for  the  improvement  of 
agriculture,  established  in  the  same  year,  and 
a  similar  association  in  Xew  York  in  1791.  in 
corporated  in  1798,  and  the  Massachusetts  so 
ciety  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  estab 
lished  in  1792,  were  active  in  their  field  of  la 
bor,  and  all  accomplished  important  results. 
The  correspondence  at  this  period  between  Sir 
John  Sinclair  and  Washington  shows  how  anx 
ious  was  the  father  of  his  country  to  promote 


206 


AGRICULTURE 


the  highest  interests  of  the  people  by  the  im 
provement  of  agriculture.  Many  years  elapsed 
before  the  habit  of  reading  became  sufficiently 
common  among  the  masses  of  the  actual  tillers 
of  the  soil  to  justify  an  expectation  of  imme 
diate  profit  from  the  annual  publication  of  the 
transactions  of  the  several  societies.  The  im 
provements  proposed  fell  dead  upon  the  people, 
who  rejected  "  book  farming  "  as  impertinent 
and  useless,  and  knew  as  little  of  the  chemis 
try  of  agriculture  as  of  the  problems  of  as 
tronomy.  All  farm  practices  were  merely  tra 
ditional;  no  county  or  town  agricultural  so 
cieties  existed  to  stimulate  effort  by  competi 
tion.  There  were  no  journals  devoted  to  the 
spread  of  agricultural  knowledge.  The  stock 
of  the  farm  was  such  as  one  might  expect  to 
find  under  such  circumstances ;  the  sheep  were 
small  and  ill  cared  for  in  the  winter,  and  the 
size  of  cattle  generally  was  but  little  more 
than  half  the  average  of  the  present  time. 
The  value  of  manures  was  little  regarded ;  the 
rotation  of  crops  was  scarcely  thought  of;  the 
introduction  even  of  new  and  labor-saving  ma 
chinery  was  sternly  resisted  and  ridiculed  by 
the  American  farmers  of  that  day,  as  well  as 
by  the  English  laborers.  It  was  long  before 
the  horse  rake  was  brought  into  use  in  oppo 
sition  to  the  prejudices  it  encountered.  It  was 
equally  long  before  the  horse-power  threshing 
machine  was  adopted.  In  some  parishes  of 
Great  Britain,  even  so  late  as  1 830,  the  labor 
ers  went  about  destroying  every  machine  they 
could  find.  AVithin  the  last  half  century, 
chemistry,  the  indispensable  handmaid  of 
agriculture,  has  grown  with  great  rapidity,  and 
in  each  new  discovery  some  new  truth  appli 
cable  to  practical  agriculture  has  come  to  light. 
— In  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  in  England,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  the  plough  was  extremely 
rude.  It  was  made  by  the  ploughman  him 
self,  under  the  compulsion  of  a  law  forbidding 
any  one  to  hold  a  plough  who  could  not  make 
one,  or  to  drive  until  he  could  make  the  har 
ness.  The  progress  made  previous  to  the  time 
of  Jethro  Tull  was  comparatively  slight,  either 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  plough,  or  in  any 
other  branch  of  agricultural  mechanics.  Tull, 
as  we  have  seen,  invented  the  horse  hoe  and 
the  drilling  machine.  Both  of  these  were  then 
rude,  but  they  have  since  been  vastly  improved 
in  their  details.  The  plough  was  generally 
made  of  wood  till  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  but  its  form  has  since  passed  through 
many  changes.  It  cannot  yet  be  regarded  as  a 
perfect  implement  of  its  kind,  but  it  has  been 
fast  approaching  toward  perfection  of  late 
years,  and  the  mode  of  manufacture  has  im 
proved  to  an  equal  extent.  (See  PLOUGH.) 
ISTor  has  the  improvement  in  other  farm  imple 
ments  been  less  marked  than  in  the  plough. 
Spades  and  hoes  are  lighter  and  better  con 
structed  than  formerly.  The  reaper  and  the 
mower  have  gained  a  firm  footing  even  with 
in  the  last  30  years.  As  labor  and  time-saving 
machines  are  now  deemed  indispensable  by  all 


who  raise  grain  and  hay  on  a  large  scale,  the 
reaper  and  the  mower  may  be   regarded   as 
types  of  the  present,  as  the  sickle  and  the  flail 
are  types  of  the  past.  (See  MOWING  AND  REAP 
ING  MACHINES.)   Among  the  other  labor-saving 
implements   which   are   now  generally  intro 
duced  upon  farms  of  any  extent  are  the  horse 
rake,  the  improved  horse  hoes,  the  seed  and 
corn  sowers,   the   broadcast   seed   sower,  the 
improved   subsoil  and  trenching  ploughs,  the- 
straw    and   root   cutters,   the   cultivators,  the 
threshing  and  winnowing  machines,  and  many 
others  of  equal  importance.     It  is  safe  to  say 
that    the    improvements    in    the    implements 
named,  made  within  the  last  half  century,  have 
enabled  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  to 
accomplish  at  least  double  the  amount  of  labor 
with  the  same  number  of  teams  and  men.    This 
|  is  a  grand  and  practical  advance  over  all  for 
mer  periods  in  its  history,  and  promises  a  fu 
ture  development  of  the  resources  of  agricul- 
\  ture  almost  beyond  the  power  of  language  to 
j  describe. — The  progress  which  has  been  made 
j  in  the  application  of  chemistry  to  agriculture  is 
!  hardly  less  gratifying.     For  though  from  year 
|  to  year  there  may  seem  to  be  little  progress, 
j  yet  when  we  compare  any  two  periods  of  five 
or  ten  years,  the  increase  of  practical  knowledge 
i  derived  from  the  investigations  of  the  agricul- 
i  tural  chemist,  as  well  as  its  importance,  is  very 
perceptible.     Since  1840,  chiefly  through  the 
i  labors   of    Prof.   Liebig,    animal   and   mineral 
!  phosphates,  superphosphate  of  lime,  and  other 
artificial  manures  have  come  to  be  very  exten 
sively  employed ;  and  it  is  only  since  the  same 
|  date  that  guano,  though  known  long  before, 
j  has  come  into  general  use.  (See  AGRICULTURAL 
I  CHEMISTRY,  BONE  DUST,  GUANO,  &c.)     An  im 
partial  survey  will  show  that  the  actual  pro 
duction  of  the  means  of  supporting  life  has 
largely  increased,  as  the  true  principles  of  cul- 
i  tivation  have  become  better  known  and  under - 
:  stood.     The  average  yield  per  acre  of  some  of 
;  the  cultivated  grains,  as  wheat,  for  instance,  has 
nearly  quadrupled  in  countries  where  these  prin- 
;  ciples  have  gained  the  strongest  hold,  even  with- 
|  in  the  memory  of  men  still  living ;  and  this  in 
crease  is  not  merely  proportionate  to  the  great 
er  number  of  producers,  or  the  additional  acres 
brought  under  tillage,  but  an  absolute  increase 
|  per  acre.    It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  amount 
of  crops,  or  the  average  yield,  of  very  distant 
times  past,  but  the  average  yield  per  acre  of 
wheat  in  the  llth  century  was  estimated  by 
i  the  highest  authority  of  that  day,  the  author 
I  of  "Fleta,"  at  only  6  bushels.     So  300  years 
later,  in  1390,  57  acres  on  a  farm  at  Haw- 
sted  yielded  only  360  bushels,  and  on  an  aver 
age  of  three  years  little  more  than  that.     The 
i  actual  productive  power  of  Great  Britain  in 
the  article  of  wheat  alone  increased  during  the 
half  century  from  1801  to  1851  to  the  extent 
of    supporting    an    additional    population   of 
7,000,000,  an  increase  which  can  be  ascribed 
with  confidence  mainly  to  improved  cultiva 
tion.     So  in  every  country  where  agriculture 


AGRICULTURE 


AGRIGEXTUM 


207 


receives  the  attention  it  deserves,  the  produc 
tive  power  of  the  soil  lias  largely  increased.  | 
Even  the  Atlantic  states  of  the  Union,  where  ! 
the  system  of  cultivating  the  soil  without  main-  j 
taining  its  fertility  by  a  proper  treatment  pre-  | 
vailed  for  many  years,  are  not  an  exception,  ; 
since  the  condition  of  agriculture   is  rapidly 
improving  in  the  oldest  of  them,  where  this  j 
system  was  earliest   begun,   and  the    general  ; 
average  of  crops,  with   the   exception  of  the 
potato,  is  increasing  from  year  to  year  as  a  more 
proper  culture  is  introduced   and  persevered 
in,  the  farmer  being  led  to  improve  his  practice  ! 
by  the  pressure  of  an  increasing  population  and  i 
constantly  rising  prices.     In  Xew  England,  for 
instance,  one  of  the  oldest  sections,  the  general 
average  yield  of  Indian  corn  per  acre  has  risen 
to  about  35  bushels,  while  crops  of  50  and  60  ' 
bushels  per  acre  arc  not  uncommon,  and  80  and  | 
100  are  sometimes  obtained  by  careful  tillage,  j 
The  situation  and  soil  of  Xew  England  are  not 
such  as  to  make  it  what  is  called  a  wheat-  | 
growing  region,  and  this  fact,  which  farmers 
were  long  in  understanding,  has  caused  a  great  ' 
decrease  in  the  extent  of  land  devoted  to  this  i 
crop.     Indian  corn,  root  crops,  and  all  the  va-  j 
rieties  of  fruit  suited  to  temperate  latitudes,  are 
found  to  be  more    certain  and  remunerative,  j 
and  attention  is  given  mainly  to  them.     In  the 
mean  time  the  system  of  farm  management  is 
gradually  improving,  new  implements  to  facili 
tate  labor  are  introduced,  and   much  greater 
care  and  economy  than  formerly  in  regard  to  ; 
manures  everywhere  prevail,  most  farmers  hav-  j 
ing  good  barn  cellars  arranged  for  its  preserva 
tion,  into  which  peat  and  loam  are  carried  in 
large  quantities,  and  composted  from  time  to 
time  during  the  winter  as  absorbents  and  divi 
sors.      Societies  have  been   established  in  all  , 
the  states,  and  in  most  of  the  counties.      In 
Massachusetts  a   department  of  agriculture  is 
organized  as  a  branch  of  the  government,  to 
collect,  arrange,  and  systematize  all  the  latest 
information    on    the    subject   for    distribution 
among  the  people,  and  to  superintend  the  de-  j 
velopment  of  the  established  policy  of  the  state ;  i 
and  a  bureau  of  agriculture  has  more  recently  i 
boen  established  by  the  national  government,  in  | 
the  interior  department.    In  the  middle  states  j 
societies  are  equally  active  in  efforts  to  raise  | 
the  standard  of  their   agriculture,   and   have  \ 
adopted  a  similar  liberal  policy,  and  in  some,  ! 
especially  Xew  York,  a  high  degree  of  improve-  | 
ment  has  been  reached.     The  western  states  ; 
are  more  strictly  and   exclusively  agricultural  ; 
than  any  other  section  of  the  country.     Most 
of  them  publish  annually,  at  the  expense  of  , 
their  governments,  valuable  reports  on  practi 
cal  agriculture  for  circulation  among  the  people.  ! 
Notwithstanding  the  immense  amount  already 
produced,  however,  the  resources  of  the  west  : 
have  but  just  begun  to  be  developed  as  they 
are  destined  to  be  hereafter.     The   southern  j 
states  are  also  large  producers  of  grain,  but  are  j 
mainly  devoted  to  the  raising  of  cotton  and  : 
sugar,  both  of  which  are  exported  in  large 


quantities. — The  present  condition  of  practical 
agriculture  in  Great  Britain  has  already  been 
alluded  to,  as  worthy  of  imitation  in  other  coun 
tries  of  similar  climate  and  soil.  But  the  points 
in  which  progress  is  most  distinctly  seen  are  the 
extensive  culture  and  use  of  rotft  crops,  the 
general  system  of  thorough  drainage,  the  intro 
duction  and  use  of  new  and  improved  imple 
ments  of  husbandry,  and  the  breeding  of  stock. 
The  land,  unlike  that  of  the  United  States, 
where  as  a  general  rule  the  farmer  is  the  owner 
as  well  as  the  cultivator,  is  held  chiefly  in  large 
estates,  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a  few  in 
dividuals,  and  leased  to  the  tenant  farmer,  who 
either  tills  it  himself  or  sublets  it  to  others. 
But  few,  therefore,  of  the  actual  tillers  of  the 
soil  are  owners  of  land.  Associated  effort  has 
done  much  to  awaken  a  lively  interest  in  the 
subject,  both  among  the  nobility  and  the  peo 
ple.  The  royal  agricultural  society,  established 
in  1839,  with  its  ably  conducted  journal,  the 
Highland  agricultural  society  of  Scotland,  and 
the  royal  society  of  Ireland,  are  doing  all  in 
their  power  to  develop  the  agricultural  re 
sources  of  the  country.  Many  valuable  agri 
cultural  journals  are  well  supported  and  widely 
circulated.  In  France  the  tendency  for  many 
years  has  been  to  the  division  of  landed  estates, 
and  comparatively  few  large  holdings  exist  at 
the  present  time.  Subdivision  of  property  in 
the  hands  of  small  proprietors  without  capital 
prevents  the  development  of  practical  agricul 
ture  ;  and  in  many  of  the  departments  its 
condition  is  still  rude.  The  government  has  its 
minister  of  agriculture,  and  supports  agricul 
tural  schools  and  veterinary  establishments, 
while  the  "Journal  of  Practical  Agriculture" 
and  other  agricultural  periodicals  are  doing 
much  to  improve  both  the  science  and  the 
practice  of  the  country.  With  regard  to  the 
division  of  landed  property,  the  same  state  of 
things  prevails  also  in  Belgium  and  Holland  as 
in  France,  the  agriculture  of  those  countries 
being  characterized  rather  as  gardening  than 
farming.  The  extreme  care  and  economy  of 
manures,  and  the  careful  application  of  liquid 
manures  in  these  countries,  are  often  referred 
to  as  worthy  of  imitation.  In  Germany,  as 
already  seen,  the  science  of  agriculture  has 
been  extensively  developed,  many  of  the  ablest 
chemists  having  devoted  their  lives  to  this 
pursuit.  Thaer,  Schwerz,  Roller,  Stockhardt, 
Liebig,  and  others,  have  a  world-wide  reputa 
tion.  Here,  also,  as  in  most  other  countries, 
associated  effort  is  made  to  advance  the  condi 
tion  of  agriculture. 

AGRIGENTOI  (called  by  the  Greeks  An-ngns  ; 
now  Girgenti),  an  ancient  Sicilian  city,  the 
rival  of  Syracuse,  on  a  lofty  eminence  on  the 
S.  W.  coast.  It  was  settled  by  a  Doric  colony 
from  Gela,  about  580  B.  C.  ^During  the  5th 
century  B.  0.  it  attained  its  highest  prosperity, 
when  its  population  was  probably  above  200,- 
000.  The  city  was  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of 
its  architecture,  both  public  and  private.  Its 
greatest  public  edifices  were  the  temples  of 


208 


AGRIONTA 


AGRIPPIXA 


Concord  and  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter,  of  which 
gigantic  ruins  remain.  Shortly  after  its  foun 
dation  it  was  ruled  by  the  tyrant  Phalaris,  and 
in  the  following  century  by  T heron  (488  to  472). 


Temple  of  Concord,  Agrigentum. 

It  was  repeatedly  involved  in  hostilities  with 
Carthage,  and  in  405  B.  C.  was  razed  to  the 
ground  by  an  army  of  that  nation.  It  was  re 
built  by  Timoleon,  and  in  210  became  perma 
nently  subject  to  Rome,  growing  to  be  one  of 
the  most  prosperous  of  the  cities  of  Sicily,  with 
a  great  trade  in  corn,  wine,  and  oil.  The  Sara 
cens  captured  it  in  A.  D.  825,  and  kept  posses 
sion  of  it  till  1086.  (See  GIEGEXTI.) 

AGRIOSIA,  a  yearly  festival  in  honor  of  Bac 
chus  Agrionius,  anciently  held  at  Orchomenus, 
Bceotia,  exclusively  by  women  and  priests.  The 
women  Avonld  make  a  pretended  search  for  the 
god,  and  finally  desist,  saying  he  had  escaped 
to  the  muses.  Then  all  would  assemble  at  a 
repast,  and  amuse  themselves  by  guessing  rid 
dles;  whence  collections  of  riddles,  charades, 
&c.,  have  been  called  "Agrionise."  But  the 
most  remarkable  part  of  the  festival  was  the 

Sursuit  of  a  band  of  virgins  by  a  priest  with  a 
rawn  sword,  who  killed  the  one  he  caught  as 
a  sacrifice,  in  memory  of  the  sacrifice  of  a  boy 
by  the  daughters  of  Minyas  in  a  Bacchic  fury. 
In  later  times  the  killing  was  omitted. 

AGRIPPA.  I.  Heroclos.  See  HEEOD.  II.  Marcus 
Vipsanins,  a  Roman  general  and  statesman,  born 
in  63  B.  C.,  of  an  obscure  family,  died  in  March, 
12  B.  C.  He  was  a  schoolmate  of  Octavius 
(afterward  Octavianus  and  Augustus),  at  Apol- 
lonia  in  Illyria,  and  was  his  chief  instrument  in 
establishing  the  empire.  After  the  murder  of 
Julius  Caesar,  Agrippa  accompanied  Octavius 
to  Rome,  prosecuted  Cassius,  and  received  the 
oath  of  fidelity  from  the  legions  which  had  de 
clared  for  Octavius.  In  40  he  took  Perusia 
from  Lucius  Antonius  after  a  long  siege,  and 
Sipontum  from  Mark  Antony.  In  88  he  aided 
Octavianus  by  his  victories  in  Gaul.  In  37,  after 
converting  the  Lucrine  lake  into  a  harbor,  he 
created  a  fleet,  with  which  the  next  year  he 
decisively  defeated  Sextus  Pompey  at  Mylne 
and  Xaulochus.  In  the  subsequent  war  against 
Antony  he  also  commanded  the  fleet,  and 


I  chiefly  contributed  to  the  great  victory  at  Ac- 
|  tinm  in  31.  lie  accompanied  Augustus  to  the 
j  war  against  the  Cantabrians  in  Spain  in  25; 
I  and  in  19,  being  in  command  there,  he  entirely 
1  subdued  them,  after  having  in  the  same  year 
pacified  the  Gauls,  and  constructed  four  great 
roads  and  the  aqueduct  at  Nimes.  Agrippa 
was  prretor  in  41,  consul  (with  Octavianus) 
in  37,  28,  and  27,  a?dile  in  33,  and  tribune 
from  18  till  his  death.  During  his  aedileship 
he  made  great  public  improvements  at  his  own 
expense,  constructing  and  restoring  aqueducts, 
erecting  splendid  buildings,  <fcc. ;  and  in  his 
j  third  consulship  he  built  the  Pantheon.  In  16, 
I  after  a  journey  to  Jerusalem  on  the  invitation 
of  Herod  the  Great,  he  founded  Berytus  (Bey- 
i  rout).  He  died  suddenly  on  his  return  from  a 
|  successful  mission  to  tranquillize  Pannonia. 
Agrippa  was  married  first  to  Pomponia,  daugh 
ter  of  T.  Pomponius  Atticus;  afterward  (about 
28)  to  Marcella,  niece  of  Augustus;  and  in 
21  to  Julia,  Augustus's  daughter,  Marcella 
I  having  been  divorced  at  the  emperor's  desire. 
His  sons  Caius  and  Lucius  by  Julia  were 
!  adopted  by  Augustus,  but  they  both  died  young. 
j  His  posthumous  son  Agrippa  was  also  adopted 
|  by  Augustus,  but  was  afterward  banished  for 
life  to  the  island  of  Planasia  on  account  of  his 
•  savage  disposition,  and  on  the  accession  of  Ti- 
',  berius,  A.  D.  14,  was  put  to  death. 

AGRIPPA  VON  IVETTESHEDI,  Heinrich  Corno- 

!  lius,  a  German  philosopher,  born  at  .Cologne, 

!  Sept.  14,  1486,  died  at  Grenoble,  Feb.  18,  1535. 

I  He  was  a  linguist,  statesman,  soldier,  physician, 

theologian,  and  chemist.     Having  engaged  in 

some  peasant  insurrections  in  the  south   of 

France,  he  retreated  to  Paris,  where  he  held 

public  discourses,  and  the  reputation  he  thus 

acquired  gained  him  a  professorship  of  theology 

.  at  Dole.     Accused  of  heresy,  or  more  probably 

magic,  he  fled  to  England  in  1510,  whence,  how- 

i  ever,  he  returned  to  Cologne,  and  afterward 

[  became  secretary  of  the  emperor  Maximilian. 

He  fought  in  a  campaign  against  the  Venetians, 

!  and  was  knighted  on  the  field.     Tired  of  this 

I  employment,  he   applied  himself  to  the  study 

|  of  physic,  lectured  pnhjicly  at  Pavia,  held  an 

|  office  in  Metz,  and  then  returned  to  Germany. 

1  At  the  invitation  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I., 

he  visited  both  England  and  France.     He  was 

I  an  ardent  student  of  alchemy  and  the  occult 

sciences,  in  reference  to  which  he  insisted  that 

i  the  writings  of  adepts  were  not  to  be  read  for  a 

literal,  but  for  a  mystical  meaning.     His  work 

,  De    Incertitudine    et    Vanitate    Scicntiarum 

(Paris,  1531)  is  a  satire  on. the  state  of  knowl- 

i  edge  at  the  period  in  which  he  lived. 

AGRIPPINA.   I,  Youngest  daughter  of  Agrippa 

and  Julia,  and  wife  of  Germanicus,  born  before 

|  12  B.  C.,  died  A.  D.  33.     She  was  a  woman  of 

I  great  ability,  beauty,  and  virtue.     She  accom- 

I  panied  Germanicus  in  his  campaigns,  and  once, 

in  his  absence,  took  the  command  and  saved 

the  army  by  preventing  the  breaking  down  of 

j  a  bridge  over  the  Rhine  in  a  panic.     After  the 

I  death  of  Germanicus  in  Asia  she  brought  homo 


AGUA 


AGUILAR 


his  ashes,  and  was  met  everywhere  on  the  way 
with  manifestations  of  sympathy  and  respect, 
and  at  Rome  with  unparalleled  honors.     But 
she  was  an  object  of  hatred  to  the  emperor  Ti 
berius,  and  in  A.  T).  30  he  banished  her  to  the 
island  of  Pandataria,  where  she  died,  as  is  sup 
posed,  by  voluntary  starvation.     She  was  the 
mother  of  nine  children,  one  of  whom  was  the  I 
emperor  Caligula.     Her  sons  Nero  and  Drusus  j 
fell  victims  to  the  tyranny  of  Tiberius  and  the  j 
jealousy  of  Sejanus.     II.  Daughter  of  the  pre- 
ceding,  born  at  Cologne  (hence  called  Colonia 
Agrippina)  between  A.  L).  13  and  17,  died  in 
59.      She   was    gifted    and    beautiful,    but    is  } 
one  of  the  vilest  characters  in  history.     She  i 
was  first  married  to  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobar- 
bus,  and  after  his  death  to  Crispus  Passienus,  | 
whom   she   was  accused  of  poisoning.      Her  } 
brother  Caligula  banished  her  and  her  sister  j 
Drusilla  to  the  island  of  Pontia  in  39,  but  they  j 
were  released  by  Claudius  on  his  accession  in  | 
41.     After  the  murder  of  Messalina  she  sue-  ; 
ceeded  in  inducing  her  uncle  Claudius  to  marry  j 
her  (49),  the  act  being  legalized  by  the  senate,  ! 
and  to  adopt  her  son  Nero  by  Ahenobarbus  as  j 
his  successor,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  own  son  I 
Britannicus.    She  then  proceeded  to  remove  all 
rivals  and  enemies  by  poison,  and  finally  Clau-  j 
dius  himself  (54),  his  fate  being  hastened  by  an 
incautious  threat  uttered  by  him.    After  Nero's 
accession,  having  alienated  him  by  domestic  ! 
intrigues,  she  resorted  to  the  most  revolting 
means   for  regaining  his  affection;    but    her  ! 
efforts  failed,  and  she  was  assassinated  by  his  '. 
orders  in  her  villa  on  the  Lucrine  lake,  after  ; 
the  failure  of  an  attempt  to  drown  her  in  a 
vessel  purposely  contrived  to  break  to  pieces  at  \ 
sea.     She  left  commentaries  on  her  own  and 
her    family's    history,    which    were    used   by 
Tacitus. 

AGUA  (Sp.,  water),  Volean  de,  a  mountain  in  • 
Guatemala,  Central  America,  25  m.  S.  W.  of  j 
the  capital,  New  Guatemala.     In  form  it  is  a 
graceful  cone,  its  base  extending  over  nearly  all 
the  western  part  of  the  valley  of  Guatemala,  i 
The  traveller  Stephens  estimates  its  altitude  at  j 
14,450  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     Culti 
vated  fields  surround  the  base,  and  a  belt  of 
forest  and  verdure  extends  to  the  summit.    The 
crater-like  hollow  on  the  top  measures  140  by  j 
120  yards.     Its  name  is  derived  from  the  fact 
that   occasionally  torrents  of  cold  water  flow 
out  of  its  northern  side.     The  volcanic  moun 
tain  of  Pacaya  lies  to  the  S.  E.,  and  that  of 
Guatemala  to  the  N.  AV. 

AGl'ADO,  Alexandra  Marie,  a  Parisian  banker,  | 
born  at  Seville,  June  29,  1784,  died  April  14,  j 
1842.  In  early  life  he  joined  the  Napoleonic  ! 
party  in  Spain,  held  a  commission  in  the  French  ; 
army,  and  fought  for  Napoleon  up  to  the  battle 
of  Leipsic,  when  he  quitted  the  army,  engaged  j 
in  trade  and  banking,  and  in  1823  was  appoint-  I 
ed  banker  for  the  Spanish  government  at  Paris,  j 
He  was  created  a  Spanish  marquis  by  Ferdinand  ; 
VII.,  and  received  from  Otho  of  Greece  the  ! 
order  of  the  Redeemer.  lie  lived  in  great 
voi.  i. — 14 


splendor,  and  died  worth  $12,000,000.  He  had 
a  gallery  of  very  fine  pictures,  which  were  en 
graved  and  published  as  the  Galerie  Aguado 
(Paris,  1837-'42). 

AGUAS  CALIENTES.  I.  The  smallest  state  of 
the  Mexican  republic,  nearly  enclosed  by  Zaca- 
tecas,  and  bounded  S.  by  Jalisco;  area,  2,946 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1808,  140,030.  The  eastern  dis 
tricts  consist  of  elevated  table  lands,  averaging 
5,000  to  6,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  west 
ern  of  broken  mountain  ranges,  including  the 
sierras  of  Laurel  and  Pinal,  spurs  of  the  Sierra 
Madre  or  Cordillera.  The  table  lands  produce 
abundant  crops  of  cereals  and  a  variety  of 
fruits,  of  which  olives,  figs,  grapes,  and  pears 
are  the  principal.  There  are  a  few  unimpor 
tant  silver  and  other  mines  within  the  state. 
It  is  divided  into  the  four  districts  of  Aguas 
Calientes;  Rincon  de  Romos,  Asientos,  and  Cal- 
villo.  II.  The  capital  of  the  preceding  state, 
situated  upon  a  plain  6,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
270  N.  W.  of  Mexico ;  pop.  22,534.  It  takes  its 
name  from  two  warm  mineral  springs  in  its 
neighborhood.  The  great  road  from  Mexico 
to  Durango  and  Sonora  and  that  from  San  Luis 
Potosi  to  Guadalajara  meet  at  Aguas  Calientes. 
It  is  surrounded  by  rich  gardens,  abounding 
in  olives,  figs,  vines,  and  pears,  and  contains 
churches,  convents,  and  a  hospital. 

AGUE,  a  word  denoting  tremor,  which  has 
been  used  by  medical  writers  in  the  sense  of 
chill  or  rigor.  Fever  and  ague  is  a  popular 
name  for  intermittent  fever.  (See  FEVERS.) 
Cases  of  intermittent  fever,  lacking  the  usual 
chill  or  cold  stage,  and  in  other  respects  latent, 
are  sometimes  distinguished  as  cases  uf  "dumb 
ague."  The  name  "ague  cake"  is  applied  to 
enlargement  of  the  spleen  occurring  not  very 
infrequently  in  the  course  of  intermittent  fever. 

AGUESSEAU,  Henri  Francois  d',  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Limoges,  Nov.  27,  1668,  died  Feb.  9, 
1751.  In  1690,  when  only  22  years  old,  Louis 
XIV.  appointed  him  advocate  general,  and  in 
1700  he  became  procureur  general.  He  resisted 
the  registration  of  the  papal  bull  TInigenitus, 
on  the  ground  that  it  encroached  on  the  rights 
of  the  monarchy.  In  1717  he  was  made  chan 
cellor  by  the  regent  Orleans.  Almost  alone  he 
opposed  Law's  schemes  for  making  the  nation 
suddenly  rich,  and  was  dismissed,  but  recalled 
in  1720,  on  the  bursting  of  the  bubble.  In 
1722,  Cardinal  Dubois  being  appointed  presi 
dent  of  the  council,  D'Aguesseau  retired,  to  be 
reappointed  in  1737,  finally  resigning  in  1750, 
at  the  age  of  82.  He  endeavored  to  reduce  the 
incongruous  laws  of  France  to  uniformity.,  had 
an  extensive  acquaintance  with  literature,  and 
was  versed  in  many  European  languages.  His 
writings  have  been  published  in  several  editions, 
the  most  complete  in  10  voK  8vo  (Paris,  1819- 
'20) ;  and  his  Lettrcs  inedites  appeared  in  1823 
(2  vols.  8vo). 

AGUILAR,  or  Agjnilar  de  la  Frontera,  a  town  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  and  22  m.  S.  by  E.  of 
Cordova,  on  the  Cabra;  pop.  about  12,000.  It 
has  a  trade  in  corn  and  wiiie,  and  is  remarha- 


210 


AGUILAR 


AHAZIAH 


ble  for  its  white  houses  and  clean  streets.  It 
contains  three  handsome  public  squares  and  a 
dismantled  Moorish  castle. 

AGHLAR,  Graee,  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Hackney,  near  London,  June  2,  1816,  died  in 
Frankfort  on-the-Main,  Sept.  16, 1847.  She  was 
descended  from  a  family  of  Jewish  merchants  in 
Spain,  who  fled  from  that  country  on  account 
of  religious  persecution,  and  found  a  refuge  in 
England.  She  wras  instructed  wholly  by  her 
father  and  mother.  At  14  she  commenced  the 
study  of  history,  beginning  with  Josephus. 
Her  first  work  was  "The  Magic  Wreath,"  a 
small  volume  of  poems,  published  anonymously. 
At  a  very  early  age  she  wrote  a  pleasing  reli-  j 
gious  fiction,  "  The  Martyr,  or  the  Vale  of  Ce 
dars."  Her  other  works  are :  "The  Spirit  of 
Judaism";  "Israel  Defended,"  translated  from 
the  French ;  "  The  Days  of  Bruce,"  a  story  from 
Scottish  history;  "Jewish  Faith";  "Women 
of  Israel " ;  "  Home  Scenes  and  Heart  Studies  " ; 
"Home  Influence";  "Josephine,  or  the  Edict 
and  Escape";  "The  Mother's  Recompense"; 
and  "Woman's  Friendship."  In  1835  her  con 
stitution  received  a  severe  shock  from  an  attack 
of  measles,  which  left  her  in  a  state  of  debility 
from  which  she  never  fully  recovered.  She 
died  on  a  visit  to  the  continent  for  the  benefit  | 
of  her  health,  and  was  buried  in  the  cemetery 
of  the  Jews  at  Frankfort. 

AGUIRRE.     !•  Jose  Saenz  de,  a  learned  Spanish  j 
Benedictine,  born  in  Logrono,  March  24,  1630,  ; 
died  in  Home,  Aug.  19, 1699.    He  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Salamanca,  afterward  secretary  of 
the  inquisition,  and  finally  a  cardinal.  His  princi-  j 
pal  works  are:  Defensio  Catliedrcv  Sancti  Pctri,  - 
for  which  he  received  his  cardinal's  hat ;  Sancti  \ 
Anselmi  Tlieologia  (3  vols.  folio) ;  and  Collectio  \ 
Consiliorum  Hispanice  (several  editions  in  4  j 
and  6  vols.  folio).     II.   Lope  de,  a  Spaniard  of  i 
the  16th  century,  notorious  for  his  crimes.    He  i 
left  Spain  for  Peru,  and  accompanied  the  expe-  j 
dition  of  Orsua  in  quest  of  the  imaginary  El  j 
Dorado,  a  history  of  which  has  been  written 
by  Southey.      He  prompted  Orsua  to  assume  j 
regal  authority,  and  then  killed  him  to  usurp 
his  place,  and  from  this  time  murdered  all  who 
in  any  way  displeased  him.     Being  finally  de 
serted,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  Spanish  au 
thorities  in  Venezuela. 

AGULHAS  (Port.,  needles),  a  cape  and  bank  on 
the  southernmost  point  of  Africa,  about  100  m. 
E.  S.  E.  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  lat.  34° 
51'  S.,  Ion.  20°  2'  E.  Its  extreme  height  is 
455  feet  above  the  sea.  A  lighthouse  was 
erected  in  1849  upon  the  cape,  at  an  elevation  I 
of  52  feet  above  high  water. 

AGUSTINA,  known  as  the  maid  of  Saragossa,  | 
died  at  Cueta,  Spain,  in  June,  1857,  at  a  very 
advanced  age.  She  was  an  itinerant  seller  of 
cool  drinks  in  Saragossa  in  her  youth,  and 
during  the  siege  of  that  place  by  the  French  in 
1808  and  1809  distinguished  herself  by  her 
heroic  participation  in  the  severest  encounters 
with  the  enemy.  She  was  called  la  artillera, 
from  having  snatched  the  match  from  the 


hands  of  a  dying  artilleryman,  and  discharged 
the  piece  at  the  invaders.  For  her  services 
during  this  siege  she  was  made  a  sub-lieuten 
ant  in  the  Spanish  army,  and  received  several 
decorations.  Byron  has  celebrated  her  in 
"Childe  Harold." 

AGYNIANI,  or  Agynii  (Gr.  a,  without,  and  yvv^ 
woman),  a  sect  so  called  from  their  rejection 
of  marriage.  They  flourished  about  the  close 
of  the  7th  century,  belonging  to  the  later  rep 
resentatives  of  the  Gnostic  idea  that  the  crea 
tor  of  the  material  world  was  an  evil  being, 
and  that  therefore  the  true  Christian  life  con 
sists  in  a  renunciation  and  mortification  of  all 
the  physical  appetites  and  passions. 

AklAli,  son  and  successor  of  Omri,  king  of 
Israel,  reigned  from  918  to  897  B.  C.  "  He 
married  Jezebel,  the  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king 
of  the  Sidonians.  Through  her  influence  the 
intercourse  between  Phoenicia  and  Israel,  which 
had  long  been  only  commercial,  no\v  became 
social  and  religious.  She  introduced  the  wor 
ship  of  Baal  and  Astarte  into  the  Hebrew  cul- 
tus.  The  golden  calves  at  Dan  and  Bethel  had 
been  guardedly  worshipped  for  several  years ; 
but  idolatry  became  under  Ahab  a  predominant 
element  of  religious  life.  For  his  idolatrous  as 
well  as  tyrannical  practices,  Ahab  was  reproved 
by  Elijah ;  and  as  a  result  of  the  king's  obsti 
nacy,  the  prophet  proposed  the  trial  of  Carmel. 
Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  twice  besieged  Ahal/s 
capital,  but  was  defeated  with  great  loss. 
Ahab  came  to  his  end  by  an  arrow  wound  re 
ceived  while  fighting  in  disguise  in  the  battle 
of  Ramoth-Gilead. 

AHANTA,  a  narrow  strip  of  the  Gold  Coast,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Ashantee,  Africa,  between  Ion. 
3°  and  2°  10'  W.  On  the  west  it  is  bounded  by 
a  river  called  Ancobra  by  the  Portuguese,  and 
Seenna  by  the  natives.  It  is  subdivided  into 
three  districts.  Its  most  important  town  is 
Boosooa,  Great  Britain  has  several  forts  along 
the  coast,  including  Axim  and  Dixcove,  all  but 
the  latter  ceded  by  the  Dutch  in  1872.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  17th  century  there  was  also  a 
Fort  Brandenburg,  belonging  to  the  electorate 
of  that  name. 

AHASIERIS,  the  name  of  the  Persian  king 
whose  actions  are  described  in  the  book  of 
Esther.  (See  ESTHER.)  Two  other  kings  of  the 
same  name  are  mentioned  in  Ezra  iv.  6,  and 
Dan.  ix.  1,  and  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
Cambyses  and  Astyages  (or  Cyaxares)  respec 
tively. 

AHAZ,  king  of  Judah,  741-725  B.  C.  See 
HEBREWS. 

AHAZIAH.     I.  Son  and  successor  of  Ahab, 
|  king  of  Israel,    reigned   897-895  B.  C.     The 
!  most  signal  event  of  his  reign  was  the  revolt 
!  of  the  Moabites.    Ahaziah,  like  his  father  Ahab, 
was  controlled  by  the  ambitious  Jezebel,  and 
walked  in  the  ways  of  his  father.    lie  fell  from 
|  a  roof  of  his  palace,  and  sent  to  the  oracle  of 
Baal-zebub  at  Ekron  to  inquire  if  he  should  re 
cover.    The  prophet  Elijah  met  the  messengers 
on  the  way,  and  sent  them  back  to  say  to  the 


AHIMELECII 


AHMED   SIIAII 


211 


king  that  he  should  never  rise  from  his  bed. 
II.  Son  and  successor  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Ju- 
clah.  He  reigned  but  one  year,  and  during 
that  time  he  was  under  the  entire  control  of  his 
mother  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  Omri,  and 
sister  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  He  was  slain 
(884  B.  C.)  by  Jehu,  who  regarded  Ahaziah  as 
coming  by  blood  into  the  scope  of  his  commis 
sion  to  destroy  the  house  of  Ahab. 

AHIMELECH,  son  of  Ahitub,  a  Jewish  high 
priest  dwelling  at  Nob.  David,  fleeing  from 
Saul,  came  to  Ahimelech,  and  by  a  misrepre 
sentation  induced  him  to  supply  his  wants  with 
the  shew-bread  which  was  kept  in  the  taberna 
cle.  The  priest  also  gave  him  the  sword  of 
Goliath.  For  this  Saul  caused  Doeg  to  slay 
Ahimelech  with  all  the  priests  of  Nob. 

AHITHOPHEL,  the  confederate  and  adviser  of 
Absalom  in  his  rebellion  against  his  father  Da 
vid.  He  was  famed  for  his  sagacity  and  almost 
considered  infallible.  The  advice  of  Cushai 
having  been  preferred  to  his  by  Absalom,  he 
committed  suicide  by  hanging. 

AHLEFELD,  Charlotte  Sophie  Luise  Wilhelminc 
yon,  a  German  novelist,  born  near  Weimar, 
Dec.  6, 1781,  died  at  Teplitz,  July  27, 1849.  She 
married  Ilerr  von  Ahlefeld,  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  in  1798,  and  was  separated  from  him  in 
1807.  Goethe  expressed  a  high  opinion  of 
her  precocious  literary  talent.  She  published 
a  great  number  of  sentimental  novels,  under 
the  name  of  Elisa  Selbig  and  under  her  own 
name  (1797-1832),  as  well  as  a  volume  of  poetry 
(Weimar,  1826),  under  the  name  of  Natalie. 

AHLFELD,  Johauu  Friedrich,  a  German  clergy 
man,  born  at  Mehringen,  Nov.  1,  1810.  He 
has  been  celebrated  since  1851  as  a  pulpit  ora 
tor  at  the  St.  Nicholas  church  in  Leipsic. 
Nearly  20  volumes  of  his  sermons  have  been 
published  since  1848,  and  passed  through  many 
editions.  He  is  an  orthodox  Lutheran. 

AHLQUIST,  August  Engelbert,  a  Finnish  philol 
ogist  and  poet,  professor  of  philology  and 
Finnish  literature  at  Helsingfors,  born  at  Kuo- 
pio,  Aug.  7,  1826.  He  is  distinguished  for  his 
philological  and  ethnographical  investigations, 
especially  those  in  respect  to  the  dialects  and 
races  of  the  Uralo-Altaic  family.  He  publish 
ed  the  results  of  his  researches  in  Finland  and 
Russia  in  a  work  entitled  Muistelmia  mafkoil- 
ta  Wendjdlld  ruosina  1853-'8  (Helsingfors, 
1860).  He  is  also  the  author  of  a  grammar  of 
the  language  of  the  almost  extinct  Wot  tribe 
(Wotislc  Grammatik}.  In  1847  he  founded  at 
Helsingfors  a  journal  entitled  Suometar  (Fin 
land).  His  collected  poetry  has  been  published 
under  the  title  of  Sdl-enia  ("  Sparks  ").  He  has 
also  made  Finnish  translations  of  several  of 
Schiller's  works. 

AHLWARDT,  Theodor  Wllhelm,  a  German  ori 
entalist,  born  at  Greifswald,  July  4,  1828.  He 
is  the  son  of  the  philologist  and  Hellenist 
Christian  Wilhelm  Ahlwardt  (1760-1830),  and 
has  been  since  1861  professor  of  oriental  lan 
guages  at  the  Greifswald  university.  He  is  a 
high  authority  on  Arabic  literature  and  history. 


His  principal  original  work  is  Ueber  Poesie  und 
Poctik  der  Araber  (Gotha,  1856). 

AHMED  SHAH,  founder  of  the  Afghan  monar 
chy,  born  about  1724,  died  in  1773.  Ahmed 
was  the  son  of  Sammaun*  Khan,  the  amir  of  the 
great  tribe  of  the  Abdallis  and  of  the  family  of 
the  Suddosis.  At  his  father's  death  he  and  his 
brother  Zulfucar  fell  into  the  power  of  Hussein 
Shah,  the  head  of  the  tribe  of  the  Ghiljis,  who 
was  then  master  of  Candahar.  At  this  period 
Afghanistan  was  subject  to  Persia.  On  the 
invasion  of  India  by  Nadir  Shah,  the  two  young 
princes  were  rescued  from  the  hands  of  Hus 
sein  and  sent  into  Persia.  Ahmed's  brother 
died  in  captivity,  but  he  himself  was  taken  into 
the  service  of  the  usurper,  and  promoted  to  the 
command  of  a  body  of  horse.  When  Nadir  was 
assassinated  in  1747,  Ahmed  and  his  tribe  at 
tempted  to  avenge  his  death.  But  finding  the 
Persian  army  too  powerful,  he  retreated  into 
the  fastnesses  of  his  native  country,  changed 
the  name  of  his  tribe  from  Abdalli  to  Durrani, 
which  they  still  retain,  raised  the  standard  of 
independence,  proclaimed  himself  shah,  and 
was  soon  joined  by  the  amirs  and  their  several 
tribes.  His  first  act  was  to  seize  a  convoy  of 
treasure  coming  from  India  to  Persia,  and  to 
possess  himself  of  the  famed  Koh-i-noor  dia 
mond  (now  in  possession  of  the  British  crown), 
which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Nadir  Shah. 
Aware  that  his  power  depended  on  finding  oc 
cupation  for  his  turbulent  subjects,  he  led  them 
at  once  to  conquest,  and  rapidly  subdued  the 
provinces  surrounding  his  realm  and  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Persia.  He  then  directed  his 
arms  to  India,  overran  the  Punjaub  and  Cash 
mere  (1752),  and  penetrated  (1756-'7)  as  far  as 
Delhi,  the  capital  of  the  Mogul  emperor  Alam- 
ghir,  whither  that  monarch,  jealous  of  his  vizier's 
excessive  power,  is  said  to  have  earnestly  sum 
moned  him.  The  crafty  vizier,  Ghazy-ed-Deen, 
propitiated  Ahmed,  and,  professing  entire  sub 
servience  to  his  views,  induced  the  Afghan 
monarch  to  leave  him  in  possession  of  his  ill- 
gotten  power  as  a  check  upon  his  sovereign. 
Ahmed  entered  Delhi  in  triumph,  sacked  it, 
and  invested  his  son,  Timour  Shah,  with  the 
government  of  the  Punjaub  and  of  Sirhind. 
In  retiring  from  Delhi,  he  left  a  lieuten 
ant  to  hold  both  the  vizier  and  the  Great 
Mo2;ul  in  check.  No  sooner  was  the  restraint 
of  his  presence  removed  than  the  minister  rose 
on  the  Afghan  commander,  drove  him  out  of 
Delhi,  and  assassinated  the  emperor,  placing  a 
prince  of  the  blood  royal  on  the  throne.  The 
Mahratta  chieftains  now  saw  their  opportunity 
for  expelling  the  Mohammedan  rulers  alto 
gether,  and  establishing  Hindoo  supremacy. 
Ahmed  Shah  brought  a  powerful  army  into 
the  field  (1759).  More  than  a  year  was  spent 
in  manoeuvres  and  skirmishes,  till  the  Mahrattas 
took  up  an  intrenched  position  at  Paniput,  when 
Ahmed  cut  off  their  supplies,  and  forced  them  to 
an  engagement,  Jan.  6, 1761,  in  which  the  Mah 
rattas  sustained  a  decisive  defeat.  The  shah, 
however,  saw  the  impossibility  of  maintaining 


212 


AHMED ABAD 


AI 


the  Mogul  empire,  and  left  it  to  its  fate.  The 
Sikh  chieftains  in  the  Punjaub  revolted  against 
him,  and  he  crossed  the  Indus  for  the  sixth  time 
in  1762,  and  coerced  them  to  a  temporary  obe 
dience,  which  they  finally  threw  off  after  a  sev 
enth  expedition  of  Ahmed  in  l763-'4,  made 
unsuccessful  by  the  desertion  of  part  of  his 
army.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Timour. 

AHMEDABAD,  or  Ahmadabad,  a  fortified  town 
of  British  India,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  on  the 
Subbermutti,  50  m.  N.  of  the  bay  of  Cambay, 
and  309  m.  by  railway  N.  of  Bombay ;  lat.  23° 
1'  K,  Ion.  72°  42'  E. ;  pop.  about  130,000.  The 
city  is  6  m.  in  circumference,  and  is  surrounded 
by' high  walls  with  towers.  It  was  founded 
in  1426  by  Ahmed,  shah  of  Guzerat,  as  a  cap 
ital.  Its  splendor  was  increased  under  Akbar 
and  his  successors  (1572-1712);  and  in  the  17th 
century  it  was  the  finest  city  of  Hindostan.  It 
was  also  noted  for  its  commercial  prosperity, 
having  a  large  trade  in  indigo,  cotton,  and 
opium,  and  manufactures  of  gold,  silver,  and 
silk ;  but  it  was  ruined  by  the  Mahratta  rule, 
which  was  not  finally  extinguished  by  the  Eng 
lish  till  1818.  The  most  gorgeous  relics  of 
Ahmedabad  are  the  great  mosque,  the  mosque 
of  Sujat  Khan,  the  fire  temple,  and  the  tower 
of  silence  of  the  Parsees.  The  once  famous 
gardens  are  nearly  destroyed ;  but  the  environs 
are  still  remarkable  for  their  beauty.  Col. 
Briggs's  work,  "The  Architecture  of  Ahmeda 
bad,"  beautifully  illustrated,  was  published  in 
London  in  1866. 

AHMEDMGGUR,  or  Ahmadnagar.  I.  A  dis 
trict,  familiarly  called  Nagar,  including  the 
sub-collectorate  of  Nasik,  in  the  Poona  divi 
sion  of  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  British  In 
dia;  area  about  10,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  upward  of 
1,000,000,  including  nearly  200,000  members 
of  wild  tribes  and  low  castes,  and  50,000  Mos 
lems.  II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  district,  70 
in.  N".  E.  of  Poona,  and  125  m.  E.  of  Bombay, 
on  the  river  Seena;  pop.  about  30,000.  The 
fortress,  one  mile  in  circumference,  surrounded 
by  a  stone  wall  30  feet  high,  and  by  a  broad 
and  deep  ditch,  and  flanked  by  round  towers, 
is  one  of  the  strongest  in  India.  In  addition  to 
stone  walls,  the  city  is  defended  by  an  impene 
trable  hedge  of  prickly  pear  about  20  feet  high. 
The  locality  is  renowned  for  boar  hunting,  and 
abounds  in  game.  The  malaria,  formerly  dead 
ly,  was  removed  by  draining  previous  to  1829, 
when  the  headquarters  of  the  Bombay  artillery 
was  established  here.  The  city  was  founded 
in  1493  by  Ahmed  Nizam  Shah.  It  was  part 
of  the  Mogul  empire  from  1634  to  1707,  when 
it  was  captured  by  the  Mahrattas.  In  1797  it 
was  taken  by  Sindia,  from  whom  it  was  wrest 
ed  by  Gen.  Wellesley  in  1803.  Soon  afterward, 
however,  it  was  restored  to  the  peishwa,  and 
it  did  not  finally  revert  to  English  authority 
till  1817. 

AHN,  .loli aim  Franz,  a  German  grammarian, 
born  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Dec.  15,  1796,  died  at 
Keuss,  Aug.  21,  1865.  He  was  for  many  years 


a  teacher  in  the  RealscJiule  at  Neuss.  Hi* 
method  for  the  acquisition  of  foreign  languages 
became  very  popular.  His  Praktischer  Lehr- 
gang  zur  schnellen  und  leichten  Erlernung  der 
franzosiwhcn  SpracJie  passed  through  167  edi- 

•  tions  between  1834  and  1870.     Besides  several 

;  manuals  of  the  German  and  other  languages, 
and  hand-books  of  conversation,  letter- writing, 

I  &c.,  he  published  in  English  a  collection  en 
titled  "Poetry  of  Germany"  (Leipsic,  1859), 

|  and  in  French  ISAllcmagne  poetique  (1861). 
AHRENS,  Heinrich,  a  German  jurist  and  psy- 

I  chologist,  born  at  Kniestedt,  Hanover,  July  14, 

i  1808.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  was  impli 
cated  in  the  political  disturbances  of  1831,  af 
terward  lectured  in  Paris  on  German  philoso 
phy  and  psychology,  and  from  1834  to  1848 
was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Brussels,  declin 
ing  invitations  from  the  universities  of  Leyden 
and  Utrecht.  In  1848  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Frankfort  parliament  and  of  the  commit 
tee  appointed  to  draw  up  a  German  constitu- 
tution.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  professor  at 
Gratz,  and  since  1859  he  has  been  connected  with 
the  university  of  Leipsic,  which  he  represents 
in  the  first  Saxon  chamber.  He  has  published 
in  French  Cours  de  psychologic  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1837-'8),  and  Cours  du  droit  nature!  (Paris, 
1838 ;  5th  ed.,  1860).  He  published  a  German 
version  of  the  latter  under  the  title  of  Die 
HechtspTi  ilosophie,  oder  das  NaturrecTi  t  attfpft  i- 
losophisch  -  anthropologischer  Grundlage  (Vi 
enna,  1851).  This  work  has  also  been  trans 
lated  into  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and 
Hungarian,  and  is  used  as  a  basis  for  academi 
cal  studies  in  Brazil,  Peru,  and  Chili.  It  forms 
the  first  part  of  his  great  work  Philosophic  des 
Reclits.  The  second  part  contains  Die  orga- 
nische  Staatslehre  (Vienna,  1850)  and  Die  ju- 
ristwche  EncyUopadie  (1855-'7). 

AHRIMAN,  the  name  of  the  evil  principle  in^ 
the  ancient  Persian  religion.    See  OEMTTZD. 

AHWAZ,  or  Ahwnz,  a  small  town  on  the  river 
Karun  in  Persia,  province  of  Khuzistan,  70  m. 
K  K  E.  of  Bassorah,  and  45  m.  S.  S.  W.  of 
Sinister.  It  is  a  very  insignificant  place,  con 
taining  about  1,600  inhabitants,  but  it  is  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  a  vast  collection  of 
I'uins,  the  remains  of  a  city  ascribed  to  the  pe 
riod  of  the  Parthian  empire,  and  which  was 
very  prosperous  under  the  caliphs.  It  must 
have  been  a  city  of  considerable  magnitude, 

•and  the  ruins  extend  for  12  miles  along  the 
bank  of  the  river.  Near  it  is  a  strong  dam 
built  across  the  bed  of  the  river  to  irrigate  the 
surrounding  country;  and  there  are  remains 
of  a  fine  bridge  and  a  large  palace. 

AI,  an  ancient  city  of  Palestine,  in  the  terri 
tory  of  Benjamin,  about  12  m.  1ST.  of  Jerusa 
lem,  as  near  as  can  at  present  be  determined. 
It  is  first  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  the  place- 
where  Abraham  and  Lot  pitched  their  tents 
when  journeying  from  Haran.  It  was  captured 
and  destroyed  by  Joshua,  and  became  a  heap 
of  stones,  but  was  rebuilt  so  as  to  be  a  place  of 
some  note  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah. 


AIDAN,   ST. 


AIKIN 


213 


AIDAN,  St.,  an  Irish  missionary  to  the  North 
umbrians,  died  Aug.  31,  651.  He  was  sent 
into  North umbria  at  the  request  of  King  Os 
wald  about  035,  and  appointed  bishop,  with  a 
see  at  Lindisfarne,  where  he  established  the 
monastic  rule  of  St.  Columbanus.  With  the 
assistance  of  the  king,  who  acted  as  his  inter 
preter,  he  founded  the  church  in  Northumbria. 

AIDIX.  I.  A  Turkish  province,  one  of  the 
eyalets  of  Asia  Minor,  embracing  ancient 
Lydia,  Caria,  the  western  part  of  Lycia,  and 
southwestern  Phrygia ;  pop.  450,000.  II.  A  city 
(surnamed  Guzel  Hissar,  beautiful  castle),  capi 
tal  of  the  province,  about  57  m.  S.  E.  of  Smyr 
na;  pop.  upward  of  40,000,  chiefly  Turks.  It 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  Meander,  and 
built  out  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  Tralles,  which 
was  situated  on  the  plateau  of  the  Messogis 
above  the  town.  Its  important  trade  in  cot 
ton,  figs,  and  other  products  has  become  still 
more  active  since  the  recent  completion  of  the 
Smyrna- Aidin  railway.  The  city  is  noted  for 
its  animation,  and  possesses  many  khans,  ba 
zaars,  mosques,  and  palaces,  as  well  as  some 
interesting  ruins.  The  American  missionaries 
at  Smyrna  have  a  sub-mission  here. 

AIGIEBELLE,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  Sa 
voy,  on  the  left  side  of  the  river  Arc,  15  m.  E. 
of  Chambery,  where  the  Spanish  and  French 
forces  gained  a  victory  over  the  troops  of  the 
king  of  Sardinia  in  1742.  It  is  near  the  begin 
ning  of  the  road  which  Napoleon  built  over 
Mont  Cenis. 

AIGIEBELLE,  Panl  Alexandra  Neyene  d',  a 
Franco-Chinese  naval  commander,  born  in 
France,  Jan.  7,  1831.  He  entered  the  French 
navy  in  1846,  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in 
1858,  and  afterward  entered  the  Chinese  ser 
vice,  distinguishing  himself  in  1862-'4  against 
the  Taepings.  Admiral  Protet  and  the  captains 
of  artillery  Lebreton  and  De  Moidry  having 
been  successively  killed  by  their  own  raw 
troops,  D'Aiguebelle  became  chief  commander 
of  the  Franco-Chinese  corps,  compelled  the  in 
surgents  to  evacuate  several  towns,  and  cap 
tured  Hangchow  (1864).  In  1865  he  was 
made  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor  by  the 
French  government,  wlrile  the  Chinese  raised 
him  to  the  rank  of  a  mandarin  of  the  first 
class.  He  established  with  the  aid  of  M.  Gic- 
quel  the  arsenal  of  Foo-chow-foo,  and  enabled 
the  Chinese  in  less  than  three  years  to  con 
struct  all  kinds  of  European  vessels.  The  first 
Chinese  man-of-war  is  said  to  have  been 
launched  under  D'Aiguebelle's  auspices,  June 
2,  1869,  on  which  occasion  he  was  appointed 
grand  admiral  of  the  Chinese  fleet. 

AIGUILLE  (Fr.,  needle),  a  name  given  to  cer 
tain  narrow  and  sharp-pointed  peaks  of  the 
Alps,  some  of  which  rise  to  a  great  height. 
Also  the  special  name  of  a  mountain  in  Isere, 
France,  between  Grenoble  and  Gap,  6,500  feet 
high,  which  is  inaccessible  and  called  one  of 
the  seven  wonders  of  Dauphine. 

AIGl  ILLOX,  Armand  Vignerot  Dnplessis  Richelieu, 
due  d',  minister  of  foreign  affairs  under  Louis 


i  XV.,  born  in  1720,  died  in  1782.     When  in 

i  1758  the  English   made  a  descent  upon   the 

I  coast  of  Brittany,  the  duke,  who  was  governor 

I  of   the  province,   threw  himself  into  a   mill, 

|  whereupon  La  Chalotais  perpetrated  his  cele- 

!  brated  witticism,  that  D'Aiguillon  had  covered 

!  himself,  not  with  glory,  but  With  flour.      On 

the  accession  of  Louis  XVI.  he  was  replaced 

;  by  Vergennes,  and  lived  thenceforth  in  obscu- 

j  rity.      During    his  ministry  (177l-'4),   which 

i  he  owed  to  his  accomplishments  as  a  courtier 

and  the  favor  of  the  king's  mistress,  Mme.  Du- 

barry,  the  first  partition  of  Poland  took  place. 

Louis  XV.,  speaking  of  this  act,  so  disastrous 

i  to    the   interests  of  France,    exclaimed,    "  If 

Choiseul  had  been  here,  this  partition  would 

not  have  taken  place." 

AIGtES-MORTES  (Lat.  Aqua  Mortuce,  dead 
I  waters),  a  town  of  France,  department  of  Gard, 
j  3  m.  from  the  Mediterranean  and  20  in.  S.  S. 
!  W.  of  Nimes;  pop.  in  1866,  3,932.  It  owes  its 
!  name  to  the  malarious  marshes  which  surround 
i  it,  and  over  which  it  is  approached  by  a  raised 
i  causeway.  In  the  middle  ages  it  had  a  com- 
i  modious  port  and  ship  canal,  where  Louis  XII. 
I  embarked  his  army  for  the  crusades  in  1248 
!  and  1270;  but  they  have  long  been  filled  up 
!  with  sand.  Several  fruitless  attempts  have 
:  been  made  to  restore  them,  the  last  by  Napo- 
j  leon  I.  The  walls  and  towers  then  built 
I  around  the  town  are  the  best  preserved  of  any 
I  in  France.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  immense 
I  salines  of  Peccais,  and  their  products,  as  well 
!  as  fresh  and  salted  fish,  are  shipped  through 
canals  to  the  coast  and  interior. 

AIREX,  a  township  and  village  in  Aiken  coun- 
I  ty  (recently  formed),  S.  C.,  on  the  S.  C.  rail 
road,  120  m.  N.  W.  of  Charleston,  and  17  m. 
!  E.  N.  E.  of  Augusta,  Ga. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,259, 
of  whom  1,096  were  colored.     The  surrounding 
i  country  is  somewhat  hilly,  the  ground  high, 
and  the  air  dry  and  healthful.     The  climate  in 
winter    is    mild,   and   in    summer   salubrious. 
Aiken  has  recently  been  much  resorted  to  by 
consumptives  and  other  invalids. 

AIRIN.     I.  John,  an  English  author,  son  of 
Dr.  John  Aikin,  tutor  in  divinity  at  the  dis 
senters'  academy  in  Warrington,  born  in  Lei 
cestershire,  Jan.  15,  1747,  died  Dec.  7,  1822. 
In  1798  he  gave  up  the  medical  profession  for 
literary   pursuits.      The    best    known   of    his 
works,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  sister, 
i  Mrs.  Barbauld,  is  " Evenings  at  Home,"  a  se- 
:  lection  of  instructive  essays  and  anecdotes  for 
children   (revised    by    Cecil    Hartley,     1865). 
i  This  is  still  popular,  and  has  been  translated 
!  into  every  European  language.     He  was  lite- 
;  rary  editor  of  the  "Monthly  Magazine"   for 
'  the  first  10  years  after  its  establishment   in 
1796,    and  in   1811   was  editor  of  Dodsley's 
j  "Annual  Register."     His  works  are  very  nu 
merous.      The   principal   are:     "Biographical 
Memoirs  of  Medicine  in  Great  Britain  from  the 
i  Time  of  Henry  VIII."  ;   "  The  Calendar  of  the 
j  Year,"  afterward  republished  as  "The  Natural 
History  of  the  Year,"  remarkable  for  its  con- 


AIRMAN 


AIMARD 


ciseness;  "  England  Delineated  ";  "A  Memoir 
of  Howard  the  Philanthropist,"  with  whom  he 
had  intimate  friendship ;  "  General  Biography  " 
(10  vols.  4to).  In  medicine  he  rewrote  Lew 
is's  "Materia  Medica,"  and  some  smaller  works. 
II.  Arthur,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  May  19, 
1773,  died  in  Bloornsbury,  April  15,  1854.  In 
1797  he  published  the  "Journal  of  a  Tour 
through  North  Wales  and  Shropshire."  From 
1803  to  1808  he  was  editor  of  the  "Annual 
Review."  In  connection  with  his  brother 
Charles,  he  published  in  1807  "  A  Dictionary 
of  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy."  In  1814  ap 
peared  the  first  edition  of  his  "Manual  of  Min 
eralogy."  He  was  for  many  years  resident 
secretary  of  the  society  of  arts,  and  con 
tributed  to  its  "Transactions."  He  was  also 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  geological  society, 
and  for  36  years  a  fellow  of  the  Linnaean  so 
ciety.  III.  Lney,  an  English  authoress,  sister 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Warrington,  Nov.  6, 
1781,  died  at  Hampstead,  Jan.  29,  1864.  Af 
ter  having  assisted  her  father  and  aunt  (Mrs. 
Barbauld)  in  their  literary  work,  she  pub 
lished  a  poetical  volume  in  1810  under  the 
title  of  "  Epistles  to  Women,"  modelled  after  the 
style  of  Pope.  Her  most  important  works  are 
her  memoirs  of  the  courts  of  Elizabeth  (1818), 
James  I.  (1822),  and  Charles  I.  (1833),  and  her 
"Memoirs  of  Addison"  (1843).  She  also 
wrote  memoirs  of  her  father  and  her  aunt. 
She  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  accom 
plished  literary  women  of  her  time,  and  was 
also  celebrated  for  her  conversational  powers 
and  her  social  qualities. 

AIKMAJV,  William,  a  Scottish  portrait  painter, 
born  Oct.  24,  1682,  died  in  London,  June  4, 
1731.  He  spent  three  years  in  Italy,  travelled 
in  Turkey,  practised  his  art  some  years  in  Ed 
inburgh,  and  in  1723  settled  in  London,  where 
he  was  liberally  patronized,  and  on  intimate 
terms  with  the  leading  spirits  in  art  and  let 
ters.  His  works  closely  resemble  those  of  Sir 
Godfrey  Ivneller. 

AILAMtS  (Malay,  ailanto,  tree  of  heaven, 
the  name  of  one  species  in  the  Moluccas),  a 
tree  of  the  sub-family  ailantece,  which  is  one 
of  the  four  divisions  of  simarubacece  of  Lindley. 
The  species  A.  glandulosa,  native  of  China, 
was  introduced  into  England  in  1751,  and  into 
North  America  about  the  beginning  of  this 
century.  The  tree  resembles  a  gigantic  stag's 
horn  sumach,  with  very  large  leaves,  unequally 
pinnate,  and  footstalks  from  one  to  two  feet 
in  length.  It  has  many  flowers  on  a  terminal 
pedicel,  whose  anthers  smell  disagreeably,  like 
animal  effluvia  containing  phosphorus.  It 
grows  very  fast,  especially  in  poor  calcareous 
soil,  and  lias  spreading  roots.  There  is  a  resi 
nous  juice  in  the  bark,  which  hardens  in  a 
short  time.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  glossy, 
and  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish.  It  is  propa 
gated  by  root-cuttings.  It  sometimes  has  only 
male  flowers,  but  in  warm  countries  produces 
both  male  and  female,  and  consequently  fruit. 
A.  excelsa  is  found  about  Delhi  and  further 


[  south.  There  are  other  species  in  southern 
Asia,  and  on  the  islands  of  the  Indian  ocean. 
The  other  plants  of  the  same  order  are  natives 
of  tropical  America,  India,  and  Africa. 

AILLY,  Pierre  d',  or  Petrns  de  Alliaco,  a  French 
prelate  and  theologian,  surnamed  the  Hammer 
of  Heretics  and  the  Eagle  of  the  Doctors  of 
France,  born  in  1350,  died  in  1420  or  1425. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  preacher  and  philo 
sophical  disputant  (being  a  leader  of  the  nom 
inalists),  and  early  became  a  doctor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  in  1384  grand  master  of  the  college  of 
Navarre,  in  1389  chancellor  of  the  university, 
and  in  1398  bishop  of  Cambrai;  he  was  also 
almoner  and  confessor  to  Charles  VI.  His  ex 
ertions  led  to  the  calling  of  the  council  of  Pisa 
in  1409,  for  the  healing  of  the  papal  schism, 
and  he  was  one  of  its  most  active  members. 
He  was  made  cardinal  by  John  XXIII.  and  sent 
as  papal  legate  to  Germany.  In  this  capacity 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  council  of 
Constance,  1414-'! 8,  where  he  promoted  the 
condemnation  of  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of 
Prague,  but  zealously  advocated  a  reform  in 
the  church,  maintained  the  superiority  of 
councils  to  the  popes,  and  aided  in  the  election 
of  Martin  V.  in  place  of  the  three  rival  popes. 
He  was  afterward  papal  legate  at  Avignon  till 
his  death.  His  published  writings  are  numer 
ous,  including  Concordantia  Astronomic  cum 
Thcologia,  &c.,  written  in  accordance  with  the 
astrological  views  of  the  age. 

AILRED,  Ealred,  or  Ethelred,  an  English  histo 
rian  and  theologian,  born  in  1104,  died  June 
12,  1166.  He  was  educated  at  the  Scottish 
court,  entered  the  Cistercian  order,  and  became 
abbot  of  Ilevesby  in  Lincolnshire,  and  after 
ward  of  Rievaulx  in  Yorkshire.  His  extraor 
dinary  sanctity  is  said  to  have  been  attested  by 
miracles  both  before  and  after  his  death.  His 
numerous  works  (in  Latin)  include  a  life  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  an  account  of  the  battle 
of  the  Standard,  and  other  historical  pieces, 
published  by  Sir  Roger  Twysden  in  Historic^ 
Anglicance  Scriptores  decem  (2  vols.  fol.,  1652); 
"  Mirror  of  Divine  Love,"  "  Mirror  of  Charity," 
sermons,  &c.,  partly  published  at  Douai  in 
1631,  and  in  several  collections. 

AILSA  CRAIG,  an  isolated  rocky  islet  ol  Ayr 
shire,  Scotland,  10  m.  off  the  coast  at  Girvan, 
and  25  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Ayr;  hit,  55°  15'  12"  N., 
Ion.  5°  7'  W.  It  is  of  conical  shape,  about  two 
miles  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  rises 
1,098  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  Its 
summit  can  only  be  gained  on  the  E.  side ;  the 
other  sides  are  nearly  perpendicular,  two  of 
them  resembling  in  structure  the  columns  of 
Fingal's  cave.  The  top  is  covered  with  ver 
dure,  and  is  the  resort  of  great  numbers  of  sea 
birds,  goats,  and  rabbits ;  and  there  are  the 
i  ruins  of  an  ancient  three-story  tower.  The 
island  is  the  property  of  the  marquis  of  Ailsa, 
who  takes  his  title  from  it. 

AIMARD,   Gnstave,    a   French   novelist,   born 

about  1818.     Ha  made  a  voyage  as  a  cabin  boy 

|  to  America,  and  spent  ten  adventurous  years 


AIM£-MARTIN 


AINOS 


215 


in  Arkansas,  Mexico,  and  other  parts  of  this 
continent.  He  next  figured  as  a  traveller  and 
soldier  of  fortune  in  Spain,  Turkey,  and  the 
Caucasus,  served  in  the  mobile  guard  in  Paris 
in  1848,  and  eventually  gave  the  story  of  his 
experiences  and  adventures  in  a  series  of  nov 
els,  among  which  are  Les  trappeurs  de  V Arkan 
sas  (1858),  Les  nuits  Mexicaines  (1863),  and 
L'Araucan  (1864).  Several  of  his  tales  have 
been  translated  into  English. 

AIME-MARTI\,  Louis,  a  French  author,  born 
in  Lyons  in  1781,  died  in  Paris,  June  22,  1847. 
In  1815  he  was  appointed  editing  secretary  of 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  soon  afterward 
professor  of  belles-lettres,  moral  philosophy, 
and  history  in  the  polytechnic  school,  of  which 
office  he  was  deprived  in  1831.  lie  then  be 
came  keeper  of  the  library  of  Ste.  Genevieve. 
His  first  successful  production  was  a  semi-sci 
entific  book,  called  Lettres  d  Sophie  sur  la 
physique,  la  chimie  et  Vhistoire  naturelle  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1810),  an  agreeable  mixture  of  prose 
and  verse,  suggested  by  the  extraordinary  suc 
cess  of  the  Lettres  d  Emilie  sur  la  mythologie 
by  Demoustier.  He  wrote  a  little  later  La  vie 
de  Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre,  in  which  the  bi 
ographer  happily  imitated  the  style  of  his  sub 
ject.  His  commentaries  on  Racine  and  Moli^re 
are  especially  interesting  and  tasteful.  ^His 
most  important  work  is  a  treatise  entitled  Edu 
cation  des  meres  de  famille,  in  which  he  as 
serts  that  the  best,  or  rather  the  only  means 
of  improving  mankind,  and  reforming  our  pres 
ent  social  organization,  is  to  educate  women 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  be  enabled  to 
form  men  of  character  and  virtue.  The  first 
part  of  the  book  is  interesting,  containing  many 
practical  suggestions,  but  the  second  part  is 
much  less  valuable.  A  good  translation  of  it 
has  been  published  in  the  United  States. — His 
wife,  born  about  1782,  died  inXovember,  1847, 
was  a  daughter  of  the  marquis  de  Belleport. 
At  the  age  of  18  she  had  married  Bernardin  de 
St.  Pierre,  then  a  widower  in  his  63d  year. 
She  was  a  favorite  with  many  of  her  celebrated 
contemporaries,  especially  Lamartine,  to  whom 
she  bequeathed  her  fortune. 

AIMO\,  or  Ayinon,  the  four  sons  of,  Alard, 
Pti.chard,  Guiscard,  and  Renaud,  are  among  the 
most  illustrious  of  the  warriors  and  heroes  cel 
ebrated  in  the  mediaeval  romances  of  chivalry. 
Aimon  is  variously  reported  to  have  been  duke 
of  DordofTiia,  prince  of  Ardennes,  and  provin 
cial  governor  under  Charlemagne.  Froissart 
seriously  relates  their  eventful  career,  but  by 
the  moderns  their  existence  has  been  trans 
ferred  from  the  realm  of  history  to  that  of 
poetry.  The  eldest,  Renaud  or  Roland,  is  the 
hero  of  the  "Orlando  Furioso  "  of  Ariosto. 
Their  adventures  with  those  of  their  single 
horse,  famed  under  the  name  of  Bayard,  were 
probably  at  first  oral  traditions  in  Provence, 
but  have  been  repeated  in  various  forms  in  the 
literature  of  every  European  nation. 

AI\,  a  department  of  France  in  Bui-gundy, 
bounded  by  Saone-et-Loire,  Jura,  Switzerland, 


i  Haute-Savoie,  Savoie,  Isere,  and  Rhone;  area, 
|  2,239    sq.   m.  ;    pop.   in   1872,  336,290.      The 
[  Rhone  flows  on  its  eastern  and  southern  borders, 
i  and  the  Saone  on  the  western.     The  eastern 
i  section   of    the    department    is    traversed   by 
I  mountain  ranges  and  deep  valleys.     The  west- 
I  ern  division  is  low,  level,  and  swampy,  and 
dotted  with  numerous  ponds.     The  river  Ain, 
an  affluent  of  the  Rhone,  flows  through  the 
centre,  and  has  many  saw  and  grist  mills  on  its 
banks.     Immense  rafts  of  timber  are  floated 
down  its  rapid  current  to  Lyons.     The  prod 
ucts  of  the  department  are  chiefly  agricultural. 
Sheep  are  reared  in  great  numbers  in  the  east 
ern  part.      It  is  divided  into  the  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Bourg,  Belley,  Nantua,  Trevoux,  and 
Gex.     Capital,  Bourg-en-Bresse. 

AIN-MADHI,  a  walled  town  and  oasis  of  the 
Algerian  desert,  about  200  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Al 
giers;  pop.  about  2,000.  The  town  is  built  on 
a  rocky  eminence  amid  gardens,  surrounded  by 
an  arid  plain.  It  is  a  station  for  caravans,  and 
possesses  a  considerable  trade.  It  was  the  seat 
of  an  independent  Arab  chief  till  1852. 

ALMIULLER,  Maximilian  Emanuel,  a  German 
artist,  founder  of  the  modern  school  of  glass 
painting,  born  in  Munich,  Feb.  14,  1807,  died 
there,  Dec.  8,  1870.     His  talent  as  a  decorative 
and  monumental  architect  aided  him  essentially 
in  the  glass  paintings  which,  under  the  patron 
age  of  King  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria,  he  executed  or 
restored  for  many  of  the  religious  buildings  of 
Europe.    He  was  also  employed  at  Westminster 
abbey,  St.  George's  chapel,  Windsor,  and  St. 
Peter's  college,  Cambridge ;  and  at  the  instance 
of  Mr.  Beresford  Hope  he  executed  14  paintings 
for  a  cathedral  in  Ireland.     Among  his  master 
works  are  the  painted  windows  in  the  cathe 
dral  of  Cologne,  and  those  in  the  Vatican  rep 
resenting  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.     The  most 
remarkable  of  his  works,  by  their  stupendous 
size,  are  in  the  cathedral  of  Glasgow.    With  the 
i  assistance  of  his  surviving  son  and  pupil,  HEIX- 
;  EICH  (born  1836),  he  had  completed  up  to  1864 
'  40  windows  with  upward  of  100  biblical  and 
|  historical  paintings.     He  was  royal  inspector 
|  of  the  academy  of  glass  painting  at  Munich. 
I  He  also  excelled  as  an  architectural  painter  in 
|  oil,  and  there  are  many  of  his  works  in  the  art 
galleries  of  St.  Petersburg,  Munich,   Vienna, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe. 

AI1VOS,  or  Ainns  (/.  c.,  men),  tribes  inhabiting 
I  Saghalien,  Yesso,  and  the  Kurile  islands,  and 
various  adjacent  regions,  partly  under  Japanese 
1  and  partly  under  Russian  jurisdiction,  the  hitter 
being  generally  called  Kuril es.     Tradition  says 
that  the  Japanese  were  originally  Ainos,  and 
only  became   a   distinct   race   by  intermarry 
ing   with   Chinese.      The  Ainos  are  different 
from  other  Mongolian  tribes,  and  in  their  more 
vigorous  physical  formation  assimilate  to  some 
extent  to  the  Caucasian  type.     Though  armed 
and  painted  like  savages,  they  are  inoffensive 
i  and  hospitable,  but  shy  of  Japanese  and  Rus 
sians,  especially  on  the  coasts  of  the  Saghalien 
islands,  which  they  formerly  occupied  exclusive- 


216 


AINSWORTH 


AIR 


ly,  and  where  the  Gilanes  tribe  at  present  in 
habit  the  N".  part.  The  extravagant  stories  of 
travellers  caused  the  Ainos  in  the  Kurile  islands 
to  be  designated  as  the  hairy  Kuriles,  though 
their  bodies  are  not  particularly  hairy  and  their 
beards  seldom  longer  than  5  or  G  inches.  They 
are  pagans,  and  sacrifice  the  first  of  the  animals 
they  kill,  generally  bears,  to  their  idols.  They 
are  polygainists,  groups  of  10  to  12  families 
living  together  in  miserable  huts,  with  a  chief 
for  each  group.  They  support  themselves  by 
fishing  and  hunting.  The  Aino  language  is  di 
vided  into  several  dialects,  and  is  regarded  by 
Siebold  as  somewhat  connected  with  the  Japa 
nese,  but  this  opinion  is  not  generally  enter 
tained.  It  is  polysyllabic,  has  an  alphabet  of 
47  letters,  and  is  written  in  four  ditt'erent  sets 
of  characters,  one  of  them,  the  Katakana,  being 
sometimes  called  the  writing  of  men,  and  an 
other,  the  Kiragena,  that  of  women.  August 
Pfizmaier  published  a  description  of  it  (Vienna, 
1852),  and  a  vocabulary  (1854). 

AINSWORTH,  Henry,  an  English  nonconform 
ist  divine,  the  date  and  place  of  whose  birth 
are  unknown,  died  in  Amsterdam  in  1622.  In 
1590  he  attached  himself  to  the  Brownist  sect, 
and  was  afterward  compelled  by  persecution  to 
fiy  to  Holland,  where,  in  connection  with  a  Mr. 
Johnson,  he  established  a  church  at  Amster 
dam.  He  was  a  good  Hebrew  scholar,  and 
published  annotations  on  the  Psalms  and  Pen 
tateuch,  together  with  a  literal  translation  of 
the  latter,  a  translation  of  Solomon's  Song,  and 
other  works  of  a  somewhat  similar  character. 

AINSWORTH,  Robert,  an  English  teacher  and 
scholar,  born  in  Lancashire  in  September,  1060, 
died  in  London,  April  4,  1743.  He  taught  pri 
vate  schools  in  and  near  London,  and  early  re 
tired  with  a  competency.  His  only  claim  to 
remembrance  is  his  English-Latin  and  Latin- 
English  dictionary,  commenced  in  1714  and 
first  published  in  1736.  It  was  edited  and  re 
printed  many  times,  in  2  vols.  4to  or  folio ; 
and  abridgments  of  it  were  used  in  nearly  all 
English  and  American  schools  till  near  the  mid 
dle  of 'the  present  century,  when  it  was  gene 
rally  superseded  by  more  accurate  works. 

AI1VSWORTH.  I.  William  Francis,  an  English 
traveller,  geologist,  and  physician,  born  in  Ex 
eter,  ]STov.  9,  1807.  After  having  studied  med 
icine  at  Edinburgh,  he  made  geological  excur 
sions  into  Auvergne  and  the  Pyrenees.  In  1828 
betook  charge  of  the  Edinburgh  "Journal  of 
Natural  and  Geographical  Science,"  and  deliv 
ered  lectures  on  geology.  He  was  attached  to 
a  cholera  hospital  in  London  in  1832,  and  after 
ward  to  various  hospitals  in  Ireland.  In  1835 
he  was  appointed  surgeon  and  geologist  to  Col. 
Chesney's  expedition  to  explore  the  Euphrates 
and  the  route  from  that  river  to  the  Mediter 
ranean,  and  in  1838  he  was  sent  with  Rassam 
and  Theodore  Russell,  by  the  geological  and 
Bible  societies  of  London,  to  trace  the  course  of 
the  river  Kizil-Irmak  (the  ancient  Halys),  and 
to  visit  the  Xestorian  Christians  of  Kurdistan. 
He  has  published  u  Researches  in  Assyria,  Baby 


lonia,  and  Chaldea"  (1838) ;  "Travels  and  Re 
searches  in  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia,  Chaldea, 
and  Armenia"  (2  vols.,  1842) ;  "The  Claims  of 
|  the  Christian  Aborigines  in  the  East" ;  "Travels 
in  the  Track  of  the  10,000  Greeks"  (1844) ;  the 
"Illustrated  Universal  Gazetteer"  (1861-'3), 
&c.  II.  William  Harrison,  an  English  novelist, 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Manchester, 
Feb.  4,  1805.  His  father  was  an  attorney,  and 
he  was  intended  for  the  law,  but  from  an  early 
age  he  exhibited  a  strong  taste  for  literature. 
A  novel,  "Sir  John  Cheverton,"  which  he  pro 
duced  in  1825,  was  shown  to  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
whose  praises  encouraged  Ainsworth  to  pursue 
the  course  he  had  thus  commenced.  In  1834 
his  "Rookwood"  appeared,  founded  on  the 
adventures  of  the  noted  highwayman  Dick 
Turpin;  and  the  popularity  of  this  novel  in 
duced  him  to  bring  out  "Jack  Sheppard."  The 
robber  school  of  romance  having  fixed  Mr. 
Ainsworth's  celebrity,  he  turned  to  a  more 
wholesome  style  of  literature,  and  produced 
various  novels  of  local  interest,  in  which  his 
torical  characters  are  introduced  and  very 
freely  dealt  with.  Such  are  his  "  Tower  of 
London,"  "Guy  Fawkes,"  "Old  St.  Paul's," 
"Windsor  Castle,"  "The  Constable  of  the 
Tower,"  and  "Cardinal  Pole."  In  1845  he  be 
came  proprietor  of  Colburn's  "New  Monthly," 
which  he  still  conducts  (1872);  and  for  a  few 
years  he  also  edited  a  second  periodical  called 
"Ainsworth's  Magazine."  His  most  recent 
novels  are  "The  Miser's  Daughter"  (1869), 
"Hilary  St.  Ives  "  (1870),  and  "  Boscobel,  or 
the  Royal  Oak"  (1872). 

AINTAB  (according  to  some,  the  ancient  Anti- 
ocJiia  ad  Taurum),  a  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in 
the  vilayet  of  Aleppo,  and  about  70  m.  N.  by  E. 
from  Aleppo;  pop.  estimated  at  from  35,000  to 
43,000,  including  12,000  Armenians.  It  has  large 
manufactures  of  silk,  leather,  and  cotton  goods, 
and  the  mountain  fort  which  is  connected  with 
it  makes  it  an  important  military  point.  Ain- 
tab  is  one  of  the  centres  of  the  American  Prot 
estant  missions,  and  in  1869  had  1,900  register 
ed  Protestants.  It  was  conquered  in  1183  by 
Saladin,  and  in  1400  by  Timour.  Near  Aintab 
is  the  village  of  Nizib,  where  Ibrahim  Pasha 
on  June  24,  1839,  obtained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Turks  under  Hafiz  Pasha. 

•  AIR  (Gr.  027/5,  Lat.  aer\  a  term  now  limited  to 
the  atmospheric  air.     See  ATMOSPHERE. 

AIR,  or  Asben,  an  oasis  in  the  desert  of  Sahara, 
situated  between  lat,  16°  and  20°  N.,  and  Ion. 
5°  and  10°  E.  It  is  bordered  by  the  territory 
of  the  Kelowi  Tuariks  on  the  north,  and  by 
Soodan,  or  Negroland,  on  the  south.  Dr.  Barth 
terms  it  the  Switzerland  of  the  desert,  and  the 
frontierland  of  negrodom.  Its  northern  borders 
are  infested  by  a  savage  race  who  rob  and  often 
murder  strangers  passing  through  the  country. 
In  the  north  is  the  mountain  group  of  Gunge, 
5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Vegeta 
tion  thrives  in  the  valleys;  it  is  the  northern 
limit  of  the  doum  palm ;  there  are  groves  s\v  arm 
ing  with  ring  doves,  hoopoes,  and  other  birds. 


AIR   BLADDER 


AIR   CELLS 


21' 


and  highlands  abounding  in  asses  and  goats. 
To  the  south  are  the  groups  of  Mt.  Bunday, 
Eghellal,  Anderas,  and  Baghzen.  A  desert 
plateau,  with  an  average  elevation  of  2,000  feet, 
the  home  of  the  giraffe,  wild  ox,  and  ostrich, 
divides  Air  from  Soodan.  The  inhabitants  of 
Air  are  blacker  and  shorter  than  those  of  Az- 
kar,  and,  instead  of  the  austere  and  regular 
northern  features,  have  a  rounder  and  more 
cheerful  expression  of  countenance.  The  prin 
cipal  places  are  Agades  and  Tintellust.  This 
is  probably  the  most  southern  place  in  central 
Africa  where  the  plough  is  used ;  for  all  over 
Soodan  the  hoe  is  the  sole  implement  for  pre 
paring  the  ground.  The  government  of  the 
country  is  presided  over  by  the  sultan  of  Aga 
des,  and  his  chief  vassal  is  emir  of  Tintellust. 
The  inhabitants  are  fanatical  Mohammedans. 
If  a  man  marries  a  woman  of  another  village, 
he  must  go  and  live  in  her  village,  not  she  in 
his.  The  hereditary  power  does  not  descend 
to  the  son,  but  to  the  sister's  son.  The  arms, 
in  general,  are  the  spear,  the  sword,  and  the 
dagger,  and  an  immense  shield  of  antelope  hide ; 
some  use  bows  and  arrows.  A  few  only  have 
muskets,  and  those  few  keep  them  for  show 
rather  than  actual  use.  The  valleys  are  but 
poorly  cultivated,  and  every  piece  of  clothing 
material  has  to  be  imported,  the  population 
being  sustained  in  large  part  by  the  salt  trade 
of  Bilma.  The  tolls  levied  on  this  article,  in  re 
turn  for  protection  afforded,  constitute  almost 
the  whole  source  of  revenue  to  the  sheiks  of 
Tintellust,  Loosoo,  and  others.  The  name  Ail- 
first  appears  in  the  description  of  Leo  Africa- 
nus,  written  in  1526.  It  was  introduced  by  the 
Berber  conquerors,  as  Asben  is  the  aboriginal 
name  still  used  by  the  black  and  mixed  popu 
lation. — See  Richardson's  "Journal  of  a  Mis 
sion  to  Central  Africa "  (London,  1853),  and 
Dr.  Earth's  "  Travels  in  Central  Africa  "  (Lon 
don,  1857). 

AIR  BLADDER,  an  organ  in  some  kinds  of 
fishes,  commonly  called  by  fishermen  the 
•"swim."  Fishes  endowed  with  great  powers 
of  lo-comotion,  and  accustomed  to  pass  rapidly 
from  the  surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
and  vice  versa,  are  provided  with  an  air  blad 
der  or  a  swim,  by  which  they  can  modify  at 
will  the  specific  gravity  of  their  bodies  in  the 
water,  as  birds  do  in  the  atmosphere  by  ad 
mitting  air  when  they  wish  to  rise,  and  by  ex 
pelling  it  as  they  descend.  Xot  that  fish  draw 
air  into  their  swims  and  expel  it,  as  birds  do  in 
their  quills,  &c.,  but  they  have  the  power  of 
generating  gas  to  fill  the  swim  like  a  balloon 
within  the  body  when  they  wish  to  ascend  in 
the  water,  and  expelling  it  when  they  descend. 
Fishermen  are  well  acquainted  with  the  func 
tions  of  the  blndder  in  the  cod  and  other  spe 
cies,  which  require  to  be  brought  fresh  to  mar 
ket  at  a  great  distance  from  the  place  where 
they  are  caught ;  they  perforate  the  air  bladder 
with  a  fine  needle,  allowing  the  air  to  escape, 
and  thus  rendering  the  fish  unable  to  rise  from 
the  bottom  of  the  well -boats  where  they  live 


for  a  considerable  time,  while  brought  to  mar 
ket.  Cod  sounds  are  the  salted  air  bladders  of 
these  fishes.  The  Iceland  fishermen,  and  those 
of  Newfoundland,  prepare  isinglass  from  cod 
sounds ;  and  the  Russians  make  a  superior  kind 
of  isinglass  from  the  sounds  or  swims  of  the 
sturgeon.  The  swim  is  composed  of  a  length 
ened  sac,  sometimes  simple,  as  in  the  common 
perch,  or  divided  into  several  compartments  by 
transverse  ligature,  as  in  the  trout  and  salmon ; 
sometimes  furnished  with  appendices,  more  or 
less  numerous  in  different  species.  It  is  com 
posed  of  a  thick  internal  coat  of  fibrous  texture, 
and  a  thin  external  coat,  the  whole  being  en 
veloped  in  the  covering  of  the  intestines.  The 
swim  has  in  many  species  no  external  opening, 
and  the  air  or  gas  with  which  it  is  distended  is 
supposed  to  be  secreted  in  such  cases  by  a  glan- 
dulous  organ  with  which  it  is  always  provided. 
In  fresh-water  fishes  the  air  bladder  communi 
cates  sometimes  with  the  oesophagus  and  some 
times  with  the  stomach,  by  means  of  a  small 
duct  or  tube ;  and  in  these  instances  no  secret 
ing  gland  is  found.  A  very  few  species,  among 
which  is  the  common  eel,  have  air  bladders 
opening  by  an  external  duct,  and  also  provided 
with  secreting  glands.  Fishes  deprived  of 
their  air  bladders  sink  helpless  to  the  bottom 
of  the  water,  and  there  remain.  All  the  differ 
ent  species  of  flat  fish,  such  as  skates,  soles,  tur- 
bots,  brills,  &c.,  which  live  only  on  the  coasts 
and  on  sand  banks  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
where  they  find  their  food,  have  no  air  blad 
ders;  their  bodies  are  heavier  than  water,  and 
their  mode  of  life  does  not  require  them  to  as 
cend.  Mackerel  and  other  species,  which  find 
their  food  entirely  on  the  surface,  and  remain 
there,  have  no  air  bladders;  their  bodies  are 
comparatively  light,  and  they  need  not  sink  low 
down  in  search  of  food.  Some  zoologists  have 
supposed  that  the  air  bladder  of  fishes  may  be 
connected  with  the  respiration,  and  it  is  now 
generally  admitted  to  be  a  rudimentary  lung. 
Much  remains  to  be  yet  observed  with  regard 
to  the  relation  of  this  organ  to  the  general  con 
formation  of  fishes ;  for  it  is  sometimes  found 
in  one  species,  and  entirely  absent  in  another 
which  belongs  to  the  same  genus. 

AIR  CELLS,  hollow  spaces  within  the  cellular 
tissue  of  the  stems,  leaves,  and  other  parts  of 
plants,  containing  air  only,  the  sap  and  other 
matters  being  contained  in  different  receptacles. 
They  most  frequently  occur  in  water  plants, 
and  very  conspicuously  in  the  splendid  Victo 
ria  regia  of  the  lakes  of  South  America,  ena 
bling  its  rosy  leaves  to  float;  and  in  the  Val- 
limeria  spiralis,  of  which  the  male  specimens, 
immersed  in  the  water,  rise  from  the  bottom 
to  meet  the  long-stalked  females  which  stand 
over  the  surface.  Other  receptacles  of  air  are 
to  be  found  in  the  cambium  (the  layer  of  ge 
latinous  cellular  tissue  between  the  wood  and 
the  bark)  of  trees.  Here  the  longitudinal  rows 
of  cells  become  broader,  and  exhibit  in  the 
progress  of  growth  small  flat  air  bubbles  be 
tween  the  walls  of  the  contiguous  cells;  grad- 


218 


AIRDRIE 


AIR  PLANTS 


ually  the  bubbles  become  globular  or  oval,  and 
after  the  cell  walls  have  increased  in  thickness, 
a  small  canal  is  formed  within  the  new  mass, 
giving  rise  to  porous  vessels.  This  is  readily 
observable  in  limes  and  willows.  The  air  bub 
bles  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  sap,  and  thus 
cause  the  consolidation  of  the  wood.  The  dif 
ference  between  the  wood  of  needle-leafed 
trees  (such  as  the  pine,  fir,  spruce,  larch,  &c.) 
and  of  broad-leafed  trees  chiefly  depends  upon 
the  number  of  the  cells  that  are  converted  into 
porous  vessels. 

AIRDRIE,  a  borough  town  of  Lanarkshire, 
Scotland,  11  m.  E.  of  Glasgow;  pop.  in  1861, 
12,922.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  recently 
grown  into  importance  from  the  extensive  coal 
and  iron  mines  in  the  neighborhood,  and  also 
from  its  proximity  to  Glasgow,  whence  many 
of  its  weavers  obtain  employment.  The  laird 
or  proprietor  of  the  estate  of  Airdrie  is  Mr.  A. 
J.  Alexander,  a  native  and  resident  of  Ken 
tucky,  famous  as  a  breeder  of  fine  horses  and 
cattle  in  Woodford  county. 

A! UK,  a  river  of  Yorkshire,  England,  rises 
near  Settle,  flows  S.  E.,  passes  Leeds,  and  re 
ceives  the  Calder  at  Oastleford ;  and  the  two, 
having  been  widened  and  deepened,  form  one 
of  the  links  in  the  canal  system  of  Yorkshire 
and  Lancashire,  under  the  name  of  the  Aire 
and  Calder  navigation.  From  Castleford,  the 
Aire  flows  E.  to  the  Ouse  near  Goole. 

AIRE.  I.  A.  fortified  city  of  K  E.  France, 
department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  Lys,  8  m. 
S.  S.  E.  of  St.  Omer;  pop.  in  1866,  8,803.  It 
is  well  built,  and  has  a  highly  ornamented 
church.  There  are  manufactures  of  linen, 
hats,  soap,  Dutch  tiles,  &c.  The  surrounding 
district  is  one  of  the  richest  in  French  Flan 
ders.  II.  A  city  of  S.  "W.  France,  department 
of  Landes,  on  the  Adour,  80  m.  S.  by  E.  of 
Bordeaux;  pop.  in  1866,  4,885.  It  is  a  very 
old  place,  was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  and 
has  suffered  much  in  foreign  and  civil  wars. 
It  was  the  residence  of  Alaric  II.,  and  has  been 
a  bishop's  see  since  the  5th  century. 

AIR  Gl%  a  pneumatic  engine  resembling  a 
musket,  for  the  purpose  of  discharging  bullets 
by  means  of  compressed  air.  It  consists  of  a 
lock,  stock,  barrel,  and  ramrod.  The  stock  is 
made  hollow,  and  provided  with  proper  cocks 
for  filling  it  with  compressed  air  by  means  of  a 
force  pump.  The  lock  is  nothing  but  a  valve 
which  lets  into  the  barrel  a  portion  of  the  air 
compressed  in  the  stock,  when  the  trigger  is 
pulled.  The  gun  is  loaded  with  wadding  and 
ball  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  the  air  suddenly 
introduced  from  the  stock  propels  it  with  a 
velocity  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  the 
degree  of  compression  of  the  air.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  if  the  discovery  of  powder  had 
not  been  made  at  an  early  date,  these  in 
struments  would  have  reached  a  point  of 
great  effectiveness.  The  section  of  the  air 
gun  given  here  represents  one  of  the  most 
practical  kind.  It  has  the  general  form  of  a 
musket.  The  stock  A  is  hollow,  and  strong 


enough  to  withstand  the  required  pressure  of  the 
air,  being  some  50  atmospheres,  pumped  into 
it  by  means  of  the  piston  E,  moving  in  the  bar 
rel  C  D ;  this  compressed  air  is  confined  in  the 


Air  Gun. 

stock  by  the  spring  check  valve  C.  The  action 
of  the  lock  I  is  such  that  when  pulling  the 
trigger  the  valve  C  is  for  an  instant  lifted  from 
its  seat,  which  causes  a  small  portion  of  the  air 
to  escape ;  and  as  this  air  is  confined  under  .a 
pressure  of  some  50  atmospheres  or  750  Ibs.,  the 
impulse  given  to  the  ball  at  the  first  discharge 
is  almost  as  great  as  that  of  gunpowder.  One 
charge  may  fire  several  balls,  but  the  effect 
decreases  with  every  firing.  Some  air  guns 
have,  in  place  of  a  hollow  stock,  a  separate  large 
hollow  metallic  ball  into  which  the  air  is  com 
pressed,  and  which  is  attached  to  the  side  of 
the  lock.  These  are  generally  very  unsafe. — 
Arms  analogous  to  air  guns  have  been  con 
trived  for  producing  explosion,  with  nearly  or 
quite  the  power  of  an  ordinary  musket,  by  the 
electrical  conversion  in  the  barrel  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen,  or  air  and  street  gas,  into  steam, 
and  other  similar  means. 

AIR  PLAJVTS,  a  term  applied  to  some  species 
of  the  families  of  Bromeliacece  (Tillandsia  us- 
neoldes,  hanging  in  festoons  from  the  forest 
trees  of  tropical  America,  moss-like,  and  T. 
wipMoideS)  perfuming  the  balconies  of  houses 
in  Buenos  Ayres,  &c.),  and  of  orcMdaceM 
(namely,  the  parasitic  groups  of  them,  such  as 
the  aerides,  arachnides,  or  flos  aera  of  the 
East  Indies,  and  many  others),  because  of  their 
being  able  to  live  for  a  considerable  time,  sus 
pended  in  the  air,  without  apparently  receiv 
ing  any  nutriment.  The  hot,  damp,  and  shady 
forests  of  the  torrid  zone  in  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America,  abound  in  gracefully  and  grotesquely 
shaped  and  deliciously  scented  species  of  or- 
chidece,  so  that  in  Java  alone  there  are  nearly 
300  varieties.  During  the  dry  season,  which 
is  that  of  repose,  corresponding  to  our  winter 
in  this  respect,  these  parasites  wither,  lose 
their  leaves,  and  seem  to  be  dead ;  but  as  soon 
as  the  gentle,  preparatory  rain  begins  to  fall, 
they  revive,  and  become  fully  developed  into 
their  glorious  existence  by  the  ceaseless  show 
ers  that  transform  the  whole  surface  of  the 
country  into  a  magnificent  hothouse.  They 
are  attached,  amid  gigantic  grasses,  ferns,  and 
numberless  climbers,  to  trees,  rocks,  &c.,  and 
are  nourished  by  the  continual  warm  vapors 
that  fill  the  forests.  Stagnant  water  is  injuri 
ous  to  them,  even  by  mere  proximity.  The 
roots  of  most  fully  developed  air  plants,  by 
which  they  cling  to  their  supports  high  in  the 
air,  have  an  outer  parchment-like  layer,  in 
which  the  spiral  cells  exhibit  detached  fibres 
and  simple  walls ;  thus  in  oncidium  altissimum, 


AIR  PUMP 


219 


epidendron  elongatum,  &c.     In  order  to  enjoy  ' 
these  beautiful  plants  in  our  houses,  we  must  \ 
surround  them  by  the  natural  circumstances  in  ! 
which  they  prosper,  viz. :  rotten  wood,  a  very  j 
little  chopped  moss,  and  fragments  of  flower 
pots  for  soil,  with  heat,  damp  air,  light,  ab 
sence  of  stagnant  water  and  of  impurities. 

AIR  POIP,  in  natural  philosophy,  a  machine 
for    exhausting   the   air  from  a  vessel.      The  | 
first  machine  of  this  kind  was  made  in  1650  by  j 
Otto  von   Guericke,    burgomaster  of  Magde 
burg,  shortly  after  Galileo  had  discovered  that 
air  was  ponderable.     Since  then  this  instru 
ment  has  been  much  improved,  principally  by 
Hook,   Papin,    Boyle,   Babinet,    Richard,   and 
Deleuil.     In  its  most  approved  form  it  consists 
of  a  circular  brass  plate,  on  which  is  placed  a 
bell-shaped  glass  vessel.     The  interior  of  this 
vessel  communicates  through  a  tube  opening 
in  the  centre  of  the  plate  with  the  pump  cylin 
ders.     The  rim  of  the  glass  vessel,  called  the 
reservoir,  is  ground  perfectly  flat,  and  a  little 
lard  is  rubbed  upon  the  edge  before  it  is  ap 
plied   on  the  brass  plate,    which   is  likewise 
ground  flat.     Thus  an  air-proof  joint  is  formed. 
Valves,  placed  either  on  the  piston  or  on  the 
cylinders,  a  stopcock  on  the  pipe,  and  a  mer 
cury  vacuum  gauge,  communicating  with  the 
reservoir,  complete   the    machine.      At   each  j 
stroke  of  the  piston,  a  cylinder  fall  of  air  is  ex-  | 
pelled  on  one  side  the  piston,  and  the  air  of  j 
the  reservoir  expands  to  fill  the  space  on  the  j 
other  side  ;  at  the  return  stroke,  this  air  is  ex-  i 
pelled  in  its  turn,  and  so  on.     The  air  of  the  j 
reservoir  becomes  more  and  more  dilated  till  I 
the  moment  when  a  full  cylinder  of  it,  com-  ! 
pressed   into  the  small  space  necessarily  left 
between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  bottom,  I 
has  not  a  sufficient  pressure  to  open  the  valve ;  ! 
that  is  to  say,  when  this  pressure  is  less  than  j 
14  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  which  is  the  | 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  acting  on  the  other  i 
side  of  the  valve.     For  this  reason  these  valves 
are  made  as  light  and  delicate  as  possible,  and 
since  the  beginning  of  this  century  they  have 
been   made   simply   of    a   strip   of   oiled   silk 
stretched  over  one  or  more  of  the  small  holes, 
through  which  the  air  can  thus  only  pass  in 
one  direction.    As  by  every  stroke  of  the  piston 
the  air  divides  itself  equally  between  the  res 
ervoir   and  the  pump   cylinder,  it  is   evident 
that  every  stroke  takes  out  of  the  reservoir 
only  a  certain  fraction  of  that  which  is  left  in 
it ;  if,  for  instance,  the  capacity  of  the  cylinder 
is  ^  of  that  of  the  reservoir,  the  30th"  stroke 
will  by  no  means  take  out  the  last  30th  part, 
but  only  the  30th  part  of  the  air  left  by  the 
former  stroke.     As  a  consequence  of  this  prin 
ciple  of  action,  a  perfect  vacuum   cannot  be 
produced  by  any  air  pump,  but  it  will  be  ap 
proximated  more  or  less  according  to  the  per 
fection  of  its  workmanship.     In  this  workman 
ship  an  important  point  to  be  observed  is,  that 
if  at  the  lowest  portion  of  the  piston  there  is 
any  space  left  between  it  and  the  cylinder,  this  I 
space  will  of  course  remain  filled"  with  some  ! 


air  after  the  downward  stroke  of  the  piston; 
at  the  succeeding  upward  stroke  this  air  will 
expand,  and  may  fill  the  cylinder  to  the  same 
extent  as  the  vessel  to  be  exhausted ;  this  will 
prevent  the  opening  of  the  valves,  and  any 
further  motion  of  the  purnp  will  become  use 
less.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  avoid  this 
so-called  "  dead  space  "in  air  pumps;  a  pre 
caution  not  necessary  in  pumps  for  liquids, 
as  these  are  solid  and  not  elastic  like  air. — 


FIG.  1.— Simplast  Form  of  Air  Pump. 

An  apparatus  so  extensively  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes  has  of  course  undergone  a 
great  many  modifications  and  improvements. 
We  will  only  describe  some  of  the  principal 
types,  commencing  with  the  oldest  and  most 
simple.  In  fig.  1,  C  is  the  brass  cylinder  in 
which  the  piston  is  moved  up  and  down, 
by  means  of  the  handle  II.  This  cylinder  is 
attached  to  a,  wooden  base  A  A,  which  car 
ries  also  the  plate  P  P,  on  which  the  vessel 
to  be  exhausted  is  placed.  The  hole  O  in 
the  centre  of  the  plate  connects  by  means  of 
a  tube  with  the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder 
C.  At  the  bottom  ot  this  cylinder  is  a  cock  to 
admit  the  air  again  into  the  exhausted  vessel ; 
there  is  a  valve  above  this  cock,  and  another 
valve  in  the  piston,  both  opening  upward. 
The  first  air  pumps  made  by  Von  Guericke  were 
similar,  only  his  cylinder  was  horizontal  and 
his  piston  solid,  and  in  place  of  valves  he  had 
stopcocks  which  had  to  be  turned  at  every 
stroke.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  pump 


FIG.  2. — Double-barrel  Air  Pump. 

only  the  up  stroke  requires  labor,  a  portion  of 
which  is  lost  in  the  beginning  of  the  down 
stroke,  when  the  atmospheric  pressure  causes 


220 


AIR  PUMP 


the  piston  forcibly  to  descend  for  a  portion  of 
its  motion.  To  prevent  this  loss  of  labor  the 
double-barrel  air  pump  has  been  contrived, 
represented  in  our  second  figure.  By  means 
of  a  ratchet  wheel  moved  through  about  180°  by 
the  double  handle  II  C',  the  pistons  are  alter 
nately  raised  and  depressed  in  the  cylinders  C  C' 
attached  to  the  base  A,  which  also  carries  the 
plate  P,  with  the  so-called  receiver  R,  which 
is  the  strong;  glass  vessel  into  which  the  objects 
to  be  experimented  upon  are  placed.  An  im 
portant  improvement  in  such  air  pumps  was 
the  imitation  of  the  manner  of  working  of  the 
steam  piston  and  cylinder,  namely,  closing  the 
top  of  the  cylinder  hermetically,  by  means  of 
a  packing  box  surrounding  the  piston  rod,  and 
the  placing  of  a  valve  in  this  upper  cylinder 
head,  so  as  to  give  a  pump  with  a  single  cylin 
der  three  valves,  all  opening  upward — one  in 
the  piston,  and  two  at  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  cylinder.  In  this  way  the  atmospheric 
pressure  does  not  act  on  the  piston  during  the 
downward  stroke,  as  then  the  top  valve  closes, 
and  a  partial  vacuum  is  formed  over  the  piston, 
which  is  filled  by  the  air  under  the  piston 
passing  through  its  valve.  Such  an  air  pump 
is  represented  in  fig.  3.  A  is  the  base  ;  C  the 


FIG.  3. — Improved  Modern  Air  Pump. 

cylinder ;  P  P  the  plate ;  S  the  support  for  the 
handle  II ;  E  an  oil  cup,  attached  to  a  cap  over 
the_  top  valve,  to  receive  the  lubricating  fluid 
which  the  upward  motion  of  the  piston  may 
throw  out  of  the  top  valve ;  and  R  is  the  re 
ceiver,  containing  the  apparatus  prepared  to 
demonstrate  that  the  sound  of  a  bell  is  not- 
transmitted  through  a  vacuum.  In  order  to 
ease  the  labor  when  such  a  pump  has  to  be 
used  continuously,  a  fly  wheel  may  be  attached, 
working  by  means  of  one  or  more  cranks  one 
or  more  pistons,  as  in  fig.  4.  Babinet  made 
such  pumps,  in  which  the  air  from  one  cylin 
der  was  thrown  into  a  second ;  and  Richard  in 
Paris  makes  pumps  with  series  of  barrels,  say 
eight  to  each  pump,  all  moved  by  one  axle 
with  cranks.  These  remarkable  pumps  pos 
sess  some  other  peculiarities,  described  in  Prof. 
F.  A.  P.  Barnard's  report  on  the  Paris 


sition  of  1867. — In  order  to  do  away  with  the 
great  friction  of  a  close-fitting  piston  in  the 
barrel,  Deleuil  made  a  pump  in  which  the  pid- 


Paris  expo- 


FIG.  4. — Large  Improved  Air  Pump  of  Eitchie. 

ton  does  not  touch  the  barrel  at  all,  but  leaves 
a  very  narrow  space  between.  In  order  to 
guide  its  motion  without  contact,  it  has,  be 
sides  the  upper  piston  rod  which  moves  it, 
another  piston  rod  with  packing  box  below 
passing  through  the  under  cylinder  head.  To 
prevent  the  air  from  passing  the  piston,  the 
latter  is  a  cylinder  of  great  height,  nearly  half 
the  length  of  the  barrel,  and  around  its  cir 
cumference  are  a  great  number  of  circular 
grooves,  each  of  which  has  to  be  filled  with 
air  before  this  can  pass  to  the  next  groove, 
which  takes  much  more  time  than  each  stroke 
of  the  piston,  so  that  the  pump  works  as  if 
the  piston  were  tight  fitting.  But  the  grooves, 
filled  with  air  at  each  stroke,  act  as  so  much 
dead  space,  and  thus  as  a  slight  imperfection. 
Kravogel,  of  Tyrol,  makes  his  air  pump  pistons 
like  those  of  the  pump  of  an  hydraulic  press, 
of  a  simple  solid  thick  iron  cylinder,  passing 
through  a  stuffing  box  into  a  barrel  which  is 
wider,  and  in  which  the  space  between  the 
two  is  filled  with  mercury,  thus  absolutely  an 
nulling  all  dead  space. — Early  attempts  to  pro 
duce  a  vacuum  on  the  Toricellian  principle  (see 
BAROMETER)  failed,  but  Geisler  succeeded  in 
constructing  an  air  pump  on  this  principle ;  it 
is  now  one  of  the  most  valuable  tools  in  the 
philosophical  cabinet.  (See  figure  5.)  The 
glass  tube  C,  of  which  the  length  is  about 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  barometrical  tube 
(30  inches),  contains  on  the  top  a  glass  vessel 
A,  while  its  lower  end  is  connected  by  a  flexi 
ble  tube  D  with  the  glass  vessel  B.  The  glass 
vessel  A  is  connected  with  a  tube  T  R,  pro 
vided  with  a  double-way  stopcock  0  P,  which 


AIR   PUMP 


221 


allows  a  connection  between  T  and  R  or  be 
tween  T  and  the  glass  ball  P;  when,  in  the 
latter  condition,  the  vessel  T  is.  raised  so  high 
that  the  mercury  enters  the 
ball  P,  then  of  course  all  air 
is  expelled  from  T.  When, 
now,  the  cock  O  P  is  turned 
so  as  to  establish  the  connec 
tion  between  T  and  R  (R 
being  joined  to  the  vessel  to 
be  exhausted),  and  if  at  the 
same  time  the  vessel  B  is  low 
ered  so  that  the  surface  of  the 
mercury  in  it  is  30  inches  be 
low  T,  the  mercury  in  the 
latter  will  descend  and  fill  B, 
while  the  vacuum  in  T  will 
withdraw  the  air  from  the 
vessel  to  be  exhausted.  The 
cock  O  P  is  then  turned  again 
and  B  raised,  which  will  ex 
pel  the  air  through  P,  and 
the  operation  is  repeated.  Ba- 
bo  has  modified  this  apparatus 
by  substituting  valves  for  the 
stopcock,  while  Poggendorf 
has  contrived  a  very  useful  combination  of  this 
instrument  with  the  ordinary  air  pump.  —  Bun- 
sen  uses  falling  water  to  carry  the  surround 
ing  air  with  it  (see  ADHESIOX  OF  LIQUIDS  TO 
GASES),  and  in  this  way  produces  a  steady  ex 
haustion  of  air  or  vapor  from  vessels  requir 
ing  such  constant  removal.  It  consists  of  a 
wide  glass  tube  D,  in  which  a  narrower  tube 


below  with  a  lead  tube  F,  which  reaches  20  to 
30  feet  down  ;  and  this  long  descending  column 
of  water  acts  like  a  powerful  continuous  pis 
ton.      The   amount   of    rarefaction    is    ascer 
tained  by  the  difference  in  the  height  of  the 
mercurial  columns  in  the  syphon  barometer  P 
;  Q.     This  apparatus  is  used  for  driving  liquids 
through   filters   by  atmospheric   pressure,  for 
drying  in  vacuo,  &c.     Some  experimenters,  in 
;  order  to  economize  water,  reverse  the  opera 
tions  of  the  tubes  and  pass  the  water  out  of  the 
:  central  narrow  tube,  while  the  suction  takes 
place   through  the  wide  tube,  in  which  case 
j  the  water  is  passed  in  at  S,  while  the  exhaus- 
|  tion  takes  place  by  A ;  in  this  case   the  ba- 
i  rometer  P  Q  is  also  connected  with  A. — One 


Mercurial  Ai 


FIG.  6.— Eunsen's  Air  Suction  Pump. 

reaches  downward  to  X,  connected  at  the  top 
by  a  well  fitting  cork  M.  Water  is  carried 
in  by  a  side  branch  C,  connected  by  means'  of 
an  india-rubber  tube  B,  closed  by  a  spring  H, 
with  a  tube  A  drawing  water  from  a  reservoir. 
The  current  of  this  water  going  down  in  the 
tube  D  around  the  inner  tube,  will  produce  a 
suction,  drawing  the  air  from  T  and  S,  and 
from  any  vessel  connected  with  S.  To  in 
crease  the  effect,  the  wide  tube  D  is  connected 


FIG.  T. — Doyle  and  Martin's  Rotary  Air  Pump. 

of  the  most  ingenious  inventions  of  this  kind 
is  the  rotary  air  pump  of  Doyle  and  Martin  of 
New  York.  It  consists  of  a  wheel  of  which 
the  rim  is  a  hollow  tube,  filled  in  its  lower 
portion  with  mercury,  c  c',  fig.  7 ;  this  mer 
cury  performs  the  function  of  a  perfectly  fit 
ting  piston,  with  a  minimum  of  friction.  When 
the  wheel  is  revolved  rapidly  around  its  axis, 
the  heavy  mercury  remains  of  course  in  its 
lower  portion.  The  hollow  rim  possesses  two 
or  more  stopcocks,  v  w,  which  in  one  posi 
tion  allow  the  mercury  to  pass,  as  represented 
below  at  20,  and  in  another  position  close  the 
communication  between  the  two  sides,  and 
bring  each  in  connection  with  one  of  the  hol 
low  spokes,  as  seen»at  v  in  the  top  ;  the  position 
of  these  cocks  is  regulated  by  the  levers  m  &  e 
and  n  g  A,  worked  by  the  stationary  grooved 
cam  Jc.  If,  now,  the  whole  wheel  revolves 
rapidly  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  the  up 
per  cock,  being  closed,  will  compress  the  air  at 
the  left  side  and  cause  an  exhaust  at  the  right 
side,  while  the  mercury  remains  below  as 
the  cock  w  is  open ;  the  two  curved  spokes, 
marked  "pressure  pipe"  and  "suction  pipe," 
will  thus  perform  their  respective  functions, 
till  the  valve,  having  reached  the  mercury  be- 


222 


AIR  PUMP 


AIRY 


low,  opens  to  let  the  latter  pass,  closing  at 
the  same  time  the  pressure  and  suction  pipes ; 
then  the-  lower  cock  w  will  become  the 
upper,  and  while  closing  perform  its  func 
tions.  The  wheel  turns  on  two  hollow  trun 
nions,  the  one  in  front  being  connected  with 
the  suction  pipe,  the  one  behind  with  the  press 
ure  pipe.  During  rotation  the  axis  will  thus 
perform  a  continuous  .  suction  and  pressure, 
which  in  order  to  be  considerable  requires  a 
wheel  of  large  dimensions ;  30  inches  differ 
ence  in  the  height  of  the  mercury  at  the  two 
sides  corresponding  with  our  atmosphere,  a 
wheel  of  at  least  5  feet  diameter  is  required  to 
produce  a  vacuum,  while  if  pressure  is  also  re 
quired,  double  and  triple  these  dimensions  must 
be  given.  The  inventors  had  recently  such  ap 
paratus  in  operation  with  a  wheel  of  16  feet 
diameter  and  containing  2,000  Ibs.  of  mercury. 
— Air  pumps  are  used  by  professors  of  natural 
philosophy,  to  show  that  in  a  vacuum  combus 
tion  is  arrested,  smoke  falls  like  lead,  cold  wa 
ter  boils,  warm-blooded  animals  die  rapidly, 
fermentation  is  stopped,  &c.  The  celebrated 
process  of  Appert  for  the  preservation  of  ali 
mentary  substances  is  founded  on  the  last 
mentioned  property  ;  but  the  necessary  vacuum 
is  produced,  not  by  using  an  air  pump,  but  by 
boiling  the  boxes  of  preserves,  thus  producing 
steam  that  expels  the  air,  and  then  quickly  sol 
dering  up  the  hole  while  the  steam  still  fills  up 
the  space,  and  before  the  air  is  given  time  to 
enter ;  the  vacuum  will  be  produced  after  cool 
ing  while  the  steam  is  condensed  to  water. 
Air  pumps  are  at  the  present  day  also  used  in 
many  manufactories.  The  sugar  refiners  use  it 
for  the  rapid  evaporation  of  the  syrup  at  low 
temperatures ;  and  the  condensation  of  milk  is 
performed  by  means  of  large  air  pumps.  The 
artificial  manufacture  of  ice,  and  artificial  cool 
ing  by  the  use  of  power,  are  always  accom 
plished  by  the  intervention  of  powerful  air 
pumps,  whether  air  itself  is  alternately  expand 
ed  and  compressed,  or  use  is  made  of  volatile 
liquids,  as  ether,  ammonia,  and  chymogene, 
which  by  evaporating  in  a  vacuum  produced 
by  the  air  pump  generate  the  most  intense  arti 
ficial  cold.  Many  chemical  preparations  also 
require  the  constant  use  of  a  vacuum,  or  at 
least  of  very  rarefied  air,  for  which  reason  the 
air  pump  is  one  of  the  most  important  tools  in 
all  manufactories  of  chemicals,  as  well  as  in 
the  chemical  laboratory.  Recently  the  use  of 
the  air  pump  has  been  introduced  for  the  pres 
ervation  of  wood  and  othej*  porous  material, 
by  first  exhausting  the  air  from  the  pores,  so 
as  to  force  the  preserving  liquids  in  by  atmos 
pheric  pressure.  For  manufacturers  of  aneroid 
barometers,  sympiesometers,  Geisler's  tubes, 
and  other  physical  instruments,  the  air  pump 
is  also  an  indispensable  tool.  Finally,  one  of 
the  most  important  applications  of  the  air 
pump  is  that  to  the  low-pressure  steam  engine ; 
it  is  used  to  pump  out  of  the  condenser  the 
condensed  steam,  the  water  introduced  for 
condensing,  and  the  air  that  has  come  out  of 


this  water  when  warmed  by  the  condensation 
of  steam.  This  application  of  the  air  pump  is 
one  of  the  inventions  of  "Watt. 

AIR  VESSELS,  or  properly  Spiral  Vessels,  are 

supposed  by  some  botanists  to  be  the  only  for 
mation  by  which  air  is  conveyed  into  the  ve 
getable  system;  but  air  has  access  to  many 
parts  of  the  plant  by  means  independent  of  the 
spiral  vessels.  Spiral  vessels  differ  from  spiral 
cells  (or  vermiform  bodies)  only  by  dimension, 
so  that  there  is  a  constant  transition  from  the 
latter  into  the  former.  Both  are  quite  as  fre 
quently  filled  with  sap  (in  the  youngest  por 
tions  of  the  plant)  as  with  air  (in  the  full-sized 
organs).  They  are  first  perceptible  in  the  bud. 
The  spiral  vessels  of  the  wood  are  to  be  dis 
tinguished  from  those  of  herbaceous  plants, 
both  as  regards  their  origin  and  their  function. 
The  latter  has  not  yet  been  fully  explained, 
owing  to  the  diversity  of  views  entertained  by 
different  inquirers.  Spiral  formation  begins 
when  the  simple  cell  membrane  ceases  to  ex 
ist.  This,  as  well  as  all  other  transitions  from 
one  form  to  another,  is  accompanied  by  modi 
fications  and  changes  of  the  chemical  constitu 
ents  of  the  vegetable  body.  In  some  cases  the 
air  in  the  cavities  of  the  plant  contains  more 
oxygen  than  the  atmospheric. 

AIRY,  George  Biddell,  astronomer  royal  of  Eng 
land,  born  at  Alnwick,  July  27,  1801.  He  was 
a  fellow  of  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  and 
afterward  of  Trinity.  He  was  appointed  Plu- 
merian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  in 
1828,  and  annually  published  the  results  of  his 
investigations  at  the  observatory  there  (9  vols. 
4to,  1829-'38).  On  the  retirement  of  Mr. 
John  Pond  in  1835,  he  became  astronomer 
royal,  which  office  he  continues  to  hold  (1872). 
He  is  president  of  the  astronomical  society, 
and  in  1871  was  elected  president  of  the  royal 
society.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  pub 
lication  of  the  long-neglected  observations  at 
Greenwich  of  the  moon  and  planets  from  1750 
to  1830.  His  labors  are  regarded  as  having 
opened  a  new  epoch  in  planetary  astronomy. 
He  has  acquired  high  reputation  by  his  re 
searches  into  the  mode  of  simplifying  the  the 
ory  of  planetary  perturbation,  by  his  con 
trivance  of  a  new  instrument  for  observing  the 
moon  off  the  meridian,  and  substituting  for  the 
old  mural  circle  and  transit  instrument  another 
of  simple  construction  and  of  great  utility.  In 
1854  he  corrected  certain  erroneous  impres 
sions  which  prevailed  touching  the  variations 
of  the  compass  in  ironclads.  In  1859  his  mem 
orable  researches  on  the  motion  of  the  solar 
system  in  space  were  first  announced.  He 
prepared  the  formula  and  methods  for  con 
ducting  the  survey  of  the  Maine  boundary  be 
tween  Canada  and  the  United  States.  Pie 
observed  eclipses  of  the  sun  at  Turin  (1842), 
at  Gothenburg  (1857),  and  in  Spain  (I860). 
His  important  contributions  to  astronomy, 
magnetism,  meteorology,  photography,  and 
other  sciences  are  contained  in  leading  English 
cyclopaedias  and  in  the  annals  of  learned  socie- 


AISNE 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


223 


ties.     In  his  "  Essays  on  the  Invasion  of  Bri 
tain  by  Julius  Cresar"  (London,  1865),  Prof. 
Airy  questions   the   accuracy   of  D'Anville's, 
Kennel's,    and    Halley's    theories    about    the  ' 
points  of  C<esar's  sailing  and  landing;  he  re-  j 
gards  the  points  of  departure  to  have  been  so  j 
tar  from  Calais  as  the  mouth  of- the  Somme,  and  i 
the  place  of  landing  so  far  from  Deal  as  Pe-  j 
vensey  bay. 

AISXE,  a  department  in  the  north  of  France  | 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  river  Aisne,  an 
affluent  of  the  Oise.  It  consists  of  portions  of 
lie  de  France,  Brie,  and  Picardy,  and  is  bound 
ed  by  the  departments  of  Le  Nord,  Ardennes, 
Marne,  Seine-et-Marne,  Oise,  and  Somme,  and 
Belgium.  Area,  2,838  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
552.439.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Oise,  Aisne, 
Ourcq,  and  Marne.  The  surface  is  mostly  flat, 
and  the  soil  fertile.  It  is  divided  into  the  ar- 
rondissements  of  St.  Quentin,  Laon,  Chateau- 
Thierry,  Soissons,  and  Vervins.  Capital,  Laon. 
The  quantity  of  farm  produce  and  live  stock 
exceeds  that  of  most  parts  of  France.  A  prof 
itable  trade  is  carried  on  in  pressing  oil  from 
the  beech  mast  of  the  extensive  forests.  Sev 
eral  of  the  towns  are  noted  for  their  manufac 
tures.  The  mirrors  of  St.  Gobain  are  known 
throughout  France. 

AISSE,  Mile,,  a  Circassian  lady,  born  in  1694,  ! 
died  in  Paris  in  1733.  When  she  was  four  j 
years  old  the  count  de  Ferriol,  French  ambas 
sador  at  Constantinople,  purchased  her  from  a 
slave  dealer,  who  stated  that  she  was  the 
daughter  of  a  Circassian  prince.  The  count 
had  her  educated  at  Paris,  under  the  superin 
tendence  of  his  sister-in-law,  but  he  afterward 
seduced  her.  Though  she  repulsed  the  bril 
liant  otfers  of  the  dissolute  regent,  the  duke  of 
Orleans,  she  indulged  a  guilty  passion  for  the 
chevalier  d'Aydie,  a  knight  of  Malta.  Her 
letters  contained  interesting  anecdotes  relating 
to  the  court  and  to  contemporary  personages, 
and  were  thought  worthy  by  Voltaire  of  being 
published,  accompanied  by  annotations  of  his 
own-  (1787).  In  1806  they  were  collected,  | 
together  with  those  of  Mines,  de  Villars,  La 
Fayette.  and  De  Tencin  (Paris,  3  vols.  12mo). 

AITKIA,    a  new   county   of  E.    Minnesota; 
area,    about   950   sq.  m. ;    pop.  in  1870,   178.  j 
Part  of  Lake  Mille  Lacs  occupies  its  W.  corner.  I 
The  route  of  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad  ex-  | 
tends  through  the  N.  part  of  the  county. 

AITOA,  William,  a  Scotch  gardener  and  bota 
nist,  born  near  Hamilton  in  1731,  died  at  Kew 
palace,  Feb.  1,  1793.     He  emigrated  to  Eng 
land  in  1754,  and  in  1759  obtained  the  manage 
ment  of  the  royal  botanical  garden  at  Kew,  I 
and  in  1783  also  that  of  the  pleasure  garden. 
Under  his  care  Kew  gardens  became  the  prin 
cipal  scene  of  botanical  culture  in  the  kingdom.  ! 
In  1789  he  published  his  Hortm  Kewemis  (3  ! 
vols.    8vo),    in   which   5,600    species   are   de-  i 
scribed.  ^  The  system  of  arrangement  adopted 
is  the  Linnsean,  and  the  author  indicates  the  \ 
origin,  mode  of  culture,  and  the  epoch  of  intro 
duction  into  England,    of  each   species.     He 


was  assisted  in  this  task  by  two  learned 
Swedes,  Dr.  Solander  and  Mr.  Jonas  Dryander. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  WILLIAM  TOWN- 
BEND  AITOX,  who  retired  in  1841,  and  died  in 
1849,  aged  84. 

AIT/EMA,  Lieuwe  van,  a  Dutch  historian, 
born  at  Dokkum,  Nov.  19,  1600,  died  at  the 
Hague,  Feb.  23,  1669.  His  great  work  is 
Zaaken  van  Staat  en  Oorlog  in  Ende  omtrent 
de  Vereenigde  Nederlanden  (14  vols.  4to, 
1657-71 ;  7  vols.,  1669-72).  It  is  chiefly  val 
uable  on  account  of  the  numerous  original  doc 
uments,  referring  to  the  period  1621-168,  which 
it  contains.  Aitzema  was  actively  engaged  in 
political  affairs,  and  in  his  latter  years  was 
agent  of  the  Hanseatic  towns  at  the  Hague. 

AIX,  a  town  of  southern  France,  department 
of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  15  m.  N.  of  Marseilles; 
pop.  in  1866,  28,152.  It  is  the  see  of  an  arch 
bishop,  and  possesses  a  museum  and  one  of  the 
best  provincial  libraries  of  France,  containing 
100,000  volumes.  It  was  the  Aquae  Sextire  of 
the  Romans,  so  called  on  account  of  its  ther 
mal  springs  by  Sextius  Calvinus,  who  founded 
it  after  a  victory  achieved  there  over  the  Gauls, 
123  B.  C.  Between  Aix  and  Aries  is  the  bat 
tle  field  on  which  Marius  gained  his  great  vic 
tory  over  the  Teutons,  102  B.  C.  The  counts 
of  Provence  made  Aix  their  capital.  The  town 
is  handsome,  and  adorned  with  a  beautiful 
promenade.  The  cathedral,  the  clock  tower 
in  the  market  place,  containing  a  curious  clock, 
and  the  hotel  de  ville,  are  fine  specimens  of 
middle-age  architecture.  The  mineral  baths 
are  but  little  frequented ;  they  are  impregnated 
with  sulphur,  and  are  said  to  soften  and  im 
prove  the  skin. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (Ger.  Aachen),  a  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  capital  of  the  administrative 
district  of  the  same  name,  43  m.  by  railway  W. 
S.  \V.  of  Cologne;  pop.  in  1871,  74,238.  It  is 
plej*antly  situated  on  rising  ground,  is  a  cen 
tre  for  Rhenish  industry,  and  is  the  focus  of  an. 
important  net  of  railways  connecting  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  Germany.  The  annual  export  of 
cloth  to  the  United  States  amounts  to  about 
$1,500,000.  The  Aachen-Munich  fire  insur 
ance  company  and  the  savings  bank  are  the 
greatest  enterprises  of  the  kind  in  Germany. 
The  value  of  mineral  products  furnished  by  one 
of  the  joint-stock  companies  amounted  in  1869 
to  2,491,000  thalers.  Railroad  iron  is  manu 
factured  to  a  very  large  amount,  and  there  are 
also  flourishing  manufactures  of  woollens,  silks, 
hosiery,  shawls,  buttons,  clocks,  pins,  railway 
and  other  carriages,  tobacco,  and  cigars.  A 
polytechnic  school  for  the  Rhenish  provinces 
and  for  Westphalia  was  opened  Oct.  10.  1870. 
The  town  is  handsomely  built,  and  contains  a 
fine  Gothic  toAvn  house,  and  a  beautiful  cathe 
dral,  in  which  is  the  tomb  of  Charlemagne, 
who  made  this  his  favorite  residence.  A  col 
lection  of  famous  relics,  presented  to  Charle 
magne  by  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
caliph  Haroun-al-Rashid,  is  kept  in  a  tower  at 
the  west  end  of  the  cathedral,  and  exposed  to 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


AJACCIO 


public  view  once  in  seven  years.  Until  1558 
all  the  German  emperors  were  crowned  here, 
and  their  portraits,  together  with  Charle 
magne's  chair  and  many  other  interesting  his 
torical  memorials,  are  preserved  either  in  the 
cathedral  or  in  the  town  hall.  The  imperial 
insignia  were  removed  to  Vienna  in  1*793. 
The  burghers  enjoyed  rare  exemptions  and 
privileges  until  the  reformation,  which  was 
warmly  espoused  by  the  citizens.  After  des 
perate  contests,  however,  the  Catholics,  with 
the  aid  of  Spanish  soldiery  from  the  Nether 
lands,  suppressed  Protestantism,  and  the  priv 
ileges  were  taken  away  from  the  city.  The 
population  is  now  Catholic,  excepting  about 
8,000  Protestants  and  400  Jews.  A  magnifi 
cent  monument  in  commemoration  of  the  war 
riors  of  I860,  by  Friedrich  Drake,  was  inaugu 
rated  in  1872. — Aix-la-Chapelle  is  renowned 
for  its  mineral  baths,  which  were  known  to 
the  Eomans,  by  whom  the  place  was  called 
Aquisgranum,  either  from  an  epithet  of  Apollo, 
to  whom  thermal  springs  were  sacred,  or  from 
Severus  Granius,  a  Roman  commander  about 
A.  D.  125.  The  waters  contain  sulphur,  and 
have  a  heat  of  131°  F.  They  are  very  benefi 
cial  in  skin  and  paralytic  affections.  In  the 
suburb  of  Borcette  (Burtscheid)  there  are  also 
springs,  both  hot  and  cold,  which  are  not  im 
pregnated  with  sulphur.— Treaty  of,  1668.  At 
the  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  1665,  Louis 
XIV.,  his  son-in-law,  asserting  a  claim  to  parts 
of  the  Spanish  dominions  in  right  of  his  wife, 
Maria  Theresa,  under  the  Brabant  laws  of  de 
volution,  commenced  the  war  of  succession 
and  seized  the  province  of  Franche-Comte, 
together  with  several  fortresses  and  strongholds 
in  the  Netherlands.  The  Spaniards  were  una 
ble  to  make  head  against  such  commanders  as 
Conde  and  Turenne,  and  Holland,  alarmed  at 
the  progress  of  the  French,  concluded  the  tri 
ple  alliance  with  England  and  Sweden.  Igyuis 
accepted  mediation  in  preference  to  the  alter 
native  of  arms,  and  a  congress  at  Aix-la-Cha 
pelle  ended  in  a  treaty,  May  2,  1668,  by  which 
Franche-Comtc  was  restored  to  Spain,  but  sev 
eral  of  the  strong  towns  in  the  Netherlands, 
including  Lille  anil  Valenciennes,  were  retained 
by  France. — Treaty  cf,  1748.  The  Austrian 
war  of  succession  had  arisen  from  the  claims 
raised  by  several  German  princes  in  opposition 
to  Maria  Theresa,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  her  father,  Charles  VI.,  in  virtue  of  the 
pragmatic  sanction.  The  war  lasted  from  1740 
to  1747,  and  almost  all  the  powers  in  Europe 
were  engaged  on  one  side  or  the  other — Eng 
land  and  France  being,  as  usual,  opponents. 
The  preliminaries  were  signed  in  April,  1748, 
and  ratified  in  October.  The  pragmatic  sanc 
tion  was  renewed,  and  the  status  quo  ante  lel- 
lum  of  most  of  the  parties  restored.  Frederick 
the  Great  remained  in  possession  of  Silesia, 
which  he  had  conquered.  Austria  ceded,  be 
sides,  to  Sardinia,  some  portions  of  the  Mila 
nese  territory ;  and  to  Philip,  the  brother  of 
the  king  of  Spain,  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guas- 


talla.— The  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1818) 
was  held  for  the  purpose  of  settling  out 
standing  questions  incident  to  the  wars  conclud 
ed  by  the  treaties  of  Vienna.  It  was  attended 
by  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia  and  the 
king  of  Prussia  in  person,  and  by  the  repre 
sentatives  of  the  allied  powers,  Prince  Metter- 
nich,  Lord  Castlereagh,  the  duke  of  Welling 
ton,  Counts  Hardenberg,  Bernstorff,  Nessel- 
rode,  and  Capo  d'lstria.  France,  being  invited 
to  cooperate,  sent  the  duke  de  Richelieu.  The 
conferences  resulted  in  declarations  by  the 
powers  confirmatory  of  the  principles  of  the 
holy  alliance,  in  a  circular  to  that  effect  to  all 
the  minor  courts  of  Europe,  and  in  freeing 
France  from  the  allied  army,  which  had  re 
mained  in  that  country  for  nearly  three  years. 

AIX-LES-BAINS,  or  Aix  (anc.  Aqua  Allolrogum, 
A.  Gratianw,  or  A.  Domitiance),  a  bathing  place 
of  S.  E.  France,  in  the  department  of  Savoie, 
8  m.  N.  of  Chambery;  pop.  in  1866,  4,430. 
The  waters  are  warm,  impregnated  with  sul 
phur,  and  have  a  temperature  of  from  112°  to 
117°  F.  West  of  it  is  the  lake  of  Bourget. 

AIZANI,  or  Azani,  an  ancient  city  of  Asia  Mi 
nor,  in  Phrygia,  mentioned  by  Strabo,  but  his 
torically  unknown.  Its  numerous  remains  at 
Tchavdyr,  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Kutaieh,  have  been 
described  by  several  travellers  since  their  dis 
covery  by  the  earl  of  Ashburnham  in  1824. 
They  comprise  an  ancient  temple  of  Jupiter,  a 
theatre,  stadium,  and  gymnasium.  The  thea 
tre  is  in  fine  preservation.  Its  greatest  diame 
ter  was  185  feet,  and  the  auditorium  had  15 
rows  of  marble  seats.  The  river  Rhyndacus 
(now  Adranas)  rises  near  the  town  and  passes 
through  it,  and  was  spanned  by  two  bridges  of 
white  marble,  each  consisting  of  five  semicircu 
lar  arches.  There  are  besides  many  tombs, 
and  Roman  coins  and  inscriptions  have  been 
found. — See  Hamilton's  "Researches  in  Asia 
Minor,"  and  Sir  C.  Fellows's  "Asia  Minor." 

AJACCIO,  capital  of  the  island  and  French 
department  of  Corsica,  a  seaport  on  the  W. 


Birthplace  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 


AJALON 


AKBAR 


225 


coast,  in  hit.  41°  55'  N".,  Ion.  8°  44' E. ;  pop.  in 
1866,  14,558.     It  has  a  cathedral,  college,  mu 
seum,  library,  botanical  garden,  naval  school,  1 
picture  gallery  presented  to  the  town  by  Cardi-  < 
nal  Ees.'h,  and  line  promenades.      It    is  much  i 
frequented  in  winter  by  invalids  on  account  of 
its  genial  climate,  and  is  connected  by  steamers 
with  Marseilles  and  Nice.    The  largest  ships  can 
lie  along  its  wharves,  but  the  harbor  is  danger 
ous  during  the  prevalence  of  southwest  winds.  I 
Wine,  olive  oil,  and  fruits  are  the  chief  articles  ! 
of  trade.      It  is  the  birthplace   of   Napoleon  i 
Bonaparte,   and   the   house   in  which  he  was 
born  is  still  in  good  preservation. 

AJALON,  or  Aijiilon,  a  town  of  ancient  Pales-  ! 
tine,  about  14  in.  X.  E.  of  Jerusalem,  allotted 
to  the  tribe  of  Dan,  but  also  spoken  of  as  be-  ! 
longing  to  Ephraim,  to  Benjamin,  and  to  Ju-  ' 
dah.  It  was  of  little  historical  importance,  and  j 
is  chieily  known  as  the  place  near  which,  accord-  ! 
ing  to  the  narrative  originally  contained  in  the  i 
book  of  Jasher,  Joshua  commanded  the  moon  to  | 
stand  still.  The  modern  town  is  called  Yalo. 

AJAX,  an  extensive  tract  on  the  E.  coast  of  ! 
Africa.  It  extends  from  Zanguebar  to  Cape  ; 
Guardafui,  about  10  degrees  of  latitude,  the  ; 
southern  extremity  being  near  the  equator,  j 
The  S.  coast  is  s  mdy  and  barren ;  the  X.  is  i 
high,  especially  at  Cape  d'Orfui  (Ras  Hafoon),  j 
which  is  a  bluff  toward  the  sea,  backed  by  j 
lofty  mountains  of  singular  shape.  The  inhab-  ! 
itants  belong  to  the  Eesah  or  Somauli  tribe.  I 
There  is  no  river  of  importance.  Ajan  was  I 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  called  Azania.  i 
The  inhabitants  traded  with  the  Arabs  in  ivory,  ' 
tortoise  shell,  &c.,  and  were  under  Arab  con-  '< 
trol ;  and  Rhaptum,  the  capital,  was  the  fur 
thest  point  to  the  south  known  to  the  Greeks. 

AJAX,  the  name  of  two  Greek  chiefs  in  the  j 
Trojan  war,  distinguished  as  the  greater  and  ! 
the  lesser.     The  greater  was  the  son  of  Tela-  . 
mon,  king  of  Salamis,  and  third  in  direct  male  j 
descent  from  Jupiter.     lie  was  second  only  to  j 
Achilles  in  martial  prowess,  equal  to  him  in  i 
strength,  but  inferior  in  agility.     He  led  the  i 
forces  of  the  Salaminians,  in  12  ships.     Hector  j 
retired  before  the  Telamonian  Ajax  on  more 
than  one  occasion  in  the  course  of  the  war. 
At  the  death  of  Achilles,  the  arms  of  that  hero 
were  allotted  to  him  who  had  deserved  best  of 
the  Greeks.     But  two  advanced  claims  to  this 
honor,   the  greater  Ajax    and    Ulysses.      The 
former  alleged  his  preeminence  as  a  warrior, 
the  latter  as  a  counsellor.     The  arms  were  ad 
judged  to  Ulysses.    Ajax  went  mad,  committed 
many  excesses,  and  slew  himself.     This  catas-  I 
trophe,  which  is  only  alluded  to  by  Homer,  | 
forms  the  subject  of  the  tragedy  of  Sophocles  I 
called  the  "  Ajax."     In  the  Odyssey,  Ulysses  is 
represented  as  descending  to  the'  infernal  re 
gions  and  there  making  fraternal  overtures  to 
Ajax,  who  stalks  away  without  reply.     He  was  | 
worshipped  in  Salamis  as  its  tutelary  hero.— 
The  lesser,  son  of  Oileus,  king  of  the  Locrians, 
whom  he  led  in  40  ships,  was  remarkable  for 
his  swiftness  of  foot.     Having  excited  the  an- 
VOL.  i. — 15 


ger  of  the  gods,  they  raised  a  storm  against 
his  fleet  as  he  was  returning  home.  The  Oi'le- 
ari  escaped  to  a  rock,  and  defied  the  vengeance 
of  the  gods,  whereupon  Neptune  cleft  the  rock 
with  his  trident,  and  threw  Ajax  into  the  sea. 
His  fate  is,  however,  variously  told  by  the 
poets.  According  to  some,  his  crime  was  the 
violation  of  Cassandra  in  the  temple  of  Miner 
va,  at  the  sack  of  Troy. 

AJMEER,  or  Ajmem  I.  A  non  -  regulation 
district  of  Raj pootana,  subject  to  the  lieutenant 
governor  of  the  Northwest  Provinces  of  Ben 
gal,  between  hit.  25°  4;)'  and  26 3  42'  K,  and 
Ion.  74°  22'  and  75°  33'  E. ;  area,  2,020  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  225,000,  mostly  Hindoos.  The  N".  W. 
portion  is  occupied  by  mountains  connected 
with  the  Aravulli  range,  and  contains  mines 
of  carbonate  of  lead,  and  ores  of  manganese, 
copper,  and  iron.  Elsewhere  the  country  is 
sandy  and  nearly  level.  The  only  river,  the 
Koree,  is  so  strongly  impregnated  with  carbo 
nate  of  soda  that  the  water  is  nndrinkable. 
lit  A  city,  capital  of  the  above  district,  situa 
ted  on  the  slope  of  a  rockv  basin  in  hit.  26° 
29'  X.,  Ion.  74°  43'  E.,  220 "m.  S.  W.  of  Del 
hi ;  pop.  about  30,000.  It  is  an  ancient  city, 
with  stone  wails  and  line  gateways,  spacious 
houses,  numerous  temples,  and  a  ruined  palace 
of  Shah  Jehan.  A  large  artificial  lake  sup 
plies  it  with  water.  It  has  an  annual  fair  and 
pilgrimage  in  •  honor  of  a  Mussulman  saint 
called  Kwajah,  who  is  supposed  on  these  occa 
sions  to  work  extraordinary  miracles.  In  the 
16th  century  it  was  the  chief  place  of  one  of 
Akbars  richest  provinces.  The  British  took  it 
from  the  Sindia  family  in  1817. 

AKABAii,  a  fortified  village  of  Arabia,  situated 
in  an  extensive  date  grove,  or  oasis,  near  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  gulf  of  Akabah.  It 
is  believed  to  occupy  the  site  of  either  the 
Scriptural  Elath  (the  /Elana  of  the  Greeks)  or 
Eziongeber.  (See  ELATIT.) — Gnlf  of  (the  ^Ela- 
nitic  gulf  of  the  ancients),  an  inlet  of  the  Red 
sea,  about  12  m.  wide,  forming  its  X.  E.  arm 
after  its  bifurcation,  lat,  28°  K  It  extends  in 
a  N".  E.  direction  to  lat.  29°  32'  N.,  bounding 
the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Sinai  on  tho  E. 

AKBAR,  or  Akber,  Jclal-ed-Deen  Mohammed,  the 
greatest  of  all  the  Mogul  emperors  of  Hindo- 
stan,  born  Oct.  14,  1542,  died  in  September, 
1 605,  after  reigning  half  a  century.  At  the  time 
of  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Delhi,  on  the 
death  of  his  father  Humayun,  his  dominions 
embraced  but  three  provinces ;  in  the  40th 
year  of  his  reign  they  numbered  15,  embracing 
the  whole  of  Hindostan  N.  of  the  Deccan. 
Akbar  was  tolerant  of  all  forms  of  religious 
belief,  and  invited  Portuguese  missionaries  from 
Goa  to  give  him  an  account  of  Christianity, 
which,  however,  he  did  not  adopt.  He  dimin 
ished  the  crueJ  and  oppressive  taxes  laid  on  his 
Hindoo  subjects,  reformed  the  administration 
of  the  revenue,  promoted  commerce,  and  im 
proved  the  roads  of  the  empire.  He  encour 
aged  learning  and  literature,  and  instituted 
schools  in  all  parts  of  his  empire.  His  history 


226 


AKENSIDE 


AKMOLINSK 


was  written  in  Persian  by  his  vizier,  Abul 
Fazl,  under  the  title  Aldx.ir  Nameh,  partly 
translated  into  English  ("Ayecn  Akbery,  or 
the  Institutes  of  Akber,"  3  vols.  4to,  Calcutta, 
1783-'6,  and  London,  1800). 

AKENSIDE,  Mark,  an  English  physician  and 
poet,  born  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Nov.  9, 
1721,  died  in  London,  June  23,  1770.  lie  was 
the  son  of  a  butcher,  and  was  injured  for  life 
when  very  young  by  his  father's  cleaver  falling 
upon  him.  lie  was  educated  for  a  Presby 
terian  clergyman,  beginning  his  studies  at  an 
academy  in  Newcastle,  and  continuing  them  at 
the  university  of  Edinburgh.  While  here  he 
decided  to  become  a  physician,  and  devoted 
the  last  two  years  of  his  course  to  medical  edu 
cation.  In  1742  he  went  to  Leyden,  where  he 
took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  in  May,  1744.  Just 
before  this  he  had  published  in  London  his 
poem  "The  Pleasures  of  Imagination."  Even 
at  an  earlier  age  he  had  written  verses  for 
magazines.  The  "Pleasures  of  Imagination" 
achieved  immediate  and  marked  success.  It 
was  especially  praised  by  Pope.  Akenside 
practised  first  at  Northampton,  but  afterward 
went  to  London.  He  was  at  this  time  assisted 
by  a  friend,  Jeremiah  Dyson,  a  lord  of  the 
treasury,  who  gave  him  an  allowance  of  £300 
a  year  until  his  practice  should  support  him. 
He  was  made  a  fellow  of  th-e  college  of  surgeons 
and  a  physician  to  the  queen,  but  attained  no 
great  success  in  the  ordinary  walks  of  his  pro 
fession.  Besides  the  "Pleasures  of  Imagina 
tion,"  his  greatest  work,  he  wrote  several  mi 
nor  poems,  and  a  large  number  of  professional 
pamphlets  and  essays. 

iKERBLAD,  Jolmn  David,  a  Swedish  philolo 
gist,  especially  skilled  in  oriental  languages, 
born  in  1760,  died  in  Rome  in  1819.  When  a 
young  man  he  was  made  an  attache  of  the 
Swedish  embassy  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
found  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  study  of 
Turkish.  In  1795  he  was  made  secretary  of  the 
embassy,  but  in  1797  devoted  himself  to  study 
for  a  time,  and  for  this  visited  Gottingen  in  1800. 
In  1802  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  em 
bassy  at  the  Hague,  and  in  1803  charge  d'affaires 
at  Paris.  While  in  Paris  he  found  some  Cop 
tic  MSS.  in  the  nationallibrary,  and  discovered 
the  key  to  the  unknown  character  in  which 
they  were  written.  In  1804  he  left  the  Swe 
dish  service  and  went  to  Rome,  where  the 
duchess  of  Devonshire  and  others  gave  him 
the  means  of  pursuing  his  studies  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  His  works  relate  chiefly 
to  oriental  inscriptions. 

AkERMAN,  or  Akjerman  (Gr.  MonJcnstron ; 
anc.  Tyras),  a  town  in  Bessarabia,  on  the  estu 
ary  of  the  Dniester,  near  its  mouth  in  the 
Black  sea,  and  35  m.  S.  W.  of  Odessa ;  pop.  in 
1869,  29,373.  It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  a 
rock  crowned  by  a  citadel,  has  a  good  harbor, 
and  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  salt.  The 
interior,  in  general,  has  a  Turkish  aspect. 
The  population,  about  half  Europeans,  is  great 
ly  mixed.  Akerman  is  the  capital  of  a  dis- 


irict  of  the  same  name,  which  has  21  German 
settlements. 

AkERS,  Benjamin  Paul,  an  American  sculptor, 
born  in  Saccarappa,  near  Portland,  Me.,  July 
10,  1825,  died  in  Philadelphia,  May  21,  1861. 
At  the  age  of  18  he  went  to  Portland.  Ai'ter 
working  for  some  time  in  a  printing  office,  he 
was  induced  to  study  sculpture.  In  1849  he 
opened  a  studio  in  Portland,  and  during  the 
next  two  years  modelled  busts  of  Henry  W. 
Longfellow  and  others.  In  1851-'2  he  vk-itccl 
Italy,  and  upon  returning  to  Portland  modelled 
a  statue  of  "Benjamin  in  Egypt,"  which  was 
exhibited  at  the  New  York  crystal  palace  in 
1853.  In  January,  1855,  he  sailed  again  for 
Europe,  and  during  a  residence  of' three  years 
in  Rome  produced  the  best  of  his  works,  "  Una 
and  the  Lion,"  a  statue  of  St.  Elizabeth  of 
Hungary  (of  which  three  repetitions  in  marble 
were  executed),  the  "  Dead  Pearl  Diver,"  ex 
hibited  in  the  United  States,  and  an  ideal  head 
of  Milton.  The  last  two  works  are  elaborate 
ly  described  in  Hawthorne's  "Marble  Faun." 
After  returning  to  America  in  impaired  health, 
in  1859  he  revisited  Rome,  returned  home  in 
1860,  and  lived  in  Portland  and  Philadelphia. 

AKHALTZIKII,  Akhalzikb,  Achalzik,  or  Akin  skha, 
a  strongly  fortified  town  of  Transcaucasian 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kutais,  on  an  af 
fluent  of  the  Kur,  about  95  m.  W.  of  Tiflis  ;  pop. 
in  1869,  11,616,  two  thirds  Armenians.  It  has 
a  castle,  a  fine  mosque  containing  a  rich  orien 
tal  library,  several  churches,  and  a  synagogue, 
and  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishopric.  It  is 
situated  in  an  elevated  valley,  in  an  Armenian 
district  which  was  ceded  by  the  Porte  to  Rus 
sia  in  the  peace  of  Adrianople  (1829). 

A k HiSS Alt,  or  Ek-Hissar  (anc,  Tliyatird),  i\ 
town  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  eyalet  of  Aidin,  58 
in.  N.  E.  of  Smyrna;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  is 
built  on  somewhat  elevated  ground,  and  con 
tains  about  1,000  Turkish,  300  Greek,  and  80 
Armenian  dwellings. 

AkHLAT,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the 
eyalet  of  Van,  at  the  base  of  the  Sipan  Dagh, 
on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake  Van;  pop.  about 
5,000.  Near  it  are  the  magnificent  ruins  of  an 
ancient  residence  of  the  Armenian  kings.  It  is 
the  see  of  an  Armenian  bishop. 

AKHTYKKA,  or  Aehtyrka,  a  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  and  60  m.  W.  N.  W".  of  Khar 
kov ;  pop.  in  1866,  17,544.  It  is  situated  on 
three  lakes,  has  many  manufactures,  and  ten 
churches,  one  of  which  attracts  numerous  pil 
grims  by  a  miraculous  image  of  the  Virgin. 

AkIBA  BEX  JOSEPH,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  the 
early  part  of  the  2d  century,  one  of  the  princi 
pal  fathers  of  the  Mishna.  A  native  of  Syria, 
he  travelled  in  Arabia,  Gaul,  Gyrene,  Egypt, 
and  other  countries,  and  became  the  most  emi 
nent  teacher  of  his  time  and  people.  Having 
warmly  embraced  the  cause  of  the  insurrection 
under  Bar  Cokheba  against  the  Romans,  he 
was  captured  and  executed  about  135. 

AkMOLIJVSk,  a  province  of  Siberia,  organized 
by  a  ukase  of  Oct.  21  (Nov.  2),  1868.  It  is 


AKRON 


ALABAMA 


227 


composed  of  Koktchetav,  Atbassar,  and  Akmo- 
linsk  (three  of  the  five  districts  into  which  the 
land  of  the  Siberian  Kirghiz  was  formerly 
divided),  of  five  districts  and  part  of  a  sixth 
of  the  Siberian  Cossacks,  and  of  the  towns  of 
Omsk  and  Petropavlovsk.  Capital,  Akmolinsk, 
oOO  m.  S.  W.  of  Omsk,  founded  by  the  Rus 
sians  in  1802;  pop.  in  1867,  4,800.  The  prov 
ince  remains  under  the  governor  general  of 
Western  Siberia. 

AKRON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Summit 
county,  Ohio,  36  m.  S.  of  Cleveland,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Erie  and  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania  canals,  and  at  the  intersection  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Great  Western  and  the  Cleve 
land,  Mt.  Vernon,  and  Delaware  railways;  pop. 
in  1860,  3,477;  in  1870,  10,006.  The  canals 
and  the  Little  Cuyahoga  river  furnish  ample 
water  power  for  numerous  mills,  factories,  and 
other  mechanical  establishments.  The  chief 
articles  of  manufacture  are  flour  and  woollen 
goods.  There  is  also  a  steam  engine  factory,  a 
blast  furnace,  a  mineral  paint  mill,  a  card  man 
ufactory,  and  an  extensive  stove  manufactory. 
The  town  is  400  feet  above  the  lake,  being  the 
most  elevated  ground  on  the  line  of  the  canal 
between  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  river.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  town  immense  beds  of  Ohio 
mineral  fire-proof  paint  are  found,  and  export 
ed  to  every  part  of  the  country.  Akron  was 
first  settled  in  1825. 

AK-SIIKIIIl  (the  White  City),  a  town  in  the 
eyalet  of  Karaman,  in  Asia  Minor,  about  5  m. 
S.  of  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  and  65  m.  N.  W. 
of  Konieh  ;  pop.  about  15,000.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  pasha,  and  a  station  of  considerable  im- 
portanca  on  the  caravan  route  between  Con 
stantinople  and  Syria,  It  carries  on  an  exten 
sive  trade,  and  manufactures  carpets,  &c.  Ak- 
Shehr  is  the  Philomelium  of  the  ancient  geog 
rapher  Strabo,  and  near  it  the  German  emperor 
Frederick  I.  fought  a  battle  with  the  Seljuks 
in  1190.  It  was  afterward  called  Aksiari. 
Here  also  the  sultan  Bajazet  I.,  who  was  a 
prisoner  in  the  fortified  camp  of  Tamerlane, 
died  in  March,  1403. 

AKSU,  or  Oksu,  a  commercial  and  manufac 
turing  town  of  East  Turkistan,  about  250  m. 
N.  E.  of  Cashgar  ;  pop.  estimated  at  about 
50,000.  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  valley  at  the 
terminus  of  a  road  leading  across  the  Thian 
Shan  mountains  to  the  Sungarian  district  of 
Hi,  with  which  it  has  an  extensive  trade.  Rus 
sian,  Tartar,  and  Chinese  caravans  here  effect 
their  exchanges,  and  there  are  famous  manufac 
tures  of  a  sort  of  unglazed  cotton  cloth  called 
lias,  elaborate  saddlery  of  deer  skin,  and  jew 
elled  and  jasper  ornaments.  While  East  Tur- 
kistan  was  under  Chinese  rule,  the  city  had  a 
Chinese  garrison  of  2,000  or  3,000  men.  The 
inhabitants  are  industrious  and  hospitable. 
Aksu  was  the  capital  of  the  kings  of  Cashgar 
and  Yarkand.  In  1716  it  was  nearly  de 
stroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and  at  the  begin 
ning  of  the  present  century  it  was  swept  by  a 
freshet  in  which  3,000  persons  perished. 


AKYAB,  a  town  of  British  Burmah,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Aracan,  situated  in  lat.  20° 
8'  N.,  Ion.  92°  54'  E.,  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
island  of  Akyab,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Aracan 
river,  50  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  the  town  of  Aracan, 
the  former  capital;  pop.  in  1864,  15,512.  Its 
origin  dates  from  1826.  The  houses  are  built 
chiefly  of  bamboo ;  the  streets  are  broad ;  there 
are  several  public  buildings  and  barracks,  be- 
sides  the  British  government  house.  It  is  a 
free  port,  opium  being  the  only  article  subject 
to  duty.  The  harbor  is  safe,  and  the  coasting 
and  foreign  trade  extremely  active.  It  is  an 
important  Protestant  missionary  station. 

AL,  il,  or  ill  (improperly  pronounced  by  those 
of  other  nations  el),  the  Arabic  definite  article, 
and  indeed  the  only  article  in  use  in  the  Arabic 
language,  words  indefinitely  used  standing 
alone,  as  yad,  a  hand,  al  or  il  yad,  the  hand. 
When  this  article  stands  before  a  lingual  or 
dental  (of  which  there  are  in  Arabic  13,  called 
shamsi),  the  sound  of  the  letter  I  (lam)is  drop 
ped  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  and  the  initial 
dental  or  lingual  takes  a  double  sound ;  thus, 
il  sha?ns,  the  sun,  is  pronounced  ish  shams. 
When  the  word  preceding  the  article  ends  in 
a  long  vowel,  a  wasla  (marked  thus  ~)  is 
placed  over  the  a  (alif\  indicating  that  it  is  to 
be  dropped  in  pronunciation,  and  the  I  joined 
to  the  vowel  sound.  Thus,  Abu  il  Feda  is 
pronounced  Abulfeda. 

ALABAMA  (Indian,  "Here  we  rest"),  one  of 
the  southern  states  of  the  American  Union,  sit 
uated  between  lat.  30°  10'  and  35°  N.,  and  Ion. 
84°  53'  and  88°  30'  W.,  bounded  X.  by  Ten 
nessee,  E.  by  Georgia  and  Florida,  S.  by  Flor 
ida  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  W.  by  Missis 
sippi;  area,  50,722  sq.  m.  Alabama  is  divided 
into  65  counties,  viz. :  Autauga,  Baker,  Bald 
win,  Barbour,  Bibb,  Blount,  Bullock,  Butler, 
Calhoun,  Chambers,  Cherokee,  Choctaw,  Clarke, 
Clay,  Cleburne,  Coffee,  Colbert,  Conecuh, 
Coosa,  Covington,  Crerishaw,  Dale,  Dallas, 
De  Kalb,  Elmore,  Escambia,  Etowah,  Fayette, 
Franklin,  Geneva,  Greene,  Hale,  Henry,  Jack 
son,  Jefferson,  Lauderdale,  Lawrence,  Lee, 
Limestone,  Lowndes,  Macon,  Madison,  Ma- 
rengo,  Marion,  Marshall,  Mobile,  Monroe, 
Montgomery,  Morgan,  Perry,  Pickens,  Pike, 
Randolph,  Russell,  Sanford,  Shelby,  St.  Clair, 
Sumter,  TalJadega,  Tallapoosa,  Tuscaloosa, 


State  Seal  of  Alabama. 


228 


ALABAMA 


Walker,  Washington,  Wileox,  and  Winston. 
There  are  eight  cities  in  the  state.  Mobile,  on 
the  Mobile  river,  near  its  mouth  in  the  bay  of 
the  same  name,  is  the  first  in  size  and  com 
mercial  importance,  having  a  population  in 
1870  of  32,034.  It  is  one  of  the  most  impor 
tant  ports  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  being  the 
natural  outlet  for  S.  Alabama  and  S.  E.  Mis 
sissippi,  and  ranks  next  to  New  Orleans  and 
Savannah  in  extent  of  cotton  exports.  The 
other  cities  are  Montgomery,  the  capital,  on 
the  Alabama  river  (pop.  10,588),  Selma  (6,484), 
Huntsville  (4,907),  Eufaula  (3,185),  Talladegu 
(1,1)33),  Tuscaloosa  (1,689),  and  Tnscumbia 
(1,214).  The  more  important  towns  are  Green 
ville  (pop.  2.850),  Marion  (2,040),  Florence 
(2,003),  Grantville  (1,701),  Greensboro  (1,7150), 
Union  Springs  (1,455),  La  Fayette  (1,382), 
Prattville  (1,346),  Wetumpka  (1,137),  Auburn 
(1,018),  and  Athens,  Jacksonville,  and  Decatur, 
with  populations  less  than  1,000.  The  follow 
ing  table  shows  the  population  of  the  state  at 
each  census  since  its  admission  into  the  Union : 


Census. 

Whites. 

!  Fr.  colored. 

Slaves. 

Total. 

1820... 

1830.... 
1840... 
1850.... 
I860.... 
1870.... 

85.451 
190.406 
3:35.185 
4-26.514 
5-20.271 
521.384 

571 
1.572 
2.039 
2.265 
2.690 
475.510 

41.879 
117.549 
253.536 
342.844 
435,080 

127.901 
309.527 
590.753 
771.6-23 
964.201 
996,894 

In  1800  the  total  population  was  940,244, 
classified  as  follows  :  whites,  522,791),  of  whom 
257,337  were  males  and  205,402  females;  col 
ored,  423,445,  of  whom  200.505  were  males 
and  210,940  females.  By  the  federal  census  of 
1870,  Alabama  ranks  10th  in  population  among 
the  states.  Of  the  whole  number  of  inhabitants, 
987,030  are  native  and  9,902  foreign  born;  of 
the  former,  744,140  were  born  in  the  state. 
The  gain  in  the  total  population  during  the  de 
cade  between  1800  and  1870  was  3 '40  per  cent. 
There  was  a  gain  of  8*02  per  cent,  in  the  col 
ored  population,  but  a  loss  of  0*93  in  the  white. 
The  effect  of  emancipation,  by  adding  the  two 
fifths  of  the  slave  population  formerly  ex 
cluded  from  the  basis  of  representation,  has 
been  to  add  23-40  per  cent,  to  the  representa 
tive  population,  of  which  the  total  gain  has 
been  2(5-17  per  cent.  The  whole  number  of 
male  citizens  21  years  of  age  and  upward  is 
202,182.  The  number  of  Indians  is  98.  In 
1800  the  number  of  deaths  resulting  from  un 
known  causes  was  1,008,  or  10-07  per  cent.; 
in  1870,  730,  or  7'21  per  cent,— The  Alleghany 
mountains  exhaust  themselves  in  N.  E.  Ala 
bama,  rendering  that  portion  of  the  state  uneven 
and  broken,  though  the  elevation  is  nowhere 
very  great.  The  range  extends  W.  with  a  slight 
bend  to  the  S.,  and  forms  the  dividing  line  be 
tween  the  waters  of  the  Tennessee  and  the  other 
rivers  of  Alabama,  all  of  the  latter  ultimately 
flowing  southward  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
From  this  range  the  face  of  the  country  slopes 
to  the  S.,  and  is  somewhat  uneven  as  far  as 
the  centre  of  the  state,  where  we  find  rolling 


prairies,  pine  barrens,  and  very  fertile  alluvial 
bottoms.  The  extreme  southern  portion  of  the 
state  is  fiat,  and  but  slightly  elevated  above 
the  level  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico. — Alabama  may 
be  divided  into  five  regions,  viz.:  the  timber 
region,  containing  11,000  sq.  m. ;  the  cotton 
region,  11,5UO;  the  agricultural  and  manu 
facturing  region,  8,700;  the  mineral  region, 
15,200;  and  the  stock  and  agricultural  region, 
4,322.  The  timber  region,  bordering  on  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  and  Florida,  extends  across  the 
S.  portion  of  the  state  and  40  m.  ]Sr.  from  the 
Florida  line.  This  section,  covered  with  forests 
of  long  leaf  yellow  pine,  yields  excellent  tim 
ber,  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine.  The  state  also 
produces  in  abundance  different  varieties  of 
oak,  bald  and  black  cypress,  the  timber  of 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  durability,  sweet 
and  black  gum,  poplar,  ash,  walnut,  hickory, 
locust,  chestnut,  red  and  white  cedar,  dog 
wood,  maple,  and  elm.  Groves  of  cedar  of 
great  height  abound  in  the  canebrakes  of  Ma- 
rengo  and  Greene  counties.  Below  the  33d 
parallel  commences  the  long  moss  region. 
This  moss,  which  hangs  in  festoons  from  the 
trees  so  extensively  as  to  darken  the  for 
est,  is  much  used  for  mattresses.  The  cot 
ton  region  joins  the  timber  region  on  the 
north,  and  has  a  width  of  about  102  m.  on  the 
W.  and  (JO  m.  on  the  E.  line  of  the  state.  This 
belt  of  land,  interspersed  with  large  prairies, 
with  an  unsurpassed  climate  and  having  a  stiff 
black  soil,  remarkably  rich,  and  from  2  to  20 
feet  deep,  is  considered  one  of  the  most  fertile 
and  healthy  agricultural  tracts  in  the  South. 
The  land  will  produce  fi  mi  50  to  60  bushels  of 
corn  or  800  to  900  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per 
acre.  Immediately  N.  of  the  cotton  region 
lies  the  agricultural  and  manufacturing  dis 
trict,  extending  E.  and  W.  across  the  state,  and 
having  an  average  breadth  of  about  35  m. 
The  soil  is  sandy  and  poor,  but  there  are  nu 
merous  streams  affording  water  power.  The 
mineral  region  occupies  the  1ST.  E.  corner  of 
the  state,  extending  S.  W.  about  100  in.,  and 
has  an  average  width  of  about  80  m.  White 
marble  of  remarkable  brilliancy,  soapstone, 
flagstones,  graphite  or  plumbago,  and  granite 
of  good  quality  are  obtained  here.  In  this 
region  are  three  distinct  coal  fields,  covering 
an  area  of  4,000  sq.  m.,  and  containing  bitu 
minous  coal  in  beds  from  1  to  8  feet  thick. 
Near  these  coal  fields  are  extensive  beds  of 
limestone,  sandstone,  and  iron  ore  producing 
from  30  to  58  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron.  lied 
and  other  ochres  are  found ;  galena  and  man 
ganese  exist  in  the  limestone  formations.  The 
stock  and  agricultural  region  occupies  the  N. 
W.  portion  of  the  state;  its  productions  are 
cotton,  corn,  grain,  grapes,  and  stock. — Ala 
bama  has  only  about  00  m.  of  seacoast,  ex 
tending  from  Perdido  to  the  W.  line  of  the 
state,  a  large  portion  of  the  S.  boundary  being 
cut  oft' from  the  gulf  by  an  intervening  strip  of 
Florida.  Mobile  bay,  the  great  outlet  to  the 
navigable  waters  of  the  state,  is  the  largest 


ALABAMA 


and  finest  0:1  flic  gulf,  being;  30  m.  in  length 
and  from  3  to  18  in.  in  breadth,  with  22  feet  of 
water  at  the  main  entrance  at  low  tide;  but 
the  channel  for  10  m.  below  Mobile  is  not  more 
than  8  or  9  feet  deep  at  low  tide.  Perdido  bay 
is  of  slight  importance.  About  two  thirds  of 
the  counties  of  the  state  are  bounded  or  inter 
sected  by  navigable  rivers,  the  principal  of 
which  are  the  Mobile,  Alabama,  Tombigbee, 
Chattahoochce,  Coosa,  and  Tennessee.  The 
last  named  comes  in  at  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the 
state,  and  taking  a  circular  sweep  southward 
goes  out  at  the  N".  W.  corner,  and  empties  into 
the  Ohio  at  Paducah,  Ky.  Its  continuous  nav 
igation  is  interrupted  by  Muscle  Shoals,  near 
Florence.  The  great  river  of  the  state  is  the 
Mobile,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Ala 
bama  and  Tombigbee  about  50  m.  above  Mobile 
bay,  into  which  it  empties  at  Mobile.  The 
Tombigbee  rises  in  N".  E.  Mississippi,  and  is 
navigable  for  light-draught  steamers  to  Colum 
bus,  about  300  m.,  and  for  flat-boats  about  125 
m.  further.  The  Black  Warrior,  a  branch  of 
the  Tombigbee,  has  its  source  in  N".  Alabama, 
empties  near  Demopolis,  and  is  navigable  for 
steamers  to  Tuscaloosa,  285  m.  from  Mobile. 
During  freshets  the  Black  Warrior  at  Tusca 
loosa  rises  to  a  height  of  50  feet.  The  Alabama, 
which  is  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Mobile,  is 
navigable  to  Montgomery,  about  320  m.  The 
Coosa,  a  branch  of  the  Alabama,  is  navigable 
from  its  mouth  to  Wetumpka,  and  from  Greens- 
port  to  Rome,  Ga.,  altogether  160  m.,  while  its 
course  between  Wetumpka  and  Greensport  for 
180  m.  is  obstructed  by  shoals.  The  Chatta 
hoochee,  a"  large  river  rising  in  Georgia  and 
smptying  into  Appalachicola  bay,  forms  the 
eastern  boundary  of  Alabama  for  more  than 
100  m.  It  is  about  500  m.  long,  and  navigable 
to  the  falls  at  Columbus,  Ga.,  300  m.  above  its 
mouth.  Among  the  smaller  rivers  are  the 
Conecuh,  emptying  into  the  Escambia ;  the 
Perdido,  emptying  into  Perdido  bay ;  the  Choc- 
tawhatchee,  emptying  into  the  bay  of  the  same 
name ;  and  the  Cahawba  and  Tallapoosa,  afflu 
ents  of  the  Alabama.  The  attention  of  the 
general  government  and  the  states  interested 
has  been  directed  to  the  improvement  of  the 
Tennessee  and  Coosa  rivers,  and  their  connec 
tion  by  a  canal,  in  order  to  form  an  outlet  for 
the  produce  of  the  northwestern  and  southern 
states,  which  will  possess  advantages  over  that 
by  the  Mississippi  river. — Among  the  natural 
curiosities  are :  a  natural  bridge  in  Walker 
county;  Bladen  and  Blount  springs,  which  are 
the  resorts  of  health  and  pleasure  seekers ;  and 
the  sulphur  springs  of  Talladega  county.  The 
remains  of  various  mounds  and  roads  have  been 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  of  which 
the  Indians  formerly  occupying  the  country 
famish  no  traditions.  A  stream  of  water  issues 
from  a  large  fissure  in  the  limestone  rocks  at 
luscumbia,  which  is  said  to  discharge  125  hhds. 
of  water  per  miimts,  forming  a  considerable 
river  which  empties  into  the  Tennessee.  The 
N.  E.  corner  of  the  state  abounds  in  wild, 


grand,  and  picturesque  scenery.  The  "Suck," 
a  sort  of  maelstrom  in  the  Tennessee  river,  and 
Paint  Rock,  a  very  high  bluff  with  figures  rep 
resenting  a  man's  face,  are  objects  of  rnucli 
|  curiosity. — The  climate  of  Alabama  is  healthy, 
except  on  the  low  river  bottoms,  where  the 
prevailing  diseases  are  intermittent,  congestive, 
and  bilious  fevers;  congestive  fevers  being  the 
most  fatal.  According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
the  rate  of  mortality  was  about  one  death  to 
every  93  inhabitants.  Mobile,  in  its  early  his 
tory,  was  several  times  severely  ravaged  by 
yellow  fever.  In  the  elevated  portions  of  the 
country  the  climate  is  delightful,  the  heat  of 
summer  being  materially  mitigated  by  the  gulf 
breezes.  During  summer  the  mercury  ranges 
from  104°  to  60°  F. ;  in  November  and  the 
winter  months,  from  82°  to  18°  ;  and  in  spring, 
from  93°  to  22°.  The  mean  temperature  of  the 
state  is  about  03°,  or  perhaps  something  less, 
and  the  mercury  seldom  rises  above  95°.  July 
is  the  hottest  month  in  the  year.  The  fall  of 
rain  for  1870  was  48*53  inches.  Very  little 
snow  falls,  and  the  rivers  are  never  frozen  over, 
though  stagnant  water  is  sometimes  covered 
with  a  thin  coating  of  ice.  Fruit  trees  blossom 
from  the  1st  of  February  to  the  1st  of  March, 
according  to  the  elevation.  In  the  lower  por 
tion  of  the  country  there  is  almost  a  total  lack 
of  good  water,  while  that  found  in  the  higher 
regions  is  very  good.  In  many  parts  of  the 
state  the  inhabitants  procure  their  water  from 
artesian  wells,  which  not  unfrequently  reach 
a  depth  of  1,000  feet,  and  some  of  them  throw 
up  water  in  sufficient  quantity  to  turn  mills  and 
other  machinery. — The  soil  of  the  state  is  va 
rious,  but  mainly  productive.  In  the  southern 
part  there  are  considerable  tracts  of  sandy  bar 
rens,  but  the  river  bottoms  are  remarkably  fer 
tile.  Some  portions  of  the  highlands  in  the 
north  are  not  worth  cultivating,  while  by  far 
the  greater  portion  is  very  excellent  land,  hav 
ing  a  productive  soil  of  variable  depth,  resting 
on  a  limestone  bed.  By  its  great  advantages  of 
soil  and  climate,  Alabama  has  always  held  a 
high  rank  as  an  agricultural  state.  Agriculture 
forms  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people, 
manufacturing  being  carried  on  only  to  a  lim 
ited  extent.  The  chief  productions  are  cotton 
and  Indian  corn,  though  other  grains  are  raised, 
as  are  also  sugar  cane  and  rice  on  the  bottom 
lands  in  the  extreme  south ;  and  tobacco  is  growrn 
to  a  small  extent.  According  to  the  census  of 
1870,  there  are  4,982,340  acres  of  improved 
land  in  the  state,  and  9,491,270  of  unimproved, 
of  which  8,034,700  acres  are  woodland.  The 
assessed  value  of  real  estate  is  $117,223,043,  and 
of  personal  property  $38,359,552;  true  value 
of  all  real  and  personal  property,  $201,855,841 ; 
cash  value  of  farms,  $67,502,433 ;  of  farming 
implements  and  machinery,  $3,256,101 ;  of  all 
livestock,  $26,077,267;  of  home  manufactures, 
$1,083,720;  of  slaughtered  animals^  $4,556,467; 
estimated  value  of  all  farm  products,  including 
betterments  and  additions  to  stock,  $66,532,810 ; 
total  amount  of  wages  paid  to  agricultural 


230 


ALABAMA 


laborers  during  the  year,  including  value  of 
board,  $11,791,191.  The  productions  were 
423,312  bales  of  cotton,  16,6(50,488  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  1,049,960  of  wheat,  18,594  of  rye, 
767,732  of  oats,  152,456  of  peas  and  beans, 
157,446  of  Irish  and  1,806,264  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  222,943  Ibs.  of  rice,  151,557  of  tobacco, 
370,773  of  wool,  3,178,638  of  butter,  21,068 
of  wax,  307,706  of  honey,  10,553  tons  of  hay, 
and  166,009  gallons  of  cane  and  261,986  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  78,962  horses, 
75,644  mules  and  asses,  165,663  milch  cows, 
57,237  working  oxen,  248,943  other  cattle, 
234,607  sheep,  and  701,346  swine.  The  num 
ber  of  manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
state  was  2,231,  employing  $5,713,607  capital, 
291  steam  engines  with  7,640  horse  power,  736 
water  wheels  with  11,098  horse  power,  and 
8,349  hands,  receiving  $2,211,638  wages  annu 
ally.  The  value  of  materials  used  in  1870  was 
$7,643,784,  and  of  products,  $13,220,655.  Of 
the  manufactories,  the  most  important  are  33 
for  ginning  cotton,  10  for  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  goods,  3  for  cotton  thread  and  yarn,  20 
for  the  manufacture  and  working  of  iron  in 
various  forms,  143  for  leather,  13  for  machine 
ry,  284  lumber  mills,  and  613  flour  and  grist 
mills. — The  foreign  commerce  of  Alabama  all 
centres  at  Mobile,  where  cotton  is  the  chief 
article  of  export,  though  considerable  quanti 
ties  of  saAved  lumber  and  staves  are  shipped  to 
Cuba,  and  cedar  railroad  ties  to  the  northern 
states.  The  exports  to  foreign  countries  from 
Mobile  for  1870  were  $22,422,631,  of  which 
$11,829,786  was  taken  in  American,  and 
$10,592,845  in  foreign  bottoms.  The  imports 
for  the  same  period  were  $1,349,488,  of  which 
$161,499  came  in  American,  and  $1,187,994  in 
foreign  vessels.  The  exports  of  cotton  were 
188,761  bales  (94,462,212  Ibs.),  valued  at 
$22,376,498.  The  shipping  entering  Mobile 
from  foreign  ports  for  1870  was  40  American 
vessels,  17,472  tons  and  419  men,  and  65 
foreign  vessels,  52,777  tons  and  1,320  men. 
The  clearances  for  foreign  ports  in  the  same 
time  Avere  77  American  vessels,  42,663  tons  and 
889  men,  and  51  foreign  vessels,  37,075  tons 
and  976  men.  The  number  of  merchant  ves 
sels  belonging  at  Mobile  in  1870  was  216,  with 
a  tonnage  of  19,748.  During  the  year  11  ves 
sels,  Avith  a  total  tonnage  of  548,  were  built. — 
In  1871  there  Avere  1,496  miles  of  railroad 
— main  and  side  track — completed  in  Ala 
bama,  with  an  aggregate  assessed  value  of 
$25,943,052  59,  as  shown  in  the  adjoined  table. 
The  Alabama  and  Chattanooga  connects  the 
latter  city  with  Meridian,  Miss.,  by  Avay  of 
Tuscaloosa,  and  when  completed  Avill  afford 
the  most  direct  communication  between  NCAV 
York  and  New  Orleans,  through  East  Tennes 
see.  The  Memphis  and  Charleston  extends 
through  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  and  con 
nects  the  Mississippi  river  with  the  Atlantic. 
The  Mobile  and  Montgomery  extends  from 
Tensas,  near  Mobile,  Avith  which  it  is  connect 
ed  by  steamboats,  to  Montgomery,  connecting 


NAME  OF  ROAD. 

Miles. 

Value. 

Alabama  and  Chattanooga 

''50 

$6  1  °0  905  00 

Memphis  and  Charleston  

164 

2  719  800  00 

Mobile  and  Girard  

84 

1  07(5  7CO  00 

Mobile  and  Ohio  
Mobile  and  Montgomery. 

84 
171 

1.474552  00 
2  862  5SO  00 

Montgomery  and  Eufaula  

57 

824  ?S9  50 

Nashville  and  Decatur  
Nashville  and  Chattanooga  
Savannah  and  Memphis 

29 
26 
21 

886.4S5  00 
480.4-'i4  00 
263  900  CO 

Sehna  and  Gulf  
Selma,  Marion,  and  Memphis  
Selma  and  Meridian  
Selma,  Rome,  and  Dalton  
South  and  North  

31 
48 
83 
177 
102 

425.275  00 
771.000  00 
1.848.981  7-3 
2,464.812  69 
1  6'?5  9()0  00 

Southwestern  of  Georgia  
Western 

167^ 

14387  08 

2  5^8  700  00 

Total  

1,495% 

$25,943,052  5i> 

at  Pollard  \vith  the  Mobile  and  Girard  road, 
Avhich  is  intended  to  secure  direct  communica 
tion  betAveen  Columbus,  Ga.,  and  Mobile.  Run 
ning  easterly  from  Montgomery  is  the  Mont 
gomery  and  Eufaula,  which  will  ultimately 
form  a  part  of  a  line  to  Brunswick  on  the 
Georgia  seaboard.  The  Western  road,  a  con 
necting  link  of  the  Mobile,  Atlanta,  and  Au 
gusta  line,  is  completed  from  West  Point  via 
Montgomery  to  Selma,  where  by  its  junction 
with  the  Selma  and  Meridian  a  continuous  line 
of  railroads  is  formed  from  Savannah,  Ga.,  to 
Monroe  in  Louisiana,  from  which  point  con 
nection  can  be  made  with  the  projected  South 
ern  Pacific  railway.  Sixty  miles  of  the  Mobile 
and  Ohio  road  lie  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  Alaba 
ma  ;  a  branch  of  this  road,  the  Mississippi, 
Gainesville,  and  Tuscaloosa,  is  completed  to 
Gainesville.  The  Selma,  Rome,  and  Dalton  is 
completed  from  Dalton,  Ga.,  to  Selma,  236  m., 
and  affords  a  direct  outlet  to  Charleston  for 
the  cotton  and  minerals  of  central  Alabama. 
The  Selma  and  Gulf  line  is  in  process  of  con 
struction  from  Selma  to  Pollard,  a  distance  of 
100  m.,  Avhere  connection  by  railway  to  Pen- 
sacola  is  made.  The  Selma,  Marion,  and  Mem 
phis,  and  the  South  and  North  railroads  are 
under  construction.  The  latter  connects  Mont 
gomery  with  Decatur,  where  a  junction  is 
made  with  the  Nashville  and  Decatur  road ;  it 
Avill  afford  an  air-line  communication  between 
Nashville  and  the  gulf,  and  serve  as  an  outlet 
for  the  mineral  stores  of  central  Alabama.  An 
important  road  is  projected  from  Eufaula  to 
Guntersville,  Avhich  in  the  absence  of  a  canal 
Avill  afford  communication  between  the  Coosa 
and  Tennessee  rivers.  Other  projected  lines 
are  the  Selma  and  NCAV  Orleans,  the  Mobile 
and  Alabama,  Grand  Trunk  (from  Mobile  via 
Marion  to  Elyton,  240  m.),  the  Savannah  and 
Memphis,  and  the  Vicksburg  and  Brunswick. 
The  legislature  has  empoAvered  the  governor, 
Avhen  any  railway  company  incorporated  by 
the  state  shall  have  completed  and  equipped  20 
miles  of  road,  to  indorse  on  behalf  of  the  state 
the  first  mortgage  bonds  of  the  company  to  the 
extent  of  $16,000  per  mile  for  the  portion 
completed,  and  $16,000  for  each  section  of  five 
miles  subsequently  completed.  These  liabili 
ties  on  Sept.  80,  1871,  were  as  follows: 


ALABAMA 


231 


NAME  CF  ROAD. 

Mis. 

Ai 

icunt. 

Alabama  and  Chattanootra  

295 

$4,720,000 

Alabama  and   Chattanooga,  re 

ported  excess  issued  

5SO.OOO 

East  Alabama  and  Cincinnati..  . 

'20 

3-20.000 

Mobile  and  Ala.  Grand  Trunk. 

'20 

3-20.000 

Mobile  and  Montgomery  

2.500.000 

MontsromiTv  and  Euf'aula  

'60 

9(30.000 

Selma  and  'Gulf  

30 

4SO.OOO 

Selma.  Marion,  and  Memphis.. 

45 

7-20000 

fcouth  and  North  

100 

2.-200.000 

Savannah  and  Memphis  

20 

3-20,000 

$13,120,000 

STATE     BONDS     FOR     RAILROAD 

PURPOSES. 

Alabama  and  Chattanooga  

$2.000.000 

Montgomery  and  Eufaula  

300,000 

$2.300,000 

Total  contingent  liabilities...  . 

$15,420,000 

— The  present  constitution  of  Alabama  was 
adopted  in  1868.  The  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  a  general  assembly,  consisting  of  a 
senate  and  house  of  representatives.  The  lat 
ter  is  composed  of  not  more  than  100  mem 
bers,  apportioned  among  the  different  counties 
according  to  population,  but  each  county  is 
entitled  to  at  least  one  representative.  The 
present  number  is  100.  The  number  of  sena 
tors  cannot  be  more  than  one  third  nor  less 
than  one  fourth  that  of  the  representatives. 
The  present  number  is  33.  Senators  and  rep 
resentatives  are  elected  on  the  Tuesday  after 
the  first  Monday  in  November,  the  former  for 
four  and  the  latter  for  two  years.  One  half 
of  the  senators  are  chosen  every  two  years. 
Persons  qualified  as  electors  to  vote  for  mem 
bers  of  the  general  assembly  are  eligible  as 
representatives ;  but  senators  -must  have  at 
tained  the  age  of  27  years  and  resided  for  two 
years  in  the  state.  The  general  assembly  meets 
annually  on  the  third  Monday  in  November, 
and  cannot  remain  in  session  longer  than  30 
days  except  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  house. 
A  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  members 
in  each  house  is  sufficient  to  pass  a  bill  over 
the  governor's  veto.  The  executive  depart 
ment  consists  of  a  governor,  lieutenant  gov 
ernor,  secretary  of  state,  auditor,  treasurer, 
and  attorney  general,  who  are  elected  on  the 
same  day  as  the  members  of  the  legislature  for 
a  term  of  two  years,  except  the  auditor,  who 
is  chosen  for  four  years.  The  judicial  power 
is  vested  in  a  supreme  court  of  three  justices, 
with  appellate  jurisdiction  only,  except  that  it 
may  issue  writs  of  injunction,  mandamus,  ha 
beas  corpus,  and  quo  warranto ;  five  courts  of 
chancery  and  twelve  circuit  courts,  each  of 
which  is  held  by  one  judge ;  a  probate  court 
for  each  county ;  and  city  courts  for  Mobile, 
Montgomery,  Selma,  and  Huntsville ;  in  addi 
tion  to  which  the  legislature  may  establish  infe 
rior  courts  of  law  and  equity.  The  supreme 
court  sits  at  Montgomery.  The  judges  of  the 
several  courts  are  elected  by  the  people  for  a 
term  of  six  years,  and  may  be  removed  by  im 
peachment  or  for  reasonable  cause  by  the  gov 
ernor  on  the  address  of  two  thirds  of  the  legis 
lature.  Judges  of  the  supreme,  circuit,  and 
chancery  courts  cannot  hold  any  other  office 


of  profit  or  trust  under  the  state  or  United 
States  during  their  judicial  term.  The  salary 
of  the  governor  is  $4,000,  and  of  the  judges  of 
the  three  higher  courts  $3,000  each.  The  right 
of  suffrage  is  given  to  all  male  citizens  and 
those  who  have  declared  their  intention  to  be 
come  citizens,  who  have  attained  the  age  of  21 
years  and  resided  in  the  state  six  months  next 
preceding  the  election,  and  three  months  in  the 
county  where  their  votes  are  offered.  Those 
who  during  the  late  war  violated  the  rules  of 
civilized  warfare,  those  disqualified  on  account 
of  participation  in  the  rebellion,  those  convict 
ed  of  crimes  punishable  by  imprisonment  in 
the  penitentiary,  and  those  who  are  idiots  or 
insane,  are  by  the  constitution  prohibited  from 
voting.  The  general  assembly  must  provide 
from  time  to  time  for  the  registration  of  elec 
tors.  Every  person  before  registering  is  re 
quired  to  take  an  oath  to  support  the  constitu 
tion  and  laws  of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
state  of  Alabama,  and  to  swear  that  he  is  not 
disqualified  by  law  from  registering ;  that  he 
will  never  countenance  or  aid  in  the  secession 
of  the  state ;  and  that  he  accepts  the  civil  and 
political  equality  of  all  men.  All  able-bodied 
citizens  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45  are  lia 
ble  to  duty  in  the  militia.  The  governor  is 
commander-in-chief  of  the  militia,  with  power 
to  call  it  forth  to  execute  the  laws  and  preserve 
the  peace,  and  is  required  to  appoint  with  the 
consent  of  the  senate  one  major  general  and 
three  brigadier  generals  of  militia.  The  com 
mon  schools  and  other  educational  institutions 
of  the  state  are  under  the  management  of  a 
board  of  education,  consisting  of  the  superin 
tendent  of  public  instruction,  elected  by  the 
people  for  two  years,  and  two  members  from 
each  of  the  congressional  districts,  chosen  for 
four  years.  The  board  is  required  to  establish 
throughout  the  state,  in  each  township  or 
school  district,  free  schools  for  all  children  be 
tween  the  ages  of  5  and  21  years.  By  the  law 
of  1870  it  is  forbidden  to  unite  in  one  school 
white  and  colored  children,  except  by  the 
unanimous  consent  of  their  parents  and  guar 
dians.  The  fund  appropriated  annually  by 
constitutional  provision  for  the  support  of  pub 
lic  schools  consists  of  the  proceeds  of  all  lands 
granted  by  the  United  States  for  school  pur 
poses,  special  appropriations,  escheated  estates, 
money  paid  for  exemption  from  military  duty, 
one  fifth  of  the  aggregate  annual  revenue  of 
the  state,  and  a  poll" tax  of  $1.50.  The  consti 
tution  requires  a  state  census  to  be  taken  in 
1875,  and  every  ten  years  thereafter,  and  pro 
vides  for  the  establishment  of  a  bureau  of  in 
dustrial  resources  at  Montgomery,  under  the 
management  of  a  commissioner,  whose  duty  it 
shall  be  to  collect  statistical  information  con 
cerning  the  productive  industries  of  the  state, 
to  disseminate  among  the  people  knowledge 
tending  to  promote  their  agricultural,  mining, 
and  manufacturing  interests,  and  to  make  an 
annual  report  to  the  governor,  to  be  laid  before 
;  the  general  assembly.  It  also  provides  for  the 


232 


ALABAMA 


exemption  from  sale  on  execution  of  personal 
property  of  any  resident  to  the  value  of  $1,000, 
and  a  homestead  not  exceeding  $2, 000  in  value. 
The  real  and  personal  property  of  a  woman, 
whether  acquired  before  or  after  marriage,  is 
not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband,  and  may 
be  devised  and  bequeathed  by  her  the  same  as 
if  she  were  a  feme  sole.  The  crimes  of  treason,' 
murder  in  the  first  degree,  rape,  carnal  inter 
course  with  a  woman  by  false  representations 
of  being  her  husband,  and  arson  in  the  first 
degree,  are  punishable  with  death  or  imprison 
ment.  Killing  in  a  duel  is  murder  in  the  second 
degree,  and  any  one  aiding  in  a  duel  is  made 
incapable  of  holding  any  office  under  the  state. 
Absolute  divorce  is  granted  for  habitual  drunk 
enness  after  marriage,  physical  incapacity,  adul 
tery,  abandonment  for  two  years,  two  years' 
imprisonment,  or  extreme  cruelty.  The  legal 
rate  of  interest  is  8  per  cent.  Alabama  has 
7  representatives  and  2  senators  in  the  federal 
congress. — The  total  taxation  not  national  for 
1870  amounted  to  $2, 982, 932.  The  total  receipts 
into  the  state  treasury  during  the  fiscal  year 
were  $1, 283,587,  of  which  $1,242,886  25  was 
from  taxation  and  licenses.  The  total  disburse 
ments  by  the  state  treasury  were  $1,360,399, 
of  which  $23,843  was  for  the  executive  de 
partment,  $112,860  for  legislative  expenses, 
$66,855  for  judiciary,  $674,410  for  educational 
purposes  and  schools,  and  $251,504  for  interest. 
The  bonded  debt  of  the  state  Sept.  30, 1871,  was 
$5,442,300,  with  interest  amounting  to  $321,106 
annually;  the  total  state  debt  was  $8,761,967 
37. — Among  the  public  institutions  in  the  state 
are  the  penitentiary  at  Wetumpka,  the  insane 
hospital  at  Tuscaloosa,  the  asylum  for  deaf, 
dumb,  and  blind,  and  the  freedman's  hospital,  at 
Talladega,  and  an  asylum  for  the  blind  at  Mobile. 
By  the  census  of  1870  there  were  611  blind, 
401  deaf  and  dumb,  555  insane,  and  721  idiotic ; 
number  of  homicides  during  the  year,  100. 
The  number  of  convicts  in  the  penitentiary  in 
1869  was  374. — The  whole  number  of  children 
attending  school  during  the  year  1870  was 
77,139,  of  whom  31,098  were  white  males, 
30,226  white  females,  7,502  colored  males,  and 
8,313  colored  females.  The  number  of  persons 
10  years  old  and  upward  unable  to  read  was 
349,771  ;  unable  to  write,  383,012.  Of  those 
21  years  old  and  over  who  could  not  write, 
17,429  were  white  males,  31,001  white  females, 
91,017  colored  males,  and  98,344  colored  fe 
males.  According  to  the  state  auditor's  report, 
the  number  of  public  schools  in  1869  was  3,225, 
and  of  normal  schools  16.  The  total  number 
of  children  of  school  age  was  387,057,  of  whom 
229,139  were  white,  and  157,918  colored.  The 
state  appropriates  about  $500,000  annually 
(1871,  $590,605  50)  for  the  support  of  common 
schools.  By  the  census  of  1860  there  were  17 
colleges.  Math  116  teachers  and  a  total  endow 
ment  of  $124,894;  206  academies  and  private 
schools,  with  400  teachers  and  10,778  pupils; 
and  395  public  libraries,  with  155,275  volumes. 
The  .university  of  Alabama,  founded  in  1831, 


is  situated  at  Tuscaloosa,  and  is  under  the  eon- 
t.i«ol  of  the  state  board  of  education.  During 
the  civil  war  this  institution  was  converted 
into  a  military  academy.  The  principal  build 
ing  having  been  burned  in  1865,  the  legisla- 
|  ture  in  the  following  year  loaned  $70,000  to  the 
university  for  the  erection  of  a  new  building, 
I  which  has  since  been  completed.  The  univer 
sity  owns  some  valuable  lands  and  has  an  en 
dowment  of  $300,000,  with  an  annual  interest 
of  $24,000.  Since  the  war  it  has  not  been  in  a 
prosperous  condition.  In  January,  1871,  there 
were  4  professors  and  21  students.— In  1871 
there  were  71  newspapers  and  periodicals  pub 
lished  in  the  state,  of  which  58  were  weekly, 
2  tri-weekly,  10  daily  (which  also  issued  week 
ly  editions),  and  one  semi-monthly.  Their  ag 
gregate  annual  circulation  was  8,891,432,  and 
their  average  circulation  1,070. — The  leading 
religious  denominations  are  Methodists  and 
Baptists.  The  former  in  1860  had  777  church 
es,  with  accommodations  for  212,555  persons, 
and  church  property  valued  at  $606, 720;  the 
latter  810  churches,  worth  $495,449,  with  ac 
commodations  for  245,255  persons.  There 
i  were  202  Presbyterian  churches,  valued  at 
|  $368,500,  with  accommodations  for  65,004;  34 
'  Episcopal,  valued  at  $196,050,  with  seats  for 
13,840;  and  9  Roman  Catholic,  with  8,000 
|  seats  and  church  property  worth  $230,450. 
There  are  other  denominations  in  the  state 
of  less  importance  as  to  numbers. — The  ter- 
|  ritory  now  forming  the  state  of  Alabama 
!  was  originally  a  part  of  Georgia.  In  1798  the 
country  now  included  in  the  states  of  Ala 
bama  and  Mississippi  was  organized  as  a  terri 
tory,  called  Mississippi.  At  this  time  Florida, 
which  then  belonged  to  Spain,  extended  to  the 
French  possessions  in  Louisiana,  from  lat.  31° 
to  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  cutting  off  Mississippi 
territory  from  the  gulf  coast  entirely.  During 
the  war  with  Great  Britain  in  1812,  as  a 
precautionary  measure,  that  part  of  Florida 
between  the  Perdido  and  Pearl  rivers  was 
occupied  by  United  States  troops,  and  finally 
annexed  to  Mississippi  territory.  After  the 
removal  of  most  of  the  Creek  Indians  from  this 
territory  as  the  result  of  a  vigorous  war  in 
1813-'14  (see  CREEKS),  the  country  was  rapidly 
settled  by  the  whites,  and  in  1817  the  western 
portion  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  the 
state  of  Mississippi,  while  the  eastern  part  re 
mained  as  the  territory  of  Alabama  till  1819, 
when  it  was  also  admitted  as  a  state.  The 
slave  population  increased  much  more  rapidly 
than  the  free,  the  proportion  of  slave  to  the  free 
population  being,  according  to  the  state  census 
of  1855,  as  239  to  289.  The  popular  vote  cast  by- 
Alabama  at  the  presidential  election  of  1860, 
which  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Abraham  Liu- 
coin,  was:  for  Douglas,  13,651;  Breckinridge, 
48,831 ;  and  Bell,  27,875.  The  state  had  in 
structed  her  delegates  to  the  national  conven 
tion  held  at  Charleston  in  April  of  the  same  year 
to  withdraw  from  that  body  unless  the  conven 
tion  should  adopt,  among  others,  a  resolution 


ALABAMA 


233 


affirming  "the  unqualified  right  of  the  people 
of  the  slaveholding  states  to  the  protection  of 
their  property  in  the  states,  in  the  territories, 
and  in  the  wilderness  in  which  territorial  gov 
ernments  are  yet  unorganized."  The  conven 
tion  Iiavinz  refused  to  declare  in  favor  of  this 
doctrine,  the  Alabama  delegation  withdrew. 
Early  in  December  commissioners  were  sent 
by  Alabama  to  the  other  southern  states  to 
urge  the  withdrawal  of  these  states  from  the 
federal  government,  and  their  union  in  a  sepa 
rate  confederacy ;  and  on  Dec.  24  an  election 
was  held  for  the  choice  of  delegates  to  a  state 
convention.  These  delegates  were  classified  as 
immediate  secessionists  and  cooperationists, 
the  latter  being  in  favor  of  secession  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  other  southern  states.  The 
convention  assembled  at  Montgomery  Jan.  7, 
18fil,  and  on  the  same  day  communications 
were  received  from  the  representatives  of  the 
state  in  congress,  who  had  held  a  meeting  in 
Washington,  and  passed  resolutions  advising 
immediate  secession.  On  Jan.  1 1  the  ordi 
nance  of  secession  was  adopted  by  a  vote  of 
('•1  to  30.  The  immediate  cause  of  this  action 
was  stated  in  the  preamble  to  the  ordinance  to 
be  "the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and 
Hannibal  llamlin  to  the  offices  of  president 
and  vice  president  of  the  United  States  of 
America  by  a  sectional  party,  avowedly  hostile 
to  the  domestic  institutions  and  to  the  peace 
and  security  of  the  people  of  the  state  of  Ala 
bama,  preceded  by  many  and  dangerous  infrac 
tions  of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States 
by  many  of  the  states  and  people  of  the  north 
ern  section.'1  The  convention  held  secret  ses 
sions  and  refused  to  submit  its  action  to  the 
people.  These  proceedings  were  followed  by 
the  withdrawal  on  Jan.  21  of  the  senators  and 
representatives  of  Alabama  from  the  federal 
congress,  and  the  election  of  delegates  to  the 
southern  congress,  which  assembled  at  Mont 
gomery  Feb.  4,  to  organize  the  southern  confede 
racy.  Forts  Morgan  and  Gaines  at  the  entrance 
to  Mobile  harbor  and  Mt.  Vernon  arsenal  were 
seized  by  order  of  the  governor,  and  on  the  9th 
live  companies  of  volunteers  were  sent  to  Pen- 
sacola,  at  the  request  of  the  governor  of  Flori 
da,  to  assist  in  capturing  the  forts  and  other 
property  there  belonging  to  the  United  States. 
Subsequently  a  commissioner  was  sent  to  Wash 
ington  to  negotiate  with  the  president  for  the 
transfer  to  the  state  authorities  of  the  forts, 
arsenals,  custom  houses,  and  other  United 
States  property  in  the  state.  The  president 
declined  to  receive  this  commissioner  except 
as  a  ''distinguished  citizen  of  Alabama."  On 
March  13  the  state  convention,  which  had  re 
assembled  on  the  4th,  ratified  by  a  vote  of  87  to 
G,  without  submission  to  the  people,  the  con 
stitution  adopted  by  the  confederate  congress, 
and  subsequently  passed  an  ordinance  transfer 
ring  to  the  provisional  government  the  arms 
and  munitions  of  wrar  acquired  from  the  United 
States,  and  also  all  authority  over  the  forts  and 
arsenals  in  the  state.  Laws  were  enacted  by 


the  legislature  placing  the  state  upon  an  effi 
cient  war  footing  and  appropriating  8300,000 
to  aid  the  cause  of  southern  independence. 
On  April  10  the  president  of  the  Confederate 
States  made  a  requisition  on  the  governor  for 
3.000  troops,  and  on  May  1  the  first  battalion 
of  the  third  state  regiment  left  for  Virginia. 
No  important  military  operations  occurred 
within  the  borders  of  Alabama  during  the  first 
years  of  the  war.  In  February,  18(12,  immedi 
ately  after  the  capture  of  Fort  Henry,  Com 
mander  Phelps,  with  three  gunboats  from  the 
fleet  of  Commodore  Foote,  proceeded  up  the 
Tennessee  river  and  took  possession  of  Flor 
ence  at  the  foot  of  the  Muscle  Shoals.  This 
was  the  first  appearance  of  the  national  flag  in 
northern  Alabama  since  the  beginning  of  the 
war,  and  was  received  with  demonstrations  of 
loyalty  by  many  of  the  inhabitants  who  had 
opposed  secession.  On  April  1)  Gen.  O.  M. 
Mitchel,  who  had  advanced  from  Nashville 
with  a  division  of  Gen.  BuelFs  army,  took 
Huntsville  by  surprise  and  gained  possession 
of  100  miles  of  the  Memphis  arid  Charleston 
railroad  between  Stephcnson  and  Decatur. 
He  advanced  westward  to  Tuscumbia,  and 
thence  as  far  south  as  Russellville,  capturing 
confederate  property  without  loss  of  life.  The 
federal  forces  were  soon  compelled  to  abandon 
the  territory  south  of  the  Tennessee  river,  but, 
having  burned  the  railroad  bridges  at  Decatur 
and  Bridgeport,  held  all  of  Alabama  north  of 
that  river.  In  the  spring  of  18(54  a  naval  ex 
pedition  was  fitted  out  at  New  Orleans  under 
Rear  Admiral  Farragut  to  operate  against  the 
fortifications  guarding  Mobile  bay.  He  defeat 
ed  the  confederate  fleet  under  Admiral  Frank 
lin  Buchanan,  Aug.  G,  and,  with  the  coopera 
tion  of  a  land  force  under  Gen.  Granger, 
reduced  the  forts  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor 
— Fort  Gaines  on  the  7th,  and  Fort  Morgan  on 
the  23d.  Early  in  18(35  a  combined  military  and 
naval  expedition  against  Mobile  was  organized 
at  New  Orleans  under  Maj.  Gen.  Can  by  and 
Rear  Admiral  Thatcher ;  and  a  force  of  cavalry 
under  Maj.  Gen.  J.  II.  Wilson  was  ordered  to 
cooperate  by  a  southern  march  from  Eastport, 
Tenn.  Wilson's  command,  numbering  about 
15,000,  of  whom  13,000  were  mounted,  ad 
vanced  from  Chickasaw  March  23,  and  on 
April  3  occupied  Selma,  one  of  the  most  im 
portant  military  depots  in  the  southwest.  The 
arsenals,  founderies,  arms,  tools,  and  military 
munitions  of  every  kind,  together  with  a  large 
amount  of  cotton,  were  destroyed.  From  Sel 
ma  Gen.  Wilson  moved  eastward  to  Georgia, 
taking  possession  of  Montgomery,  the  capital, 
on  the  12th  of  April.  On  the  same  day  Mobile 
was  taken  by  Canby  and  Thatcher.  During 
these  operations  u  the  last  cannon,"  says  Pol 
lard,  "  was  fired  for  the  Confederacy."  On  May 
4,  at  Citronelle,  Ala.,  the  forces,  munitions  of 
war,  &c.,  in  the  departments  of  Alabama,  Mis 
sissippi,  and  East  Louisiana  were  formally  sur 
rendered  by  Gen.  Taylor  to  Gen.  Canby :  and 
on  the  same  dav  Commodore  Farrand  surren- 


234 


ALABAMA 


ALABASTER 


dcred  to  Rear  Admiral  Thatcher  all  the  con- 
federate  naval  forces — 12  vessels — then  block- 
aded  on  the  Tombigbee.  No  official  statement 
of  the  number  and  losses  of  Alabama  troops  in 
the  war  has  been  made.  In  an  official  procla 
mation,  in  June,  1865,  Provisional  Governor 
Parsons  stated  the  number  of  troops  fur 
nished  by  the  state  during  the  war  to  be  122,- 
000,  and  the  losses  35,000.  Montgomery  was 
the  seat  of  the  confederate  government  until 
its  removal  to  Richmond  on  the  20th  of  May, 
1801.  Immediately  upon  the  close  of  the  war 
measures  were  instituted  by  the  general  gov 
ernment  for  the  restoration  of  Alabama  to  the 
Union.  For  this  purpose  Lewis  E.  Parsons  was 
appointed  provisional  governor  June  21,  1865, 
with  instructions  to  call  a  convention  for  the 
purpose  of  altering  and  amending  the  constitu 
tion  and  laws  of  the  state  in  conformity  with 
the  federal  constitution.  At  the  election  held 
Aug.  31  for  choice  of  delegates,  those  citizens 
were  qualified  as  electors  and  delegates  who 
were  entitled  to  vote  by  the  constitution  and 
laws  of  Alabama  in  force  immediately  prior  to 
Jan.  11,  1801,  and  who  had  taken  the  oath  of 
amnesty  as  set  forth  in  the  president's  procla 
mation  of  May  29,  1805.  After  assembling  on 
Sept.  10,  the  convention  reordained  the  civil 
and  criminal  laws,  except  those  relating  to 
slaves,  as  they  existed  previous  to  the  adoption 
of  the  secession  ordinance  of  1861,  declared 
that  ordinance  and  the  state  war  debt  null  and 
void,  passed  an  ordinance  against  slavery,  and 
provided  for  an  election  of  state  officers  and 
members  of  congress  to  be  held  in  November. 
On  the  assembling  of  the  legislature,  United 
States  senators  were  chosen,  and  on  Dec.  19 
the  newly  elected  governor  assumed  executive 
control.  The  government  thus  organized  con 
tinued  in  force  until  supplanted  by  the  military 
government  provided  by  congress  in  pursu 
ance  of  the  reconstruction  act  passed  March  2, 
1867.  By  this  act  Alabama  was  made  subject 
to  the  military  authority  of  the  United  States, 
and,  with  Georgia  and  Florida,  constituted  the 
third  military  district.  On  April  1,  1867,  Ma 
jor  General  Pope  assumed  command  of  this 
district  with  a  sufficient  military  force  to  pro 
tect  the  rights  of  all  persons,  and  to  preserve 
the  public  peace.  In  accordance  with  the  sup 
plemental  act  of  congress  of  March  23,  1867, 
a  registration  of  qualified  voters  (excluding  un- 
pardoned  participants  in  the  civil  Avar)  was 
made  in  August,  when  165,813  persons  were 
registered,  of  whom  01,295  were  white  and 
104,518  colored.  An  election  was  held  on  the 
first  three  days  of  October  to  decide  the  ques 
tion  of  calling  a  convention  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  constitution  and  civil  government, 
and  also  to  choose  delegates  to  the  convention ; 
90,283  votes  were  cast  for  the  convention  and 
5,583  against  it.  The  convention  assembled  in 
November  and  framed  a  constitution,  which 
was  submitted  to  the  people  in  February,  1808, 
when  70,812  votes  were  cast  for  ratification 
and  1,005  for  rejection.  The  total  vote  thus 


cast,  being  less  than  the  majority  of  all  the 
registered  voters  required  by  the  reconstruc 
tion  law  of  congress,  was  not  sufficient  for  rat 
ification.  The  constitution  was,  however,  by  a 
subsequent  act  of  congress,  declared  adopted. 
At  the  same  election  state  officers  and  mem 
bers  of  congress  and  of  the  legislature  were 
chosen.  The  legislature  having  assembled  and 
complied  with  the  requirements  of  the  law  of 
congress  for  the  admission  into  the  Union  of 
certain  southern  states  passed  Jure  25,  1868, 
Alabama  became  entitled  to  representation  in 
congress,  and  on  July  14,  1808,  the  control  of 
affairs  passed  from  the  military  to  the  civil  au 
thorities.  The  15th  amendment  to  the  federal 
constitution  was  ratified  by  Alabama  Nov.  10, 
1870,  the  14th  amendment  having  been  pre 
viously  ratified  as  a  condition  of  representation 
in  congress. 

ALABAMA,  a  river  of  the  state  of  Alabama, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa 
rivers  about  10  m.  (direct)  N.  N.  E.  of  Mont 
gomery.  It  has  a  westerly  course  as  for  as 
Selma,  whence  it  fiows  southerly  until  it  joins 
the  Tombigbee  about  50  m.  above  Mobile,  to 
form  the  Mobile  river.  It  is  navigable  for  ves 
sels  of  6  feet  draught  to  Claiborne,  60  m.  above 
the  junction.  Small  steamboats  ascend  it  to 
Montgomery,  320  m.  by  the  course  of  the  river, 
the  depth  of  water  being  from  3  to  5  feet,  and 
in  high  water  about  20  m.  further  to  Wetuinp- 
ka  on  the  Coosa.  The  river  is  very  tortuous 
throughout  its  course,  and  on  its  banks  are 
some  of  the  largest  cotton  plantations  in  the 
South,  and  much  valuable  timber.  The  most 
important  cities  and  towns  on  the  Alabama  are 
Montgomery,  Selma,  Cahawba,  and  Claiborne. 

ALABASTER,  the  name  frequently  given  to 
two  diiferent  mineral  substances — the  one  a 
sulphate  of  lime,  a  pure  variety  of  gypsum,  and 
the  other  a  carbonate  of  lime,  of  the  same 
chemical  composition  as  most  of  the  marbles. 
It  was  used  with  the  same  ambiguity  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  resemblance 
of  the  two  substances  is  in  their  delicate  white 
color  and  fine  grain.  Each  is  easily  carved 
and  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish.  They  might 
well  in  ancient  times  have  passed  as  varieties 
of  the  same  substance  :  the  gypsum  alabaster 
being  more  delicate  and  softer  to  cut,  and  re 
quiring  much  more  care  to  polish  ;  the  calcare 
ous  alabaster  more  firm,  and  better  adapted 
for  the  sculpture  of  larger  figures.  The  latter 
wTas  frequently  obtained  from  the  drippings  of 
the  water  in  limestone  caves,  which  holds  car 
bonate  of  lime  in  solution,  and  deposits  it  in  the 
form  of  stalactites  and  stalagmites.  These  by 
a  little  ingenuity  were  made  to  take  the  forms 
of  the  mould  the  waters  dripped  upon  ;  or  the 
natural  stalagmites  of  the  purest  colors  were 
selected,  and  then  wrought  into  the  desired 
figures. — The  name  alabaster,  now  properly 
limited  to  the  gypseous  variety,  is  derived  from 
the  town  Alabastron,  the  site  of  which  is  be 
lieved  to  have  been  between  the  Red  sea  and 
the  Nile  in  Middle  Egypt.  Here  the  stone  was 


ALACHUA 


ALAMANCE 


235 


extensively  wrought  into  boxes  and  pots  for  pro-  ' 
cious  ointments  and  perfumes.     A  white  grann-  | 
lar  gypsum,  pure  and  in  sound  blocks,  is  quarried  : 
in  Siena  and  in  other  places  in  Tuscany,  and 
manufactured  in  Florence,  Leghorn,  Milan,  and  ! 
Volterra,  into  utensils  similar  to  those  used  of 
old,  as  well  as  into  vases,  lamps,  clock  stands, 
&c.     They  are  exported  from  these  places  in  j 
considerable   quantity   to   the    United   States.  | 
The  composition  of  this  alabaster  is  46'3  per  ; 
cent,  sulphuric  acid,  32'9  lime,  and  20'8  water,  i 
Its  hardness  is  1-5-2  of  the  mineral  ogical  scale,  j 
It  soon  tarnishes  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  is  ' 
easily  injured  by  dust  and  smoke.      Articles  ! 
made  of  it  should  be  kept  under  a  glass  cover.  I 

ALACIH'A,  a  county  of  Florida,  in  the  X.  part 
of  the  peninsula,  bounded  N.  by  the  Santa  Fe 
river  and  AY.  by  the  Suwanee;  area,  1,000  sq.  j 
in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,328,  of  whom  12,393  were  I 
colored.     Orange   lake   lies   partly  within  its  j 
limits.     The  surface  is  rolling  prairie  and  the 
soil  is  fertile.     The  productions  in  1870  were  j 
168,580  bushels  of  corn,  8,450  of  oats,  18.264  ; 
of  potatoes,  2,477  bales  of  cotton,  58  hhds.  of  j 
sugar,  and  22,906  gallons  'of  molasses.      The  j 
Florida   railroad   passes  through   the   county,  j 
Capital,  Gainesville. 

1LACOQUE,  Margnerite  Marie,  a  French  nun,  to 
whom  the  festival  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Je 
sus  owes  its  origin,  born  at  Lauthecour,  dio 
cese  of  Autun,  July  12,  1647,  died  Oct.  17, 
1690.  She  took  the  veil  in  the  Visitation  con 
vent  of  Paray-le-Monial,  where,  according  to 
her  biographers,  she  displayed  the  gifts  of  mir 
acles,  of  prophecy,  of  revelations,  and  direct 
intercourse  with  God  and  his  angels.  She 
predicted  the  day  of  her  own  death,  and  ex 
perienced  ineffable  pleasure  while  engraving 
the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  on  her  bosom  with  a  I 
penknife.  She  left  a  treatise  on  La  devotion 
an  ccBur  de  Jesm,  which  she  believed  to  em 
body  a  supernatural  communication.  The 
church  gives  her  the  title  of  venerable. 

ALA  DAGHt     I.  A   lofty  mountain   chain   in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  northerly  side  of  which 
the  eastern  Euphrates  takes  its  Vise.     Its  main 
portion  is  situated  on  the  1ST.  edge  of  the  basin 
of  Lake  Van,  between  lat.  39°  and  40°  N".,  and 
Ion.  42°  and  44°  E.,  and  forms   part   of  the 
watershed  between  the  Caspian  sea  and  the  | 
Persian  gulf.     II.   A  range  in  Asia  Minor,  to  ! 
the  N".  W.  of  Angora,  extending  between  the  i 
Ishik  Dagh  on  the  N.  E.  and  the  valley  of  the  ! 
Sakaria  on  the  S.  and  W. 

ALAGOAS,  Dos,  a  province  of  Brazil,  on  the  At-  ! 
lantic  coast,  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  Pernambu-  j 
co,  and  separated  from  Sergipe  on  the  S.  by  the  i 
San  Francisco  river;  area  about  11,000  sq.  m. ;  ! 
pop.  about  300,000,  of  whom  50,000  are  slaves.  ! 
A  considerable  portion  of  its  surface  is  covered  i 
with  mountains,  at  the  base  of  which  the  land  ! 
is  very  fertile.  The  mountains  afford  large  ! 
quantities  of  timber  for  export,  and  in  the  val-  i 
leys  cotton  and  sugar  are  cultivated.  Tropical  ; 
fruits  of  all  kinds  are  grown  in  abundance,  and  ! 
dragon's  blood,  mastic,  ipecacuanha,  copaiba,  j 


caoutchouc,  &c.,  are  obtained  in  the  woods. 
The  climate  is  warm  and  humid,  and  in  the  rainy 
season  oppressive.  The  population  is  very  un 
equally  distributed,  the  lowlands  being  most 
densely  peopled.  Some  of  the  native  tribes  still 
live  in  the  mountains,  and  subsist  by  the  chase. 
The  principal  occupation  of  the  people  is  agri 
culture.  Porto  Calvo  is  the  capital ;  Macayo 
or  Maceio  the  chief  seaport. — Alagoas,  the 
former  capital,  is  situated  on  a  lake  opening 
into  the  ocean,  150  S.  S.  W.  of  Pernambuco; 
pop.  about  12,000.  There  are  several  convents 
and  grammar  schools. 

ALAL\  DE  LILLE  (Lat.  Alarms  de  Insults), 
a  Cistercian  scholar,  born  in  1114,  died  about 
1203.  He  was  called  the  Universal  Doctor,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  profound  savants  of  the 
12th  century.  He  was  a  philosopher,  physi 
cian,  theologian,  poet,  and  historian,  and  was 
appointed  to  the  bishopric  either  of  Auxerre 
or  of  Canterbury,  which  he  soon  resigned  in 
order  to  enter  the  monastery  of  Citeaux. 
Five  countries  dispute  the  honor  of  his  birth, 
Germany,  Scotland,  Spain,  Sicily,  and  Flan 
ders.  He  himself  says  he  came  from  Lille  in 
Flanders.  He  wrote,  principally  in  verse,  on 
alchemy,  natural  philosophy,  doctrinal  and 
moral  theology,  &c. 

ALAIS,  a  city  of  S.  France,  department  of 
Gard,  on  the  Gardon,  25  m.  N".  N.  W.  of 
Nimes;  pop.  in  1866,  19,964.  There  are  nu 
merous  iron  furnaces,  silk  mills,  and  glass 
works;  and  coal  is  mined  in  the  vicinity  to 
the  extent  of  1,000,000  tons  annually.  It  is  a 
great  depot  of  the  raw  silk  of  S.  France. 

ALAJUELA,  a  city  of  Costa  Rica,  Central 
America,  14  m.  N.  W.  of  San  Jose,  the  capital; 
pop.,  including  suburbs,  about  10,000.  It  is  a 
place  of  considerable  commercial  importance, 
and  is  connected  with  the  port  of  Pimtas  Are 
nas,  on  the  gulf  of  Nicoya,  by  an  excellent 
mule  road. 

ALAMAN,  Lucas,  a  Mexican  statesman,  born  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  died  June 
2,  1855.  lie  was  a  member  of  the  cabinet 
under  Bustamente  in  1829,  and  in  1853  Santa 
Anna  appointed  him  minister  for  foreign  af 
fairs.  He  induced  Santa  Anna  to  decree  the 
abolition  of  the  liberty  of  the  press,  with  se 
vere  punishments  for  the  infraction  of  the  new 
law  on  this  subject,  the  restoration  of  the  con 
fiscated  property  of  the  Jesuits,  a  regular  re 
cruiting  system,  and  a  reorganization  in  the 
army.  By  his  influence  onerous  taxes  were  im 
posed  upon  the  impoverished  population,  and  a 
law  was  passed  for  cashiering  all  Mexican  offi 
cers  who  had  voluntarily  surrendered  to  the 
American  government.  He  was  the  author  of 
Historia  de  Mejico  (5  vols.,  Mexico,  1849-Tr2). 

ALAMANCE,  a  N.  county  of  North  Carolina ; 
area,  500  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  11,874,  of  whom 
3;640  were  colored.  The  river  Haw,  a  branch 
of  the  Cape  Fear,  runs  through  the  centre  of 
the  county,  and  through  the  "W.  part  Alamance 
creek  flows  into  the  Haw.  The  soil  is  fertile 
and  the  surface  undulating.  The  productions 


236 


ALAMAXNT 


ALAN 


in  1870  were  80,284  bushels  of  wheat,  177,772 
of  corn,  00,274  of  oats,  and  155,570  Ibs.  of  to 
bacco.  In  1807  there  were  20  churches,  4 
academies,  5  cotton  factories,  and  5  flour  mills. 
The  North  Carolina  railroad  traverses  the 
county  E.  and  W.  Capital,  Graham. 

ALAMA\iM,  or  Alemanni,  Luigi,  an  Italian-poet, 
born  at  Florence  in  J-105,  died  at  Amboise, 
France,  in  1550.  His  father  was  devoted  to 
the  party  of  the  Medici.  Suspected  of  con 
spiring  against  the  life  of  Cardinal  Julius,  who 
was  governing  Florence  in  the  name  of  the 
pope,  he  fled  first  to  Venice,  and,  after  the  ac 
cession  of  the  cardinal  to  the  papal  throne 
under  the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  to  France. 
Repeated  attempts  to  reestablish  himself  in  his 
native  city  failed.  Francis  I.,  who  had  a  high 
opinion  of  him,  finally  took  him  into  his  ser 
vice,  and,  after  the  peace  of  Crespy  in  1544, 
appointed  him  ambassador  at  the  court  of 
Charles  V.  He  retained  the  good  will  of  the 
successor  of  Francis,  Henry  II.  He  left  many 
poems,  satires,  fables,  and  other  light  litera 
ture.  His  principal  work  is  his  didactic  poem, 
La  Coltirazione  (Paris,  1540). 

ALAMEDA,  a  W.  county  of  California,  on  San 
Francisco  bay;  area,  820  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
24,237,  of  whom  1,989  were  Chinese.  The  San 
Francisco  and  Alameda,  and  the  San  Jose  and 
Stockton  railroads  run  through  the  county. 
Gold  and  some  other  minerals  are  found  in 
small  quantities.  The  principal  productions  in 
1870  were  854,888  bushels  of  wheat,  608,975 
of  barley,  09,080  of  oats,  114,053  of  potatoes, 
138,975  Ibs.  of  wool,  198,910  of  butter,  and 
23,404  tons  of  hay.  There  were  6  newspapers 
published,  of  which  3  were  dailies.  The  scen 
ery  of  this  county  is  very  attractive.  The 
warm  springs,  in  a  little  valley  among  the  foot 
hills  of  the  Coast  range,  are  much  frequented 
for  their  medicinal  properties,  the  water  con 
taining  sulphur,  lime,  magnesia,  and  iron,  in 
various  proportions.  Capital,  San  Leandro. 

ALAMO,  a  fort  in  Bexar  county,  Texas,  near 
San  Antonio,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  San  An 
tonio  river,  celebrated  in  the  Texan  war  for 
independence.  It  was  an  oblong  structure, 
about  an  acre  in  extent,  surrounded  by  a  wall 
8  or  10  feet  high  and  3  feet  thick.  Gen. 
Sam  Houston  had  caused  San  Antonio  to  be 
dismantled,  upon  which  Santa  Anna  with  a 
large  detachment  of  his  army  invested  Fort 
Alamo,  Feb.  23,  1830.  The  Texans,  consisting 
only  of  140  men,  commanded  by  Col.  William 
Barrett  Travis,  retired  into  the  fort,  while  the 
Mexicans,  4,000  strong,  after  taking  possession 
of  the  town,  erected  batteries  on  both  sides  of 
the  river,  and  bombarded  the  fort  without  ces 
sation  for  24  hours.  During  this  time  over 
200  shells  were  discharged  into  the  fort,  yet 
not  a  man  was  injured,  while  the  Texan  sharp 
shooters,  standing  upon  the  ramparts,  were 
able  to  pick  off  man  after  man  of  the  enemy. 
Several  assaults  were  now  made,  but  in  every 
instance  the  Mexicans  were  repulsed  with  loss. 
Col.  Travis  repeatedly  sent  couriers  to  San 


'  Felipe  asking  for  assistance,  but  only  32  men 
|  succeeded  in  forcing  their  way  through  the 
|  Mexican  army  and  reaching  the  garrison.  By 
I  March  3  scarcity  of  provisions,  combined  with 
i  constant  watching,  had  undermined  the  health 
of  the  men,  without,  however,  affecting  their 
spirits.  Before  daybreak  on  the  Oth  a  combin 
ed  attack  was  made  by  the  whole  Mexican 
force.  Twice  assaulting,  they  were  twice  driven 
back,  with  severe  loss.  The  Texans,  unable  to 
load  in  the  hand-to-hand  fight  which  now  en 
sued,  clubbed  their  rities  and  fought  with  des 
peration  until  but  six  of  their  band  remained 
alive.  These,  including  Col.  Crockett,  surren 
dered  to  Castrillon,  under  promise  of  protec 
tion;  but  being  taken  before  Santa  Anna,  they 
were  by  his  orders  instantly  cut  to  pieces. 
Col.  Crockett  fell  stabbed  by  a  dozen  swords. 
Col.  Bowie,  ill  in  bed,  was  then  shot,  after 
having  killed  several  of  his  assailants.  Major 
Evans  was  shot  while  in  the  act  of  firing  the 
powder  magazine.  The  bodies  of  the  slain 
were  collected  in  the  centre  of  the  Alamo,  and 
after  being  horribly  mutilated  (in  which  act, 
it  is  said,  Santa  Anna  and  his  generals  joined), 
they  were  burned.  But  three  persons,  a  wo 
man,  a  child,  and  a  servant,  were  spared.  The 
Mexican  loss  was  1,000.  The  massacre  of  the 
Alamo  was  followed  by  the  battle  of  San  Jacin- 
to,  the  defeat  of  the  whole  Mexican  army,  and 
the  capture  of  Santa  Anna  himself,  with  his 
best  generals.  At  this  battle  the  Texans,  with 
the  war  cry  of  "Remember  the  Alamo!  "  car 
ried  all  before  them. 

ALAMOS,  Real  de  los  (Camp  of  the  Poplars), 
a  town  in  the  southern  nart  of  Sonora,  Mexico, 
175  in.  S.  W.  of  Chihuahua,  and  about  45  in. 
E.  of  the  gulf  of  California ;  pop.  about  11,000. 
The  houses  are  built  of  stone  or  brick,  overlaid 
with  stucco,  the  streets  are  tolerably  well  paved, 
and  the  place  is  celebrated  for  the  beauty 
of  its  avenues  (alamedax).  It  was  severely 
injured  by  a  storm  in  November,  1808.  The 
I  district  of  Alamos,  extending  to  the  gulf  of  Cal- 
I  ifornia,  is  famous  for  its  rich  copper  and  silver 
mines,  and  for  its  salubrious  climate,  its  average 
height  being  several  hundred  feet  above  the 
gulf.  The  silver  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
town  employ  about  4,000  persons. 

ALAN,  Allen,  or  Allyn,  William,  an  English  the 
ologian,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1532,  died  in 
Rome,  Oct.  0,  1594.  Being  a  zealous  Catholic, 
he  left  England  soon  after  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  and  settled  in  Flanders,  where  he 
published  several  works  in  defence  of  the  old 
faith.  In  1508  he  founded  the  famous  ecclesi 
astical  college  of  Douay  for  the  education  of 
English  youth,  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  assisting 
him  with  a  subsidy.  Ten  years  later  the 
magistrates  ordered  it  to  be  closed,  and  Alan 
removed  the  establishment  to  Rheims,  but  it 
was  restored  to  Douay  in  1593.  Dr.  Alan  was 
|  concerned  with  other  professors  of  this  college 
\  in  making  the  English  translation  of  the  Bible 
!  commonly  known  as  the  Douay  version.  He 
was  deeply  implicated  in  the  Catholic  schemes 


ALAND   ISLANDS 


ALARIC 


237 


for  dethroning  Elizabeth,  and  when  the  Span 
ish  armada  was  fitted  out,  Philip  II.  caused 
the  pope  to  give  him  a  cardinal's  hat,  the  de 
sign  being  that  Alan  should  accompany  the 
expedition  as  papal  legate.  Instead  of  embark 
ing  in  person.  Cardinal  Alan  supplied  the  fleet 
with  copies  of  a  pamphlet  against  Elizabeth, 
entitled  an  u  Admonition  to  the  Nobility  and 
People  of  England/'  lie  was  made  archbishop 
of  Mechlin  in  1591,  but  at  the  desire  of  Pope 
Sixtus  V.  he  continued  to  reside  in  Rome. 

ALAND  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  about  200  rocky 
islets,  of  which  80  are  inhabited,  situated  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Bothnian  gulf,  between  hit. 
59°  55'  and  60°  32"  N.,  and  Ion.  19°  and  '21°  E. 
They  belong  to  Russia,  having  been  ceded  by 
Sweden  in  1809,  and  form  a  part  of  the  govern 
ment  of  Abo-Bjorneborg  in  Finland.  The  in 
habitants,  about  16,000,  are  Swedes,  and  are 
excellent  sailors  and  fishermen.  They  keep 
great  numbers  of  cattle,  and  export  cheese, 
butter,  and  hides;  they  also  manufacture  cloth 
for  home  use  and  for  sails.  The  group  takes 
its  name  from  the  largest  island ;  area,  28  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  10,000.  It  has  a  good  harbor  on  the 
W.  side.  Foremost  among  the  former  fortifi 
cations  was  the  fort  of  Bomarsund,  near  the 
S.  E.  extremity  of  the  main  island,  which  was 
captured  in  1854  by  the  allied  fleets  of  England 
and  France  during  their  war  against  Russia, 
and  blown  up  on  their  departure.  By  the 
treaty  of  Paris  of  1856  Russia  is  prohibited 
from  fortifying  the  islands  or  having  there  any 
military  or  naval  station. 

ALAM,  a  tribe  of  Scythians,  frequently  ap 
pearing  in  connection  with  the  various  Ger 
man  invaders  of  the  Roman  world  during  the 
great  migration  of  the  nations  of  the  north. 
Their  origin  is  uncertain,  though  they  seem  to 
have  been  of  Finnish  stock.  They  originally 
dwelt  about  the  eastern  part  of  the  Caucasian 
mountains,  whence  they  extended  toward  the 
Don,  and  also  made  inroads  into  Armenia  and 
Asia  Minor.  Vologeses,  king  of  the  Parthians, 
invoked  against  them  the  aid  of  the  emperor 
Vespasian.  Arrian  the  historian,  lieutenant  of 
the  emperor  Hadrian  in  Cappadocia,  success 
fully  warred  against  them.  They  are  men 
tioned  as  excellent  horsemen  and  marksmen 
with  the  bow.  In  the  time  of  Aurelian  they 
united  with  the  Goths  and  invaded  Asia  Minor, 
but  were  expelled  about  280  by  the  emperor 
Probus.  In  the  later  years  of  the  4th  century 
they  were  routed  by  the  Huns,  and,  joining 
their  conquerors,  drove  out  the  Goths  from  the 
region  between  the  Don  and  the  Danube,  and 
shared  in  the  great  movement  of  the  northern 
tribes  toward  the  southwest  of  Europe.  Con 
jointly  with  the  Suevi  and  the  Vandals,  in  400, 
they  invaded  and  devastated  Gaul.  A  body  of 
the  Alani  who  remained  south  of  the  Loire" ap 
peared  in  451  as  allies  of  Aetius  against  Attila. 
Another  body  of  them  marched' in  409  into 
Spain,  but  were  there  overpowered  by  the  Vis 
igoths,  and  driven  into  Lusitania,  where  their 
name  disappeared.  Still  other  Alani  invaded 


northern  Italy  half  a  century  later,  and  were 
almost  totally  destroyed.  The  annals  of  the 
Byzantine  empire  also  mention  the  Alani  as 
devastating  both  the  regions  on  the  Danube 
and  in  the  Caucasus. 

AL-ARAF,  in  Mohammedan  theology,  the  wall 
of  separation  between  heaven  and  hell,  corre 
sponding  somewhat  to  the  purgatory  of  the 
Latin  church.  Sitting  astride  of  this  wall  are 
those  whose  good  and  evil  deeds  so  exactly 
balance  each  other  that  they  deserve  neither 
heaven  nor  hell,  and  those  who  have  gone  to 
war  without  their  parents'  consent  and  fallen 
in  battle.  These  last  are  martyrs,  and  are 
therefore  preserved  from  hell,  but,  inasmuch 
as  they  have  disobeyed  their  parents1  com 
mands,  they  are  not  deemed  worthy  of  heaven. 

ALARCON,  Hernando  de,  a  Spanish  navigator 
of  the  16th  century,  to  whom  \ve  owe  the  first 
certain  knowledge  concerning  the  configura 
tion  of  the  peninsula  of  California.  This  had 
previously  been  held  to  be  an  island.  Alarcon 
set  sail  in  the  service  of  the  Spanish  court  May 
9,  1540.  On  the  W.  coast  of  America  he  ex 
pected  to  make  a  junction  with  the  expedition 
commanded  by  Coronado ;  but  the  two  com 
manders  missed  each  other.  Alarcon  left  an 
inscription  on  a  tree  at  the  place  where  they 
should  have  met,  which  was  discovered  by  a 
third  Spanish  navigator.  The  inscription  was : 
"Alarcon  came  to  this  point;  at  the  foot  of 
the  tree  arc  buried  letters."  These  letters 
conveyed  .the  intelligence  that  Alarcon,  after 
having  tarried  there  for  some  time,  had  returned 
to  New  Spain ;  that  the  supposed  sea  was  a 
gulf;  that  lie  had  sailed  round  the  Marquis 
island ;  and  that  California  was  not  an  island, 
but  a  point  of  land  jutting  into  the  Pacific. 
Alarcon  returned  to  New  Spain  in  1541,  and 
there  drew  up  his  maps  and  observations.  His 
discoveries  and  those  of  Fernando  de  TTlloa 
were  applied  to  such  good  use,  that  an  eminent 
geographer  lias  said  the  map  of  California 
made  in  1541  differs  hardly  at  all  from  that 
constructed  in  our  own  dav. 

ALARCON,  or  Alarcon  y  Mcndoza,  Jnan  Rniz  de,  a 
Spanish  dramatist,  born  in  Mexico  of  a  noble 
Spanish  family,  died  in  Spain  in  1639.  In  1028 
he  published  the  first  volume  of  his  dramas,  on 
the  title  page  of  which  he  styles  himself  prolo 
cutor  (relator)  of  the  royal  council  for  the  In 
dies.  To  the  eight  plays  contained  in  this 
volume  he  added  twelve  more  in  1635.  His 
best  known  comedy  is  La  verdad  sospeclwsa, 
which  served  as  a  model  for  Corneille's  Men- 
teur.  Another  of  his  comedies,  L<is  paredes 
oyen,  is  still  popular  on  the  Spanish  stage.  A 
new  edition  of  his  plays  has  been  published  by 
Hartzenbusch  (Madrid,  1848-'52). 

ALARIC1.  I.  King  of  the  Visigoths,  born  about 
376,  died  in  41 0.  Previous  to  his  reign  the  Goths 
north  of  the  Danube  (mostly  Arians),  being 
pressed  by  the  Huns,  claimed  the  protection  of 
the  Roman  emperors,  who  allowed  them  to 
cross  the  Danube  and  establish  themselves  on  its 
southern  side  in  Moesia  (modern  Bulgaria)  as 


238 


ALARIC 


ALARM 


paid  allies  of  the  empire.  On  the  death  of 
Theodosius  (395),  who  divided  the  empire  be 
tween  his  two  sons,  Alaric,  profiting  by  the 
weakness  resulting  from  the  division,  invaded 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  and  '  central 
Greece,  without  meeting  resistance  on  the  part 
of  Rufinus,  the  lieutenant  of  the  emperor  Ar- 
cadius.  Athens  was  obliged  to  pay  a  ransom. 
Alaric  entered  the  Peloponnesus,  where  he  was 
encountered  in  Elis  by  a  powerful  army  under 
Stilicho,  the  lieutenant  of  Honoring,  emperor 
of  the  West.  Stilicho  tried  to  surround  the 
Goths  on  the  banks  of  the  Peneus,  but  Alaric 
broke  through  his  army,  escaped  with  his 
plunder  and  prisoners  to  Illyricum,  concluded 
peace  with'  Arcadius,  and  was  made  by  him 
the  commander  of  the  eastern  division  of  that 
country  in  306.  From  Illyricum,  in  402,  Alaric 
invaded  Italy.  Honorius  shut  himself  up  in 
Ravenna,  while  Alaric,  marching  through 
northern  Italy  toward  Gaul,  was  met  and  de 
feated  by  Stilicho  near  Pollentia  on  the  Tanaro 
(403)  and  obliged  to  retreat.  He  sustained  a 
second  defeat  in  the  same  year  near  Verona, 
after  which  he  returned  to  Illyricum,  and  con 
cluded  a  treaty  with  Honorius,  undertaking  to 
invade  the  eastern  empire  and  join  his  army 
with  that  of  Stilicho  in  Epirus.  This  project 
being  afterward  abandoned  by  Honorius,  Ala 
ric  claimed  a  compensation  for  the  cost  of  his 
armaments  and  march,  arid  was  promised  4,000 
pounds  of  gold.  Stilicho,  who  made  the  prom 
ise  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  being  beheaded 
in  408,  and  the  promise  broken,  Alaric  invaded 
Italy,  invested  Rome,  and  received  as  ransom 
from  the  city  5,000  pounds  of  gold  and  30,000 
pounds  of  silver.  Further  negotiations  for 
peace  having  proved  unsuccessful,  Alaric  for 
the  second  time  laid  siege  to  Rome.  Hunger 
obliged  the  city  to  conclude  an  arrangement, 
and  in  compliance  with  the  will  of  the  con 
queror  the  senate  elected  as  emperor  the  Ro 
man  general  Attains.  Shortly  afterward,  being 
dissatisfied  with  the  incapacity  of  his  nominee, 
Alaric  ordered  him  to  resign.  Renewed  nego 
tiations  with  Honorius  were  unsuccessful,  pend 
ing  which  Alaric's  army  was  treacherously 
attacked  near  Ravenna,  and  he  undertook  the 
siege  of  Rome  for  the  third  time.  On  August 
24,  410,  he  took  the  city  by  assault,  and  it  was 
plundered  by  the  Goths  for  three  days.  After 
remaining  there  six  days,  Alaric  marched  out, 
intending  to  make  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  but 
died  soon  after  in  Cosenza.  The  Goths,  it  is 
related,  "turned  from  its  bed  the  stream  of  the 
Busento,  to  bury  their  chief  there,  with  all  his 
treasures;  and  all  the  prisoners  who  performed 
the  work  of  digging  were  killed,  that  the  Ro 
mans  might  never  be  able  to  find  the  place 
where  the  remains  of  the  king  were  deposited. 
II.  King  of  the  Visigoths,  succeeded  his  father 
Euric  in  484,  died  in  507.  His  dominions 
extended  S.  from  the  Loire  and  Rhone  over 
Hispania  Tarraconensis  and  Baatica,  thus  cov 
ering  the  S.  W.  third  of  the  present  territory 
of  France  and  nearly  the  whole  of  Spain.  He 


was  peaceful  and  tolerant,  and,  though  an 
Arian  in  religion,  granted  many  privileges  to 
the  orthodox  Catholics.  Olovis,  king  of  the 
Franks,  made  religion  a  pretext  for  invading 
Gothia,  and  defeated  Alaric  at  Vougle,  near 
Poitiers.  Alaric  fled,  but  was  overtaken  and 
killed.  Theodoric,  king  of  Italy,  the  father-in- 
law  of  the  slain  monarch,  became  regent  during 
the  minority  of  Alaric's  son  Amalaric,  com 
pelled  the  Franks  to  give  up  their  conquests, 
and  put  down  a  rebellion  of  the  supporters  of 
Alaric's  bastard  son  Gesalic. 

ALARM,  an  instrument  to  give  notice  by 
sound.  In  its  most  ordinary  form  it  consists 
of  a  bell  and  a  hammer,  combined  with  an 
escapement  that  lets  it  free  at  the  proper  time, 
when  a  descending  weight  or  a  spring  makes 
it  strike  the  bell.— Burglar  alarms  are  of  vari 
ous  forms.  Some  consist  in  an  arrangement 
for  firing  a  pistol,  and  are  connected  either 
with  the  lock  or  with  the  door.  Some  of  them 
are  so  arranged  as  to  shoot  the  thief  at  the 
same  time  that  they  wake  up  the  inmates.  An 
alarm  for  this  purpose  may  always  be  put  up 
at  a  moment's  notice,  by  stretching  a  string 
across  the  hall,  one  end  attached  to  the  knob 
of  a  door  and  the  other  to  the  trigger  of  a  pis 
tol,  or  to  some  glass  or  brass  vessel  placed  on 
the  edge  of  a  table  or  at  the  top  of  a  flight  of 
stairs,  which  will  tumble  down  with  a  noise 
i  the  moment  the  string  is  pulled  by  any  one 
opening  the  door  or  crossing  the  hall.  An 
alarm  is  easily  made  by  arranging  the  wires  in 
I  the  circuit  ot  a  galvanic  battery  in  such  manner 
I  that  the  circuit  may  be  broken  when  a  door 
|  or  window  is  opened ;  the  falling  of  an  elec 
tro-magnet  which  was  supported  by  the  elec 
trical  current' then  gives  the  motive  power  for 
ringing  a  bell  or  other  sound-producing  instru 
ment. — An  alarm  clock  is  a  clock  for  sleeping 
rooms,  provided  with  an  alarm  that  may  be 
wound  up  to  strike  at  any  appointed  time,  and 
so  awake  the  sleeper.  It  consists  of  an  ordi 
nary  clock  with  an  alarm  attached,  which  re 
quires  to  be  wound  up  at  a  separate  keyhole 
from  that  which  winds  the  clock,  and  after 
each  alarm  requires  rewinding  to  give  it  im 
pulse  for  another.  The  alarm  is  commonly  set, 
to  go  off  at  the  required  hour,  by  means  of  a 
disk  which  lies  under  the  hour  hand  of  the 
clock,  revolving  upon  the  same  axis  and  with 
that  hand.  The  disk  has  the  12  hours  printed 
in  the  same  order  and  position  as  on  the  clock 
face,  and  when  this  disk  is  brought  into  the 
same  position  as  the  clock  face,  that  is,  having 
the  12  on  the  disk  at  its  highest-point,  the  clock 
then  by  mechanism  sets  off  the  alarm.  In 
order  to  cause  the  alarm  to  sound  at  4  o'clock, 
for  instance,  the  number  4  on  the  disk  is  brought 
under'the  hour  hand,  which  latter  carries  the 
disk  forward  till  4  o'clock,  and  at  this  moment 
the  12  on  the  disk  will  be  at  its  highest  point 
and  the  alarm  is  set  off. — The  fire-damp  alarm 
is  an  important  invention,  due  to  M.  Chuart 
from  France,  and  liberally  given  by  him  to  the 
public.  It  consists  of  a  sn;all  ball  of  glass  or 


ALASCO 


ALASKA 


239 


of  brass  suspended  at  the  end  of  a  lever,  and 
containing  a  chemical  solution  highly  sensitive 
to  the  gas  constituting  fire  damp.  Long  before 
the  atmosphere  has  become  sufficiently  vitiated 
to  be  dangerous  to  life,  or  to  be  capable  of  ex 
ploding,  the  chemical  action  in  the  ball  has 
altered  its  weight,  and  thus  caused  the  lever  to 
move  and  let  go  an  escapement  which  sounds 
an  alarm. — An  alarm  whistle  is  a  steam  whistle 
set  on  a  boiler  to  give  notice  when  the  water 
falls  below  its  proper  level.  For  this  purpose 
the  whistle-cock  is  connected  by  a  lever  with 
a  float,  and  opens  when  this  float  goes  below  a 
certain  level.  The  steam  rushing  through  the 
whistle  sounds  the  alarm. 

ALASCO,  John.     See  LASKI. 

ALA-SHEIIR,  a  city  of  Turkey,  in  Asia  Minor, 
in  the  eyalet  of  Aidin,  at  the  N.  E.  base  of  the 
Boz  Dagh  (the  ancient  Mt.  Tmolus),  75  m.  E. 
by  S.  of  Smyrna;  pop.  about  13,000,  of  whom 
3,000  are  Greeks.  It  is  built  on  the  site  of 
ancient  Philadelphia,  is  surrounded  by  a  wall, 
and  contains  many  ruins,  including  a  large  num 
ber  of  Christian  churches.  It  is  situated  on 
the  caravan  route  from  Smyrna  to  the  interior, 
and  has  a  thriving  trade. 

ALASKA,  a  territory  belonging  to  the  United 
States,  formerly  known  as  Russian  America. 
It  comprises  all  that  portion  of  the  North 
American  continent  lying  "W.  of  the  141st  par 
allel  of  W.  longitude,  together  with  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  between  the  Pacific  ocean  and  the 
British  dominions,  separated  from  the  latter  by 
a  line  drawn  as  follows :  beginning  at  the  south 
ernmost  point  of  Prince  of  Wales  island,  in  lat. 


54°  40'  N.,  running  thence  N.  along  Portland 
channel  to  the  point  of  the  mainland  where  it 
strikes  lat.  50°  N.,  and  from  this  point  along 
the  summits  of  the  mountain  range  parallel  to 
the  coast,  except  where  the  distance  of  such 
summits  from  the  ocean  exceeds  10  marine 
leagues,  to  its  intersection  with  the  141st 
meridian.  Wherever  the  peaks  are  situated 
further  inland  than  the  distance  specified, 
the  line  is  drawn,  parallel  to  the  winding  of 
the  coast,  at  that  distance  from  it.  The  ter 
ritory  also  includes  all  the  islands  near  the 
coast,  and  the  whole  of  the  Aleutian  archipel 
ago  except  Behring  island  and  Copper  island 
on  the  coast  of  Kamtchatka.  In  the  dialect 
of  the  natives  first  encountered  by  the  Russian 
explorers,  the  peninsula  now  known  as  Alias- 
ka  was  called  Al-ay-es-ka,  the  name  having 
become  changed  through  Alaksa  and  Alashka 
to  its  present  form,  from  which  last  is  derived 
the  general  territorial  designation  Alaska, 
which  Dall  asserts  to  be  an  English  corruption 
never  used  by  the  Russians.  The  area  of 
Alaska,  including  the  islands,  is  580,107  sq.  in. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  29,097,  of  whom  26,843  were  na 
tives  of  the  territory,  1,421  were  half-breeds, 
483  were  Russians,  and  350  were  natives  of 
the  United  States  and  foreigners  not  Russians. 
There  are  not  more  than  1,300  completely  civ 
ilized  inhabitants. — Sitka,  or  New  Archangel, 
the  capital  of  the  territory  and  its  only  consid 
erable  town,  is  situated  on  a  small  but  commo 
dious  harbor  on  Baranov  island,  in  lat.  57°  3' 
N.,  Ion.  135°  17'  W.  It  was  long  the  head 
quarters  of  the  Russian-American  fur  company, 


24:0 


ALASKA 


though  the  natural  centre  of  the  fur  trade  is  | 
the  island  of  Kadiak,  S.  of  the  Aliaska  penin-  ! 
sula.     At  the  time  of  the  transfer  of  the  terri-  ; 
tory  to  the    United  States  in  1807,  Sitka,  al 
though  founded  in  the  last  century,  was  little 
better  than  a  collection  of  log  huts,  about  100  in  i 
number,  with  a  few  superior  buildings  occupied  < 
by  government  officers.    St.  Paul,  the  principal  : 
settlement  on  Kadiak  island,  is  the  main  depot  ! 
of  the  seal  fisheries,  and  is  surrounded  by  the 
finest  tanning  laud  in  the  territory.     Next  in  : 
importance  as  a  settlement  is  Captain's  liar-  j 
bor,    on   the   island   of   Unalaslika,    where    is 
found   the   best    anchorage    in    the    Aleutian  i 
group.     The  remaining  civilized  places  in  Alas-  '., 
ka  consist  for  the  most  part  of  small  trading  j 
posts   scattered   throughout   the   country,   the  | 
principal  of  them  being  Fort  Yukon,  approxi-  i 
niately  in  lat.  (10°  N.,  the  most  northerly  sta-  i 
tion  of  the  Hudson  Bay  company,  which  for  j 
some  years  paid  the  Russian- American  fur  com-  ! 
pany  a  royalty  for  the  privilege  of  thus  trading  j 
in  their  territory.     Michaclovski,  a  station  of 
the  Russian  company  on  Norton  sound,  in  lat. 
63°  28'  X.,  and  Ion."l61°  44'  W.,  is  of  consider 
able  importance  as  affording  the  best  harbor  ' 
on  the  coast  from  which  to  forward  goods  into  j 
the  Yukon  valley. — The  interior  of  Alaska  has 
been  but  slightly  explored,  and  our  knowledge  \ 
of  the  country  is  confined  mainly  to  the  islands,  ! 
the  coasts,  and  a  fe\v  of  the  larger  rivers.    The  '. 
entire  coast  line  of  the  territory,  without  taking  \ 
into  account  the  smaller  indentations,  measures  j 
about  4,000  m.  in  length,  and  is  bordered  by  ! 
three  seas:  the  Arctic  ocean  on  the  N.,  Beh-  i 
ring  sea  on  the  W.,  and  the  North  Pacific  on 
the  S.     The  coast  formation  along  the  North 
Pacific  differs  entirely  from  that  N.  of  the  Ali 
aska  peninsula.     Point  Barrow,  a  long  arm  of  j 
low    sandy   land   projecting    into    the    Arctic  i 
ocean,  forms  the  most  northerly  cape  in  the  j 
territory.      Between   this   point   and    Behring  ' 
strait,  the  only  considerable  indentation  of  the  j 
coast   is    Kotzebue   sound,   with   a   maximum  i 
depth  of  14  fathoms,  and  the  shore  is  low  and  j 
swampy  except  at  Cape  Lisburne,  where  the  | 
limestone  rock  rises  to  the  height  of  850  feet 
above  the  sea.     Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  the  E. 
boundary  of  Behring  strait,  is  the  most  west 
ern  land  on  the  American  continent,  being  sit 
uated  in  lat,  05°  83'  N.,  Ion.  107°  59'  W.,  only 
54  m.  from  East  cape,  the  nearest  part  of  Asia.  | 
It  is  a  rocky  and  precipitous  promontory.    The  | 
nearest  harbor  is  Port  Clarence,  a  short  dis-  j 
tance  S.,  where  there  is  a  safe  anchorage  in  10 
fathoms  of  water,  with  a  bottom  of  soft  mud. 
Below  this  inlet  the  country  becomes  low  and 
rolling,   and   is   not  very  accessible   from  the 
ocean,  even  in  the  larger  bays,  on  account  of 
the  shoals  formed  of  alluvium  brought  down 
by  the   rivers,  which   is   retained  in   Behring 
sea  by  the  rocky  barrier  of  the  Aliaska  penin 
sula.     Norton  sound  is  so  shallow  that  vessels  j 
have  been  known  to  run  aground  there  at  the  j 
distance  of  a  mile  from  the  shore ;  but  it  affords  j 
a  few  harbors,  as  also  does  Bristol  bay,  which  ; 


opens  into  the  region  N.  of  the  same  rugged 
and  barren  peninsula  from  which  the  name  of 
the  territory  is  derived.  Stretching  westward 
toward  Kamtchatka  lie  the  Aleutian  islands, 
so  called  from  the  name  Aleuts  applied  to  their 
inhabitants  by  the  Russians.  Unimak  is  the 
largest  of  these,  and  Unalaslika  of  the  greatest 
commercial  importance.  The  celebrated  fur 
seal  group,  named  after  Pribyloff,  its  discov 
erer,  is  situated  in  Behring  sea,  lat.  57°  N., 
Ion.  1(59°  CO'  W.,  and  consists  of  four  small 
islands  called  respectively  Walrus,  Beaver,  St. 
George,  and  St.  Paul.  Below  Aliaska  the 
coast  becomes  mountainous,  with  deep  sound 
ings  close  in  shore.  Between  Ion.  151°  and 
158°  W.  lies  the  Kadiak  archipelago,  including 
the  large  island  of  that  name.  Cook's  inlet 
and  Prince  William  sound,  or  Chugach  gulf, 
are  the  principal  arms  of  the  sea  on  the  North 
Pacific  coast  of  the  territory,  until  we  reach 
the  narrow  strip  of  mainland  S.  of  Mt.  St.  Elias, 
which  is  protected  from  the  sea  by  the  1,100 
islands  of  the  Alexander  archipelago,  situated 
between  Cross  sound  and  Dixon's  entrance. 
The  almost  innumerable  channels  between  the 
islands  of  this  vast  series  atford  the  finest  in 
land  navigation.  Prince  of  Wales  island  is  the 
largest  member  of  the  group,  which  also  con 
tains  Baranov  island,  the  site  of  Sitka. — The 
great  river  of  Alaska  is  the  Yukon,  or  Kwick- 
pak,  as  it  has  erroneously  been  called  by  the 
Russians,  from  the  name  of  one  of  its  mouths. 
It  rises  in  British  Columbia,  enters  Alaska  near 
the  Arctic  circle,  and  Hows,  with  a  general  S. 
W.  trend,  across  the  entire  width  of  the  terri 
tory  into  Behring  sea.  Its  length  is  more 
than  1,800  m.,  and  it  is  over  a  mile  broad  at  a 
point  GOO  m.  above  its  delta.  Its  current  va 
ries  in  rapidity  from  3  to  7  m.  per  hour,  and  in 
summer  the  river  is  navigable  for  light-draught 
steamers  throughout  three  fourths  of  its  length. 
Next  to  the  Yukon  in  size  is  the  Kuskoquirn, 
which  also  flows  into  Behring  soa,  somewhat 
further  S.  It  has  been  explored  by  the  Rus 
sians  some  600  m.  above  its  mouth,  and  is  a 
very  crooked  and  moderately  rapid  stream, 
navigable  for  a  considerable  distance.  The 
principal  rivers  of  Alaska  which  t!ow  into  the 
North  Pacific  ocean  are:  the  Copper  river, 
which  reaches  the  coast  in  lat.  60°  N.,  Ion. 
145°  W.,  and  about  which  very  little  is  known; 
the  Chilkaht,  a  rapid  stream,  which  enters  Lynn 
channel  WT.  of  Cross  sound,  and  the  head  waters 
of  which  approach  so  close  to  a  tributary  of  the 
Yukon  that  a  short  portage  afibrds  the  Indians 
easy  communication  between  the  two  rivers; 
and,  still  further  S.,  the  Stikine  or  Francis 
river,  forming  the  gateway  to  the  gold  region 
of  British  Columbia.  Lakes  are  said  to  be  nu 
merous  in  the  interior  of  the  country. — Alaska 
is  emphatically  a  country  of  volcanoes,  there 
being  no  fewer  than  01  volcanic  peaks  already 
known  in  the  territory,  though  but  10  of  these 
are  in  activity  at  present.  The  peninsula  of 
Aliaska,  and  the  Aleutian  islands,  which  really 
constitute  a  continuation  of  it,  are  of  volcanic 


ALASKA 


origin,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  islands  along  ; 
the  coast  of  Behring  sea.     So  far  as  known,  \ 
all  the  mountains  in  the  country  of  any  consid-  i 
erable  height  are  situated  below  lat.    65°  N.  , 
There  are  three  important  mountain  chains:  ! 
the  Coast  or  St.  Elias  range,  the  Rocky  moun-  j 
tains,  and  the  Alaskan  range.     In  the  Coast  \ 
range,  on  the  North  Pacific,   are  the  loftiest 
peaks  and  principal  volcanoes.     Of  these  Mt. 
St.  Elias  is  the  highest;  its  elevation  is  vari-  { 
ously  stated  at  from  16,000  to  17,850  feet,  the  j 
latter  estimate  making  it  the  highest  mountain 
in  North  America,     The  summit  of  Mt.  Fair- 
weather,  in  the  same  chain,  is  14,500  feet  above 
the  sea  level.     E.  of  the  Yukon,   the  Rocky  I 
mountains  extend  along  or  near  the  64th  paral 
lel  to  the  basin  of  the  Mackenzie  river.     The 
Alaskan  range  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  terri 
tory  is  merely  an  offshoot  of  the  Rocky  moun-  j 
tains.     There  is  a  long  line  of  low  hills  near  | 
the  Arctic  coast. — The  climate  of  Alaska  is  by  I 
no  means  so  inhospitable  as  that  of  correspond-  I 
ing  latitudes  on  the  eastern   coast  of  North  I 
America.     In  regard  both  to  climate  and  agri-  | 
culture,  the  territory  is  naturally  divisible  into 
three  regions :  the  Yukon  district,  comprising 
all  the  country  N.  of  the  Alaskan  mountains; 
the  Aleutian  district,  comprising  the  islands  of 
that  name  and  the  peninsula;  and  the  Sitka  i 
district,  comprising  the  remainder  of  the  terri 
tory.     In  the  Yukon  district  the  mean  annual  ! 
temperature  is  about  25°  F.,  and  the  ground  i 
remains  frozen  to  within  two  or  three  feet  of 
the    surface    throughout    the    summer.     The 
amount  of  rainfall  is  not  accurately  known.    In 
winter  the  ice  on  the  Yukon  averages  five  feet 
in  thickness,  and  where  there  is  sufficient  water 
it  has  been  known  to  freeze  to  a  depth  of  nine 
feet.     The    summer   is    short,    dry,    and    hot. 
May,  June,  and  a  part  of  July  constitute  the  j 
pleasant  season ;  then  the  rainy  weather  begins,  i 
and  lasts  till  October.    The  lowest  temperature 
ever  recorded  in  this  region  was  — 70°  F.    The 
climate  of  the  Aleutian  district  is  warmer,  the 
mean  annual  temperature  being  from  36°  to 
40°  F.     In  a  series  of  observations  made  at 
Unalashka,  extending  over  five  years,  the  great 
est  cold  experienced  during  that  time  was  found  j 
to  be  the  zero  of  Fahrenheit,  while  the  high-  j 
est  temperature  was  77°.     The  average  annual  \ 
rainfall  is  about  40  inches,  distributed  among  j 
150  rainy  days  in  each  year.     January,  Febru-  ' 
ary,  and  June  are  the  pleasantest  months.     A 
still  warmer  and  moister  climate  is  characteris 
tic  of  the  Sitka  district,     The  town  of  Sitka  | 
is  the  rainiest  place  in  the  world  outside  of  the  ! 
tropics.     From  60  to  90  inches  of  rain  foil  an-  | 
nually,  and  the  number  of  rainy  days  in  each 
year  varies  from  a  mininmn  of  190  to  a  maxi-  j 

mim^of  285'  The  mean  amuial  temperature  is  ! 
44'07  ;  but  the  average  temperature  in  winter  l 
is  proportionately  much  higher  than  in  sum-  I 
mer,  being  only  a  little  below  the  freezing  j 
point;  while  the  excessive  rains  in  summer  ! 
make  that  season  unduly  cold.  Ice  fit  for  con-  j 
sumption  scarcely  ever  forms  at  Sitka.— The  ; 
VOL.  i.— 16 


interior  of  Alaska  is  well  wooded.  On  the  Pa 
cific  coast,  dense  forests  of  the  Sitka  spruce  or 
white  pine  (cibies  Sitkensis)  clothe  the  moun 
tain  sides  both. of  the  islands  and  the  mainland, 
down  to  the  very  water's  edge,  producing  tim 
ber  of  great  size  and  unsurpassed  quality.  In 
the  same  region  grows  the  yellow  cedar  (C. 
Nutkatewia),  of  great  value  for  boat-building. 
Hemlock  and  the  balsam  fir  are  also  found  here. 
The  Aleutian  islands  are  wholly  destitute  of 
trees,  there  being  no  vegetation  on  them  larger 
than  a  shrub.  In  the  Yukon  region,  the  wood 
ed  district  recedes  from  the  coast,  but  timber 
is  abundant  in  the  interior,  the  finest  tree  which 
occurs  there  being  the  valuable  white  spruce 
(abies  alba).  The  birch  (betula  glandulosa}  is 
also  found,  and  furnishes  the  only  hard  wood 
in  this  part  of  the  country.  Alders,  poplars, 
and  several  varieties  of  willow  fringe  the  banks 
of  all  the  larger  streams. — The  agricultural  re 
sources  of  Alaska  are  practically  confined  to 
the  Aleutian  and  Sitka  districts.  The  abun 
dant  growth  of  rich  perennial  grasses  in  the 
valley  of  the  Yukon  affords  excellent  fodder 
for  cattle,  but  no  grain  has  ever  been  raised 
there,  and  the  only  vegetables  which  have  suc 
ceeded  are  radishes,  turnips,  and  lettuce.  The 
most  fertile  land  is  found  at  Cook's  inlet,  on 
Kadiak  island,  and  among  the  Aleutians,  where 
good  oats,  barley,  and  root  crops  can  be  raised 
without  much  difficulty.  Whether  the  potato 
can  ever  be  cultivated  successfully  in  Alaska  is 
doubtful.  In  the  most  favored  farming  dis 
tricts  the  agricultural  production  can  scarcely 
ever  exceed  the  local  demand. — Alaskan  geol 
ogy  has  been  but  imperfectly  studied,  and  only 
a  few  of  the  leading  facts  are  known.  Ac 
cording  to  William  H.  Dall,  the  director  of  the 
scientific  corps  which  explored  the  proposed 
route  for  the  Russo-American  telegraph  line  in 
1866,  the  whole  of  the  peninsular  portion  of 
Alaska  W.  of  Ion.  150°  is  gradually  rising. 
Along  the  Pacific  coast  glaciers,  some  of  them 
remarkable  for  their  extent  and  grandeur,  fill 
the  principal  mountain  gorges,  and  terminate 
at  the  sea  in  magnificent  masses  of  overhanging 
ice.  The  fact  that  these  glaciers  are  gradually 
decreasing  in  size  from  year  to  year  leads  to 
the  inference  that  the  rigor  of  the  climate  is 
slowly  mitigating.  Hot  and  mineral  springs 
are  found  near  Sitka,  on  the  Aleutian  islands 
and  the  neigh ooring  coast,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  territory.  In  the  Alexander  archipelago 
fossils  of  tho  cretaceous  period  have  been  found, 
but  the  extent  of  the  formation  has  not  been 
ascertained.  Clay  slates  and  conglomerate 
occur  near  Sitka.  Crystalline  white  marble  of 
fine  quality  has  been  discovered  on  Lynn  chan 
nel  and  in  other  portions  of  the  archipelago. 
Thence  northward  to  Mt.  St.  Elias  granite  and 
metamorphic  rocks  skirt  the  coast.  In  the 
Aleutian  islands  the  tertiary  formation  is  of 
considerable  extent,  and  contains  coal,  lignite, 
and  amber.  The  best  deposit  of  tertiary  coal, 
so  far  as  known,  is  on  Cook's  inlet,  where  it 
occurs  in  two  parallel  layers,  with  an  estimated 


242 


ALASKA 


thickness  of  from  18  inches  to  7  feet.  Gold 
and  silver  are  found  in  Alaska  in  small  quanti 
ties  ;  and  copper  is  frequently  brought  to  the 
settlements  by  Indians  dwelling  on  the  Copper 
river,  who  sedulously  conceal  the  locality  of 
its  origin.  Cinnabar  and  iron  have  been  found 
in  very  limited  quantities.  Of  sulphur  the  vol 
canic  districts  of  the  territory  afford  an  abun 
dant  supply. — The  fossils  found  in  Alaska  show 
that  it  was  once  the  home  of  the  elephant,  the 
buffalo,  and  the  horse.  Bears  are  now  the 
largest  animals  native  to  the  country.  Of  these, 
the  polar  or  white  bear  (ursus  maritimus}  is 
met  with  on  the  Arctic  coast ;  the  black  bear 
(17.  Americanus)  in  the  woody  districts  of 
the  Yukon;  and  the  barren-ground  bear  (U. 
RicJiardsonii}  in  the  far  northeast.  The 
grisly  bear  (£7.  liorribilis)  is  also  occasionally 
encountered.  Of  the  other  non-marine  fur- 
bearing  animals  the  principal  are  the  fox,  the 
beaver,  the  marten,  the  otter,  the  mink,  the 
lynx,  and  the  wolverene.  On  the  coasts  are 
found  the  fur  seal,  the  main  source  of  revenue 
in  the  territory;  the  sea  lion,  closely  allied  to 
the  former ;  the  sea  otter,  an  animal  of  solitary 
habits  living  almost  exclusively  in  the  water ; 
and  the  walrus,  from  \vhich  the  natives  obtain 
their  ivory  and  oil.  In  the  adjacent  seas 
whales  are  abundant,  and  cod,  herring,  and  hal 
ibut  are  found  in  prodigious  numbers,  at  the 
proper  seasons.  A  small  fish  called  the  ulikon, 
upward  of  a  foot  in  length  and  of  a  silvery 
hue,  is  also  very  abundant  along  some  parts  of 
the  coast,  and  is  remarkable  as  being  the  fat 
test  of  all  known  fish.  The  various  species  of 
salmon  which  throng  the  Alaskan  rivers  occur 
in  numbers  so  great  as  almost  to  exceed  belief. 
The  weak  and  injured  fish  which  die  after 
spawning  time  are  sometimes  throwrn  up  along 
the  river  banks  by  the  waves,  to  the  depth  of 
three  or  four  feet.  Immense  quantities  of  salmon 
and  other  river  fish  are  caught  and  dried.  In 
summer,  Alaska  is  the  nesting  place  of  myriads 
of  migratory  birds.  Geese  and  ducks,  swans, 
ospreys,  eagles,  and  gulls  arrive  about  the  first 
of  May  from  southern  latitudes,  and  remain 
till  early  autumn,  when  they  leave  the  country 
to  the  ptarmigan,  the  white  hawk,  and  the 
arctic  owl.  The  rich  berries  of  the  interior 
afford  them  excellent  food.  Here  the  nests  of 
the  canvas-back  duck,  so  long  sought  for  in 
vain  in  other  regions,  were  first  discovered. 
Mosquitoes  abound  during  the  summer  months 
along  the  Yukon  valley.  Beetles  and  several 
varieties  of  butterfly  are  known  to  occur. — The 
natives  of  Alaska  may  properly  be  classed  into 
two  divisions:  the  Esquimaux  and  kindred 
tribes,  and  the  Indians.  To  the  first  belong 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  islands,  and  the 
Innuits,  who  are  settled  on  the  islands  along 
the  coast  from  Behring  strait  to  Mt.  St. 
Elias.  Their  intercourse  with  the  Russians 
has  deprived  the  Aleuts  of  all  their  national 
characteristics ;  but  they  are  as  yet  by  no 
means  civilized,  though  many  of  them  profess 
the  Christianity  of  the  Greek  church.  Hunt-  ! 


ing  the  fur  seal  and  sea  otter  is  their  principal 
occupation.  Of  the  Indians,  the  Co-Yukon  is 
the  largest  tribe  on  the  Yukon  river.  They 
dwell  during  the  winter  in  underground  huts, 
and  are  greatly  feared  by  the  surrounding  na 
tives  of  other  tribes,  on  account  of  their  fiercer 
nature  and  superior  prowess. — The  fisheries 
and  the  fur  trade  are  the  leading  industries  of 
the  territory.  In  1870  the  product  of  the  fish 
ery,  in  salted  codfish  alone,  was  10,612,000 
Ibs.  The  taking  of  fur  seals,  which  is  for  the 
most  part  restricted  to  the  Pribyloff  islands,  is 
now  regulated  by  act  of  congress,  the  privilege 
being  under  rental  to  a  corporation  at  $55,000 
per  annum.  The  yield  has  been  much  dimin 
ished  by  the  unwise  and  indiscriminate  slaugh 
ter  permitted  in  past  years,  but  under  the 
present  regulations  a  steady  production  of 
100,000  skins  per  annum  can  probably  be  se 
cured.  In  I860,  85,901  seals  were  taken  on 
St.  George's  and  St.  Paul's.  The  average  an 
nual  yield  of  the  sea-otter  skins  is  1,300,  and 
they  are  worth  $100  each.  In  18G7-'8  furs  to 
the  amount  of  $100,000  were  produced  by  the 
Yukon  district,  and  the  average  product  is  not 
less  than  $75,000  worth  per  annum.  The  total 
annual  yield  of  furs  from  the  rest  of  the  conti 
nental  portion  of  Alaska  does  not  exceed 
$10,000  in  value.  There  is  a  small  trade  in 
ice  with  California,  and  timber  is  exported  in 
limited  quantities.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
whale  oil  and  bone  taken  by  the  Behring  sea 
whaling  fleets  is  derived  from  Alaskan  waters. 
— Russia  acquired  her  American  possessions 
by  virtue  of  the  right  of  discovery.  On  July 
18,  1741,  Vitus  Behring,  the  celebrated  Rus 
sian  explorer,  discovered  the  rocky  range  of 
mountains,  the  crowning  peak  of  which  is  Mt. 
St.  Elias.  Subsequently,  and  during  the  same 
voyage,  he  visited  many  of  the  Aleutian  islands, 
until  finally  he  was  overtaken  by  death  at  that 
which  bears  his  name.  In  1778  Captain  Cook, 
the  English  navigator,  explored  the  Alaskan 
coast,  and  sailed  far  up  into  the  bay  now 
known  as  Cook's  inlet,  in  hopes  that  it  would 
prove  the  northern  passage  homeward  to 
Great  Britain.  Numerous  Russian  commercial 
expeditions  visited  the  new  region,  and  in  1783 
a  trading  establishment  was  opened  on  the 
island  of  Kadiak.  Similar  enterprises  fol 
lowed  in  other  localities;  and  in  1799  the  Rus 
sian-American  fur  company  was  organized 
under  sanction  of  the  emperor  Paul,  by  a  con 
solidation  of  all  the  companies  then  existing  in 
the  territory.  This  corporation  was  granted 
the  exclusive  right  of  hunting  and  fishing  in 
the  American  dominion  of  the  czar.  It  estab 
lished  a  line  of  forts  and  trading  posts  along 
the  coast  from  Norton  sound  southward,  with 
occasional  stations  further  inland,  and  after 
Sitka  was  founded  the  headquarters  were  re 
moved  from  Kadiak  to  that  place.  The  country 
was  ruled  by  the  company,  the  chief  director 
of  wrhich  exercised  absolute  sway  throughout 
the  colony  till  1862,  when,  the  charter  having 
expired,  the  government  declined  to  renew  it, 


ALAVA 


ALBANIA 


24:3 


in  consequence  of  the  abuses  which  had  grown 
up.  The  company,  however,  continued  in  con 
trol  by  permission  of  the  home  authorities.  In 
1865-' 7  the  territory  was  explored  by  a  scien 
tific  corps  sent  out  from  the  United  States  to 
select  a  route  for  the  Russo- American  telegraph 
line,  a  project  which  was  abandoned  in  conse 
quence  of  the  successful  laying  of  the  Atlantic 
cables.  Negotiations  were  begun  in  1867  for 
the  purchase  of  the  country  by  the  United 
States  ;  $7,200,000  was  the  price  agreed  to  be 
paid,  and  the  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  senate 
on  May  20  of  the  same  year.  On  Oct.  18 
Brig.  Gen.  Lovell  H.  Rousseau  of  the  United 
States  army,  having  been  appointed  commis 
sioner  for  that  purpose,  formally  took  posses 
sion  of  the  territory  in  the  name  of  the  United 
States.  Alaska  constitutes  a  military  and  col 
lection  district,  with  headquarters  at  Sitka. — 
See  "Travels  and  Adventures  in  Alaska,"  by 
Frederick  Whymper  (London,  1869),  and 
"Alaska  and  its  Resources,"  by  W.  H.  Ball 
(Boston,  1870). 

ALAV  A,  one  of  the  Basque  provinces  of  Spain, 
separated  from  Old  Castile  on  the  S.  W.  by  the 
Ebro,  and  from  Biscay  and  Guipuzcoa  on  the 
N.  by  mountain  ranges ;  area,  1,203  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1867  (estimated),  102,000.  The  mountains 
ramify  over  the  whole  province,  and  yield  a 
great  variety  of  minerals,  stone,  and  timber. 
There  are  numerous  mineral  springs.  The  soil 
is  most  fertile  along  the  Ebro,  in  the  Rioja 
Alavesa,  where  chiefly  wine  and  fruits  are 
produced ;  and  in  the  other  valleys  abundance 
of  maize,  hemp,  and  garden  fruits  are  raised. 
The  inhabitants  are  almost  exclusively  Basques. 
(See  BASQUES.)  The  chief  towns  are  Vitoria, 
the  capital,  Orduiia,  Trevino,  and  Salvatierra. 

ALB,  a  vestment  of  white  linen  or  linen  and 
lace,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  bound  around 
the  waist  by  a  cincture,  worn  by  sub-deacons 
and  all  the  superior  orders  of  the  clergy  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  while  officiating  in  the 
more  solemn  functions  of  divine  service. 

ALBA,  a  city  of  Italy,  province  of  Cuneo,  on 
the  Tanaro,  33  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Turin ;  pop.  about 
10,000.  It  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  has  an  ancient 
cathedral.  There  is  a  large  trade  in  cattle. 

ALBACETE.  I.  A  S.  E.  province  of  Spain, 
forming  a  part  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Murcia ; 
area,  5,965  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867  (estimated), 
221,000.  Large  portions  of  the  province  are 
level,  and  the  soil  is  in  general  very  fertile ; 
but  the  surface  is  varied,  and  in  the  west  moun 
tainous.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Segura, 
Mundo,  and  Jucar.  The  chief  towns  are  Alba- 
cete,  Almansa,  Villarobledo,  Caudete,  Alcaraz, 
Tobarra,  Hellin,  and  Segura.  II.  A  city,  capi 
tal  of  the  preceding  province,  situated  in  a  fer 
tile  plain  on  the  highway  and  railroad  between 
Madrid  and  Cartagena,  135  m.  (direct)  S.  E. 
of  Madrid;  pop.  in  1860,  17,088.  The  town  is 
well  built,  and  has  been  called  the  Sheffield  of 
Spain  from  its  former  large  business  in  cut 
lery  ;  but  the  manufacture  has  greatly  declined, 
and  the  chief  productions  now  are  coarse  dag-  ! 


gers  and  sword  knives  (puflales).      There  is  a 
large  general  trade  with  other  towns. 

ALBA  LONGA,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities 
of  Latium,  and  the  mother  of  Rome,  was,  ac 
cording  to  the  Roman  legends,  built  by  As- 
canius  or  lulus,  the  son  of  JEneas.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  called  Alba  from  a  white  sow 
found  in  its  vicinity  by  JEneas,  and  Longa  from 
its  form.  Its  last  kings  of  the  Ascanian  line 
were  Numitor,  the  grandfather  of  Romulus, 
and  Amulius.  The  Curiatii  fought  for  its  in 
dependence  and  supremacy  against  the  Horatii 
of  Rome.  It  was  destroyed  by  Tullus  Hostilius, 
except  the  temples,  and  its  inhabitants  were 
removed  to  Rome  about  650  B.  C.  Strabo  says 
it  stood  on  the  declivity  of  Mount  Albanus, 
east  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 

ALBAN,  Saint,  said  to  have  been  the  first  mar 
tyr  for  Christianity  in  Britain.  He  was  born 
in  the  town  of  Verulamium,  went  to  Rome  in 
company  with  Amphibalus,  a  monk  of  Caer- 
leon,  became  a  Christian,  and  returned  after 
serving  seven  years  in  the  Roman  army.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  he  suffered  martyrdom 
at  the  time  of  the  persecution  of  Diocletian, 
but  authorities  differ  as  to  the  precise  date.  Bede 
fixes  it  at  286;  Usher  reckons  it  among  the 
events  of  303.  About  400  or  500  years  after 
his  martyrdom,  Offa,  king  of  the  Mercians, 
built  a  large  monastery  in  honor  of  him. 
Around  this  monastery  grew  up  the  present 
town  of  St.  Albans  in  Hertfordshire. 

ALBANENSES,  the  name  given  by  some  writers 
to  that  division  of  the  Catharists  who  believed 
in  an  absolute  dualism,  in  opposition  to  the 
Concorrezenses  and  Bagnolenses,  who  believed 
in  one  supreme  principle.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  town  of  Alba,  on  the  Tanaro,  in  Pied 
mont,  where  the  sect  had  one  of  its  chief  com 
munities.  Another  community  was  at  Don- 
nezachum  (probably  Donzenac)  in  southern 
France ;  after  which  place  it  was  also  some 
times  called.  (See  CATHAEISTS.) 

ALBANI,  or  Albino,  Francesco,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Bologna,  March  17,  1578,  died 
Oct.  4, 1 660.  He  studied  under  Denis  Cal vaert 
and  Ludovico  Carracci.  His  frescos  in  the 
national  church  of  the  Spaniards  in  Rome 
brought  him  into  notice.  His  fame  is  chief 
ly  founded  upon  his  smaller  paintings.  He 
loved  to  paint  pleasant  landscapes,  Venus  and 
Cupid,  young  girls  and  children,  his  own  12 
children  by  his  beautiful  second  wife  serving 
him  as  models  for  his  finest  figures. 

ALBANIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country  of 
Asia,  bordering  on  the  Caspian  sea,  and  bound 
ed  W.  by  Iberia,  N.  by  the  Ceraunian  branch 
of  the  Caucasus,  and  S.  by  the  Cyrus  (Kur) 
and  the  Araxes  (Aras).  It  comprised  por 
tions  of  modern  Daghestan,  Lesghistan,  and 
Shirvan.  Its  inhabitants  were  a  handsome 
and  warlike  people,  of  Scythic  race,  probably 
identical  with  the  Alani.  They  brought  a 
formidable  army  into  the  field  against  Pompey. 
Though  often  defeated,  they  were  never  sub 
dued  by  the  Romans. 


24A 


ALBANIA 


ALBAMA  (called  by  the  natives  SJiJciperia,  and 
by  the  Turks  Arnautlik\  a  province  of  Euro 
pean  Turkey,  between  lat,  3(J°  and  43°  N.  and 
Ion.  19°  and  21°  30'  E.,  extending  for  about 
290  miles  along  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  seas, 
and  having  a  breadth  in  the  centre  and  parts  of 
the  north  of  upward  of  100  miles,  and  in  the 
south,  near  the  gulf  of  Arta,  of  not  more  than 
40  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Mon 
tenegro  and  Bosnia,  on  the  E.  by  Turkish 
Servia,  Macedonia,  and  Thessaly,  and  on 
the  S.  by  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece. 
Pop.  estimated  at  2,000,000.  Albania  em 
braces  ancient  Epirus,  Illyris  Groeca,  and  the 
adjoining  parts  of  ancient  Dalmatia.  The  ridge 
of  mountains  anciently  chiefly  known  as  the 
Scardus  and  the  Pindus  forms  its  ill-defined 
northern  and  eastern  boundary.  The  general 
character  of  the  country  is  rugged  and  moun 
tainous.  Nine  ranges  of  hills  intersect  it  from 
N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  with  elevations  of  from  4,000 


Albanian  Costume. 

to  8,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  covered  with 
snow  three  fourths  of  the  year.  The  rivers  are 
inconsiderable,  and  many  of  them  during  the 
summer  are  quite  or  nearly  dry ;  the  most  im 
portant  are  the  Drin  and  the  Voyutza.  There 
are  several  lakes,  among  them  those  of  Scu 
tari,  Ochrida,  and  Janina.  In  the  mountains 
and  forests  there  are  bears,  wolves,  wild 
hogs,  and  deer ;  sheep,  goats,  and  cows  are 
tended  in  the  valleys ;  and  there  is  an  excel 
lent  breed  of  horses.  Eagles  and  various  kinds 
of  birds  are  plentiful,  and  hawking  is  the  fa 
vorite  amusement  of  the  wealthy  classes.  The 
varied  vegetation  exhibits  many  forms  similar 
to  those  of  the  Swiss  Alps  and  the  mountains 
of  Scotland.  The  exports  of  Albania  consist 
of  oil,  wool,  maize,  tobacco,  horses,  sheep, 
goats,  timber,  and  some  embroidered  velvets 
and  cloths.  Merchandise  is  carried  inland  by 
means  of  pack  horses,  four  or  five  of  which 


are  attached  together  by  cords  and  guided  by 
one  man.  The  vigorous  administration  of  Ali 
Pasha,  by  building  roads  and  suppressing  gangs 
of  robbers,  added  much  to  the  facility  of  inter 
nal  traffic. — Lower  or  southern  Albania  con 
stitutes  the  eyalet  of  Janina,  and  upper  Alba 
nia  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  divisions 
of  Prisrend,  Monastir,  and  Scutari.  Among  the 
most  remarkable  tribes  is  that  of  the  Mirdites 
in  the  north,  whose  territory  has  never  been  in 
vaded  by  the  Turks,  and  who  acknowledge  no 
subjection  to  the  Porte,  except  in  supplying  a 
contingent  to  the  army  in  case  of  war.  The 
Albanians  are  muscular,  active,  and  erect.  The 
women  are  tall  and  strong,  with  an  air  indi 
cating  ill  treatment  and  laborious  work.  The 
dress  of  the  people  is  fantastic  and  complicated. 
The  wealthy  Albanian  wears  over  a  clcse-fit- 
j  ting  vest,  buttoned  to  the  throat,  an  open  jack 
et,  with  open  sleeves,  richly  embroidered.  A 
frilled  skirt  falls  to  his  knees  from  a  broad  gir 
dle,  in  which  are  stuck  his  silver-mounted  pis 
tols,  on  the  ornamentation  of  which  he  spends 
extravagant  sums,  and  his  yataghan.  Cloth 
leggings,  likewise  embroidered,  cover  the  legs, 
and  he  wears  the  fez.  A  peculiar  garment,  as 
sumed  when  travelling,  is  the  capote,  a  cloak  of 
wool  or  horse-hair.  The  Albanians  are  a  na- 
!  tion  of  warriors,  early  trained  to  discipline,  nnd 
'  constituting  the  best  soldiers  in  the  Turkish 
army.  Their  national  name  is  Shkipetars  ;  the 
Turks  call  them  Arnauts.  Wallachs  and  Greeks 
live  scattered  among  them.  A  rude  kind  of 
Mohammedanism  has  gradually  supplanted  the 
Christianity  of  the  country. — Though  Albania 
has  several  times  changed  its  name,  its  masters, 
and  its  boundaries,  a  people  cherishing  un 
changed  their  nationality,  language,  and  man 
ners  have  from  the  earliest  records  of  history 
occupied  its  mountains.  First,  the  fierce  tribes 
of  Epirus  and  the  still  more  savage  Illyrians  had 
possession  of  the  country,  and  withstood  alike 
the  efforts  of  the  Greeks  and  of  the  Romans  to 
civilize  them.  On  the  conquest  of  Constan 
tinople  by  the  Latins  in  1204,  one  of  the  im 
perial  family  of  Comnenus  succeeded  in  estab 
lishing  a  dynasty  in  this  district,  and  the 
despots  of  Albania  continued  for  two  centu 
ries  only  second  in  power  to  the  emperors  of 
Constantinople.  Mohammed  II.,  having  con 
quered  Constantinople,  marched  against  the 
Albanians,  only  to  experience  a  succession  of 
defeats.  The  heroism  of  George  Castriota, 
commonly  known  in  history  as  Scanderbeg  or 
Iskander,  their  last  independent  prince,  re 
sisted  for  more  than  20  years  the  Avhole  force 
of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  it  was  not  till 
his  death  in  1467  that  Albania  was  annexed 
to  the  Turkish  dominions.  Albania  was  di-  • 
vided  into  several  distinct  pashalics  till  the 
close  of  last  century,  when  Ali  Pasha,  having 
married  the  daughter  of  the  principal  chief, 
succeeded  in  establishing  himself  as  an  inde 
pendent  sovereign  over  all  its  territory,  and  a 
wide  extent  beyond.  After  his  overthrow, 
and  during  the  insurrection  of  the  Greeks,  the 


ALBANO 


ALBANY 


245 


Albanians  were  inclined  to  make  common 
cause  with  the  latter ;  but  their  attempts  to 
cooperate  in  the  war  produced  only  their  mas 
sacre  and  harsh  treatment  by  the  Greeks,  and 
they  were  therefore  thrown  into  the  arms  of 
the'Porte,  to  which  they  have  since  continued 
nominally  subject.— The  Albanian  language 
belongs  to  the  Indo-European  family  of  lan 
guages,  and  is  spoken  in  different  dialects  in 
the  north  and  south.  The  original  stock  of 
words  is  believed  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  ancient  Illyrians,  but  it  is  mixed  up  with 
Greek,  Latin,  Turkish,  Italian,  French,  and 
Slavic.  Many  of  the  Albanians,  particularly 
the  Toskaris  in  the  south,  speak  the  modern 
Greek,  and  in  that  part  of  the  country  the 
Albanian  proper  is  also  more  mixed  with 
Greek  than  the  Geg  dialect  in  the  north. 
Xylander  and  Bopp  have  written  on  the  Al 
banian  language.  The  work  of  the  latter,  Uebcr 
das  Albanesische,  was  published  in  Berlin  in 
1855.  Both  the  Latin  and  Greek  alphabets 
are  used  in  Albanian  books.  Latin  letters  have 
been  adopted  in  the  translation  of  the  New  Tes 
tament  (Constantinople,  1866),  and  in  versions 
from  the  gospel  of  St.  Matthew  by  Prince 
Louis  Lucien  Bonaparte,  with  occasional 
Greek  letters,  and  in  other  contemporary 
works.  Greek  letters  have  been  used  by  Anas- 
tasio  Kulurioti  (Athens,  1866),  by  Salterio 
(Constantinople,  1868),  and  in  the  Alfcibeto 
generale  Aloano-Epirotico  (Leghorn,  1869), 
which  last  is  also  contained  in  A  Dora  d'lstria 
gli  Albanesi  (Leghorn,  1870).  An  Albanian 
grammar  has  been  lately  published  at  Leghorn 
(Grammatologia  Allanese).  Prince  Louis  Lu 
cien  Bonaparte's  version  of  the  parable  of  the 
sower  in  Matthew  has  been  published  under 
his  auspices  in  the  Siculo-Albanese,  the  Ca- 
l^ro-Albanese,  and  the  Scutari- Albanese  dia 
lects  (London,  1868-70).  Albanian  literature 
consists  chiefly  of  popular  songs  and  fairy  tales. 
The  late  Austrian  consul  at  Syra,  Mr.  de  Hahn, 
is  a  high  authority  on  the  subject  in  his  Alba- 
nesische  Studien  (Jena,  1854),  and  GriecJiiscJi- 
Albanesische  Marchen  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1864). 
Dora  d'Istria,  the  author  of  the  "Mussulman 
nnd  Roumanian  Albanians,''  has  in  other  recent 
publications  thrown  much  light  upon  the  Alba 
nian  language  and  poetry. 

ALBAXO  (anc.  Albanuni),  a  city  of  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Rome,  near  the  southern  ex 
tremity  of  Lake  Albano,  14  m.  S.  E.  of  Rome ; 
pop.  5,200.  It  occupies  the  site  of  Pompey's 
villa,  and  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake  to 
that  of  ancient  Alba  Longa,  It  is  a  favorite 
summer  resort  of  the  Roman  nobility  on  ac 
count  of  its  beautiful  scenery  and  pure  air.  It 
possesses  a  museum  of  antiquities  and  many 
tine  ruins.  The  Albano  wine,  which  is  made 
in  the  vicinity,  was  already  famous  among  the 
ancient  Romans.  The  lake  of  Albano,  or  Lago 
di  Castello,  is  in  the  crater  of  an  extinct  vol 
cano,  and  is  surrounded  by  huge  basaltic  rocks. 

ALBANY.  .1.  An  E.  county  of  New  York, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Hudson  river  and  1ST.  in  part 


by  the  Mohawk ;  area,  509  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  133,052.  Normanskill  and  Catskill 
creeks  furnish  it  with  good  water  power.  The 
land  near  the  Hudson  and  some  of  the  other 
streams  is  fertile ;  but  in  the  N.  and  W.,  where 
the  surface  is  mountainous,  it  is  less  productive, 
and  in  some  places  sterile.  The  E.  part  is  cov 
ered  with  immense  beds  of  clay,  sand,  and 
gravel,  the  sand  in  some  places  being  40  feet 
deep.  Iron,  hydraulic  limestone,  marl,  and 
gypsum  are  found,  though  they  are  not  abun 
dant.  The  productions  in  1870  were  14,859 
bushels  of  wheat,  129,535  of  rye,  165,350  of 
corn,  784, 146  of  oats,  37,205  of  barley,  160,594 
of  buckwheat,  637,058  of  potatoes,  115,655  tons 
of  hay,  137,641  Ibs.  of  wool,  1,142,783  of  but 
ter,  and  133,964  of  hops.  In  1865  the  value 
of  farms  was  $16,951,183,  of  stock  $1,820,376, 
and  of  tools  $797,486.  There  were  364  man 
ufacturing  establishments,  employing  9,292 
hands,  130  churches,  18  newspapers  and  peri 
odicals,  and  7  savings  banks.  The  Erie  and 
Champlain  canals  and  several  railroads  termi 
nate  in  this  county.  The  assessed  value  of 
real  estate  in  1870  was  $38,557,176,  and  of 
personal  property  $7,535,171.  Besides  Albany, 
the  capital,  Cohoes  and  West  Troy  are  impor 
tant  maufacturing  places.  Albany  county  was 
organized  in  1683,  and  originally  extended  E. 
of  the  Hudson,  nnd  included  the  whole  colony 
N.  and  W.  of  its  present  limits.  II.  An  E. 
county  of  Wyoming,  occupying  the  whole 
width  of  the  territory,  about  265  m. ;  area, 
about  12,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,021.  The 
Union  Pacific  railroad  passes  through  the  S. 
part  of  the  county.  Capital,  Laramie. 

ILBAjYY,  a  city,  capital  of  Albany  county  and 
of  the  state  of  New  York,  at  the  head  of  sloop 
navigation  and  near  the  head  of  tide  water,  on 
the  W.  bank  of  tho  Hudson  river,  in  Lit.  42° 
39'  3"  N.,  Ion.  73°  32'  W.,  145  m.  N.  of  New 
York  city,  164m.  \v.  of  Boston,  and  370  m. 
N.  E.  of  Washington.  According  to  the  offi 
cial  censuses,  the  population  of  Albany  in  1 790 
was  3,506;  in  1800,  5,349;  '1810,  10,762; 
1820,  12,541;  1830,  24,238;  1840,  33,762; 
1850,  50,762;  1855,  57,333;  1860,  62,367; 
1865,  62,613;  1870,  69,422.  But  the  popula 
tion  nowr  (1873)  is  probably  not  far  from  80,- 
000,  as  the  boundaries  have  been  enlarged  by 
the  addition  of  parts  of  Bethlehem  and  Water- 
vliet,  and  the  territory  now  comprised  within 
the  city  limits  had  in  1870  a  population  of  76,- 
216.  At  a  little  distance  from  the  river  the 
ground  rises  into  a  plateau  about  200  feet  above 
tide  level,  and  then  extends  westward  in  a 
sandy  plain.  The  slope  toward  the  river  is 
divided  into  four  distinct  ridges,  separated  by 
valleys,  which  were  originally  deep  and  diffi 
cult  to  cross ;  but  these  have  been  much  im 
proved  by  grading,  and  within  a  mile  from  the 
river  nearly  disappear.  The  tide  rises  about 
one  foot  in  the  river  here.  Notwithstanding 
the  occasional  obstruction  of  navigation  by  the 
"overslaugh'1  (see  HUDSON  RIVER),  Albany 
is  peculiarly  favored  as  a  commercial  town. 


246 


ALBANY 


Yiew  of  Albany  from  Greenbush. 


The  Erie  canal  terminates  in  a  basin  here,  and 
the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  rail 
road  passes  through  the  northern  border  of  the 
city,  crossing  the  Hudson  river  upon  a  bridge. 
The  Albany  and  Susquehanna  railroad  extends 
to  Binghamton  on  the  Erie  railway ;  the  Al 
bany  and  Vermont  railroad  connects  with  lines 
to  Vermont  and  Canada  ;  and  the  Boston  and 
Albany  railroad  terminates  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river.  The  extension  of  the  Walkill 
Valley  railroad  to  Albany  was  permitted  in 
1870,  and  a  railroad  on  the  west  shore  of  the 
Hudson  southward  has  been  proposed,  but 
neither  has  yet  been  built.  A  road  is  also  pro 
jected  from  opposite  Albany  to  Sand  Lake. 
The  Hudson  river  bridge,  built  of  timber,  was 
opened  Feb.  22,  1866.  It  has  21  piers,  a  draw 
which  leaves  an  open  passage  110  ft.  wide  on 
each  side  when  turned,  4  spans  of  172  ft.,  and 
14  of  72  ft.  each.  It  is  1,953  ft.  long,  and  in 
cluding  the  approaches  4,253  ft.,  and  cost  with 
real  estate,  &c.,  about  $1,100,000.  The  bridge 
company,  consisting  of  the  railroads  in  interest, 
having  been  authorized  to  construct  a  new 
bridge  near  the  foot  of  Exchange  street,  while 
retaining  the  former,  it  was  commenced  in 
May,  1870,  and  finished  Jan.  1,  1872.  It  is  an 
iron  truss  bridge,  1,014  ft.  long  and  30  ft.  above 
the  water,  with  11  spans  and  a  draw  of  274  ft. 
It  is  used  only  for  foot  passengers  and  passenger 
trains,  while  the  former  is  used  for  freight. 
— The  old  state  capitol,  a  plain  brown  stone 
structure  built  in  1807  for  $173,000,  is  still  oc 
cupied,  but  will  be  demolished  as  soon  as  the 
costly  new  capitol  is  finished.  In  1865  an  act 
was  passed  authorizing  the  erection  of  a  new 
capitol,  on  condition  that  the  city  of  Albany 
should  give  to  the  state  for  the  purpose  the 


I  ground  commonly  known  as  the  Congress  Hall 
I  block,  extending  from  State  street  to  Washing 
ton  avenue,  immediately  in  the  rear  of  the  old 
capitol.      In  1867  the   first   appropriation  of 
$250,000  was  made  for  the  building,  and  the 
corner  stone  was  laid  June  24,  1871.     The  ma 
terial  is  Maine  granite,  and  the  edifice  will  be 
the  largest  and  most  splendid  in  America,  ex 
cepting  the    federal    capitol   at    Washington. 
The  ultimate  cost  can  only  be  conjectured,  but 
up  to  Jan.  1,  1872,  when  the  foundation  and 
basement  story  only  had  been  erected,  the  Ex 
penditure  already  amounted  to  $2,037,670  41. 
j  The  state  library,  a  handsome  fire-proof  build 
ing  fronting  on  State  street,  in  rear  of  the  old 
capitol,  contains  86,000  volumes ;  its  law  sec 
tion  is  the  strongest  and  best.     In  February, 
1872,   congress    appropriated   $350,000  for   a. 
building  in  Albany  to  accommodate  the  United 
States  courts,  post  office,  custom  house  officials, 
i  &c.,  the  city  giving  the  site. — Among  the  state 
I  institutions  are  the  geological  and  agricultural 
!  hall,  and  a  state  normal  school  established  in 
|  1844  for  educating  teachers  in  common  schools. 
The  state  hall  on  Eagle  street,  built  of  white 
I  marble  in  1843  at  a  cost  of  $350,000,  contains 
'  the  offices  of  the  secretary  of  state,  attorney 
general,   comptroller,    treasurer,    canal  board, 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  &c.     The 
city  hall,  on  Eagle  street,  foot  of  Washington 
avenue,  a  beautiful  structure  of  white  marble, 
was  finished  in  1832.     It  is  100  ft,  front  by  80 
I  deep,  three  stories  high,  and  has  in  front  a  re- 
i  cessed  porch  in  the  second  and  third  stories, 
j  supported  by  six  Ionic  columns.     In  1869-'TO 
j  a  new  city  building  was  erected  on  S.  Pearl 
I  street  at  a  cost  of  $200,000,  and  is  used  by  the 
i  police  and  civil  .justices'  courts,  fire  and  police 


ALBANY 


247 


departments,  park  commissioners,  assessors, 
&c.  Among  the  local  institutions  most  worthy 
of  note  are  the  merchants1  exchange,  the  Dud 
ley  observatory,  the  Albany  medical  college, 
the  law  school  of  the  university  of  Albany,  the 
city  hospital,  the  St.  Peter's  hospital,  the  Al 
bany  and  the  St.  Vincent  orphan  asylums,  the 
city  dispensary,  the  home  of  the  friendless,  the 
Albany  institute,  the  young  men's  association, 
the  young  men's  Christian  association,  the  Al 
bany  academy,  the  Albany  female  academy, 
the  "academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  the 
academy  of  the  Christian  Brothers.  The  Dud 
ley  observatory,  named  after  Charles  E.  Dud 
ley,  once  mayor  of  Albany  and  United  States 


senator,  and  founded  by  the  gifts  of  his  widow 
(Mrs.  Blandina  Dudley)  and  others,  was  incor 
porated  in  1852  and  dedicated  in  1856.     It  has 
a  valuable  special  library,  a  13-inch  equatorial 
instrument,  a  meridian  circle,  a  transit  instru 
ment,  a  calculating  and   printing  engine  (the 
only  one  in  the  country),   and  self-recording 
j  meteorological  instruments  of  many  kinds.     It 
I  gives  exact  time  by  telegraph  to  the  city  and  to 
I  various  railroads.     The  young  men's  associa- 
|  tion,  formed  in  1833,  supports  a  lecture  course 
during  the  winter,  and  has  a  library  of  above 
12,000  volumes,  and  a  reading  room  supplied 
with  75  papers  and  30  other  periodicals.     It  is 
the  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  United 


The  New  Capitol  at  Albany,  N.  Y. 


States,  and  has  about  1,100  members.  There 
are  54  churches :  Baptist,  5 ;  Congregational,  | 
2;  Protestant  Episcopal,  6;  Evangelical,  2;  ! 
Friends',  1 ;  Jewish,  3  ;  Evangelican  Lutheran, 
4 ;  Methodist  Episcopal,  8  ;  Presbyterian,  6 ; 
Performed  Protestant  Dutch,  6 ;  Roman  Cath 
olic,  10;  and  United  Presbyterian,  1.  A  Re 
formed  Protestant  Dutch  church  was  formed 
in  1640,  and  a  quaint  edifice  of  this  order  stood 
in  State  street  at  Broadway  till  1806.  A  Lu 
theran  church  was  formed  in  1680,  a  Protes 
tant  Episcopal  in  1715,  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
society  in  1796.  The  communion  plate  of  St. 
Peter's  church  was  presented  by  Queen  Anne 
for  the  Onondaga  Indians.  The  number  of 


public  schools  is  16,  of  which  one  is  for  colored 
children ;  there  is  also  a  free  academy  with  8 
teachers  and  214  pupils.  The  penitentiary, 
situated  on  the  west  of  the  city,  about  a  mile 
from  the  capitol,  was  built  in  1845-'6,  and  has 
600  cells.  At  the  close  of  1871  there  were 
about  500  convicts,  a  large  number  of  whom 
were  prisoners  of  the  United  States.  The  con 
tract  system  of  labor  is  adopted,  the  men  being 
employed  in  shoemaking  and  the  women  in 
chair-seating.  The  income  exceeds  the  expen 
diture  by  a  sum  varying  from  $10,000  to  $20,- 
000  a  year,  while  in  all  the  other  penitentiaries 
of  the  state  there  is  an  annual  deficiency  of 
from  $50,000  to  $125,000.  There  are  no  pun- 


248 


ALBANY 


isliments  for  refractory  prisoners  except  con 
finement  in  a  solitary  cell.  School  is  kept  for 
those  who  choose  to  attend  on  two  evenings  of 
the  week,  and  there  is  a  library  of  1,400 
volumes.  In  1869  the  old  burial  grounds, 
penitentiary  grounds,  almshouse  farm,  and 
Washington  parade  ground,  in  the  western 
part  of  the  city,  were  set  apart  for  a  public 
park,  to  be  known  as  "Washington  Park." 
— For  30  years  after  the  revolution,  Albany 
was  the  seat  of  the  entire  trade  of  the  western 
part  of  the  state,  the  produce  being  brought  in 
by  sleighs  in  winter ;  but  the  growth  of  the  city 
was  not  rapid.  The  first  great  impulse  to  its 
commercial  prosperity  was  given  by  the  suc 
cessful  trip  of  the  Clermont,  the  first  steamboat 
of  Fulton,  in  1807,  and  the  improvements  in 
steam  navigation  which  immediately  followed. 
The  steamboats  now  upon  the  Hudson  river 
are  among  the  largest  that  navigate  any  inland 
waters.  The  Erie  canal,  completed  in  1825,  and 
the  various  lines  of  railroad  constructed  since 
that  time,  have  each  essentially  added  to  the 
growth  and  prosperity  of  the  city.  The  total 
amount  of  property  reaching  tide  water  at  Al 
bany  by  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals  for  the 
year  1871  was  848,829  tons,  valued  at  $15,806,- 
259 ;  the  total  cleared  from  Albany  the  same 
year  by  both  canals  was  82,079  tons,  valued  at 
$4,753,971  ;  and  the  amount  of  canal  tolls  col 
lected  at  this  place  was  $2,837,077.  The  total 
number  of  cars  of  grain  inspected  at  Albany  in 
1871  was  2,595  ;  the  sales  of  grain  at  the  corn 
exchange  here  the  same  year  aggregated  3,947,- 
000  bushels.  Tiie  lumber  market  of  Albany  is 
the  largest  in  the  state ;  the  value  of  the  boards, 
shingles,  timber,  &c.,  received  here  in  1870 
was  nearly  $10,000,000.  There  are  32  slips 
from  the  river  for  receiving  boats,  and  a  river 
dock  more  than  a  mile  long  for  loading  boats 
and  barges.  There  is  also  in  the  river  a  pier, 
not  connected  with  the  shore,  about  1,100  feet 
long.  The  Albany  board  of  lumber  dealers 
was  incorporated  in  1869,  and  in  1871  there 
were  57  firms  engaged  in  this  trade.  The  city 
is  the  seat  of  very  important  and  extensive 
manufactories,  of  which  the  most  numerous 
are  9  boiler  and  steam  engine  works,  13  boot 
and  shoe  factories,  18  breweries,  17  carriage 
builders,  10  flouring  mills,  18  harness  factories, 

4  piano  factories,  18  iron  founderies,  17  machine 
shops,   8  sawing  and  planing   mills.,   12   stove 
founderies,  and  11  soap  and  candle  factories, 
besides  extensive  factories  of  car  wheels,  saws, 
oilcloth,  agricultural  implements,  jewelry,  sil 
ver  ware,  cabinet  furniture,  &c.     The  city  has 
9  banks,  6  savings  banks,  6  insurance  compa 
nies,  and  7  daily,  1  tri-weekly,  2  semi-weekly, 

5  weekly,  and  2  monthly  periodicals. — Albany 
is  the  oldest  settlement  in  the  original  13  colo 
nies  except  Jamestown,  Va.     Henry  Pludson, 
in  the  yacht  Half  Moon,  moored  in  Septem 
ber,  1609,  at  a  point  which  is  now  in  Broad 
way,  Albany.      Several  Dutch  navigators  as 
cended  the  river  to  the  same  place  during  the 
next  three  or  four  years,  and  in  1614  the  Dutch 


|  built  the  first  fort  on  an  island  below  the  pres- 
j  ent  city,  which  is  hence  called  Castle  island. 
j  In  1617  a  fort  was  built  at  the  mouth  of  the 
i  Nonnanskill ;  and  in  1628  another  was  erected 
j  near  the  present  steamboat  landing  in  the  south 
I  part  of  the  city  and  named  Fort  Orange.     A 
|  quadrangular  fort  called  Fort  Frederick  was 
I  afterward  built  on  the  high  ground,  now  State 
I  street,   between   St.   Peter's    church  and   the 
|  geological  hall,  with  lines  of  palisades  extend 
ing  down  Steuben  and  Hudson  streets  to  the 
river.     These   fortifications   were   demolished 
|  soon  after  the  revolution,  and  the  only  evidence 
of  their  existence  now  remaining  is  the  curved 
outlines  which  they  have  given  to  the  streets 
in  the  -older  parts  of  the  city.     The  place  was 
called  by  the  Dutch  New  Orange,  and  retained 
that  name  until  the  whole  province  passed  into 
possession  of  the  English  in  1664,  when  New 
Orange  was  changed  to  Albany,  in  honor  of 
the  duke  of  York  and  Albany,  afterward  James 
II.     In  1686  Albany  city  was  incorporated  by 
patent.     Peter   Schuyler  was  the  first  mayor. 
I  The  Schuyler  family  possessed  the  good  will  of 
the  Indians  to  such  a  degree  that  while  other 
j  settlements  were  desolated  by  Indian  forays, 
I  Albany  was  never  attacked  by  them.     Besides 
i  its  ancient  importance  as  a  centre  of  the  Indian 
|  trade,    Albany  afterward    became    the   point 
where  the  great  military  expeditions  against 
Canada  were  fitted  out.     It  was  fortified  at  an 
early  period,  and  although   often  threatened 
|  with  invasion,  no  hostile  army  ever  reached  the 
city.     Here  assembled  the  first  convention  for 
the  union  of  the  colonies.    It  was  held  in  1754, 
and  Benjamin  Franklin  was  its  leading  member. 
I  The  ostensible  object  of  this  convention  was 
the  defence  of  the  colonies  against  the  savages, 
!  but  the  plan   of  union  then  drawn   up   and 
adopted  was  the  first  recorded  in  the  history  of 
the  country.     Albany  became  the  state  capital 
I  in  1797.     It  has  been  visited  by  several  disas 
trous  fires,  of  which  those  in  1797  and  1848 
were  most  destructive.     The  lower  part  of  the 
town  has  often  been  inundated. 

ALBANY,  an  eastern  district  of  Cape  Colony, 

on  the  coast,  traversed  by  the  Sneeuw  (snow) 

mountains  and  some  other  ranges,  and  by  the 

Great  Fish  river;   area,  1,792  sq.  in.;  pop.  in 

1865,  16,264,  including  4,229  Caffres  and  1,472 

|  Hottentots.     The   surface   is   undulating,    and 

j  the   scenery   varies   from    rugged   heights   to 

I  pleasant  plains.     The  climate  is  healthy.     The 

!  soil  produces  wheat,  maize,  barley,   oats,  and 

!  cotton.     A  chief  occupation  of  the  settlers  is 

i  stock  raising.     Capital,  Graham's  Town. 

ALBANY,  Lonise  Marie  Caroline  HelciVe.  countess 
of,  wife  of  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  and  cele 
brated  for  her  association  with  the  poet  Alfieri, 
j  born  in  Mons,  Belgium,  Sept.  20,  1753,  died  in 
|  Florence,  Jan.  29,  1824.     She  was  a  daughter 
|  of    Prince    Gustavus    Adolphus   of  Stolberg- 
i  Gedern,  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Leuthen.     In 
I  1772  she  became  the  wife  of  Charles  Edward 
I  Stuart,  grandson  of  James  II.,  and  pretender  to 
!  the  British  crown,  known  as  the  count  of  Al- 


ALBATEGNIUS 


ALBEMARLE 


24-9 


bany,  who  was  her  senior  by  33  years.  The 
marriage  was  said  to  have  been  arranged  with 
the  hope  of  menacing  the  English  sovereign 
with  a  legitimate  heir  to  the  rival  Stuart  dy 
nasty.  It  proved  most  unhappy.  She  was 
young,  refined,  intellectual ;  he  old,  coarse,  and 
intemperate.  They  lived  at  Florence,  where 
she  became  acquainted  with  the  poet  Alfieri, 
who  conceived  a  passionate  regard  for  her.  It 
was  under  her  guidance  that  he  began  to  write 
his  tragedies.  She  was  never  charged  with  in 
fidelity  to  her  husband,  whose  brutality,  how 
ever,  became  so  unendurable  that  she  left  him, 
and  sought  refuge  in  a  Florentine  and  subse 
quently  in  a  Roman  convent.  In  1783  she 
obtained  a  formal  separation  from  him  through 
the  interposition  of  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden, 
who  also  procured  for  her  a  pension  from  the 
French  government,  which  was  withdrawn 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution.  About  a 
year  after  her  husband's  death  (1788)  the 
countess  is  said  to  have  been  secretly  married 
to  Alfieri,  but  they  never  appeared  in  public  as 
husband  and  wife,  though  he  was  constantly  in 
her  society  at  Paris,  London,  and  Florence, 
where  she  was  received  with  distinction  in  the 
highest  circles.  In  Florence  her  social  and 
political  influence  was  so  great  that  Napoleon 
dreaded  it  almost  as  much  as  that  of  Mine,  de 
Stael  and  of  Mme.  Recamier,  especially  in  view 
of  Alfieri's  opposition  to  his  rule.  After  the 
death  of  Alfieri  (1803)  the  countess  resided 
chiefly  at  Florence,  where  she  is  said  to  have 
formed  an  intimate  relation  with  Francois 
Xavier  Favre,  a  French  painter.  Alfieri  says 
in  his  autobiography  that  without  her  inspiring 
influence  he  would  have  achieved  nothing. 
She  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce 
at  Florence,  in  the  same  tomb  with  Alfieri, 
which  is  adorned  with  a  monument  by  Canova. 
A  biographical  work  entitled  Die  Grqfin  von 
Albany  has  been  published  by  Reumont  (2 
vols.,  Berlin,  1860). 

ALBATEGNIUS,  or  Albategni  (properly  MOHAM 
MED  BEN  GEBEE  ALBATANI),  an  Arabian  prince 
and  astronomer,  died  about  A.  D.  929.  He  is 
also  called  Muhamedes  Aractsnsis.  His  princi 
pal  astronomical  work — mainly  an  abridgment 
of  the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy,  though  containing 
many  original  principles  and  observations — 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  Plato  of  Tibur,  and 
published  at  Nuremberg  in  1537,  and  afterward 
at  Bologna  in  1045.  In  the  opinion  of  Lalande, 
he  was  one  of  the  20  most  eminent  astrono 
mers  that  ever  lived. 

ALBATROSS  (diomedea),  a  genus  of  web-footed 
sea  birds,  which  has  three  species — the  com 
mon  albatross,  D.  exulans,  the  albatross  of 
China,  D.  fidiginosa,  and  the  yellow  and  black- 
beaked  albatross,  D.  chlororynchos.  The  genus 
is  distinguished  principally  by  a  very  strong, 
hard,  straight  beak,  which  suddenly  curves 
downward,  with  a  sharp  hook  at  the  point. 
The  feet  are  short;  the  three  toes  long  and 
completely  webbed ;  the  wings  very  long  and 
narrow.  The  common  albatross  is  the  largest 


sea  bird  known,  weighing  from  12  to  28  Ibs. 
The  usual  extent  of  its  wings  is  about  11  feet; 
but  a  specimen  in  the  Leverian  museum 


Albatross  (Diomedea  oxulans). 

measured  13  feet,  and  one  was  shot  off  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  of  17-i  feet  in  extent.  The 
top  of  its  head  is  ruddy  gray ;  all  the  rest  of 
its  plumage  white,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
transverse  black  bands  on  its  back,  and  a  few 
of  the  wing  feathers.  It  is  abundant  from 
the  Southern  ocean  to  Behring  strait  and  the 
coast  of  Kamtchatka,  frequenting1  the  inner 
sea  about  the  Kurile  islands  and  the  bay  of 
Penshinsk,  in  vast  flocks,  but  scarcely  visit 
ing  at  all  the  eastern  or  American  coasts.  Its 
voracity  is  extreme,  and  it  is  said  that  it  will 
often  swallow  whole  a  salmon  of  four  or  five 
pounds  weight.  Its  ordinary  food  is  fish,  fish 
spawn,  and  small  shell  fish;  but  it  does  not 
hesitate  to  take  any  animal  substance  found 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  waves,  and  is 
often  taken  by  sailors  with  a  line  and  hook 
baited  with  a  piece  of  fat  pork.  Its  powers  on 
the  wing  are  extraordinary,  as  might  be  pre 
supposed  from  the  extreme  lightness  of  its  im 
mense  hollow  wing  bones,  which  are  said  by 
Edwards  to  be  as  long  as  the  whole  body,  and 
which  the  Kamtchatdales  use  as  tobacco  pipes ; 
and  from  the  great  height,  power,  and  contin 
uance  of  its  flight,  sailors,  who  know  it  gener 
ally  as  the  "man-of-war  bird,"  among  other 
strange  notions,  believe  that  it  sleeps  on  the 
wing. 

AL-BELADORI,  Abnl  Hassan  Ahmed,  an  Arabian 
historian,  died  about  895.  He  was  minister  of 
religion  at  Bagdad,  resided  at  the  court  of  the 
caliph  Motawakkel,  and  was  intrusted  with  the 
education  of  one  of  the  princes  of  the  caliph's 
family.  He  wrote  a  work  giving  the  history 
of  the  conquest  of  Syria,  Cyprus,  Mesopotamia, 
Armenia,  Egypt,  Nubia,  northern  Africa,  Spain, 
and  the  Mediterranean  islands,  and  an  account 
of  the  spread  of  the  Mohammedan  religion  over 
Persia,  Transoxiana,  and  the  countries  on  the 
shores  of  the  Indus. 

ALBEMARLE,  a  central  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  N.  W.  by  the  Blue  Ridge  mountains 
and  S.  by  the  James  river,  and  watered  by  its 
branches;  area,  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
27,544,  of  whom  14, 994  were  colored.  The  sur 
face  is  undulating,  soil  very  rich  in  the  valleys 
and  river  bottoms,  and  the  scenery  picturesque. 


250 


ALBEMAKLE   SOUND 


ALBERT 


The  productions  in  1870  were  218,545  bushels 
of  wheat,  384,851  of  corn,  180,461  of  oats,  and 
1,781,619  Ibs.  of  tobacco.     The  Chesapeake  and  j 
Ohio  and  Orange,  Alexandria,  and  Manassasrail-  | 
roads  intersect  at  the  capital,  Charlottesville. 

ALBE3IARLE  SOUND,  a  large  inlet  of  the  sea 
on  the  northern  part  of  the  coast  of  North 
Carolina,  extending  60  m.  into  the  country,  j 
and  having  a  width  of  from  4  to  15  m.  It  is 
separated  from  the  sea  by  a  narrow  island,  is 
not  affected  by  the  tides,  receives  the  waters 
of  the  Roanoke  and  Chowan  rivers,  and  is 
nearly  fresh.  It  has  connection  with  Currituck 
and  Pamlico  sounds  by  inlets,  and  with  Chesa 
peake  bay  by  a  canal  cut  through  the  Great 
Dismal  swamp.  This  sound  has  not  a  great 
depth  of  water,  and  is  of  comparatively  little 
value  for  commercial  purposes. 

ALBERGATI-CAPACELLI,  Francesco,  marchese 
d',  an  Italian  dramatic  writer  and  actor,  born 
in  Bologna,  April  29,  1728,  died  March  16, 1804. 
He  has  been  called  the  Garrick  of  Italy.  His 
youth  was  wasted  in  debauchery,  but  at  the 
age  of  40  he  had  acquired  a  high  reputation  by 
his  dramatic  compositions,  and  as  a  wit  and 
actor.  His  works  appeared  in  12  vols.  (Ven 
ice,  1783-'5),  and  6  vols.  (Bologna,  1784). 

ALBERIC  I.,  a  ruler  of  Rome  in  the  early  part 
of  the  10 th  century.  He  was  originally  a  Lom 
bard  nobleman,  but  obtained  through  the  aid 
of  Berengarius  of  Friuli  the  marquisate  of 
Camerino,  and  by  his  marriage  with  Marozia, 
the  daughter  of  the  notorious  Roman  Theodora, 
the  temporal  authority  over  Rome.  He  joined 
Pope  John  X.  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Saracens. 
He  also  ruled  the  duchy  of  Spoleto.  He  was, 
however,  banished  from  Rome,  and  finally 
murdered  in  925.  His  widow  wedded  Guido 
of  Tuscany,  and  after  his  death  Hugo  of  Pro 
vence,  king  of  Italy,  who  was  afterward  ex 
pelled  by  her  son,  ALBEEIC  II.,  who  reigned 
over  Rome  until  his  death  in  954. 

ALBEIIDXI,  Ciulio,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born 
near  Piacenza,  Italy,  May  31,  16G4,  died  in 
Rome,  June  16,  1752.  He  was  the  son  of  a  vine 
dresser,  and  was  brought  up  to  the  church. 
In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  he  gained 
the  favor  of  the  duke  of  Vendorne,  command 
ing  the  French  troops  in  Italy,  and  accompa 
nied  him  to  Paris  in  1706,  and  to  Spain  in  1711, 
acting  as  his  secretary.  In  1713  he  w^as  ap- 

Eointed  envoy  of  the  duke  of  Parma  at  the 
panish  court.  He  was  befriended  by  the  cel 
ebrated  Princess  Orsini ;  but,  having  induced 
her  to  employ  him  in  negotiating  the  marriage 
of  Philip  V.  with  Elizabeth  Farnese  of  Parma, 
his  first  act  after  the  queen's  arrival  was  to  urge 
her  to  apply  for  the  dismissal  of  the  princess, 
who  was  at  once  arrested  and  banished.  He 
became  prime  minister  of  Spain  in  1714,  and  in 
1717  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Clement  XL 
His  internal  administration  was  distinguished 
for  economy,  the  encouragement  of  industry, 
and  the  development  of  the  resources  of  Spain. 
He  remodelled  the  army,  rebuilt  the  fleet, 
strengthened  the  defences,  and  increased  the 


foreign  commerce.  But  the  ambition  of  restor 
ing  Spain  to  her  former  greatness,  seconded  by 
the  queen's  ambition  for  the  aggrandizement 
of  her  family,  prompted  him  to  a  violent  for 
eign  policy.  He  seized  on  Sardinia  in  a  time 
of  peace  (1717),  invaded  Sicily  (1718),  entered 
into  adventurous  schemes  with  Charles  XII., 
Peter  the  Great,  and  the  Stuarts  against 
France  and  England,  plotted  a  conspiracy  to 
depose  the  regent  Orleans,  and  embroiled  Spain 
with  all  the  other  powers  of  Europe,  bring 
ing  about  the  quadruple  alliance  of  England, 
France,  Austria,  and  Holland.  Alberoni's 
courage  rose  with  the  danger,  and  he  bade  de 
fiance  to  all  his  enemies  at  once.  The  foreign 
alliance  and  the  hatred  of  the  grandees  at 
home,  however,  hurled  him  from  place.  Peace 
was  concluded  in  1719,  one  of  the  stipulations 
of  which  was  Alberoni's  dismissal,  and  he  was 
ordered  to  quit  Spain  without  delay.  He  fled 
to  Italy,  whither  his  foes  pursued  him,  and  in 
duced  Clement  XL  to  issue  a  warrant  for  his 
arrest.  This  he  managed  to  escape,  wandering 
about  in  circumstances  of  danger  and  priva 
tion;  but  on  the  pope's  death  (1721)  he  ap 
peared  at  Rome  in  the  conclave,  and  assisted 
at  the  election  of  Innocent  XIII. ,  who  refused 
to  molest  him.  He  wTas  afterward  sent  as  le 
gate  into  the  Romagna,  and  finally  retired  to 
his  native  state,  where  he  died  at  the  age  of 
88.  He  left  a  number  of  MSS.,  from  which  his 
"Political  Testament"  was  published  at  Lau 
sanne  in  1753. 

ALBERS,  Johann  Friedrich  Hermann,  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Dorsten,  Nov.  14,  1805, 
died  in  Bonn,  May  12,  1867.  He  practised  sev 
eral  years  as  assistant  physician,  afterward  de 
livered  lectures  on  pathology  at  Bonn,  and  in 
1831  was  appointed  professor  there.  He  also 
established  at  Bonn  a  private  hospital  for  men 
tal  and  nervous  diseases.  He  is  the  author 
of  an  "Anatomical  Atlas"  (287  plates,  with 
text,  1832-' 62),  and  works  on  general  pathol 
ogy,  pharmacology,  diseases  of  the  larynx,  sy 
philitic  skin  diseases,  &c. 

ALBERT,  a  S.  E.  county  of  the  province  of 
New  Brunswick,  Canada,  bounded  S.  and  S.  E. 
by  the  bay  of  Fundy  and  Chignecto  bay ;  area, 
677  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  10,672.  The  land  is 
good,  and  there  are  extensively  diked  marshes, 
mines  of  bituminous  and  cannel  coal,  oil-bear 
ing  shales,  plaster  beds,  and  quarries  of  free 
stone.  The  coal  and  plaster  are  taken  by  a 
horse  railroad  to  Hillsborough,  respectively  2|- 
and  5im.,  and  shipped  principally  to  the  United 
States.  Petroleum  was  at  one  time  largely 
produced.  Chief  town,  Hopewell. 

ALBERT,  the  pseudonyme  of  ALEXANDEE  MAE- 
TIN,  a  member  of  the  French  provisional  govern- 
t  ment  of  1848,  born  at  Bury,  department  of 
I  Oise,  April  27,  1815.     He  was  a  maker  of  me 
chanical  models,  and  continued  to  work  at  his 
trade  after  he  became  prominent  as  an  agita 
tor,  and  in  1840  as  founder  of  a  revolutionary 
I  journal  entitled  L ] Atelier,  written  by  working 
!  men  exclusively.     A  friend  of  Louis  Blanc,  he 


ALBERT 


251 


became  a  member  of  the  provisional  govern 
ment  as  a  special  representative  of  the  working 
classes,  and  always  signed  himself  "  Albert, 
ouvrier."  He  was  elected  to  the  constituent 
assembly  for  the  department  of  the  Seine  ;  but 
being  implicated  in  the  uprising  of  May  15,  he 
was  sentenced  to  transportation,  and  remained 
in  prison  till  the  amnesty  of  1854.  Albert 
does  not  figure  in  the  history  of  the  Commune 
of  1871. 

ALBERT  I.  (Ger.  Albrecht),  archduke  of 
Austria  and  emperor  of  Germany,  born  in 
1248,  died  May  1,  1308.  He  was  the  son  of 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  and  succeeded  to  his 
hereditary  estates,  but  the  succession  to  the 
crown  was  conferred  by  the  electors  upon 
Adolphus  of  Nassau.  Albert  affected  submis 
sion,  and  remitted  to  the  new  emperor  the 
royal  insignia.  But  on  the  coronation  of 
Wenceslas  of  Bohemia  he  met  four  of  the  elec 
tors,  and  arranged  with  them  a  diet  at  Mentz, 
before  which  Adolphus  was  summoned  to  an 
swer  charges  of  high  crimes  and  misdemea 
nors.  Adolphus  of  course  refused  the  requisi 
tion  of  any  such  tribunal,  and  the  diet  there 
upon  adjudged  him  guilty  of  contumacy,  and 
deprived  him  of  the  crown.  War  was  de 
clared,  the  two  armies  met,  July  2,  1298,  near 
Gellheim,  between  Spire  and  Worms,  and  Al 
bert  unhorsed  Adolphus  in  personal  combat, 
whereupon  the  latter,  continuing  to  fight,  was 
soon  despatched  by  the  followers  of  his  rival. 
Feigning  a  respect  for  the  rights  of  the  body 
of  electors,  Albert  declined  to  exercise  the 
supreme  power  until  a  diet  had  been  formally 
convened,  and  he  was  duly  elected  and 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Pope  Boniface 
YIIL,  however,  stigmatized  him  as  a  mur 
derer,  and  instituted  a  new  combination  against 
him,  which  was  disconcerted  by  Albert's  son  Ru 
dolph.  Albert  was  now  involved  in  hostilities 
with  Bohemia,  of  which  he  made  himself  mas 
ter  for  a  short  time ;  but  the  people  rose,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  retire.  He  attempted  to 
subjugate  part  of  Switzerland,  but  in  crossing 
the  river  Reuss  in  a  boat  was  murdered  by 
his  nephew  John  of  Hapsburg,  whose  posses 
sions  Albert  had  seized  during  his  minority. 
John  was  assisted  by  three  noblemen.  Albert's 
daughter  Agnes  terribly  avenged  her  father's 
murder,  though  not  on  John  himself,  who  es 
caped  to  Italy,  and  died  a  monk.  Albert  was 
succeeded  in  Austria  by  hi«  son  Frederick  the 
Handsome,  and  in  the  empire  by  Henry  of  Lux 
emburg. 

ALBERT  (Ger.  Albrecht),  the  first  duke  of 
Prussia,  son  of  Frederick,  margrave  of  Anspach 
and  Baireuth,  and  grandson  of  Albert  Achilles, 
elector  of  Brandenburg,  born  May  17,  1490, 
died  March  21,  1568.  He  was  educated  for 
the  church  under  the  elector  of  Cologne,  but 
also  served  in  the  army  of  the  emperor  Maxi 
milian,  and  in  1511  was  elected  grand  master 
of  the  Teutonic  order.  Refusing  to  take  the 
oath  of  fealty  to  the  king  of  Poland,  he  be 
came  involved  in  the  hostilities  which  had 


subsisted  for  years  between  the  order  and  the 
Poles.  Sigismund  I.  of  Poland,  whose  sister  was 
Albert's  mother,  began  the  war  in  earnest,  but, 
after  some  successful  fighting,  was  in  1521  in 
duced  to  grant  a  four  years'  truce,  during 
which  Albert  solicited  aid  from  other  German 
princes.  He  betook  himself  to  Germany, 
where  he  was  persuaded  by  Luther  to  embrace 
the  reformation  and  change  the  domains  of  the 
order  into  a  temporal  principality.  At  the  ex 
piration  of  the  truce  the  grand  master  con 
sented  to  hold  the  territory  of  the  order  as  a 
fief  from  Poland,  and  the  majority  of  the 
knights  agreed  to  hold  under  Albert.  Al 
bert  now  threw  himself  heartily  into  the  refor 
mation  movement,  established  new  schools, 
and  founded  the  university  of  Konigsberg. 
Dissensions  on  doctrinal  points  between  the 
professors  of  his  new  university  involved  him 
in  troubles  which  lasted  till  his  death. 

ALBERT  (Francis  Albert  Angnstns  Charles  Eman- 
uel),  prince  consort  of  Great  Britain,  prince  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  born  at  Coburg,  Aug.  20, 
1819,  died  in  Wmdsor  Castle,  Dec.  14,  1861. 
Under  the  auspices  of  his  father,  Duke  Ernest 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  he  received  a  brilliant 
education,  which  he  perfected  by  studying  at 
the  university  of  Bonn.  In  June,  1838,  he  vis 
ited  England,  and  was  introduced  by  King 
Leopold  of  Belgium  to  the  young  Queen  Vic 
toria,  who  in  November,  1839,  formally  an 
nounced  to  the  privy  council  that  she  intended 
to  marry  Prince  Albert.  He  was  naturalized 
by  act  of  parliament,  Jan.  21,  1840,  and  the 
marriage  was  celebrated  Feb.  10.  An  annual 
allowance  of  £50,000  was  at  first  proposed, 
but  only  £30,000  was  voted.  The  prince  was 
made  a  field  marshal,  knight  of  the  garter,  and 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Cambridge,  and 
invested  with  other  high  titles  and  functions. 
As  president  of  the  society  of  arts  his  aesthetic 
tastes  found  ample  scope  for  activity.  The 
crystal  palace  of  1851,  the  forerunner  of  many 
other  expositions  of  industry  and  art,  was  chiefly 
due  to  his  zeal  and  enlightened  knowledge. 
His  model  farm  at  Windsor  gave  a  powerful 
impulse  toward  the  establishment  of  others  all 
over  the  country.  His  public  spirit  was  felt  in 
a  variety  of  industrial  and  charitable  undertak 
ings,  while  in  political  affairs  he  exercised  a 
wise  influence  over  the  queen  without  obtru 
sive  intermeddling.  Devoted  to  the  education 
of  the  royal  family,  and  warmly  attached  to 
the  queen,  he  made  the  domestic  life  of  the 
court  synonymous  with  virtue  and  culture. 
The  delicacy  of  his  position  as  a  German  prince 
and  as  husband  of  the  queen,  without  political 
authority,  exposed  him  occasionally  to  misap 
prehensions  ;  and  in  1855  it  was  necessary  for 
the  ministry  to  correct  in  parliament  the  im 
pressions  which  had  been  current  in  regard  to 
his  alleged  partiality  for  alien  interests  in  inter 
national  questions.  Nevertheless,  he  frequently 
saved  the  government  from  danger  by  his  cool 
judgment  and  patriotism.  Shortly  before  his- 
death,  during  the  civil  war  in  the  United 


252 


ALBERT 


ALBERTUS  MAGNUS 


States,  he  was  generally  believed  to  have  exer 
cised  his  influence  in  favor  of  the  Union.  lie 
refused  the  chief  command  of  the  English  army, 
which  had  been  proposed  to  him  by  Wellington. 
The  title  of  "  his  royal  highness  prince  consort " 
was  conferred  upon  him  by  letters  patent,  under 
the  great  seal,  June  25,  1857,  so  that  in  case  of 
his  surviving  the  queen  he  might  act  as  regent 
during  the  minority  of  the  prince  of  Wales. 
Victoria  mourned  his  death  with  almost  unex 
ampled  pertinacity.  A  publication  in  1857  of 
Prince  Albert's  public  addresses  was  succeeded 
in  1862  by  a  fuller  work  of  the  kind,  prepared 
at  the  request  of  the  queen.  "  The  Early  Years 
of  His  Royal  Highness  the  Prince  Consort,  by 
Lieut.  Gen.  the  Hon.  C.  Grey,"  was  published 
18G7-'8.  Queen  Victoria's  "  Leaves  from  the 
Journal  of  our  Life  in  the  Highlands,  from  1848 
to  1801,"  edited  by  Arthur  Helps  (18G8),  con 
tains  interesting  allusions  to  the  excellent 
prince,  whoso  memory  has  been  perpetuated 
in  England  by  many  beautiful  monuments. 

ALBERT,  Fricdrieli  August,  crown  prince  of 
Saxony,  a  German  general,  son  of  the  reigning 
king  John,  born  in  Dresden,  April  23,  1828. 
As  the  people  over  whom  he  is  destined  to 
rule  are  Protestants,  while  the  royal  family 
are  Roman  Catholics,  a  Protestant  tutor  was 
selected  for  him  in  the  person  of  the  Saxon 
historian  Dr.  von  Langenn.  In  1848-' 9  he 
took  part  in  the  Schleswig-IIolstem  war. 
In  1854,  after  the  accession  of  his  father 
to  the  throne,  he  was  called  upon  to  pre 
side  over  the  council  of  state,  having  pre 
viously  been  a  member  of  the  upper  chamber. 
\n  1806  he  commanded  the  Saxon  army  in 
cooperation  with  Benedck's  Austrian  forces 
against  Prussia,  and  received  a  decoration  for 
the  excellent  behavior  of  his  troops.  When 
Saxony  was  obliged  to  join  the  North  German 
confederation  and  to  place  the  armed  forces 
under  the  control  of  Prussia,  they  were  desig 
nated  as  the  12 th  corps  of  the  North  German 
army  under  command  of  Prince  Albert,  who 
highly  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Gravelotte  (Aug.  18,  1870)  and  Sedan 
(Sept.  1).  He  was  rewarded  with  the  Prus 
sian  iron  cross,  and  with  the  rank  of  North 
German  commander-in-chief  over  the  newly 
formed  4th  army,  composed  of  Prussians  and 
Saxons,  at  the  head  of  which,  after  valuable 
services  at  the  siege,  he  made  his  entry  into 
Paris  with  the  emperor  and  the  other  princes 
of  Germany.  He  married  in  1853  a  princess 
of  the  Vasa  family. 

ALBERT  EDWARD,  prince  of  Wales,  duke  of 
Saxony,  and  prince  of  Coburg-Gotha,  heir  ap 
parent  to  the  British  throne,  second  child  of 
Queen  Victoria  and  Prince  Albert,  born  in 
Buckingham  palace,  London,  Nov.  9,  1841. 
He  was  created  prince  of  Wales  and  earl  of 
Chester  by  letters  patent  Dec.  8,  1841,  and 
earl  of  Dublin  Jan.  17,  1850.  He  is  duke  of 
Cornwall  pursuant  to  the  statute  of  Edward 
III.,  1337,  the  annual  revenues  of  the  duchy 
being  about  £50,000.  In  conformity  with  an 


act  of  the  Scotch  parliament  in  1449,  he  is 
Ingh  steward  of  Scotland,  duke  of  Rothsay, 
earl  of  Carrick,  baron  of  Renfrew,  and  lord  of 
the  isles.  He  is  a  general  in  the  army,  colonel 
of  the  10th  hussars,  captain  general  and  colonel 
of  the  honorable  artillery  company,  barrister 
at  law  and  a  bencher  of  the  Middle  Temple, 
president  of  the  society  of  arts  and  of  other 
societies,  and  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Cambridge.  In  1800  he  visited  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  accompanied  by  the  late 
duke  of  Newcastle ;  and  on  March  10,  1803,  he 
married  at  Windsor  Alexandra,  eldest  daugh 
ter  of  Christian  IX.  of  Denmark.  His  eldest 
son,  ALBERT  VICTOE,  was  born  at  Erogmore 
Lodge,  Jan.  8,  1864.  In  the  autumn  of  1871  he 
was  seized  with  a  dangerous  typhoid  fever, 
which  produced  much  public  anxiety;  and  his 
convalescence  was  celebrated  with  great  pomp 
at  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  Feb.  27,  1872. 

ALBERT!,  Leone  Battista,  an  Italian  architect, 
poet,  painter,  and  sculptor,  born  in  1404,  died 
in  Rome  in  April,  1472.  His  essays  on  paint 
ing  and  sculpture  are  greatly  admired.  His 
most  famous  work,  however,  is  a  treatise  De 
lie  ^Edificatoria.  As  an  architect,  he  was 
often  employed  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  and  he 
designed  and  superintended  the  erection  of 
many  edifices  in  Florence,  Rimini,  and  Mantua. 

ALBERTOELLI,  Mariotto,  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  about  1475,  died  about  1520.  He  was  a 
friend  and  pupil  of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  and  an 
imitator  of  his  style.  There  is  a  beautiful 
painting  by  him  in  the  gallery  of  the  Uffizi  at 
Florence,  representing  the  visitation  of  Mary 
and  Elizabeth.  Fine  pictures  of  his  are  found 
in  Florence  and  Munich,  and  in  the  Louvre. 

ALBERT  FIANZA.     See  N'¥AKZA. 

ALBERTUS  MAGMS  (ALBERT  THE  GEEAT),  a 
scholar  of  the  13th  century.  He  was  of  a  no 
ble  Swabian  family,  studied  at  Padua,  and  en 
tered  the  Dominican  order.  He  was  employed  as 
a  teacher  in  various  schools,  especially  at  Co 
logne.  In  1254  he  was  appointed  provincial 
of  his  order  in  Germany,  and  in  1260  bishop 
of  Ratisbon.  In  1262  he  returned  to  his  con 
vent,  and  died  there  in  1280.  He  was  perhaps 
the  most  learned  man  that  the  middle  ages 
produced.  The  titles  of  his  works  fill  many 
pages  in  catalogues,  and  all  branches  of  human 
knowledge,  theology,  philosophy,  natural  his 
tory,  physics,  astronomy,  and  alchemy,  are  rep 
resented  in  them.  He  devoted  himself  espe 
cially  to  the  study  of  Aristotle  and  of  the  Arab 
philosophy.  Ilis  contemporaries,  marvelling  at 
his  learning,  regarded  him  as  a  magician,  and 
he  became  the  subject  of  many  legendary  sto 
ries.  But  his  works  prove  that  he  had  more 
patience  than  genius;  he  accumulates  citations 
from  his  immense  reading  almost  by  chance, 
and  settles  vital  problems  by  carefully  balan 
cing  the  weight  of  authorities.  He  had  numer 
ous  disciples  (of  whom  Thomas  Aquinas  was 
the  most  distinguished),  called  Albertists,  who 
propagated  his  doctrines,  and  confirmed  the 
vogue  of  Aristotle  during  the  middle  ages. 


ALBI 


ALBINOS 


253 


ALBI,  or  Alby  (anc.  Albiga),  a  town  of 
Franco,  capital  of  the  department  of  Tarn,  on 
the  Tarn,  41  m.  N.  E.  of  Toulouse;  pop.  in 
1866,  16,596.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  museum, 
and  a  library,  but  is  one  of  the  least  attractive 
towns  of  France.  The  name  of  the  sect  of 
Albigenses  was  derived  from  this  place  and 
its  district,  Albigeois.  A  council  denouncing 
their  tenets  was  held  near  here  in  1176.  Albi 
was  one  of  the  most  important  Protestant 
towns  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  drove 
many  of  its  citizens  into  exile. 

ALBIGEiVSES,  the  collective  name  of  various 
sects  of  heretics  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries, 
who  left  the  Catholic  church  and  called  them 
selves  Catharists  or  Cathari  (the  pure).  The 
word  is  derived  from  Albigeois  (Albigesium), 
the  territory  of  the  viscount  of  Albi,  the  chief 
protector  of  the  sects.  The  war  against  the 
Albigenses  arose  in  consequence  of  the  murder 
in  1208  of  the  papal  legate  Peter  of  Castelnau. 
Pope  Innocent  III.  threw  the  blame  on  the  he 
retical  nobility  of  southern  France,  and  in  par 
ticular  upon  Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse,  and 
had  a  crusade  preached  against  them.  Ray 
mond  averted  the  blow  by  submitting  to  the 
most  humiliating  conditions,  and  the  crusading 
army,  under  the  leadership  of  the  legates  Milo 
and  Arnold,  marched  first  against  Raymond 
Roger,  the  visoount  of  Albi,  Beziers,  Carcas 
sonne,  and  Rasez,  whose  land  was  devastated 
and  given  to  Simon  da  Montfort.  When  Be 
ziers,  the  capital  of  Roger,  was  taken  by  storm, 
20,000  of  the  inhabitants  were  massacred.  The 
army  then  (1211)  turned  against  Raymond  of 
Toulouse,  who  had  again  been  excommuni 
cated.  His  land  was  also  conquered,  and  in 
1215  adjudged  to  Simon  de  Montfort.  Ray 
mond,  however,  supported  by  his  subjects, 
continued  a  vigorous  resistance  to  Sirnon,  who 
in  1218  fell  at  the  siege  of  Toulouse.  A  large 
portion  of  his  territory  was  then  reconquered 
by  Raymond,  and  his  son  Raymond  VII.  even 
succeeded  in  forcing  Amalric,  the  son  of  Si 
mon,  to  a  complete  surrender.  Louis  VIII.  of 
France,  who  was  now  prevailed  upon  by  Pope 
Honorius  to  take  arms  against  the  Albigenses, 
died  in  November,  1226  ;  but  finally  Raymond 
was  compelled  in  1229  to  purchase  relief  from 
excommunication  by  ceding  part  of  his  terri 
tory  to  France,  and  by  making  his  son-in-law, 
the  brother-in-law  of  Louis  IX.  of  France,  heir 
to  the  remainder.  Thus  the  Albigenses  were 
left  without  a  patron,  and  the  inquisition  was 
organized  in  1229  by  the  council  of  Toulouse 
to  complete  their  extermination.  The  name 
maintained  itself,  however,  throughout  the  13th 
century,  not  only  in  France,  but  also  in  upper 
Italy,  Spain,  and  other  countries,  and  disap 
peared  at  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
For  the  doctrine  of  the  Albigenses  see  CA- 
TUAEISTS. 

ALBIXOS,  individuals  in  whom,  by  some  de 
fect  in  their  organization,  the  substance  which 
gives  color  to  the  skin,  hair,  and  eyes  is  ab 


sent.  These  persons,  whether  Indian,  negro, 
or  white,  appear  of  a  uniformly  dead,  milky 
hue,  with  hair  of  the  same  shade,  and  eyes  with 
the  iris  deficient  in  the  black  or  blue  or  hazel 
pigment,  which  in  others  conceals  the  delicate 
network  of  blood  vessels,  and  the  intense  red 
ness  they  diffuse  over  the  surface.  In  the 
albino,  both  the  pupil  and  the  iris  lacking  this 
colored  curtain,  the  former,  from  the  concentra 
tion  within  it  of  fine  blood  vessels,  is  of  a  deep 
red,  and  the  circle  around  it  is  of  a  pink  color. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  dark  color  of  the  eye 
and  hair  is  owing  to  a  large  quantity  of  pig- 
mentum  in  the  system,  and  light  hair  and  eyes 
to  a  smaller  proportion  of  it.  The  name  albino 
was  originally  applied  by  the  Portuguese  to  the 
white  negroes  they  met  with  on  the  coast  of 
Africa.  With  the  features  of  the  negro  and 
the  peculiar  woolly  form  of  the  hair,  the  color 
of  the  skin  and  hair  was  white.  The  eye,  in 
stead  of  the  jet-black  hue,  which  seems  given 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  tropics  to  enable  them 
to  bear  the  intense  glare  of  the  sun,  was  like 
that  of  the  white  rabbit  and  ferret,  and,  like 
this,  better  suited  for  use  in  the  moonlight  and 
in  places  sheltered  from  the  light  of  day.  From 
this  inability  to  bear  the  light,  which,  however, 
is  said  to  be  much  exaggerated,  Linrueus  called 
the  albinos  nocturnal  men.  They  generally 
lack  the  strength  of  other  men  ;  and  a  peculiar 
harshness  of  the  skin,  such  as  is  noticed  in 
cases  of  leprosy,  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  phenomenon  might  result  from  a  diseased 
organization.  They  are  also  deficient  in  men 
tal  capacity.  In  the  same  family  several  chil 
dren  are  sometimes  born  albinos.  They  are 
most  generally  of -the  male  sex.  An  instance 
is  recorded  of  a  Welsh  family,  in  which  every 
alternate  child  was  an  albino.  It  is  stated  by 
Esquirol  that  two  albinos  married,  and  had  two 
children  that  were  not  albinos,  but  of  quite 
brown  color.  It  is  not  understood  to  what 
ultimate  cause  the  phenomenon  is  to  be  attrib 
uted.  It  is  not  limited  to  man ;  for  individuals 
possessing  the  same  peculiarities  are  found 
among  a  great  variety  of  the  warm-blooded 
animals,  and,  according  to  Geoffroy  St.  Ililaire, 
in  fishes  and  some  species  of  molluscous  ani 
mals  as  well.  Examples  are  not  very  rare 
among  the  feathered  tribe,  the  effect  being 
seen  in  the  color  of  the  plumage,  as  in  other 
animals  in  that  of  the  hair.  The  white  crow 
and  the  white  blackbird  are  albinos.  Albino 
mice  are  not  uncommon.  The  white  elephants 
of  India  are  venerated  by  the  natives,  who  be 
lieve  them  to  be  animated  with  the  souls  of 
their  ancient  kings.  One  of  the  kings  of  the 
Ashahtees  is  said  to  have  had  particular  regard 
for  albinos,  and  collected  around  him  about  100 
of  them.  According  to  Humboldt,  albinos  are 
more  common  among  nations  of  dark  skin,  and 
inhabiting  hot  climates.  In  the  copper-colored 
races  they  are  more  rare,  and  still  more  so 
among  whites. — The  knowledge  we  possess  of 
this  subject  is  dqrived  from  the  scientific  in 
vestigations  of  Blumenbach,  De  Saussure,  who- 


254: 


ALBINUS 


ALBRECHTSBERGER 


describes  them  in  his  Voyage  dans  les  Alpes, 
Buzzi,  surgeon  to  the  hospital  at  Milan,  Som- 
mering,  and  others. 

ALBINUS  (Ger.  WEISS),  Bernhard  Siegfried,  a 
German  anatomist,  born  in  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder,  Feb.  24,  1697,  died  in  Ley  den,  Sept.  7, 
1770.  He  was  educated  by  his  father,  profes 
sor  of  medicine  at  Frankfort,  and  afterward  at 
Leyden,  and  also  studied  under  Winslow  and 
Senac  in  Paris.  At  the  age  of  22  he  was  called 
to  fill  the  office  of  demonstrator  at  Ley- 
den,  then  the  most  celebrated  school  of  medi 
cine  in  Europe,  and  two  years  later  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery.  He  pub 
lished  De  Ossibus  Corporis  Humani,  Historia 
Musculorum  Hominis,  and  lastly,  Tabulce  See- 
let  i  et  Musculorum  Corporis  Humani  (fol.,  Ley- 
den,  1747),  illustrated  with  costly  plates  pre 
pared  under  his  own  inspection.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Harvey. 

ALBION,  the  appellation  by  which  Great 
Britain  was  originally  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  It  is  a  Celtic  word,  meaning  high 
island  or  mountain  land,  and  was  probably  ap 
plied  originally  to  the  northern  part,  embracing 
the  Scottish  highlands.  The  root  of  the  word 
is  thus  the  same  as  that  of  the  word  Alps. 
The  derivation  from  the  Latin  albus,  white,  is 
now  rejected  by  the  best  critics. 

ALBION,  a  village,  the  capital  of  Orleans  co., 
1ST.  Y.,  about  40  m.  N.  E.  of  Buffalo ;  pop.  in 
1870,  3,322.  The  Erie  canal  and  the  Niagara 
Falls  and  Suspension  Bridge  branch  of  the  New 
York  Central  railroad  pass  through  it.  It  has 
several  churches,  an  academy,  a  female  semi 
nary,  two  or  three  banks,  and  two  weekly 
newspapers. 

ALBION,  New,  a  name  originally  bestowed 
by  Sir  Francis  Drake  on  the  territory  now 
known  as  California  and  the  adjacent  coast, 
which  he  visited  in  June,  1579,  but  now  re 
stricted  by  Humboldt  and  other  geographers  to 
that  part  of  the  N.  W.  coast  lying  between  lat. 
43°  and  48°  N. 

ALBIRCO,  a  star  in  the  head  of  the  constella 
tion  Cygnus.  It  is  one  of  the  double  stars,  and 
has  lately  attracted  the  especial  attention  of 
spectroscopists  by  the  difference  in  the  lines  be 
tween  its  two  constituents.  The  primary  star 
is  orange,  the  smaller  blue. 

ALBOIN,  king  of  the  Lombards,  succeeded  his 
father  in  Pannonia  about  560,  and  died  in  574. 
After  aiding  Narses  against  the  Ostrogoths, 
and  defeating  and  slaying  Cunimond,  king  of 
the  Gepidae,  he  invaded  Italy  in  568,  overran 
the  peninsula  as  far  as  the  Tiber,  and  fixed  the 
Lombard  capital  at  Pavia,  which  he  captured 
after  a  three  years'  siege.  He  had  married  his 
prisoner  Rosamond,  daughter  of  Cunimond, 
and  at  a  feast  in  Verona  forced  her  to  drink 
out  of  her  father's  skull ;  in  revenge  for  which 
she  caused  her  paramour  Helmichis  to  assas 
sinate  him.  The  guilty  pair  then  fled  to  Ravenna, 
where  Rosamond  poisoned  Helmichis  in  order 
that  she  might  marry  the  exarch  Longinus. 
Her  victim  discovered  the  treachery  and  com 


pelled  her  to  die  with  him.  Alboin,  in  spite 
of  his  barbarity,  was  a  beneficent  ruler,  and  is 
a  favorite  hero  of  German  poetry. 

ALBONI,  Marietta,  an  Italian  contralto  singer, 
born  at  Cesena,  March  10,  1826,  or,  according 
to  some  authorities,  at  Forli  in  1824.  Her 
musical  education  was  completed  under  Ros 
sini,  in  Bologna,  and  she  made  her  debut  at 
the  Scala  theatre  in  Milan.  After  singing  at 
Vienna,  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  various  parts 
of  Italy  and  Germany,  she  reached  London 
and  Paris  in  the  year  1847.  Her  voice  was 
a  true  contralto  of  the  sweetest  and  most  so 
norous  quality,  extending  from  F  in  the  bass  to 
C  in  alt  of  the  soprano — a  compass  of  2-|-  oc 
taves.  Her  favorite  parts  were  in  Rossini's 
Gazza  Ladra,  La  Donna  del  Lago,  Semiramide, 
and  Cenerentola,  the  florid  music  of  which  she 
executed  with  marvellous  ease.  In  June,  1852, 
she  arrived  in  New  York  on  a  professional  tour, 
and  for  upward  of  a  year  sang  in  operas,  con 
certs,  and  oratorios,  in  the  principal  cities  of 
this  country.  In  1869  she  sang  in  Paris  in 
Rossini's  posthumous  mass,  at  a  salary  of  3,000 
francs  for  each  performance ;  and  in  March, 
1872,  she  reappeared  there  in  opera. 

AL-BORAK,  the  name  of  the  camel  on  which 
Mohammed  made  his  imaginary  journeys  from 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem  to  the  celestial  regions. 

ALBORNOZ,  Gil  Alvarez  Carillo,  a  Spanish  pre 
late  and  warrior,  born  in  Cuenca,  died  in  Viter- 
bo,  Aug.  24,  1367.  As  archbishop  of  Toledo, 
he  took  part  in  the  contest  with  the  Moors ; 
and  having  saved  the  life  of  Alfonso  XI.  in  the 
battle  of  Algeciras,  he  was  ennobled,  and  in 
1343  commanded  in  the  siege  of  that  place. 
Falling  into  disgrace  with  Alfonso's  successor, 
Pedro  the  Cruel,  he  fled  to  Avignon,  wrhere 
Pope  Clement  VI.  created  him  cardinal.  In 
1353  Innocent  VI.  sent  him  as  legate  to  Italy, 
to  regain  for  the  papacy  the  control  of  Rome; 
and  in  the  course  of  the  years  1353-'62  he  suc 
ceeded,  under  the  most  unfavorable  circum 
stances,  in  again  subjecting  the  ecclesiastical 
states  to  the  papal  power. 

ALBRECHT,  Friedrieh  Rudolph,  archduke  of 
Austria,  born  Aug.  3,  1817.  He  is  the  eldest 
son  of  the  late  archduke  Charles,  second  son 
of  the  emperor  Leopold  II.,  and  is  consequent 
ly  first  cousin  of  the  reigning  emperor's  father. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  his  youth  as  a  cav 
alry  commander,  and  had  an  important  share 
in  the  battle  of  Novara  in  1849.  ,  He  was  gov 
ernor  general  of  Hungary  1851-'60.  During 
the  campaign  of  1866  he  commanded  the  Aus 
trian  forces  in  Venetia,  and  gained  the  brilliant 
victory  of  Custozza  over  the  Italians  (June  24), 
but  the  defeat  of  Benedek  at  Sadowa  (July  3) 
neutralized  this  success.  The  archduke  was 
called  to  replace  Benedek,  but  the  treaty  of 
Prague  immediately  put  an  end  to  the  war. 
He  is  a  field  marshal,  and  inspector  general  of 
the  Austrian  army.  His  wife,  daughter  of  King 
Louis  I.  of  Bavaria,  died  in  1864. 

ALBRECHTSBERGER,  Johann  Georg,  one  of  the 
first  modern  masters  of  counterpoint,  born  in 


ALBRET 


ALBUMEN 


C\  ^  K 

ZOO 


the  neighborhood  of  Vienna,  Feb.  3,  1736,  died 
in  that  city,  May  7,  1809.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
the  organist  Mann.  In  1772  he  was  made 
court  organist,  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
music,  and  in  1792  organist  in  St.  Stephen's 
church  in  Vienna.  Beethoven  and  Seyfried 
were  his  pupils  in  counterpoint. 

ALBRET,  an  ancient  town  and  castle  of  Gas- 
cony,  in  a  district  of  the  same  name,  now  in 
cluded  in  the  arrondissement  of  Mont-de-Mar- 
san,  department  of  Landes.  It  gave  the  title 
of  viscount  and  afterward  of  duke  to  an  illus 
trious  family,  of  whom  the  most  distinguished 
members  were  JEAN  D' ALBRET,  who  became 
king  of  Navarre  in  1494  by  marriage  with  the 
heiress  to  the  crown,  and  was  dispossessed  of 
the  Spanish  part  of  his  territory  by  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  in  1512;  HENRI  D' ALBRET,  his 
son,  king  of  Navarre,  who  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Pavia  in  1525  ;  and  JEANNE  D' ALBRET  (see 
ALBRET,  JEANNE  D').  The  site  of  the  town  is 
now  occupied  by  the  hamlet  of  Labrit. 

ALBRET,  Jeanne  d>,  queen  of  Navarre,  born 
inPau,  Jan.  7,  1528,  died  in  Paris,  June  9, 1572. 
She  was  the  only  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  Na 
varre  and  Margaret  of  Angouleme,  sister  of 
Francis  I.  and  wife  of  Antoine  de  Bourbon, 
with  whom  she  succeeded  on  the  death  of  her 
father  to  the  sovereignty  of  Lower  Navarre 
and  Beam.  She  was  equally  celebrated  for 
her  beauty,  her  intelligence,  and  her  strength 
of  mind.  When  Pope  Paul  IV.  invested  Phil 
ip  II.  of  Spain  with  the  sovereignty  of  Navarre, 
she  formally  embraced  Calvinism,  toward  which 
she  had  already  shown  a  leaning,  while  her 
husband,  a  man  of  weak  spirit  and  ignoble  im 
pulses,  hastened  to  submit  himself  to  the 
church,  and  accepted  from  Philip  the  lieuten 
ant-generalship  of  the  kingdom.  He  applied 
to  the  pope  to  annul  his  marriage,  but  died 
shortly  afterward  (1562) ;  and  Jeanne,  despite 
the  intrigues  and  menaces  of  Spain  and  Rome, 
retained  her  possessions.  In  1567  she  declared 
Calvinism  the  established  religion  of  the  king 
dom.  With  her  children  Henry  and  Catharine, 
she  joined  Coligny  at  La  Rochelle  with  a  small 
band  of  Huguenots  in  1569,  and  after  the  as 
sassination  of  the  prince  of  Conde  was  regard 
ed  as  the  only  remaining  support  of  the  Prot 
estants.  She  is  extolled  by  D'Aubigne  and 
other  writers  for  her  influence  over  the  Hugue 
not  soldiery.  She  reluctantly  consented  to  the 
marriage  arranged  by  Catharine  de'  Medici  and 
Charles  IX.  between  her  son  Henry  (afterward 
Henry  IV.)  and  Margaret  of  Valois,  but  died 
before  the  realization  of  her  misgivings.  She 
wrote  both  prose  and  verse ;  and  some  of  her 
sonnets  were  published  by  Du  Bellay. 

ALBICASIS,  Buleasimos/  or,  properly,  Abul- 
easim,  an  Arabian  physician,  born  near  Cor 
dova,  died  in  that  city  about  1106.  He  is 
known  only  by  his  medical  work,  Al-Tasriff, 
the  surgical  part  of  which  has  been  published 
in  Arabic  and  Latin  (2  vols.  4to,  Oxford,  1778), 
and  constitutes  the  most  valuable  authority 
upon  the  surgical  science  of  the  Arabs. 


ALBUERA,  a  village  of  Spain,  situated  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  and 
|  about  12  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  the  town  of  Bada- 
I  joz.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  battle,  May  16, 
1811,  between  Beresford  with  about  30,000 
British,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  troops,  who 
formed  the  reserve  of  the  army  then  besieging 
the  French  in  Badajoz,  and  Marshal  Soult,  with 
23,000  men,  who  hoped  by  defeating  the  re 
serve  to  oblige  the  British  to  raise  the  siege. 
The  attempt  was  unsuccessful,  and  the  British 
gained  a  decisive  victory. 

ALBUFERA,  the  name  of  a  lagoon  near  Valen 
cia,  on  the  E.  coast  of  Spain.  It  is  partly  dried 
up  in  summer,  and  a  resort  for  wild  fowl, 
whose  capture  is  a  source  of  revenue.  The 
lagoon,  with  an  estate  on  its  banks,  was  the 
domain  of  Godoy,  the  prince  of  the  peace.  Na 
poleon  created  Suchet  duke  of  Albufera,  on  ac 
count  of  the  victory  obtained  over  Blake,  and 
the  capture  of  Valencia,  Jan.  9,  1812 ;  and  the 
Spaniards  afterward  granted  the  revenues  of 
this  district  to  Wellington. 

ALBUMEN  (from  Lat.  albm,  white,  because 
the  albumen  of  the  fowl's  egg,  on  being  coagu 
lated  by  cooking,  turns  white),  an  organic  sub 
stance,  more  or  less  fluid  in  its  natural  condi 
tion,  which  is  coagulated  or  solidified  by  the 
action  of  heat,  alcohol,  the  mineral  acids,  and 
the  metallic  salts.  The  characters  of  albumen 
were  first  recognized  in  the  transparent  and 
colorless  portion  of  the  contents  of  the  fowl's 
egg.  When  an  egg  is  boiled  and  then  opened, 
it  is  found  to  consist  of  two  different  portions  ; 
namely,  an  internal  portion  or  yolk,  which  is 
yellow,  and  an  external  portion,  which  is 
white.  The  external  portion  before  boiling  is 
transparent,  semi-fluid,  and  nearly  colorless ; 
and  the  increased  consistency,  opacity,  and 
white  color  which  it  assumes  on  cooking,  are 
due  to  its  containing  as  its  principal  ingredient 
the  substance  in  question,  which  is  coagulated 
under  the  influence  of  heat.  The  composition  of 
albumen  of  the  white  of  an  egg  is  stated  by  Du 
mas  to  be:  carbon,  54'3;  hydrogen,  7'1;  nitro 
gen,  15'8;  oxygen,  21'0;  sulphur,  1-8; — of  the 
serum,  or  thin  part  of  the  blood  of  man,  0*05  less 
of  carbon,  0'19  more  of  hydrogen,  0*07  less  of 
nitrogen,  and  0'07  less  of  oxygen.  The  sulphur 
in  the  white  of  an  egg,  uniting  with  hydrogen, 
forms  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  tarnishes 
silver.  Albumen  is  found  not  only  in  the  egg, 
but  in  the  blood,  in  the  chyle  and  lymph,  in  the 
interstitial  fluid  of  the  muscles,  and  in  the  mois 
ture  of  the  serous  cavities,  as  the  pericardium 
and  the  peritoneum.  In  the  blood,  where  it  is 
most  abundant,  it  is  in  the  proportion  of  about 
75  parts  per  thousand  ;  in  the  lymph  and  chyle, 
from  12  to  35  parts  per  thousand.  It  is  coag 
ulated  by  a  temperature  of  160°  F.,  and  when  in 
tolerable  abundance,  as  in  the  serum  of  the 
blood,  the  whole  fluid,  on  boiling,  becomes 
solidified  or  gelatinous  in  consistency.  The 
i  presence  of  an  alkali  or  an  alkaline  carbonate, 
|  however,  in  due  proportion,  will  prevent  this ; 
I  and  after  the  albumen  is  once  coagulated,  the 


256 


ALBUMINURIA 


coagulum  may  be  redissolved  by  the  action  of 
the  alkali.  In  the  blood,  the  albumen  is  re 
garded  as  its  most  nutritious  ingredient,  being 
employed  for  the  nourishment  of  the  various 
tissues,  by  which  it  is  absorbed  and  afterward 
converted  into  materials  similar  to  their  own. 
It  is  not  discharged  from  the  body  under  its 
own  form  with  the  excretions,  except  in  cases 
of  disease,  but  is  retained  and  employed  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  vital  operations. — Albumen 
is  regarded  as  the  representative  of  a  large 
class  of  organic  substances,  as  well  vegetable 
as  animal,  which  are  known  as  the  albuminoid 
substances.  (See  ALIMENT.)  They  are  distin 
guished  by  the  facts  that  they  all  contain 
nitrogen,  in  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen ;  that  all  those  which  are  fluid  or  semi 
fluid  are  coagulable  by  various  means ;  that 
they  are  very  ready  both  to  excite  and  to  un 
dergo  indirect  or  catalytic  transformations ; 
and  that  they  are  all  susceptible  of  putrefac 
tion.  They  enter  very  largely  into  the  compo 
sition  of  the  food,  and  constitute  its  most  val 
uable  and  nutritious  ingredients. — According  to 
recent  researches  (1865)  of  Iloppe-Seyler,  there 
is  a  marked  difference  between  the  albumen  of 
eggs  and  that  found  in  other  parts  of  the  ani 
mal  economy.  Vegetable  albumen  has  never 
yet  been  prepared  in  a  pure  form,  and  we  are 
unable  to  say  whether  it  may  not  constitute  a 
third  modification.  The  two  modifications 
known  to  chemists  at  the  present  time  are  the 
soluble  and  insoluble, 

ALBUMINUllIA,  or  Bright's  Disease,  a  disease 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  albumen  in  the 
urine,  a  more  or  less  general  dropsy  both  of  the 
cellular  tissue  and  the  internal  cavities,  and  an 
organic  change  in  the  substance  of  the  kidneys ; 
so  called  from  the  name  of  its  discoverer,  Dr. 
Bright.  The  acute  form  of  the  disease  some 
times  commences  with  a  chill,  followed  by  more 
or  less  fever,  with  a  dry  skin,  furred  tongue, 
and  frequent  pulse.  In  other  cases  the  atten 
tion  of  the  patient  is  attracted  by  the  swollen 
state  of  his  countenance ;  the  swelling  rapidly 
extends  and  becomes  general ;  at  the  same 
time  the  urine  is  greatly  diminished  in  quan 
tity,  and  is  of  a  dark  color,  looking  as  if  im 
pregnated  with  smoke,  or  red,  and  evidently 
containing  blood.  There  is  more  or  less  dull 
pain  about  the  loins,  with  a  dry  pallid  skin, 
thirst,  disinclination  for  food,  often  nausea  and 
vomiting.  Sometimes,  though  happily  not 
often,  there  is  complete  suppression  of  urine. 
In  such  cases,  as  a  rule,  fatal  coma  quickly 
supervenes.  In  the  course  of  the  disease,  effu 
sions  into  the  cavities  of  the  pericardium, '  the 
pleura,  or  the  peritoneum,  with  or  without 
inflammation  of  those  membranes,  are  apt  to 
occur;  or  epileptic  convulsions  may  come  on, 
often  ending  in  fatal  coma.  The  urine  has 
commonly  a  specific  gravity  of  from  1'015  to 
1*025 — not  varying  much  from  its  ordinary 
standard ;  when  tested  by  heat  and  nitric  acid, 
it  shows  the  presence  of  albumen,  sometimes 
in  such  large  quantity  that  the  whole  of  the 


fluid  is  converted  into  a  jelly-like  mass.  When 
examined  under  the  microscope,  the  sediment 
deposited  by  the  urine,  on  standing,  is  found  to 
consist  of  blood  corpuscles,  of  renal  epithelium, 
and  of  small  fibrinous  casts  of  the  uriniferous 
tubes,  containing  entangled  in  them  epithelial 
cells  and  blood  globules.  After  the  disease  has 
continued  some  weeks  in  adults,  the  epithelial 
casts,  as  they  are  termed,  sometimes  contain  a 
few  oil  globules ;  if  the  patient  recover,  these 
gradually  disappear  as  convalescence  comes  on. 
On  post-mortem  examination  the  kidneys  are 
found  to  be  enlarged,  and  gorged  with  blood. 
Sometimes  their  exterior  is  pale,  and  this  pale 
ness  extends  through  the  cortical  substance, 
particularly  in  the  cases  which  follow  scarlet 
fever.  Microscopic  examination  shows  many 
of  the  convoluted  tubes  to  be  crowded  with 
epithelium,  especially  in  those  parts  of  the  cor 
tical  substance  which  appear  pale  to  the  naked 
eye. — Of  the  causes  of  acute  albuminuria,  ex 
posure  to  cold,  particularly  when  the  body  is 
exhausted  by  fatigue,  by  recent  illness,  by  an 
innutritions  or  unsuitable  diet,  or  by  excessive 
indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors,  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  important.  The  actions  of  the  skin 
and  of  the  kidneys  are  always  to  some  extent 
vicarious  of  each  other.  When  there  is  free 
perspiration,  the  quantity  of  urine  is  dimin 
ished  ;  in  cold  weather  it  is  increased.  In 
these  cases,  however,  it  is  only  the  watery 
parts  of  the  excretion  which  are  interfered 
with ;  and  the  kidneys  continue  to  free  the 
blood  from  the  excrementitious  matters  which 
it  is  their  peculiar  function  to  separate.  When 
disease  follows  exposure  to  cold,  it  is  probable 
that  the  sudden  checking  of  the  function  of  the 
skin  produces  a  vascular  congestion  of  the  kid 
neys,  an  increased  pressure  of  the  blood  in 
their  vessels,  and  thus  the  appearance  of  albu 
men  in  the  urine.  Other  diseases  in  which  the 
blood  is  in  an  altered  condition  are  occasionally 
attended  or  followed  by  albuminuria ;  thus  re 
peated  instances  of  its  occurrence  have  been 
met  with  in  connection  with  acute  rheumatism, 
typhus  fever,  erysipelas,  and  purpura.  During 
the  desquamative  process  in  scarlet  fever,  the 
patient  is  liable  to  acute  albuminuria.  Accu 
rate  observers  have  found  that  in  most  cases 
albumen  can,  at  some  time  of  the  later  period 
of  the  disease,  be  discovered  in  the  urine.  If 
at  this  time  the  patient  be  incautiously  and  un 
duly  exposed  to  the  influence  of  cold,  disease 
of  the  kidneys  attended  by  dropsy  is  apt  to  fol 
low.  The  attack  differs  in  no  respect  except 
its  cause  from  the  acute  albuminuria  which 
occurs  under  other  circumstances ;  it  has  sim 
ilar  symptoms,  and  post-mortem  examination 
reveals  similar  appearances.  The  strumous 
diathesis  predisposes  to  the  disease ;  cases  of 
scarlet  fever  in  children  of  that  diathesis  have 
always  to  be  watched  most  carefully,  and  from 
the  ordinary  causes  of  albuminuria  the  strumous 
suffer  in  large  proportion. — It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand  the  pathology  of  the  disease,  Not  only  is 
the  urine  diminished  in  quantity,  but  wrhat  is 


ALBUMINURIA 


257 


passed  is  deficient  in  urea.     The  urea  which 
should  be  eliminated  by  the  urine  accumulates  in 
the  blood  arid  poisons  that  fluid.     The  serum  of 
the  blood,  of  which  the  albumen  is  drained  off 
by  the  kidneys,  becomes  deficient  in  that  sub 
stance,  and  of  lower  specific  gravity.     The  pal 
lor  of  the  complexion  shows  that  the  blood  is 
deficient  in  coloring  matter;    and  where  the 
disease  has  lasted  a  short  time,  this  is  confirmed 
by  direct  examination,  the  blood  globules  be 
ing  diminished  in  proportion.     The  circulation 
of  a  poisoned  blood  throughout  the  body  causes 
that  liability  to  secondary  diseases  which  so 
strikingly  characterizes  the  complaint.     AY  bile 
acute  albuminuria  is  always  a  serious  disease, 
still  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases  we  can  look 
forward  hopefully  to  the  recovery  of  the  pa 
tient;  yet  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind 
that  at  any    time  secondary  disease  may   be 
lighted  up,  which  will  seriously  complicate  the 
o.ase  and  increase  the  danger.     The  existence 
of  the  strumous  diathesis  in  a  marked  degree,  | 
or  of  debility  from  previous  illness,  is  likewise 
an  exceedingly  unfavorable  circumstance.    The 
more  recent  th-3  disease,  the  better  is  the  pros 
pect  of  recovery ;  while  the  persistent  presence 
of  albumen  in  the  urine  after  a  certain  time 
leads  us  to  fear  the  occurrence  of  chronic  de-  I 
generation.     The  albuminuria  following  scarla-  j 
tina  generally  terminates  favorably,  and  there  ! 
is  no   tendency   to    a   return   of  the  disease,  j 
When  convalescence  commences,  the  urine  be-  I 
comes  more  copious  and  pale,  and  for   some 
time  ia.discharged  in  large  quantity,  while  the 
albumen  gradually  diminishes ;  but  the  patient 
cannot  bo  considered  as  safe,  so  long  as  any 
trace  of  albumen  can  be  detected  in  the  urine, 
or  any  epithelial  casts  are  discovered  under  the 
microscope. — The  hygienic  treatment  of  acute 
albuminuria  is  sufficiently  simple.     The  patient  I 
should  be  clothed  in  flannel,   and  if  possible  ! 
confined  to  bed ;  the  room  should  be  of  a  com-  j 
fortable   and    equable    temperature,    and    the  | 
patient  should   be    most    sedulously  guarded  i 
against    exposure    to    cold    currents    of    air. 
Throughout  the  course  of  the  disease,  the  diet 
should  be  unirritating  and  digestible ;  any  ex 
cess  in  this  respect  may  be  attended  with  bad 
consequences.     When  convalescence  is  estab 
lished,  the  preparations  of  iron  will  be  found 
exceedingly  useful,  improving  the  condition  of 
the  blood  and  the  general  strength. —  Chronic 
A  Ibuminuria.  The  approach  of  chronic  albumi 
nuria,  when  not  the  sequel  of  an  acute  attack, 
is  masked  and  insidious,  rarely  awaking  atten-  I 
tion  until  fatal  progress  has  been  made;  in-  j 
deed,  persons  not  suspecting  themselves  to  be  | 
ill  have  in  repeated  instances  died  suddenly  of  | 
what  has  been  supposed  to  be  an  apoplectic  at 
tack,  and  post-mortem  examination  has  shown 
the  kidneys  and  not  the  brain  to  be  the  seat  of  j 
mischief.     In  general,  however,  the  symptoms  ! 
are  sufficiently  well. marked  to  attract  the  at-  j 
tention  of  the  observing  physician.     The  pa 
tient  loses   flesh   and  strength ;    the   appetite  i 
fails,  or,  if  good,  flatulence  and  other  dyspep-  j 
VOL.  i. — 17 


tic  symptoms  are  present ;  after  a  time  the 
color  is  lost,  and  the  patient  has  a  pallid,  sal 
low,  or  waxy  look ;  the  skin  becomes  dry  ;  in 
the  morning,  on  rising,  swelling  beneath  the 
eyes  is  noticed,  aftd  at  night  tlie  ankles  are 
cedematous.  There  is  some  pain  in  the  back, 
but  it  is  not  commonly  so  great  as  to  attract 
attention.  If  the  patient  be  questioned,  it  will 
be  found  that  there  is  some  irritability  of  the 
bladder ;  he  has,  contrary  to  his  wont,  to  rise 
at  night  to  pass  urine,  although  there  is  no  evi 
dence  of  disease  of  the  bladder  itself.  The 
urine  is  sometimes  passed  in  large  quantities, 
and  occasionally  the  amount  is  much  below 
the  average ;  it  is  pale  and  of  low  specific  grav 
ity,  varying  commonly  from  1'004  to  1'012. 
Tested  by  heat  and  nitric  acid  for  the  presence 
of  albumen,  this  substance  is  found  to  vary 
greatly  in  amount  in  different  cases,  occasion 
ally  being  present  in  large  quantity,  while 
sometimes  only  a  trace  of  its  existence  is  dis 
covered  ;  sometimes  it  disappears  altogether, 
and  will  only  be  discovered  after  repeated  ex 
aminations.  In  the  course  of  the  disease  drop 
sy  of  the  abdomen  is  apt  to  occur,  and  this 
often  becomes  so  great  as  to  be  the  principal 
source  of  suffering.  Anasarca  is  also  present, 
and  the  whole  cellular  tissue  is  infiltrated  with 
serum.  As  in  the  acute  form  of  the  disease, 
there  may  be  effusion,  with  or  without  inflam 
mation,  into  the  cavities  of  ihe  pericardium 
and  pleura,  as  well  as  into  that  of  the  perito 
neum.  A  tendency  to  prolonged  somnolence 
is  often  observed,  and  this  may  lapse  into  coma, 
or  may  alternate  with  epileptic  convulsions. 
Bronchitis  is  apt  to  occur  and  to  prove  severe 
and  intractable;  pneumonia,  too,  sometimes 
comes  on  insidiously,  and  may  run  on  rapidly 
to  a  fatal  issue ;  and  rheumatism,  particularly 
a  chronic  and  unmanageable  form  of  the  dis 
ease,  is  not  infrequent.  It  is  to  the  deteri 
orated  condition  of  the  blood  that  the  number, 
variety,  and  fatality  of  the  complications  of 
the  disease  of  the  kidneys  are  to  be  attributed. 
The  principal  alteration  in  that  fluid  would 
seem  to  be  chiefly  the  diminished  amount  of 
the  blood  globules,  the  hematine,  according  to 
Dr.  Christison,  sometimes  reaching  only  one 
third  of  its  natural  quantity,  and  the  presence 
of  the  retained  urea. — The  duration  of  the  dis 
ease  varies  very  greatly  in  different  cases. 
Among  the  laboring  classes  whose  avocations 
lead  them  to  exposure  to  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather,  and  in  whom  sickness  brings  too 
often  privation  of  comforts  and  mental  depres 
sion,  death  commonly  occurs  after  no  very  pro 
tracted  period ;  but  among  those  whose  posi 
tion  enables  them  to  avoid  fatigue  and  exposure,. 
and  who  are  more  on  their  guard  against  the 
first  invasion  of  disease,  chronic  albuminuria 
often  lasts  for  years,  leaving  its  victims  a  very 
fair  measure  of  the  enjoyments  and  labors  of 
life ;  their  situation,  however,  is  always  preca 
rious,  and  serious  or  fatal  disease  may  at  any 
moment  be  brought  on  by  apparently  trivial 
circumstances. — Intemperance  in  eating  and 


258 


ALBUQUERQUE 


drinking,  but  especially  in  the  use  of  fermented 
and  distilled  liquors,  is  the  great  cause  of  chronic 
albumimiria,  in  cases  where  it  is  not  consequent 
upon  the  acute  disease.  One  form  of  the  dis 
ease  is  so  commonly  associated  with  the  gouty 
diathesis,  that  it  has  been  named  by  Dr.  Todd 
the  gouty  kidney ;  but  the  same  form  of  dis 
ease  is  often  found  in  those  who  have  never 
known  gout.  It  occurs  most  frequently  in 
those  of  strumous  habits,  and,  at  least  in  hos 
pital  cases,  it  is  no  uncommon  attendant  upon 
consumption.  Exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  fa 
tigue,  want,  and  mental  anxiety,  may  all  be 
put  down  as  occasional  causes ;  yet  many  cases 
occur  in  which  we  are  unable  to  trace  the  ori 
gin  of  the  complaint. — In  the  so-called  granular 
degeneration  of  the  kidney,  the  organs  in  ad 
vanced  stages  of  the  disease  are  very  much 
contracted,  so  as  not  to  be  more  than  one  third 
or  one  fourth  of  their  natural  size.  They  have 
a  granular  appearance  ;  the  capsule  is  denser 
and  whiter  than  natural,  and  is  peeled  off  with 
difficulty.  On  cutting  open  the  kidney,  the 
wasting  is  found  to  have  taken  place  mainly  at 
the  expense  of  the  cortical  substance,  which  is 
contracted  and  atrophied,  and  presents  the 
same  granular  appearance  which  is  observed 
upon  the  surface.  In  the  waxy  kidney  the  or 
gan  is  enlarged  sometimes  to  twice  its  natural 
size.  It  is  of  a  pale  buff  color,  and  presents 
when  cut  no  trace  of  granulations;  on  exami 
nation  under  the  microscope  the  tissue  of  the 
organ  is  found  to  be  filled  with  an  unorganized 
fibrinous  exudation,  and  the  tubes  contain  a 
similar  deposit,  in  the  form  of  waxy  casts  iden 
tical  with  those  which  microscopic  examina 
tion  detects  in  the  urine.  The  fatty  kidney  is 
enlarged,  the  surface  of  the  organ  is  smooth 
and  pale,  or  more  commonly  mottled  by  red 
vascular  patches,  and  its  texture  feels  softer 
than  natural.  On  microscopic  examination 
the  convoluted  tubes  are  found  rilled  with 
oil  globules. — In  chronic  albumimiria,  where 
neither  dropsy  nor  other  formidable  complica 
tion  demands  attention,  the  treatment  consists 
rather  in  hygienic  measures,  in  a  careful  direc 
tion  of  the  patient's  clothing,  diet,  and  exercise, 
than  in  active  medication.  Flannel  should 
always  be  worn  next  the  skin,  and  exposure  to 
wet  and  cold  carefully  shunned  ;  all  inordinate 
exercise,  whether  of  mind  or  body,  and  all  ex 
cess  of  every  kind,  should  be  forbidden;  the 
diet  should  be  nutritious,  but  moderation  and 
regularity  must  be  insisted  on ;  all  fermented 
liquors  should  be  avoided,  though,  where  long 
habit  has  rendered  their  use  necessary,  the  pa 
tient  may  be  left  to  choose  the  article  which 
best  agrees  with  him. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  and  25  m.  N.  of  Badajoz,  and  9 
m.  from  the  Portuguese  frontier;  pop.  7,500. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  dukes  of  Albuquerque,  and 
has  a  large  trade  in  wool. 

ALBUQUERQUE  (Port.  Alboquerque),  Affonso 
d>,  called  the  Great,  and  also  the  Portuguese 
Mars,  one  of  the  first  Portuguese  conquerors 


and  second  viceroy  of  India,  born  near  Alhan- 
dra,  in  the  province  of  Estremadura,  in  1458, 
died  at  sea,  in  the  bay  of  Goa,  Dec.  16,  1515. 
He  was  brought  up  at  the  court  of  Alfonso  V., 
where  his  father  Goncalo  occupied  a  distin 
guished  position,  and  was  afterward  grand 
equerry  of  Kings  John  II.  and  Emanuel.  He 
had  already  seen  considerable  military  ser 
vice,  and  distinguished  himself  both  by  land 
and  sea,  wThen  in  1503  he  sailed  with  his  cousin 
Francisco,  in  command  of  a  small  fleet,  to  In 
dia,  by  the  newly  discovered  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  passage.  Having  rendered  important 
services  to  the  king  of  Cochin,  on  the  S.  W. 
coast  of  India,  the  adventurers  gained  permis 
sion  to  form  a  settlement  in  his  dominions, 
which  was  the  commencement  of  the  Portu 
guese  powrer  in  the  East.  Albuquerque  next 
(1506)  accompanied  Tristan  da  Cunha  on  an 
expedition  to  the  E.  coast  of  Africa.  They 
carried  on  a  successful  warfare  for  some  time 
against  the  Arabs  and  other  inhabitants  of  that 
coast,  until  Albuquerque,  being  left  in  com 
mand  of  a  portion  of  the  fleet  by  Da  Cunha, 
determined  on  an  attempt  against  the  island 
of  Ormuz,  the  great  entrepot  of  the  commerce 
between  Persia  and  India.  He  was  at  first 
successful  (Sept.  25,  1507),  but  the  Persian 
commander,  rallying  his  forces,  repulsed  him 
and  drove  him  back  to  his  ships.  He  was  now 
joined  by  three  more  vessels,  and  sailed  for 
India,  having  received  a  secret  commission  to 
supersede  the  Portuguese  governor,  Dom  Fran 
cisco  d' Almeida;  but  the  latter  refused  to  re 
cognize  him,  and  threw  him  into  prison.  On 
the  arrival  of  the  grand  marshal  of  Portugal 
writh  a  large  fleet,  he  was  released  and  installed 
as  governor  and  commander-in- chief.  In  an 
attempt  against  Calicut  the  grand  marshal  was 
killed  and  Albuquerque  wounded  and  forced 
to  retreat.  He  now  made  his  way  to  Goa, 
which  he  seized  in  the  absence  of  Idal  Khan, 
the  ruling  Arab  prince,  on  an  expedition  into 
the  Deccan  (Feb.  17,  1510) ;  but  his  force  was 
too  small  to  retain  his  conquest,  and  Idal  Khan, 
having  gathered  an  army,  drove  him  out  of  the 
towrn,  and  forced  him  to  retire  to  his  ships,  which 
were  unable  to  cross  the  bar  in  the  face  of  the 
monsoon  till  Aug.  15.  In  November  he  re 
turned,  stormed  the  city,  and  permanently  es 
tablished  himself  there.  The  next  year,  Diego 
de  Vascon cellos  having  been  ordered  to  lead 
an  expedition  against  Malacca,  Albuquerque 
seized  and  sent  him  back  to  Portugal,  took 
command  of  the  expedition  himself,  captured 
the  town  with  a  force  of  1,000  against  30,000 
natives  and  3,000  cannon,  and  plundered  it  of 
an  enormous  booty.  After  remaining  a  year 
at  Malacca,  and  establishing  Portuguese  power 
there,  he  sailed  for  Goa,  and  was  shipwrecked 
on  his  voyage ;  but  he  escaped  with  life,  and 
on  reaching  the  city  repulsed  an  attempt  to 
recover  the  place  made  by  Idal  Khan.  His 
success  struck  such  terror  into  the  natives,  that 
they  submitted  and  left  the  Portuguese  in  peace 
able  enjoyment  of  their  acquisitions.  In  pur- 


ALBURNUM 


ALOAMEXES 


259 


suance  of  peremptory  orders  from  home,  he 
now  (1513)  led  an  expedition  to  the  Red  sea 
for  the  purpose  of  breaking  up  the  commerce 
between  India  and  Egypt,  in  order  that  the  In 
dian  trade  might  be  monopolized  by  Portugal. 
Repulsed  in  an  attack  upon  Aden,  he  re 
turned  to  Ormuz  in  1515,  and  secured  it  with 
out  a  blow,  Portugal  retaining  possession  until 
1022,  when  Shah  Abbas  recovered  it.  Many 
attempts  had  been  made  by  intriguers  at  home, 
jealous  of  his  fame,  to  injure  him,  and  more 
than  one  commander  had  been  sent  out  to  su 
persede  him  ;  but  he  disregarded  the  orders  of 
the  court.  He  was,  however,  at  length  recall 
ed  (1515),  and  his  health  having  suffered  in  the 
climate  of  the  Red  sea  and  Persian  gulf,  his 
vexation  at  his  disgrace  so  operated  on  his  en 
feebled  frame  that  he  sank  under  it,  and  died 
in  his  63d  year.  He  was  buried  at  Goa.  His 
loss  was  deplored  as  a  national  calamity,  and 
the  king  endeavored  to  atone  for  his  previous 
ingratitude  by  honor  to  his  memory  after  his 
death.  In  his  personal  habits  he  was  mod 
erate,  and  such  was  his  reputation  for  justice, 
that  half  a  century  afterward  both  Mohammed 
ans  and  Hindoos  visited  his  tomb  to  pray  for 
his  protection  against  the  extortions  and  oppres 
sions  of  his  successors.  The  celebrated  Com 
mentaries  do  grande  Affonso  d^Alboquerque 
was  edited  from  his  papers  by  his  natural  son 
Affonso,  minister  of  finance  under  John  III. 
Of  the  original  edition  there  are  only  three 
copies  extant,  one  of  which  is  in  the  royal  li 
brary  of  Portugal.  The  best  edition  was  ex 
ecuted  at  the  royal  printing  office,  Lisbon,  in 
1774  (4  vols.  8vo). 

ALBCRNOI,  that  part  of  the  stern  of  trees 
which  timber  merchants  call  sap  wood,  in  con 
tradistinction  to  heart  wood.  It  is  the  newly 
formed  wood,  lying  next  below  the  bark,  and 
is  a  delicate  fibrous  tissue,  the  principal  use  of 
which  is  to  convey  the  crude  sap  from  the  roots 
to  the  leaves.  It  is,  therefore,  a  necessary 
part  of  all  exogenous  trees.  But  it  is  of  a  very 
perishable  nature,  and  only  loses  that  quality 
when,  being  enveloped  within  exterior  layers 
of  the  same  substance,  it  becomes  combined 
with  other  secretions,  which  solidify  it  and  con 
vert  it  into  duramen,  or  heart  wood.  Most 
plants,  and  all  trees  valuable  as  timber,  have 
the  sap  wood  and  heart  wood  distinct,  the  one 
forming  the  external  layer,  the  other  the  core. 
Some,  however,  consist  of  alburnum  only,  and 
are  known  as  whitewood,  which  are  useless,  or 
of  use  only  for  the  most  temporary  purposes. 

ALCJDIS,  a  Greek  lyric  poet  and  warrior,  a 
native  of  Mitylene  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  flour 
ished  toward  the  close  of  the  7th  century  B.  0. 
He  served  in  the  war  which  took  place  in  606 
between  the  Athenians  and  Mitylenians  for  the 
possession  of  Sigeum,  on  the  coast  of  Troas. 
He  was  a  partisan  of  the  nobles  in  their  feuds 
with  the  people  of  Mitylene,  and  shared  the 
exile  of  his  faction,  after  a  futile  attempt  to  re 
establish  himself  in  his  country  by  force  of 
arms.  His  poems,  originally  consisting  of  ten 


I  books,  are  said  to  have  exhibited  the 
j  lyric  in  its  highest  perfection,  but  only  frag 
ments  have  come  down  to  us.  Some  were 
I  warlike  or  patriotic;  some  bacchanalian  or  erotic 
I  songs;  while  others  were  hymns,  or  epigrams, 
I  or  poems  addressed  to  individual  friends.  He 
!  is  considered  the  inventor  of  the  Alcaic  metres. 
:  Horace  admired  and  imitated  him.  The  best 
!  collection  of  the  extant  fragments  of  Alcaeus 
:  will  be  found  in  Bcrgk's  Poetce  Lyrici  Greed 
I  (Leipsic,  2d  edition,  1853.) — There  were  two 
other  Greek  poets  of  the  same  name,  of  Athens 
and  Messene,  and  of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries 
1  B.  C.,  of  whose  writings  some  fragments  also 
'  remain ;  but  they  are  of  little  importance. 

ALCAIDE,   an  executive    officer    among  the 
!  Spaniards,  Portuguese,   and  Moors,  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  a  castle  or  fort,  or  to  super 
intend  a^  prison.     (See  ALCALDE.) 

ALCALA,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  Spain, 
I  derived   from   the   Moorish '.£7  Khalaat,  the 
castle.     I.  Alcala  de  Henares  (anc.  Complutum\ 
a  town  on  the  river  Ilenares,  in  New  Castile, 
17  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Madrid ;  pop.  about  9,000. 
!  It  is  celebrated  for  its  university,  instituted  by 
:  Cardinal  Ximenes  in  1510,  which  was  long  a 
i  famous  school  of  law  and  divinity,  but  in  1836 
I  was  suppressed,  and  the  library  removed  to 
I  Madrid.      The  Complutensian   polyglot  Bible 
i  was  issued  from  it  at  the  expense  of  its  illus- 
I  trious  founder.    (See  POLYGLOT.)    Ithasamili- 
!  tary  school,  a  magnificent  church,  a  number  of 
I  convents,  and  a  palace  of  the  archbishop  of  To- 
j  ledo.     Alcala  was  the  birthplace  of  Cervantes, 
i  the  historian  Antonio  Solis,  the  naturalist  Bus- 
I  tamente  de  la  Camera,  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I., 
!  and  many  other  famous  men.      It  was  in  pos- 
|  session  of  the  Moors  until  the  12th  century, 
when  it  was  recovered  by  Don  Bernardo,  arch 
bishop  of  Toledo.      II.    Alcala  la  Real,  a  small 
j  town  of  Andalusia,  27  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Jaen, 
on  a  plateau  2,804  feet  above  the  sea;  pop. 
|  about  7,000.     It  was  the  scene  of  a  victory 
i  by    Sebastiani    over    the    Spaniards    in    Jan 
uary,  1810,  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of 
Granada  by  the  French. 

ALCALDE,  in  Spanish,  the  title  of  a  civil  dig- 

!  nitary,  either  judicial  or  administrative,  with 

!  which  alcaide  is  sometimes  confounded.      (See 

;  ALCAIDE.)      Both  terms  are  probably  derived 

;  from  the  Arabic  al-cadi.      The  alcalde  mayor 

'  is  a  local  judge  who  presides  over  the  tribunals, 

and  is  distinct  from  the  municipal  alcalde  or 

|  corregidor,  who  is  not  a  lawyer.      The  alcalde 

\  pedaneo  is  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  is  elected 

j  by  the  people.      Alcaldes  de  casa  y  corte  form 

a  bench  of  judges  for  the  trial  of  criminal  or 

i  civil  causes  within  certain  circuits,  to  whom 

an  appeal  lies  against  the  decision  of  any  indi- 

|  vidual  of  their  number. 

ALCADIEXES,  a  Greek  sculptor,  flourished  in 
|  the  latter  half  of  the  oth  century  B.  C.  He 
|  was  the  most  famous  pupil  of  Phidias,  and  is 
!  said  to  have  unsuccessfully  competed  with  him 
|  in  a  statue  of  Minerva.  His  masterpiece  was 
!  a  statue  of  Venus,  now  lost. 


260 


ALCAMO 


ALCHEMY 


ALCAMO,  a  city  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of 
Trapani,  23  m.  S.  W.  of  Palermo  ;  pop.  in  1872, 
20,890.  It  was  originally  a  Saracenic  town, 
built  on  the  summit  of  a  neighboring  hill.  The 
Saracens  were  expelled  in  1223,  and  the  town 
was  rebuilt  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  It  is  sur 
rounded  by  a  battlemented  wall  of  the  14th 
century,  but  the  place  is  very  poor  and  decayed. 
In  the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  ancient  Segesta 
and  quarries  of  yellow  marble. 

ALCANTARA  (Arab.,  the  bridge  ;  anc,  N~orl>a 
Ccesareci).  I.  A  small  town  in  Spanish  Estre- 
madura,  near  the  Portuguese  frontier,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Tagus,  in  the  province  and  34  m. 
YvT.  X.  W.  of  Cuceres;  pop.  about  4,500.  A 
magnificent  six-arch  bridge,  built  across  the 
Tagus  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  was  blown  up  by 
the  British  during  the  Peninsular  war.  II. 
Knights  of,  a  Spanish  order  deriving  their  origin 
from  the  knights  of  San  Julian  de  Pe}Trero,  a 
small  body  of  valiant  Christians  in  the  12th 
century  who  vowed  continual  war  against  the 
Moors.  In  1215  Alcantara,  which  had  been  in 
possession  of  the  Moors,  was  recovered  by  Al 
fonso  IX.,  and  the  grand  master  of  Calatrava 
being  unable  to  undertake  its  defence,  the  duty 
was  assigned  to  the  brothers  of  San  Julian, 
who  changed  their  name  to  that  of  knights  of 
Alcantara,  In  1495,  the  grand  master  dying, 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  became  administrator 
of  the  order,  and  united  the  office  of  grand 
master  with  the  crown.  The  order  as  an  or 
ganized  body  has  since  been  abolished,  and 
exists  now  only  as  a  military  order  of  merit. 
In  addition  to  the  usual  vows  of  the  monk- 
soldier,  the  knight  of  Alcantara  was  bound  to 
maintain  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Vir 
gin.  After  1540  a  change  was  made  in  the 
statutes  of  the  order,  which  permitted  the 
knights  to  marry. 

ALCAVALA,  or  Aleabala,  a  duty  imposed  in 
Spain  and  its  colonies  on  all  transfers  of  prop 
erty.  It  was  originally  laid  in  1341  as  an  ad 
valorem  tax  of  10  per  cent.,  and  was  afterward 
increased  to  14  per  cent.  It  was  even  levied 
on  such  movable  chattels  as  manufactured  com 
modities,  and  was-  attached  to  all  wholesale 
transactions.  This  oppressive  impediment  to 
the  operations  of  trade  continued  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  Spanish  realm  until  swept 
away  by  Napoleon  in  1808.  Catalonia  and 
Aragon  purchased  from  Philip  V.  an  exemp 
tion  from  the  alcavala  by  the  substitution  of  a 
tax  on  rents  and  on  incomes. 

ALCAZAR  (Arab.,  the  royal  castle).  I.  In 
Spanish,  the  general  name  for  a  castle  or 
citadel — applied  to  the  castles  at  Seville  and 
Segovia,  and  to  many  others.  II.  Alcazar  de 
San  Jnan,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  New  Castile,  in 
the  province  and  48  m.  N.  E.  of  Ciudad  Real ; 
pop.  about  8,000.  It  has  manufactures  of  salt 
petre,  soap,  chocolate,  &c.,  and  is  also  a  rail 
way  centre,  where  the  line  from  Valencia  joins 
that  from  Madrid  to  Cordova.  Near  it  are  rich 
iron  pits. 

ALCESTIS.     See  ADMETUS. 


ALCHEMY  (Arab,  al-lcimia,  from  al,  the,  and 
Gr.  £J7//efo,  chemistry),  the  ancient  name  for  the 
science  of  chemistry.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  hermetic  art,  from  Hermes  Trismegistus, 
anciently  reputed  its  discoverer.  The  word 
alchemy  is  first  found  in  the  works  of  the 
Greek  author  Zosimus  of  Pannopolis,  who 
wrote  in  the  early  part  of  the  5th  century. 
During  the  middle  ages  it  was  a  mysterious 
art,  aiming  to  change  inferior  metals  into  sil 
ver  and  gold,  and  to  find  the  so-called  elixir 
of  life,  Avhich  was  to  be  the  universal  remedy 
for  all  possible  diseases,  rejuvenating  the  old, 
and  even  preventing  death.  From  the  10th  to 
the  17th  century  there  was  no  distinction  made 
between  the  words  chymia  or  chemistry  and 
alchemy;  but  since  the  latter  period,  this  class 
of  researches  becoming  more  positive  and  scien 
tific,  it  has  been  agreed  to  confine  the  use  of 
the  word  chemistry  to  the  positive  modern 
knowledge,  and  to  designate  by  the  term  al 
chemy  that  imaginary  science  which  sought 
impossible  results  from  misunderstood  or  mis 
applied  principles.  For  this  reason  the  name 
alchemist  has  become  an  expression  of  contempt. 
Still  the  ancient  alchemists,  who  called  the  sub 
ject  of  their  investigation  the  divine  art,  were 
the  precursors  of  our  modern  science,  and  en 
riched  posterity  with  the  knowledge  of  many 
valuable  facts,  which  laid  the  foundation  of 
chemistry.  The  first  authentic  account  of 
alchemy  is  found  in  Suidas,  a  Byzantine  author 
of  the  10th  or  llth  century,  who  mentions  that 
the  emperor  Diocletian,  after  the  conquest  of 
the  rebellious  Egyptians  in  the  year  296, 
ordered  that  all  the  writings  on  the  chemistry 
of  gold  and  silver  should  be  burned,  in  order 
that  the  people  should  not  grow  too  rich  by 
making  gold  and  again  commence  a  rebellion. 
It  appears  further  that  the  Greeks  living  in 
Egypt  in  the  5th  century  were  industrious 
laborers  in  this  field,  as  a  great  number  of  gen 
uine  manuscripts  on  alchemy,  dating  from  the 
5th  and  6th  centuries,  are  now  found  in  many 
of  the  large  libraries  in  Europe,  nearly  all 
coming  from  Alexandria.  The  Arabs  learned 
this  art,  after  their  great  invasion  of  northern 
Africa  and  southern  Europe,  from  some  of  the 
peoples  they  conquered.  The  greatest  Arabian 
author  on  alchemy,  Jaffar  or  Geber,  who  lived 
toward  the  end  of  the  8th  century  in  Seville, 
was  enlightened  enough  not  to  suppose  that  any 
alchemist  had  ever  succeeded  in  making  gold. 
However,  it  appears  that  he  did  not  doubt  the 
possibility  of  the  transmutation  of  metals,  as 
he  believed  that  all  metals  were  compounds  of 
three  elements.  With  all  their  errors,  however, 
some  of  the  ancient  Arabian  authors  give  very 
striking  definitions  of  alchemy,  such  as  the 
science  of  the  balance,  the  science  of  weight, 
the  science  of  combustion.  Jaffar,  or  Geber, 
marked  an  epoch  in  chemical  science  equal  to 
that  of  Lavoisier  exactly  1,000  years  later.  In 
his  time  no  stronger  acid  was  known  than 
concentrated  vinegar,  and  he  discovered  and 
described  nitric  acid  and  aqua  regia,  and  also 


ALCHEMY 


261 


discovered  that  a  metal  when  oxidized  (or,  as 
he  called  it,  calcined)  increases  in  weight ;  a  fact 
rediscovered  1,000  years  later  by  Europeans, 
and  then  brought  to  bear  in  the  destruction  of 
the  absurd  phlogiston  hypothesis  then  prevail 
ing.  He  describes  the  absorption  and  evolution 
of  gases  by  and  from  liquids  and  solids,  and 
gives  singularly  clear  instructions  in  regard  to 
filtration,  distillation,  sublimation,  water  and 
sand  baths,  cupels  of  bone  earth,  and  various 
other  chemical  operations.  He  made  nitric  acid 
by  distilling  a  mixture  of  blue  vitriol,  alum, 
and  saltpetre,  and  aqua  regia  by  adding  sal  am 
moniac  to  nitric  acid  ;  he  could  then  obtain  gold 
in  solution,  and  so  solved  the  great  problem  to 
which  before  his  time  all  the  efforts  of  alche 
mists  had  been  vainly  directed,  the  manufacture 
of  gold  in  a  potable  state.  No  wonder  that  Ro 
ger  Bacon  speaks  of  him  as  the  magister  magis- 
terium.  Rhazes,  head  physician  to  the  hospital 
of  Bagdad,  invented  about  a  century  later  the 
preparation  of  sulphuric  acid  by  the  distillation 
of  green  vitriol,  as  Xordhausen  vitriol  is  now 
prepared.  He  was  also  the  first  to  make  abso 
lute  alcohol  by  distilling  spirits  over  quicklime. 
Achild  Bechil  distilled  a  mixture  of  urine,  clay, 
lime,  and  charcoal,  and  obtained  what  he  called 
an  artificial  carbuncle,  as  it  shone  in  the  dark 
like  the  moon ;  jt  was  phosphorus,  rediscovered 
by  Brand  in  Hamburg  in  1609.  The  taste  for 
this  class  of  pursuits  diffused  itself  over  Europe 
by  two  channels,  the  scientific  Italians,  Ger 
mans,  Englishmen,  and  Frenchmen  who  visited 
Spain  frequently,  and  the  Greeks  who  fled  from 
the  Mussulman  invasion.  Already  in  the  10th 
century  we  find  traces  of  alchemy  in  different 
European  countries  ;  but  it  was  most  ardently 
pursued  in  the  loth,  10th,  and  17th  centuries, 
in  the  course  of  which  many  deceptive  and 
imaginary  sciences  became  associated  with  it, 
such  as  theosophy,  cabala,  chiromancy,  necro 
mancy,  astrology,  and  magic.  Besides  the  great 
number  of  those  honest  alchemists  who  deceived 
the  credulous  masses  by  their  own  confidence 
expressed  in  mysterious  and  sanguine  writings, 
there  was  a  class  of  impostors  who  travelled 
about  extorting  money  from  the  credulous.  Ed 
ward  III.  of  England  paid  large  amounts  of 
money  to  the  celebrated  alchemist  Raymond 
Lully,  and  Henry  VI.  in  1440  gave  several 
patents  for  the  making  of  gold.  Rudolph  II. 
of  Germany  founded  in  Prague  a  regular 
alchemistic  university.  Augustus  I.  of  Saxony 
himself  worked,  with  his  wife  Anna  as  assistant, 
in  the  pursuit  of  gold-making,  and  kept  besides 
two  alchemists  on  a  regular  salary.  Duke 
Frederick  of  Wtirtemberg,  who  died  in  1608, 
wasted  all  the  revenue  of  his  land  in  experi 
ments.  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  appointed 
Ilarbach,  the  director  of  the  mint  in  Copen 
hagen,  as  his  private  alchemist.  The  emperor 
Ferdinand  III.,  Duke  John  Philip  of  Mentz, 
and  a  great  many  others  could  be  enumerated ; 
and  it  is  strange  that  notwithstanding  numerous 
glaring  deceptions,  and  revelations  of  the  most 
contemptible  dishonesty,  which  were  often  pun 


ished  by  public  executions,  the  belief  in  the 
possibility  of  making  gold  maintained  itself. 
When  Bottger  escaped  from  Berlin  in  1703,  he 
was  placed  in  prison  in  Dresden  by  the  elector 
of  Saxony,  to  compel  him  to  make  gold  ;  he  suc 
ceeded,  however,  in  discovering  there  the  much 
more  valuable  art  of  making  porcelain.  Even 
the  celebrated  astronomer  Tycho  Brahe  occu 
pied  himself  with  attempts  to  make  gold,  but 
with  the  purpose  of  obtaining  means  to  pros 
ecute  his  astronomical  investigations  on  a  larger 
scale.  Until  the  end  of  the  17th  century  all 
chemical  labors  were  chiefly  directed  to  the 
same  end,  though  many  practised  this  art  for 
medical  purposes.  Among  the  many  authors 
on  alchemy  must  be  mentioned  Albertus  Mag 
nus,  Roger  Bacon,  Arnold  de  Villanova,  Ray 
mond  Lully,  Basilius  Valentinus,  Theophrastus 
Paracelsus,  Libavius,  Becher,  Kunckel,  and 
Glauber. — During  the  18th  century  it  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  between  an  alchemist  and  a  true 
chemist,  as  many  really  scientific  men  were 
kept  in  error  by  believing  Jaffar's  false  theory 
that  all  metals  were  compound  bodies.  Even 
as  late  as  1772,  Schroder,  professor  in  Marburg, 
and  Wenzel,  a  distinguished  chemist  in  Freiberg, 
defended  the  theory  of  the  transmutation  of 
metals.  Guyton  de  Morveau  firmly  believed  that 
silver  could  be  changed  into  gold  simply  by 
melting  with  it  sulphuret  of  antimony  and 
arsenic ;  but  it  was  afterward  discovered  that 
all  the  gold  thus  obtained  could  be  accounted 
for  as  being  present  beforehand  in  the  materials 
used.  In  1796  two  German  physicians  in  West 
phalia  founded  a  society  for  the  purpose  of 
investigating  the  transmutation  of  metals ; 
many  branch  societies  were  formed,  which 
were  flourishing  in  1804,  and  still  in  existence 
in  1820.  In  a  text  book  of  chemistry  (Baudri- 
mont,  Traite  de  chimie)  published  so  lately  as 
1844,  it  is  stated  that  a  certain  '"Mr.  Javary 
has  obtained  very  surprising  results  by  following 
the  prescriptions  of  the  ancient  alchemists,  so 
that  there  is  hope  of  at  last  seeing  the  great 
work  succeed."  In  a  still  later  publication 
(1856)  Fiffereau  affirms  that  the  metals  are 
compound  bodies,  and  that  silver  can  be  changed 
into  gold. — The  alchemists'  articles  of  faith  were 
as  follows :  "  1.  There  exists  a  preparation,  solid 
in  form  and  red  of  color,  called  the  philoso 
pher's  stone,  the  grand  elixir  (major  magis- 
terium),  the  red  tincture,  which,  when  it  is 
placed  in  very  small  doses  on  melted  liquid 
silver,  mercury,  lead,  or  some  other  common 
metal,  causes  a  transmutation  of  the  same  into 
gold.  2.  The  same  preparation,  used  in  very 
small  doses  as  a  medicine,  cures  all  diseases, 
rejuvenates  the  old,  and  prolongs  life;  where 
fore  it  is  called  the  panacea  of  life,  and  since  it 
contains  the  essence  of  gold,  aurum  potalnle. 
3.  There  is  another  preparation  of  a  white 
color,  called  the  stone  of  the  second  degree, 
the  little  elixir  (jninor  magisteriwn),  the  white 
tincture,  which  is  equal  to  the  first  in  half  a 
degree  of  perfection,  and  changes  the  common 
rnetals  into  silver." 


262 


ALCIATI 


ALCIBIADES 


ALCIATI,  GioTanni  Paolo,  a  theologian,  born  in  | 
Piedmont,  died  in  Dantzic  about  1570.  He 
embraced  Protestantism,  and  figured  in  Geneva,  j 
but  spon  afterward  promulgated  doctrines 
about  the  Trinity  which  were  as  distasteful  to 
the  Protestants  as  to  the  Catholics.  He  and 
his  fellow  laborers,  among  whom  was  a  physi 
cian  named  Blandrata  (see  BLAXDRATA),  had  to 
flee  from  Geneva,  and  chose  Poland  for  a  ref 
uge,  where  they  met  a  hearty  reception.  He 
wrote  two  letters  (1564  and  1565)  to  Gregorio 
Pauli,  maintaining  that  our  Saviour  did  not  ex 
ist  before  his  birth  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

ALCIBIADES,  an  Athenian  statesman  and  gen 
eral,  son  of  Clinias  and  Dinomache,  born  in 
Athens  in  450  B.  C.,  died  in  Bithynia  in  404. 
He  boasted  his  descent  from  the  Telainonian 
Ajax,  and  through  him  from  Jupiter  himself. 
His  grandfather  had  been  among  those  who -at 
tempted  the  banishment  of  the  Pisistratidre, 
and  had  received  the  prize  of  valor  at  the  bat 
tle  of  Artemisium ;  and  his  father  fell  in  the 
battle  of  Clucronea  (497).  Alcibiades  was 
educated  in  the  house  of  Pericles,  his  maternal 
relative,  and  from  a  child  excelled  in  all  studies 
and  in  all  physical  exercises.  As  he  advanced 
to  manhood,  his  birth,  person,  abilities,  and 
wealth,  joined  to  the  consideration  in  which 
lie  was  held  by  Pericles,  procured  for  him  a 
crowd  of  friends  and  flatterers ;  and  he  became 
as  distinguished  for  the  audacity  of  his  dissipa 
tions  as  for  the  brilliancy  of  his  station  and 
abilities.  Socrates,  who  appreciated  his  capaci 
ties,  gained  great  influence  over  him,  and  from 
this  time  his  whole  life  seemed  a  wavering  be 
tween  virtue  and  vice.  lie  gave  the  first 
proofs  of  his  valor  in  the  battle  of  Potidsea 
(432),  where  he  was  wounded  while  fighting 
side  by  side  with  Socrates,  whose  protection 
alone  saved  his  life.  He  returned  this  service 
to  his  teacher  in  the  battle  of  Delium  (424), 
where  his  efforts  saved  Socrates  from  the 
sword  of  the  conquering  Boeotians.  He  always 
carried  in  war  a  shield  inlaid  with  gold  and 
ivory,  and  bearing  the  device  of  Jupiter  hurling 
a  thunderbolt,  lie  distinguished  himself  in  the 
public  festivals  of  the  Greeks,  and  at  the 
Olympic  games  he  was  not  content  with  fur 
nishing  one  chariot,  like  the  other  wealthy 
young  men,  but  equipped  and  sent  seven,  with 
which  he  bore  off  the  first  three  prizes.  He 
took  little  part  in  public  affairs  till  the  death 
of  the  demagogue  Cleon,  in  422,  when  he 
became  the  head  of  the  new  war  party  in  op 
position  to  Nicias.  Nicias  had  just  concluded 
a  peace  of  50  years  between  the  Athenians  and 
Lacedaemonians,  and  Alcibiades,  jealous  of  the 
power  of  Nicias,  set  himself  to  break  the  peace 
and  to  form  a  union  of  the  Greek  states  against 
Sparta.  His  counsels  caused  the  great  expedi 
tion  to  Sicily  (415),  of  which  he  was  appointed 
commander  together  with  Nicias  and  Lama- 
chus,  and  which  he  thought  would  be  a  step 
toward  the  conquest  of  Magna  Grrecia,  Car 
thage,  and  Peloponnesus.  While  the  prepa 
rations  for  this  expedition  were  going  on,  all  the 


busts  of  Hermes  in  Athens  were  during  one 
night  mysteriously  mutilated.  The  cause  and 
the  authors  of  this  sacrilege  were  unknown, 
but  the  popular  fears  connected  it  in  some  un 
accountable  way  with  an  attempt  to  overthrow 
the  Athenian  constitution.  That  Alcibiades 
had  anything  to  do  with  the  offence  there 
was  no  evidence,  and  if  he  was  guilty  of 
it,  it  was  probably  one  of  the  unpremed 
itated  results  of  a  nocturnal  debauch.  Nev 
ertheless,  suspicion  was  thrown  upon  him, 
and  immediately  produced  great  popular  indig 
nation.  The  Sicilian  fleet  being  nearly  ready 
to  sail  under  his  command,  he  demanded  an 
investigation  before  his  departure  from  Athens. 
This  his  enemies  refused  to  give  him,  thinking 
to  increase  the  popular  odium  against  him  in 
his  absence.  The  expedition  had  hardly 
reached  Sicily  when  the  anger  of  the  people 
became  so  excessive  that  his  ruin  was  fully  de 
termined  upon.  But  as  he  had  already  gained 
shining  advantages  in  Sicily,  and  had  become 
the  favorite  of  the  soldiers,  it  was  deemed  haz 
ardous  to  pass  public  sentence  upon  him  while 
he  was  at  the  head  of  an  army.  lie  was  there 
fore  recalled.  On  his  voyage  homeward  he 
escaped  at  Thurii  and  fled,  first  to  Argos,  and 
then  to  Sparta.  Meantime  sentence  of  death 
was  passed  upon  him  at  Athens,  and  his  prop 
erty  was  confiscated.  In  Sparta  he  adapted 
himself  skilfully  to  the  severe  manners  of  the 
country,  became  a  favorite  of  the  populace, 
and,  being  now  the  avowed  enemy  of  his  own 
country,  he  persuaded  the  Lacedajmonians  to 
send  help  to  Sicily  against  the  Athenians.  He 
then  effected  an  alliance  between  the  Spartans 
and  the  king  of  Persia,  for  the  purpose  of  sup 
porting  the  Chians  in  revolt  against  Athens. 
He  passed  over  into  Asia  Minor,  and  roused  all 
Ionia  into  rebellion.  Soon,  however,  his  suc 
cesses  and  great  influence  excited  the  jealousy 
of  the  principal  Spartans,  and  Alcibiades  took 
refuge  with  Tissaphernes,  a  Persian  satrap. 
He  who  had  won  the  admiration  of  the  Spar 
tans  by  adopting  all  their  simplicity,  and  prac 
tising  all  their  austerity,  now  merited  the  ap 
plauses  of  the  orientals  by  vying  with  them  in 
Asiatic  luxury.  An  exile  both  from  Athens 
and  Sparta,  he  began  now  to  look  with  longing 
toward  his  native  country.  He  persuaded  Tis 
saphernes  to  desert  the  cause  of  the  Spartans, 
and  to  show  willingness  even  to  assist  the 
Athenians,  for  which  service  he  was  recalled 
from  banishment  in  411.  Though  he  did  not 
return  immediately  to  Athens,  he  yet  used  his 
influence  to  make  the  government  aristocrati- 
cal,  and  received  command  of  the  Athenian 
fleet  at  Samos,  with  the  determination  not'to 
see  again  his  native  land  till  he  had  rendered 
services  commensurate  with  the  evils  which  he 
had  caused  it.  Defeating  the  Lacedaemonians 
both  by  land  and  sea,  he  was  suddenly  arrested 
by  Tissaphernes,  who  wished  to  avoid  suspicion 
of  having  authorized  the  enterprise.  But  finding 
means  to  escape,  Alcibiades  again  put  himself 
i  at  the  head  of  ihe  army,  defeated  the  Lacedre- 


ALCHINDUS 


263 


monians  and  Persians  at  Cyzicus,  captured  that 
town,  Ohalcedon,  and  Byzantium,  restored  to 
the  Athenians  their  supremacy  by  sea,  and 
after  these  brilliant  achievements  returned  to 
Athens  in  407,  where  he  was  received  with 
general  enthusiasm.  His  triumph  was  com 
plete  when  he  celebrated  with  unusual  splen 
dor  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  Being  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  land  and  sea 
forces,  he  sailed  with  a  fleet  to  Asia  Minor,  to 
reduce  some  of  the  Ionian  islands  and  cities. 
The  pay  and  provisions  for  his  soldiers  not  ar 
riving,  and  his  position  becoming  dangerous,  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  his  army  in  command  of 
Antiochus,  while  he  himself  sought  supplies  in 
Caria.  During  his  absence,  the  Spartan  com 
mander  Ly sander  had  the  art  to  draw  Anti 
ochus  into  an  engagement,  in  which  the  Athe 
nians  were  defeated  and  a  part  of  their  vessels 
destroyed.  Alcibiades  now  again  lost  favor. 
He  went  into  voluntary  banishment,  to  a  castle 
which  he  had  built  in  Pactye,  Thrace.  When 
the  Athenian  fleet  was  in  405  lying  at  ^Egospo- 
tamos,  Alcibiades  informed  the  generals  of.  the 
perilous  position  which  they  had  selected,  and 
forewarned  them  of  the  fatal  result  of  the  bat 
tle  soon  after  fought  there,  which  caused  the  fall 
of  Athens  in  the  following  year,  and  its  subjec 
tion  to  the  thirty  tyrants.  The  Spartans,  who 
now  ruled  at  Athens,  renewed  the  decree  of 
banishment  against  him,  and  Alcibiades  fled 
toward  the  court  of  Artaxerxes  II.  to  win  over 
that  monarch  to  the  cause  of  his  fallen  country. 
He  was  on  his  way  thither,  in  the  dominions  of 
the  satrap  Pharnabazus,  when  one  night  his 
house  was  surrounded  by  armed  men,  and  set 
on  fire.  He  rushed  out,  sword  in  hand,  but 
fell  pierced  with  arrows.  The  Spartans,  feel 
ing  their  supremacy  insecure  while  Alcibiades 
lived,  had  probably  thus  plotted  with  Pharna 
bazus  for  his  destruction. 

ALCHINDUS.     See  ALKIXDI. 

ALCINOIS,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  Xau- 
sithous  and  grandson  of  Neptune.  In  the  story 
of  the  Argonauts  he  is  king  of  the  island  of 
Drepane,  where  he  entertained  Jason  and  his 
companions.  In  the  Odyssey  he  rules  over 
the  Pha3aces  in  the  island  of  Scheria. 

ALCIPHRON,  a  Greek  writer,  supposed  to 
have  been  a  contemporary  of  Lucian,  flourish 
ing  about  A.  D.  170.  He  was  the  author  of  113 
fictitious  letters,  in  which  certain  representa 
tive  characters — fishermen,  peasants,  parasites, 
and  courtesans — are  made  to  portray,  in  the 
purest  Attic,  the  opinions  and  idiosyncrasies  of 
the  classes  to  which  they  respectively  belong. 
These  letters  are  mostly  given  as  if  written 
from  Athens  or  its  vicinity,  in  the  age  immedi 
ately  following  that  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
The  best  edition  of  them  is  that  of  Seiler 
(Leipsic,  2d  eel.,  185(3). 

ALCIRA,  an  old  walled  town  of  Spain,  on  an 
island  in  the  river  Jucar,  in  the  province  and 
24  m.  S.  of  Valencia;  pop.  about  14,000.  It 
is  irregularly  built,  but  is  adorned  by  several 
churches  and  bridges  over  the  Jucar,  an,d  a  fine 


railway  depot  belonging  to  the  Valencia  and 
Almansa  line.  It  was  an  important  town  in 
Moorish  times. 

ALCMJ20N.  I.  In  ancient  Greek  legends,  a 
son  of  Amphiaraus  and  Eriphyle  of  Argos, 
and  brother  of  Amphilochus.  Eriphyle  hav 
ing  been  bribed  by  Polynices  with  the  neck 
lace  and  robe  of  Harmonia  to  induce  Amphi 
araus  to  join  the  expedition  of  the  seven  against 
Thebes,  the  latter,  foreseeing  that  he  should 
fall,  charged  his  sons  to  kill  her  when  they 
were  grown  up.  Meantime,  an  oracle  having 
declared  that  the  expedition  of  the  epigoni 
would  be  successful  if  commanded  by  Alcmseon, 
Polynices  again  bribed  Eriphyle  with  the 
peplus  of  Harmonia  to  persuade  him  to  com 
ply.  On  his  return  Alcmseon  fulfilled  his 
father's  injunction  by  killing  her.  For  this 
crime  he  was  afflicted  with  madness  and  tor 
mented  by  the  Furies,  who  drove  him  into  ex 
ile,  and  doomed  him  to  a  life  of  perpetual 
wandering.  Arriving  in  Psophis,  he  was  hos 
pitably  received  and  purified  by  its  king,  Phe- 
geus,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  Arsinoe  in 
marriage.  To  her  Alcmseon  presented  the 
necklace  and  robe  of  Harmonia.  But  Psophis 
having  been  visited  by  a  famine  because  of 
Alcmseon's  sojourn  there,  he  had  to  depart, 
and,  by  the  advice  of  an  oracle,  went  to  the 
land  of  the  river  god  Achelous,  where  he 
married  the  nymph  Calirrhoe.  His  new  spouse 
coveting  the  magical  robe  and  necklace  which 
he  had  given  to  Arsinoe,  Alcmason  went  to 
Psophis  and  obtained  them  from  the  daughter  of 
Phegeus,  under  the  pretence  that  he  was  going 
to  dedicate  them  at  Delphi.  But  when  Phegeus 
heard  that  they  had  been  presented  to  Calir 
rhoe,  he  sent  his  sons  to  slay  Alcrna3on  and 
avenge  the  insult  offered  to  their  sister.  Alc- 
maaon  was  afterward  worshipped  as  a  hero  in 
many  parts  of  Greece.  II.  A  Greek  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  the  Hellenic  city  of  Cro- 
tona  in  southern  Italy,  about  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century  B.  C.  He  is  said  to  have 
studied  under  Pythagoras,  and  to  have  been 
the  first  who  ventured  on  the  practice  of  dis 
secting  animals.  He  wrote  several  medical 
and  philosophical  treatises,  of  which  a  few 
fragments  remain. 

ALCMMKNID/E,  a  noble  Athenian  family,  de 
scendants  of  Alcma3on,  the  great-grandson  of 
Nestor.  The  whole  family  were  expelled  from 
Athens  about  596  B.  C.  by  a  council  of  300 
nobles,  to  whom,  by  the  advice  of  Solon,  they 
had  submitted  the  case  of  the  archon  Megacles, 
one  of  their  number.  Megacles  was  accused 
of  having  been  guilty  of  sacrilege  in'his  treach 
ery  toward  Cylon  and  his  comrades,  whom  he 
killed  after  promising  them  safety — a  crime 
which  in  the  opinion  of  the  council  brought  a 
stain  upon  all  the  Alcmneonids.  After  an 
exile  of  about  30  years  they  succeeded  in 
returning  to  the  city,  and  even,  after  a  few 
years,  in  seizing  the  government  and  ex 
pelling  Pisistratus.  Although  Megacles  after 
ward  restored  him,  and  gave  him  his  daugh- 


264 


ALCMAN 


ALCOHOL 


ter  in  marriage,  new  quarrels  broke  out,  and 
Pisistratus  was  agnin  banished.  Collecting 
an  army,  he  defeated  and  again  expelled 
the  Alcmceonids.  During  this  period  of 
renewed  exile,  the  family  magnificently  re 
stored  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  which 
had  been  burned.  Aided  by  the  popularity 
given  them  by  this  great  work,  and  by  the 
friendship  of  the  Spartans,  they  were  in  510 
restored  for  the  second  time  to  Athens,  where 
many  members  of  the  family  became  illustrious. 
Among  these  were  Clisthenes,  Pericles,  and  Al- 
cibiades. 

ALOIAIV,  or  Alcmaeon,  a  Spartan  lyric  poet, 
flourished  about  050  B.  C.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  by  birth  a  Lydian,  and  originally  a  slave, 
and  to  have  died  at  a  very  advanced  age.  He 
wrote  chiefly  in  Spartan  Doric.  His  poems,  of 
which  some  line  fragments  are  extant,  were 
mostly  erotic. 

ALOIEXA,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  daughter 
of  Electryon,  king  of  Mycenae.  She  had 
ten  brothers,  who,  save  one,  were  slain  by 
the  sons  of  Pterclaus.  Alcmena  had  been 
betrothed  to  Amphitryon,  but  she  never 
theless  declared  that  the  man  who  avenged 
the  death  of  her  brothers  should  be  her  hus 
band.  Amphitryon,  in  order  to  prove  him 
self  worthy  of  her  hand,  undertook  the  en 
terprise.  During  his  absence,  Jupiter  visited 
Alcmena,  and  by  assuming  the  likeness  of  Am- 

Shitryon,  and  pretending  to  have  avenged  the 
eath  of  her  brothers,  obtained  her  favor.  She 
thus  became  the  mother  of  Hercules,  almost  at 
the  same  time  that  she  bore  Iphicles  to  Am 
phitryon.  After  her  death,  Jupiter  sent  Mer 
cury  to  transport  her  body  to  the  Elysian  isles. 
ALCOCK,  Sir  Rnthorfci  d,  a  British  diplomatist, 
born  in  London  in  1809.  He  was  a  surgeon  in 
the  navy  in  Portugal  in  1833-'4,  inspector  of 
hospitals  under  Sir  de  Lacy  Evans  in  Spain,  in 
1835-'7,  and  auditor  of  accounts  of  the  English- 
Spanish  legion  in  1839-M4.  He  was  afterward 
consul  successively  at  Foo-Chow,  Shanghai,  and 
Canton,  China.  In  1859  he  held  the  joint 
offices  of  consul  general  and  minister  in  Japan. 
As  a  result  of  "his  energy  in  resenting  Japanese 
outrages  upon  Europeans,  attempts  were  made 
upon  his  life  in  18(50  and  1802.  On  his  return 
to  England  he  published  "The  Capital  of  the 
Tycoon,  or  Narrative  of  Three  Years'  Resi 
dence  in  Japan  "  (2  vols.,  London,  1803).  lie 
was  made  K.  C.  B.  in  1 803.  From  1 805  to  1 871 
he  was  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plen 
ipotentiary  and  chief  superintendent  of  British 
commerce  in  China.  He  is  also  the  author  of 
"Medical  History  of  the  British  Lesion  in 
Spain"  (1838),  "Life's  Problems"  (2d  ed., 
1802),  and  other  works. 

ALCOHOL,  in  popular  language,  the  intoxicat 
ing  principle  of  fermented  liquors.  The  word 
is  of  Arabic  origin,  and  means  "to  paint," 
probably  in  reference  to  the  use  of  this  com 
pound  to  dissolve  pigments  which  are  insoluble 
in  water.  Chemists  understand  by  alcohol  the 
hydrate  of  a  hydrocarbon  radical,  and  include 


a  numerous  class  of  bodies  under  this  designa 
tion.     Ordinary  vinic  alcohol  is  formed  in  the 
decomposition  of  glucose  (grape  sugar)  by  fer 
mentation.     One  part  of  grape  sugar,  repre 
sented   by  the   formula   CcHisOe,   is   split  up 
by  a  ferment  into  two  parts  of  alcohol  and 
two  parts  of  carbonic  acid:  2(C2IlGO)  +  2CO2. 
Kennel  so  long  ago  as  1828  (see  "Philosoph 
ical    Transactions'')    says:     "By    combining 
olefiant  gas  with  sulphuric  acid,  we  may  form 
sulpho-vinic  acid,  from  which  we  may  obtain 
at  pleasure,  by  varying  the  circumstances  of 
decomposition,  either  alcohol  or  ether."     This 
observation  has  since  been   confirmed  by  M. 
Berthelot,  who  has  succeeded  in  making  alco 
hol   synthetically,  by  combining  water   with 
|  olefiant    gas:    C2II4  +  H2O=C2H6O.     Alcohol 
I  for  commercial   purposes   is  obtained   by  dis- 
I  tilling  \vine   and   other  liquors  that  have  un- 
I  dergone   vinous    fermentation ;    carbonate   of 
j  soda  is  sometimes  added  to  keep  back  acetic 
j  acid,  and  fusel  oil  is  removed  by  charcoal.    The 
alcohol  of  the  London  Pharmacopoeia  contains 
about  82  per  cent,  of  alcohol  and  18  of  water. 
Its   specific   gravity   is   required  to  be  0*838, 
water   being  1-000.     It  is  thus  seen  that  the 
less  water  it  contains,  the  less  is  its  specific 
gravity ;  and  this  property  is  therefore  a  con- 
|  venient   test   of  its   purity.     In  consequence, 
however,  of   condensation  of  the  two  fluids 
I  when  mixed,  this  test  cannot  be  applied  except 
in  connection  with  tables  of  reference  prepared 
for    this    purpose. — To    prepare    absolute    or 
anhydrous    alcohol,    some   substance  must  be 
i  placed   in    it    which    shall   retain    the  water. 
!  Fused  carbonate  of  potash  is  such  a  substance. 
!  It  absorbs  the  water,  and  the  alcohol  nearly 
|  anhydrous  occupies  the  upper  part  of  the  ves- 
i  sel,  whence  it  is  distilled  off  nearly  pure.     Its 
I  specific  gravity  is  now  reduced  to  0'815,  and 
;  its   percentage  of  water  to  about  5.     Quick- 
I  lime,   well   powdered,   and  thoroughly  mixed 
|  and  shaken  with  the  alcohol,  is  sometimes  used 
•  instead  of  the  carbonate  of  potash ;  but  chlo- 
i  ride  of  calcium  is  said  by  some  to  be  more 
:  effective  than  either.     The  salt  is  first  fused  to 
|  free  it  from  water,  and  is  then  mixed  with  an 
|  equal  weight  of  the  spirit  in  a  well  stoppered 
|  bottle.      When   the   solution  is  effected,  it  is 
j  poured  into  a  retort  or  still,  and  distilled  at  a 
I  moderate  heat.     The  product  of  the  first  half 
|  is  absolute  alcohol.    Its  specific  gravity  at  a  tem- 
1  perature  of  00°  is  0-704. — Rectified  spirit  may 
|  be  deprived  of  a  portion  of  water  merely  by 
I  being  left  in  a  bladder,  or  in  a  wide-mouthed 
j  bottle  tied  over  with  bladder,  and  kept  at  a 
i  temperature  of  105°  to  120°.   By  the  principle  of 
!  exosmose,  the  water  evaporates  in  part  through 
I  the  membrane.     Alcohol  has  thus  been  brought 
;  from  sp.  gr.  0'8G7  to  0-817.     Pure  alcohol  is  a 
i  colorless  fluid,  of  an  agreeable  odor  and  strong 
pungent  taste.     It  has  a  great  affinity  for  water, 
!  absorbing  it  from  the  atmosphere,  and  increas 
ing  in  specific  gravity  with  the  amount  it  re- 
I  ceives.     Mixed    with  water,   heat   is   at   first 
!  evolved,  showing  that  a  chemical  union  has 


ALCOHOL 


2G5 


taken  place ;  another  evidence  of  which  is  the 
condensation  and  diminution  of  hulk,  and  a  less 
specific  gravity.  The  greatest  heat  and  con 
densation  result  from  a  mixture  of  52 -3  per  cent, 
of  alcohol  anl  47'7  of  water,  the  volume  after 
condensation  being  equal  to  96 '35.  The  specific 
gravity,  therefore,  of  such  mixtures  can  only 
be  determined  by  experiment. — Diluted  with 
water,  alcohol  acts  as  a  stimulant,  exciting  par 
ticularly  the  nervous  and  vascular  systems.  In 
large  doses  it  produces  intoxication,  and  when 
taken  pure  acts  as  a  narcotic  poison,  producing 
death.  It  is  very  inflammable,  burning  with  a 
pale  bluish  flame  without  smoke.  The  pro 
ducts  of  its  combustion  are  carbonic  acid  and 
water.  Absolute  alcohol  boils  at  173°  F.  The 
specific  gravity  of  its  vapor  is  1-G133.  Under 
the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air  pump  it  boils 
at  common  temperatures.  No  degree  of  cold 
ever  yet  obtained  has  effected  its  congelation. 
Faraday  exposed  it  to  a  temperature  of  106°  F. 
below  zero,  which  caused  it  to  thicken  consid 
erably.  It  is  thus  well  suited  for  thermome 
ters  for  measuring  low  temperatures. — Alcohol 
is  employed  in  medicine  as  a  solvent  in  the 
preparation  of  tinctures.  It  is  also  a  solvent 
of  resins,  gums,  &c.  With  the  former  it  makes 
varnishes ;  with  essential  oil,  perfumed  spirits. 
The  ethers  are  preparations  of  it  in  combination 
with  an  acid.  It  is  used  with  spirits  of  turpen 
tine  to  make  camphene  and  the  various  other 
illuminating  fluids  of  this  class.  It  is  used  to 
preserve  anatomical  preparations,  its  effect  be 
ing  to  combine  with  the  moisture,  and  so  pre 
vent  this  from  acting  upon  the  animal  substance 
to  produce  decay.  To  the  chemist  it  is  valua 
ble  as  a  convenient  fuel,  producing  in  his  lamp 
much  heat  with  no  annoyance  from  smoke ;  and 
it  is  of  frequent  use  as  a  reagent  for  separating 
salts,  one  of  which  is  soluble  and  the  other  in 
soluble  in  it. — The  quantity  of  alcohol  in  wine, 
beer,  and  other  fermented  liquors,  is  very  vari 
able.  Prof.  Brande  found  from  1  to  2  per  cent, 
only  in  small  beer ;  4  in  porter ;  from  6  to  9  in 
ales ;  about  12  in  the  light  wines  of  France  and 
Germany;  from  19  to  25  in  port,  sherry,  and 
other  strong  wines ;  and  from  40  to  50  per  cent., 
and  occasionally  more,  in  brandy,  gin,  and 
whiskey.  The  strength  of  these  liquors  is  as 
certained  by  various  expedients;  but  the  pro 
cess  is  sometimes  complicated  by  reason  of  the 
different  ingredients  intermixed  to  color,  sweet 
en,  or  flavor  the  liquor,  or  fraudulently  added 
to  alter  the  specific  gravity,  or  to  substitute  a 
cheaper  material.  Mixtures  thus  complicated 
require  to  be  first  distilled,  before  their  strength 
can  be  ascertained  by  the  usual  process  of  spe 
cific  gravity.  Common  modes  of  judging  of 
the  strength  are  by  tasting,  observing  the  size 
and  appearance  of  the  bubbles  when  shaken, 
the  sinkin-j;  or  floating  of  olive  oil  in  them,  and 
the  appearances  they  exhibit  when  burned.  If 
cotton  or  gunpowder  immersed  in  them  is  in 
flamed  by  their  combustion,  the  spirit  is  con 
sidered  pure. — Alcohol  is  decomposed  by  pass 
ing  through  a  red-hot  glass  or  porcelain  tube, 


[  into  carbonic  acid,  water,  hydrogen,  olefiant  gas, 
I  marsh  gas,  naphthaline,  empyreumatic  oil,  and 
i  charcoal.     By  electrolysis,   on  adding   potash, 
hydrogen  is  given  off  at  the  negative  pole  and 
aldehyde  resin  is  formed  at  the  positive  pole. 
The  product  of  its  combustion  in  the  air  is  car 
bonic  acid  and  water.     The  vapor  of  alcohol 
mixed  with  air  explodes  by  contact  with  flame 
or  an  electric  spark.    On  contact  with  platinum 
black  it  is  imperfectly  oxidized,  forming  car 
bonic  acid,  water,  aldehyde,  acetic  acid,  formic 
•  acid,  acetal,  and  a  peculiar  compound  with  an 
I  excessively  pungent  odor.     Chlorine  gas  con- 
j  verts  alcohol  into  aldehyde,   chloral,   chloride 
j  of  ethyl,  and  acetate  of  ethyl.     One  of  these 
|  products,  chloral,  has  recently  been  introduced 
'  as  a  valuable  hypnotic  medicine.    Concentrated 
1  chloric    acid    ignites    alcohol ;    dilute,    forms 
!  acetic  acid.     Alcohol  unites  in  definite  propor- 
j  tions  with  several  salts,  forming  crystallizable 
!  compounds  in  which  it  plays  a  part  analogous 
|  to  the  water  of  crystallization.     The  methyl 
ated  spirit  of  commerce  consists  of  a  mixture 
j  of  alcohol  of  specific  gravity  0*830  with  10  per 
cent,  of  common  wood  spirit.    This  addition  of 
wood  spirit  scarcely  interferes  with  the  em 
ployment  of  the  spirit  as  a  solvent,  though  it 
renders  it  unfit  for  use  afterward  as  a  stimu 
lant  drink. — Alcohol  or  spirit  of  wine  is  the 
most  important  member  of  a  group  of  com 
pounds  which  manifest  a  close  analogy  with 
each  other,  both  in  chemical  composition  and 
in  the  decompositions  of  which  they  are  suscep 
tible.    The  general  doctrine  of  alcohols  was  in 
troduced  into  science  by  MM.  Dumas  and  Peli- 
got.     These  illustrious  chemists,  in  the  course 
I  of  their  investigations  into  the  properties  of 
wood  spirit,  discovered  that  vinic  alcohol  was 
not  a  unique  body,  but  that  in  wood  spirit  was 
to  be  found  a  compound  of  similar  character, 
which  they  therefore  called  methylic  alcohol. 
\  Subsequently   a   long   list   of  bodies   properly 
classed  under  the  generic  term  of  alcohols  was 
discovered  by  European   chemists.     As  these 
|  bodies  were  found  to  be  closely  related  to  each 
other  and    to    differ    by  a    common    multiple 
CII«,    they  were  said   to  be  homologous,  be 
cause  a  like  description  is  applicable  to  each 
member  of  the  series.     The  following  table  in- 
j  eludes  the  most  important  homologous  alcohols : 

I  Methylic  alcohol 
Ethylic 
Propylic 
Butvlic 
Amylic 
Caproic 
Caprylic 
LaurVlic 
Cetylic 
Ccrylic 
Melyssylic 


. . .  CII,0 


., 

Co  II.  O  or  CII.O  f     (Clio) 
.  C\  IIS  OorCII.OH-  2(CIIo) 


........  C4 

........  C,  II,  0O  or  CII.O  i-  4(CH;> 

.  .  .  Cft  II,  IO  or  CII..O  i-  5(CHo) 
........  C8  II,8OorCII40+  7(CIi;> 

........  C,  Ji;,O  or  CII.O  +  11(011,) 

.  .  .  C  'n;,O  or  CH4O  +  15(CHo) 
........  C2  'II56O  or  CII4O  +  2fi(CII0) 

........  C30II6oO  or  CH4O  +  29 


ALCONA,  a  X.  E.  county  of  Michigan,  on  Lake 
Huron;  area,  030  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  69fi. 
It  is  drained  by  the  Ausable  and  one  of  its 
branches.  Alcona  lake,  in  the  X.  part,  emp 
ties  through  Thunder  Bay  river  into  Thunder 
bay.  In  1870  there  were  three  schools  attend 
ed"  by  137  children. 


266 


ALCORN 


ALCOTT 


ALCORN,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Mississippi,  bor-  | 
dering  on  Tennessee;  pop.  in  1870,  10,431,  of  | 
whom  2,708  were  colored.  •  It  was  organized  \ 
in  1870  from  portions  of  Tippali  and  Tishemin-  i 
go  counties,  and  was  named  in  honor  of  James  j 
L.  Alcorn,  governor  of  the  state.  The  Tus-  i 
cumbia  and  Hatehie  rivers  intersect  the  county,  j 
and  the  Memphis  and  Charleston  and  Mobile  i 
and  Ohio  railroads  run  through  it.  The  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  11,597  bushels  of  wheat, 
220,057  of  corn,  14,892  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  ! 
2,546  bales  of  cotton.  Capital,  Corinth. 

ALCOTT,  Amos  Bronson,  an  American  edu 
cator,  born  at  Wolcott,  Conn.,  Nov.  29,  1799. 
Like  many  farmers'  sons  in  Connecticut,  while 
still  a  boy,  he  was  intrusted  by  a  local  trader 
with  a  trunk  of  merchandise,  with  which  he 
sailed  for  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  which  he  after 
ward  carried  about  among  the  plantations ;  and 
his  early  readings  were  in  the  planters'  houses, 
who  gave  him  hospitality,  and,  observing  his 
turn  for  study,  lent  him  books.  On  his  re 
turn  to  Connecticut  he  began  to  teach,  and 
attracted  attention  by  his  success  with  an  in 
fant  school.  He  removed  to  Boston  in  1828, 
and  showed  singular  skill  and  sympathy  in  his 
methods  of  teaching  young  children  of  five, 
six,  and  seven  years,  at  the  "Masonic  Temple." 
(See  "Record  of  a  School,"  by  E.  P.  Peabody, 
12mo,  Boston,  1834;  also,  a  transcript  of  the 
colloquies  of  these  children  with  their  teacher, 
in  "Conversations  on  the  Gospels,"  2  vols. 
12mo,  Boston,  1836.)  But  the  school  was  in 
advance  of  public  opinion,  and  was  denounced 
by  the  newspapers.  Mr.  Alcott  gave  up  the 
enterprise  and  removed  to  Concord,  Mass., 
where  he  engaged  in  study,  interesting  himself 
chiefly  in  natural  theology  and  reform  in  edu 
cation,  diet,  and  civil  and  social  institutions. 
On  the  invitation  of  James  P.  Greaves  of  Lon 
don,  the  friend  and  fellow  laborer  of  Pestalozzi 
in  Switzerland,  Mr.  Alcott  went  to  England  in 
1842.  Mr.  Greaves  died  before  his  arrival,  but 
Alcott  was  cordially  received  by  his  friends, 
who  had  given  the  name  of  "  Alcott  House  "  to 
their  school  at  Ham,  near  London.  On  his  re 
turn  to  America,  he  brought  with  him  two  of 
his  English  friends,  Charles  Lane  and  H.  G. 
Wright;  and  Mr.  Lane  having  bought  a  farm 
which  he  called  "Fruitlands,"  at  Harvard, 
Mass.,  they  all  went  there  to  found  a  new  com-  j 
munity.  Messrs.  Lane  and  Wright  soon  re 
turned  to  England,  and  the  farm  was  sold.  Mr. 
Alcott  removed  to  Boston,  and  afterward  re 
turned  to  Concord,  and  has  led  the  life  of  a  pe 
ripatetic  philosopher,  conversing  in  cities  and 
in  villages,  wherever  invited,  on  divinity,  on  hu 
man  nature,  on  ethics,  on  dietetics,  and  a  wide  | 
range  of  practical  questions.  These  conversa 
tions,  which  were  at  first  casual,  gradually  as-  | 
sumed  a  more  formal  character,  the  topics  ! 
being  often  printed  on  cards,  and  the  company 
meeting  at  a  fixed  time  and  place.  Mr.  Alcott  j 
attaches  great  importance  to  diet  and  govern 
ment  of  the  body ;  still  more  to  race  and  com 
plexion.  Mr.  Alcott  contributed  several  papers 


entitled  "Orphic  Sayings"  to  the  "Dial" 
(Boston,  1839-'42),  and  in  1868  published  a 
volume  entitled  "Tablets."  His  latest  work, 
entitled  "  Concord  Days"  (1872),  contains  his 
personal  reminiscences  of  that  town. — Louisa 
May,  an  American  authoress,  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Germantown,  Penn.,  in  1833. 
She  began  to  write  fairy  tales  in  her  teens,  and 
her  first  volume,  "Flower  Fables."  was  pub 
lished  in  1855  ;  it  was  followed  by  a  number  of 
stories  written  for  the  Boston  journals.  Her 
"Hospital  Sketches"  (1863),  which  won  for 
her  a  general  reputation,  were  made  up  from 
letters  written  home  while  she  was  a  volun 
teer  nurse  in  the  an  ay  at  the  south.  She  be 
came  a  contributor  to  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
in  1863-'4,  and  in  1865  published  her  first 
novel,  "Moods."  She  wrote  "Little  Women," 
the  most  popular  perhaps  of  all  her  works,  in 
1867.  This  was  succeeded  by  "  An  Old-Fash 
ioned  Girl"  in  1869,  and  by  "Little  Men"  in 
1871. 

ALCOTT,  William  Alexander,  M.  D.,  an  Ameri 
can  author,  cousin  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Wolcott,  Conn.,  Aug.  6,  1798,  died  at  Auburn- 
dale,  Mass.,  March  29,  1859.  He  supported  him 
self  until  he  reached  the  age  of  25  by  working 
on  the  farm  in  summer  and  teaching  in  winter. 
Subsequently  he  studied  medicine  at  Yale  col 
lege,  and  after  practising  about  four  years  he 
engaged  with  Mr.  Woodbridge,  the  geographer, 
in  the  preparation  of  school  geographies  and 
atlases,  and  in  editing  the  "Juvenile  Rambler," 
the  first  weekly  periodical  for  children  pub 
lished  in  America,  and  the  "Annals  of  Educa 
tion."  At  this  time  he  cooperated  actively 
with  Gallaudet,  Woodbridge,  Hooker,  and 
others,  in  striving  to  effect  a  reform  in  the  pub 
lic  schools  of  the  state.  He  wrote  many  arti 
cles  on  this  subject  for  the  Hartford  and  New 
Haven  papers,  one  of  which,  ".On  the  Construc 
tion  of  School  Houses,"  gained  a  premium  from 
the  American  institute  of  instruction.  In  1832 
Dr.  Alcott  removed  to  Boston,  and  published 
his  "Young  Man's  Guide,"  which  has  exerted 
a  great  influence  in  spreading  important  physi 
ological  principles.  For  more  than  20  years  he 
passed  his  summers  in  laboring  at  home  with 
his  pen,  and  his  winters  in  lecturing  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  upon  the  topics  which  es 
pecially  occupied  his  attention,  lie  visited  up 
ward  of  20,000  schools,  before  many  of  which 
he  lectured.  He  published  above  100  books 
and  pamphlets,  among  which  may  be  specified, 
in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  "  The 
House  I  Live  In,"  "The  Young  Woman's 
Guide,"  "Young  Housekeeper,"  the  "Library 
of  Health"  (6  vols.),  "Moral  Reform,"  and 
"My  Progress  in  Error."  Dr.  Alcott,  though 
the  advocate  of  many  opinions  which  are  open 
to  the  charge  of  singularity,  was  a  philanthro 
pist  of  the  genuine  stamp,  and  his  name  is  iden 
tified  permanently  with  some  of  the  most 
valuable  reforms  in  education,  morals,  and  phys 
ical  training,  which  the  present  century  has 
witnessed.  The  amount  of  labor  which  he  per- 


ALCOY 


ALDEHYDE 


267 


formed  without  the  expectation  of  any  com 
pensation  for  his  services,  is  believed  to  be 
almost  unparalleled.  So  unintermitting  and 
engrossing  were  his  various  avocations,  that  he 
hardly  ever  found  time  to  read  a  book  through  ; 
and  the  books  which  he  wrote  probably  exceed 
in  number  those  which  he  read  entirely.  Dr. 
Alcott's  views  of  reform  did  not  lead  him  to 
the  adoption  of  any  violent  and  destructive 
measures.  The  great  object  of  his  labors  was 
to  prevent  poverty,  vice,  and  crime,  by  means 
of  correct  physical  and  moral  training,  and 
the  judicious  application  of  intelligence  to  the 
improvement  of  society. 

ALCOY,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Valencia,  in  the 
province  and  23  m.  X.  of  Alicante ;  pop.  about 
25,000.  It  is  well  built,  in  a  picturesque 
site  between  two  streams,  and  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  paper,  cloth,  linen,  and  excel 
lent  sugar-plums.  The  best  paper  for  ciga 
rettes  is  made  here. 

ALCTIN  (Lat.  Flaccus  Albinus  Alcuinus),  an 
English  scholar  and  churchman,  born  probably 
in  York  about  735,  died  May  19,  804.  He  was 
master  of  the  school  and  keeper  of  the  cathe 
dral  library  at  York,  until  at  the  invitation  of 
Charlemagne  he  went  to  France  in  780  and 
opened  a  school,  probably  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
where  his  lessons  were  attended  by  the  empe 
ror  and  his  court.  This  establishment  is  sup 
posed  to  have  been  the  germ  of  the  university 
of  Paris,  and  had  an  important  influence  upon 
the  revival  of  learning  in  France.  In  790  he 
received  the  abbey  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  and 
soon  afterward  opened  a  school  there,  which 
became  widely  celebrated.  He  was  the  confi 
dant  and  adviser  of  the  emperor,  and  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  the  age,  but  so  mod 
est  that  he  refused  to  accept  any  higher  order 
in  the  church  than  that  of  deacon.  The  best 
edition  of  his  writings,  including  theological 
treatises,  epistles  to  Charlemagne,  and  miscel 
laneous  letters,  was  published  by  Froben  (2 
vols.  folio,  Ratisbon,  1777). 

ALCYONE,  the  brightest  of  the  star  group  of 
the  Pleiades,  and  the  supposed  centre  of  the 
arc  in  which  our  sun  and  planets  appear  to  be 
moving  through  the  interstellar  space. 

ALDAN.  I.  A  name  applied  by  some  geog 
raphers  to  the  whole  range  of  mountains  in 
eastern  Siberia,  from  the  Altai  chain  to  Beh- 
ring  strait.  Others  limit  its  application  to  a 
branch  of  this  mountain  system,  extending  from 
the  Yablonnoy  range  in  a  northwesterly  direc 
tion  about  900  miles.  Mt.  Kapitan,  the  high 
est  summit  of  this  branch,  has  an  elevation  of 
4,263  feet  above  the  sea  level.  II.  A  river, 
which  rises  in  the  Aldan  mountains,  and  after 
a  X.  and  W.  course  of  about  900  miles  falls  in 
to  the  Lena,  100  miles  X.  of  Yakutsk. 
^  ALDBOROUGH,  a  market  town  and  parish  of 
Yorkshire,  England,  on  the  Ure,  16  m.  W.  N. 
.  ?*•  Yf)1'k-  The  town  is  a  place  of  great  an 
tiquity,  supposed  to  have  been  the  capital  of 
the  Brigantes,  known  to  the  Romans  as  Isu- 
riain.  Several  remains  of  antiquity  have  been 


!  discovered.  Three  remarkable  obelisks  of 
!  rough  stone  are  in  the  neighborhood,  the  high- 
I  est  of  which  is  30  feet  high. 

ALDEBARAN,  the  chief  star  in  the  constellation 
I  of  Taurus,  forming  the  eye,  and  one  of  the 
I  group  of  five  called  the  Hyades.  Huggins  has 
|  lately  proved  by  means  of  the  spectroscope  that 
I  this  star  has  nearly  the  same  chemical  compo- 
!  sition  as  our  sun,  from  which  other  stars  differ 
considerably. 

ALDEGONDE,  Sainte,  Philip  van  Marnix,  baron 
I  of,  a  Dutch  statesman  and  scholar,  born  in 
Brussels  in  1538,  died  in  Leyden,  Dec.  15,  1598. 
At  Geneva,  where  he  was  educated,  he  imbib 
ed  from  Calvin  a  strong  attachment  to  the  re- 
|  formed  creed,  and  after  his  return  home  he 
was  one  of  the  signers,  if  not  the  originator,  of 
the  pact  of  the  nobles  protesting  against  the 
establishment  of  the  inquisition  in  the  Nether 
lands  in  15GB.  He  was  the  especial  friend  of 
William  of  Orange,  who  confided  to  him  several 
delicate  missions,  and  sent  him  in  1572  to  the 
first  assembly  of  the  Dutch  states  general  at 
Dort.  He  was  also  military  commandant  of 
several  towns,  and  in  1573-'4  was  for  some 
time  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards. 
He  was  afterward  sent  by  the  states  general  as 
envoy  successively  to  Paris,  to  London,  and  to 
the  diet  of  Worms  (1577).  In  1584,  being 
burgomaster  of  Antwerp,  he  defended  the  city 
against  the  duke  of  Parma,  but  was  at  last 
obliged  to  surrender,  after  which  he  spent  sev 
eral  years  in  retirement.  In  1590  he  was  am 
bassador  to  France.  He  left  several  contro 
versial  treatises  and  an  excellent  metrical  ver 
sion  of  the  Psalms,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death 
was  translating  the  Bible  into  Flemish. 

ALDEGREVER,  or  AlcLgraf,  HeinricJi,  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Paderborn  in  West 
phalia  in  1502,  died  about  1500.  He  was  a  pu 
pil  and  imitator  of  Albert  Diirer.  His  prints, 
which  are  very  numerous,  are  sharp  and  an 
gular  in  outline,  and  generally  small. 

ALDEHYDE,  a  liquid  obtained  from  alcohol. 
Liebig  was  the  first  to  study  the  products  form 
ed  by  abstracting  hydrogen  from  alcohol,  and 
to  give  the  name  of  alcohol  dehydrogenated  to 
the  first  of  the  series.     If  vinic  alcohol  be  burn 
ed  at  a  low  temperature  and  with  a  limited 
supply  of  air,  the  vapors  emitted  have  a  pe 
culiar  irritating  effect  on  the  eyes  and  nose,  due 
to  the  production  of  a  remarkable  body  named 
aldehyde.      Similar  compounds  are  furnished 
by  the  imperfect  combustion  of  the  other  alco- 
!  hols,  so  that  there  are  as  many  aldehydes  as  there 
j  are  alcohols.    There  are  numerous  ways  of  pre- 
!  paring  ordinary  aldehyde,  among  which  maybe 
mentioned  the  oxidation  of  alcohol  by  platinum 
black,  chromic  acid,  nitric  acid,  chlorine  wa 
ter,    and  a  mixture    of    sulphuric    acid    and 
black  oxide  of  manganese.     The  method  usu 
ally   employed    is  to  distil  2  parts  of  80  per 
cent,  alcohol,  3  parts  oil  of  vitriol,  and  2  parts 
i  of  w^ater  into  a  well  cooled  receiver.     After 
|  about  3  parts  have  passed  over,  the  distillate 
!  is  mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of  chloride  of 


268 


ALDEN 


ALDEENEY 


calcium  and  further  distilled  until  1£  part  has 
pass-ed  over.  It  is  further  rectified  by  mixing 
1  volume  with  2  volumes  of  ether  surround 
ed  by  cold  water,  and  passing  ammonia 
through  it  to  saturation.  Crystals  of  aldehyde- 
ammonia  separate,  which  are  washed  with 
absolute  ether  and  dried;  by  subsequently 
distilling  these  crystals  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
a  little  water,  pure  anhydrous  aldehyde  is  ob 
tained.  Aldehyde  as  commonly  known  is  a 
thin,  transparent  liquid,  with  a  strong,  suffo 
cating  odor.  It  boils  at  69 '5°  F.  It  dissolves 
sulphur,  iodine,  and  phosphorus;  absorbs  dry 
sulphurous  acid;  forms  definite  compounds 
with  the  acid  sulphites  of  the  alkali  metals ; 
and  reduces  salts  of  silver.  Upon  this  last 
property  is  founded  the  manufacture  of  silver 
mirrors  by  the  reduction  of  nitrate  of  silver  and 
the  deposition  of  the  metal  upon  glass. 

ALDEN,  John,  one  of  the  first  settlers  of  Ply 
mouth,  New  England,  was  a  magistrate  in  that 
colony  for  more  than  half  a  century,  and  died 
in  1087,  aged  about  89.  On  behalf  of  Miles 
Standish,  Alden  once  proposed  marriage  to  a 
pilgrim  lady,  who  replied,  "Prithee,  John,  why 
do  you  not  speak  for  yourself?  "  The  query 
led  to  John's  becoming  the  lady's  husband. 
This  incident  lias  been  made  the  subject  of  a 
poem  by.  Longfellow. 

ALDENHOl'EN,  a  town  in  Pvhenish  Prussia,  on 
the  road  from  Jiilich  to  Aix-la-Chapclle;  pop. 
in  1807,  3,041.  It  is  noted  for  a  victory  of  the 
Austrians  under  the  prince  of  Coburg  over  a 
part  of  the  French  army  under  Dumouriez, 
March  1,  1793,  the  result  of  which  was  the  oc 
cupation  of  Belgium  by  the  allies.  In  October 
of  the  following  year  the  vicinity  of  Alden- 
hoven  again  became  the  scene  of  considerable 
fighting  between  the  Austrians  and  French, 
under  Clairfait  and  Jourdan  respectively,  the 
result  being  in  favor  of  the  republican  army. 

ALDER  (alnus),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  betulacece.  It  has  four 
stamens,  and  its  fruit  is  without  wings,  by 
which  characteristics  it  is  distinguished  from 
the  birch,  with  which  it  was  classed  by  the 
earlier  botanists.  The  principal  species  are 
found  in  North  America,  though  some  of  its 
varieties  are  met  with  on  the  eastern  continent. 
The  common  alder  (A.  glutinosa)  grows  in 
moist  localities,  especially  on  the  higher  por 
tions  of  swampy  grounds,  which  are  free  from 
standing  water.  This  tree  is  applied  to  many 
valuable  purposes  of  practical  utility.  Its  wood 
is  prized  by  machinists  as  adapted  to  mill  wheels 
and  other  work  which  is  mostly  under  water. 
It  is  also  in  request  for  certain  branches  of 
cabinet-making  and  turnery.  The  charcoal 
made  from  its  wood  is  of  an  excellent  quality, 
and  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder  The  bLrk,  which  contains  an 
astringent  juice,  is  used  for  tanning,  and,  with 
the  addition  of  copperas  and  other  ingredients, 
forms  a  dye  for  several  colors.  The  alder  is 
also  an  ornamental  tree,  with  its  abundant 
foliage  of  deep  green.  The  Turkey  alder  (A. 


Alder — Catkins  and  Seed. 

incana)  is  abundant  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
and  is  found  to  the  east,  even  beyond  the  Cau 
casus.  It  is  a  taller  and  more  erect  tree  than 
the  common  alder,  and  possesses  many  of  the 
same  properties,  although  it  grows  well  in 
situations  that  are  comparatively  free  from 
moisture.  A  beautiful  species,  A.  cordifolia,  or 
heart-leaved  alder,  is  a  native  of  Italy.  The 
alder  is  easily  cultivated,  and,  although  not 
rapid  in  growth,  can  be  obtained  from  seed 
with  a  great  degree  of  certainty. 

ALDERMAN,  a  title  derived  from  the  Saxon 
caldorman  (elder  man).  The  term  ealdor  was 
in  itself  a  title  of  honor,  used  like  the  word 
"elder"  in  Scripture;  but  the  title  ealdorman 
implied  a  higher  degree  of  honor,  and  was 
among  the  Saxons  applied  generally  to  the  chief 
dignitaries  of  state  and  the  nobility,  and  specif 
ically  to  certain  national,  county,  and  munici 
pal  officers,  whose  functions  appear  to  have 
been  chiefly  judicial,  but  are  not  clearly  defin 
ed.  In  modern  times  the  alderman  is  a  legis 
lative  and  judicial  officer  of  municipal  corpora 
tions,  elected  or  appointed  according  to  the 
constitution  or  charter  of  the  city  in  which  he 
holds  his  office. 

ALDERNEY  (Fr.  Avrigny),  the  northernmost 
of  the  Channel  islands,  and  the  nearest  to  the 
French  coast,  separated  from  it  by  the  race  of 
Alderney  (a  strait  which  is  very  dangerous  in 
stormy  weather),  about  7  m.  W.  of  Cape  La 
Ilogue,  the  N.  W.  extremity  of  Normandy,  and 
24  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Cherbourg.  It  is  about  4  m. 
long  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  and  1^  m.  wide  ;  area, 
1,962  acres;  pop.  in  1871,  2,718.  There  are 
picturesque  cliffs  on  the  S.  E.  coast,  the  high 
est  of  which  is  281  ft.  There  are  several  bays, 
but  none  safe  and  capacious  enough  for  large 
vessels;  and  the  English  government  has  re 
cently  erected  a  granite  breakwater  off  the 
harbor  of  St.  Anne  at  a  cost  of  £1,250,000, 
which,  however,  has  not  proved  so  useful  as  was 
anticipated.  A  series  of  forts  was  constructed 
around  the  island  at  the  same  time ;  also  a 


ALDERSIIOTT 


ALDOBRANDINI 


269 


railroad  along  the  N.  E.  coast.  St.  Anne,  the 
chief  town  (commonly  called  the  Town),  is  in 
a  beautiful  valley  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
island.  The  inhabitants  principally  live  by 
fishing  and  agriculture.  The  Alderney  cow  is 
small  and  graceful  in  form,  of  dun  or  tawny 
color,  and  remarkable  for  milking  qualities. 
About  6  in.  from  Alderney  to  the  west  are  the 
Caskets,  a  cluster  of  dangerous  rocks,  on  which 
there  are  three  lighthouses  forming  a  triangle. 
Upon  these  rocks  Prince  William,  son  of  Henry 
I.,  with  a  retinue  of  above  140  young  noble 
men,  of  the  principal  families  of  England  and 
Normandy,  perished  in  1120;  and  in  1744  the 
Victory,  of  110  guns,  with  a  crew  of  1,100  men, 
was  totally  lost. — Together  with  the  other 
Channel  islands,  Alderney  formed  a  dependency 
of  the  Xorinans,  and  passed  to  the  crown  of 
England.  It  is  itself  a  dependency  of  Guern 
sey.  The  civil  power  of  Alderney  is,  under 
the  peculiar  constitution  of  the  Channel  islands, 
vested  in  a  judge  appointed  by  the  crown  and 
six  jurats  chosen  by  the  people  for  life.  These, 
with  12  douzainiers,  also  chosen  by  the  people 
and  the  governor,  form  a  legislature  in  which 
the  douzainiers  deliberate,  but  neither  they  nor 
the  governor  may  vote.  The  jurats,  with  the 
king's  advocate  and  the  greffier  or  registrar, 
constitute  the  court  of  justice,  from  which  an 
appeal  lies  to  the  royal  court  at  Guernsey,  and 
in  the  last  resort  to  the  king  in  council.  In 
criminal  cases  the  court  at  Alderney  is  only 
a  preliminary  tribunal,  the  court  at  Guernsey 
having  the  final  determination  of  the  cause. 

ALDERSIIOTT,  an  English  military  camp  of 
instruction,  in  Hampshire,  50  m.  by  rail  S.  W. 
from  London,  established  in  1854-'5  on  Alder- 
shott  common,  *a  broad  tract  of  sandy  land. 
Near  the  site  of  the  old  village  of  Aldershott 
an  entirely  new  town  has  sprung  up,  and  the 
population  of  the  parish  has  increased  from 
about  900  in  1852  to  over  20,000  in  1872,  chiefly 
soldiers  and  persons  connected  with  the  military 
and  civil  services.  A  broad  military  road  sepa 
rates  the  town  from  the  camp,  which  consists  of 
N.  and  S.  sections,  divided  by  the  Basingstoke 
canal,  extending  over  an  area  of  seven  square 
miles,  with  accommodation  for  at  least  20,000 
soldiers.  The  structures  consist  of  long  rows 
of  wooden  huts  for  the  soldiers  permanently 
stationed  there,  around  which  they  cultivate 
gardens ;  the  headquarters,  a  substantial  brick 
building;  several  churches,  a  permanent  bar 
racks,  hospitals,  places  of  recreation,  &c.  The 
cost  of  establishing  this  national  military  depot 
has  already  considerably  exceeded  £1,000,000. 
During  the  last  tive  years  annual  reviews 
have  taken  place  here  between  the  months 
of  June  and  September;  two  or  more  regi 
ments  of  ihe  volunteer  forces  being  detailed,  in 
their  turn,  to  cooperate  with  the  regulars,  and 
thus  gain  a  practical  knowledge  of  military 
duty  in  the  camp  and  on  the  field. 

ALDHELM,  an  English  divine  and  writer  dur 
ing  the  Saxon  heptarchy,  born  about  050,  died 
in  709.  lie  was  a  relative  of  the  king  of  the 


West  Saxons.  lie  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
Englishman  who  wrote  Latin  poetry.  About 
085  he  became  the  first  abbot  of  Malmesbury, 
and  in  705  the  first  bishop  of  Shcrborne  (after 
ward  the  bishopric  of  Salisbury).  lie  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  two  works  Ue  Virginitate,  in 
prose  (published  by  AVharton,  1093),  and  De 
\  Laude  Virginian,  in  verse. 

ALDL\E  EDITIONS,  works  which  proceeded 
!  from  the  press  of  the  Manutii  (Aldus  the  Elder, 
!  Paul  us,  and  Aldus  the  Younger),  a  celebrated 
i  family  of  printers  in  Venice  during  the  15th 
;  and   10th  centuries.      (See  MANUTIUS.)      The 
|  Aldine  editions  comprise  the  ancient  classics, 
|  and  the  works  of  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Dante, 
I  and  others.     Th<T  editions  of  the  senior  Aldus, 
I  who  founded  the  business  irj  1490,  are  the  most 
:  esteemed.      Spurious  works  with  the  imprint 
of  the  Aldi  are  by  no  means  uncommon,  as 
they  were  counterfeited  even  in  their  own  time, 
and  very  extensively  at  later  periods.      The 
great  perfection  which  has  been  attained  in  the 
|  art  of  printing,  and  the  attention  which  has 
j  been  given,  especially  during  the  present  cen- 
|  tury,  to  the  reprint  of  the  classics,  have  con 
siderably  diminished  the  real  value  of  the  Al 
dine  editions,  although  rare  specimens  are  still 
much  sought  for  by  collectors.      The  library 
of  the  late  archduke  of  Tuscany  contains,  it  is 
believed,  the  most  perfect  collection  of  Aldine 
works ;    but  they  are  met  with  in  most  of  the 
great  libraries,  as  the  Bodleian  at  Oxford,  the 
national  library  at  Paris,  and  the  British  mu 
seum.     A.  A.  Renouard  made  a  complete  col 
lection  and  published  a  catalogue  of  them  in 
I  his  Annales  de  Vvtqprimcrie  des  Aides  (Paris, 
!  1803  and  1834). 

ALDINI.     L  Antonio,  count,  an  Italian  states 
man,  born  in  Bologna  in  1750,  died  in  Pavia, 
!  Oct.  5,   1820.     When   Bologna  in   1797   was 
wrested  by  General  Bonaparte  from  the  papal 
government,  Aldini,  who  was  then  professor 
of  jurisprudence,  was  sent  to  Paris  by-  his  fel 
low  citizens.     lie  was  chosen  president  of  the 
council  of  the  ancients  in  the  Cisalpine  repub 
lic,  and  was  held  in  much  esteem  by  Napoleon, 
who  in  1805  created  him  a  count,  and   made 
him  a  minister  of  state  for  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
j  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  and  the  reOstablish- 
j  ment  of  the  former  rulers  in  Italy,  he  resided 
in  Lombardy.      II.    Giovanni,    brother  of    the 
preceding,  and  nephew  of  Galvani,  born  in  Bo 
logna,   April  10,  1702,  died  in  Milan,  Jan.  17, 
18-34.     lie  was  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
!  at    Bologna,  Italian   counsellor   of  state,  and 
I  knight  of  the  order  of  the  iron  crown.     He  is 
|  well  known  by  his  works  (written  in  Italian, 
French,  and  English)  on  the  practical  applica- 
!  tions  of  galvanism,  illumination,  tides,  means 
|  of  safety  from  fire,  &c.     He  prepared  a  scheme 
|  for  turning  to  profit  the  rise  and  tall  of  the  tide 
'.  in  the  lagoons  of  Venice  in  working  mills  ;  and 
I  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  articles 
i  of  fire-proof  clothing. 

ALDOBRMDLM,  a  noble  family  of  Florence  in 
!  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.    SILVKSTRO,  a  cele- 


270 


ALDPJCII 


ALEANDRO 


brated  jurist,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1499, 
and  died  in  Rome  in  1558.  Being  opposed  to 
the  duke  Alexander  de1  Medici,  he  was  banished 
from  Florence  in  1530.  Of  his  three  sons,  GIO 
VANNI  was  auditor  rotre  and  cardinal,  and  is 
also  known  as  an  author;  IPPOLITO  became 
pope  under  the  title  of  Clement  VIII.  ;  and 
TOMMASO,  born  at  Home  about  1540,  was  pa 
pal  secretary  of  briefs,  and  left  a  translation  of 
the  "Lives  of  the  Philosophers"  by  Diogenes 
Laertius,  and  a  commentary  on  Aristotle,  De 
Physico  Auditu.  CINZIO  PASSEKO,  who  died 
at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  was  the 
son  of  Silvestro's  daughter,  took  the  name  of 
Aldobrandini,  and  was  made  cardinal.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Tasso,  who  dedicated  to  him  the 
Gerusalemme  conguistata.  His  brother  PIE- 
TRO  was  also  a  cardinal,  and  legate  in  France, 
where  he  composed  the  differences  between 
Henry  IV.  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  in  1601. 
The  family  disappeared  in  1681. 

ALDRICH,  Thomas  Bailey,  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Portsmouth,  1ST.  H.,  in  1836.  After 
commencing  a  course  of  study  preparatory  to 
entering  college,  upon  the  .death  of  his  father 
he  abandoned  this  purpose  to  enter  the  count 
ing  room  of  an  uncle,  a  merchant  in  New 
York.  Here  he  remained  three  years;  and  it 
was  during  this  period  that  he  began  to  con 
tribute  verses  to  the  New  York  journals.  A 
collection  of  his  poems  was  published  in  New 
York  in  1855,  the  volume  taking  its  name  from 
the  initial  piece,  "  The  Bells."  Mr.  Aldrich's 
most  successful  poem,  "Babie  Bell,"  which 
was  published  in  1856,  was  copied  and  repeated 
all  over  the  country ;  and  perhaps  it  was  the 
favor  with  which  it  was  received  that  induced 
him  to  abandon  mercantile  pursuits  for  a  lit 
erary  career.  He  became  a  frequent  contribu 
tor  to  "Putnam's  Magazine,"  the  "Knicker 
bocker,"  and  the  weekly  newspapers,  for  one  of 
which  he  wrote  "  Daisy's  Necklace,  and  What 
Came  of  It,"  a  prose  poem  which  was  after 
ward  issued  in  a  volume,  and  attained  a  wide 
popularity.  In  1856  Mr.  Aldrich  joined  the 
staff  of  the  "Home  Journal,"  whicli  was  then 
under  the  charge  of  N.  P.  Willis  and  George 
P.  Morris,  and  continued  in  this  position  for 
three  years.  His  pen  was  always  busy  during 
this  period,  and  many  of  its  products  became 
popular  favorites.  The  volumes  published  by 
him  since  1855  are:  "The  Ballad  of  Babie  Bell 
and  other  Poems  "  (1856) ;  "  The  Course  of  True 
Love  never  did  Kim  Smooth"  (1858);  "  Pam- 
pinea  and  other  Poems"  (1861) ;  "  Out  of  his 
Head,  a  Romance  in  Prose  "  (1862) ;  a  collection 
of  poems  (1863) ;  and  a  volume  of  poems  pub 
lished  in  Boston  in  1865.  Among  his  later 
works  is  "  The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy,"  which  is 
to  some  degree  autobiographical.  This  attract 
ed  wide  attention  as  a  serial  in  "  Our  Young 
Folks,"  and  was  issued  in  book  form  in  1870. 
Mr.  Aldrich  has  been  chief  editor  of  "Every 
Saturday "  from  its  foundation,  and  has  also 
made  occasional  prose  contributions  to  the 
"  Atlantic  Monthly  "  and  other  magazines. 


ALDRIDGE,  Ira,  called  the  African  Roscius, 
,  an  American  actor,  born  at  Bellair,  near  Balti- 
!  more,  Md.,  about  1810,  died  in  Poland,  Aug.  7, 
1867.  He  was  a  mulatto,  whose  real  name  is  said 
i  to  have  been  Hewlett,  and  in  his  youth  was 
i  apprenticed  to  a  ship  carpenter.     From  asso-" 
elation  with  the  German,  population,  which  is 
|  very  large  on  the  western  shore  of  Maryland, 
j  he  learned  to  speak  the  German  language  fa 
miliarly,  and  he  also  picked  up  a  fair  education. 
I  When  Edmund  Kean  was  in  the  United  States, 
|  after  the  troubles  which  occurred  during  1826 
in  consequence  of  the  Cox  difficulties,  Aldridge 
became  his  personal  attendant,  and  is  said  to 
have    accompanied  him  to  England,  where  a 
natural  talent  for  the  stage  was  cultivated.    He 
returned  to  the  United  States  after  a  short  ab 
sence,  and  some  time  subsequent  to  1830  ap 
peared  in  Baltimore,  at  a  theatre  then  known 
as   the  Mud  theatre,  which   subsequently  be 
longed  to  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  the  tragedian. 
|  He  appears  not  to  have  been  successful.    There 
i  is  no  account  of  his  having  appeared  in  any 
|  other  city  in  America,  whence  after  a  short 
|  time  he  returned  to  England.     He  began  his 
career  in  some  of  the  minor  theatres  of  London, 
and    afterward    performed    in    Ireland  (with 
Kean)  and  all  over  Europe,  being  greatly  ad 
mired,  especially  in  Germany,  in  Shakespearian 
characters.     In  1861  he  created  a  sensation  at 
Versailles  by  his  personification  of  Othello  in 
English,    the   rest   of   the   company   speaking 
French.     He  was  making  a  journey  to  Russia 
|  when  he  died.     He  married  a  white  woman, 
i  but  his  domestic  life  was  unhappy. 

ALDROYAXDUS,   nysses   (Ital.    Ulisse  Aldro- 
j  vandi),  an  Italian  naturalist,  born  at  Bologna, 
I  Sept.  11,  1522,  died  Nov.  10,  1607.      He  took 
|  his  degree  in  medicine  in  1553,  was  made  lec- 
I  turer  on  natural  history,  and  in  1568  persuaded 
the  senate   of  Bologna  to  establish  a  botanic- 
garden.     He  investigated  meanwhile  the  phe 
nomena  of  the  external  world  with  indefati- 
;  gable  zeal,   making  journeys    and    employing 
|  collectors.     He  published  works  (in  Latin)  on 
j  birds,  on  insects,  and  on  the  lower  animals. 
i  and  after  his  death  the  profusion  of  materials 
|  which  he  had  brought  together  was  arranged 
|  in  additional  volumes. 

ALE.     See  BEEE,  and  BREWING. 

ALEAXDRO,  Girolamo,  an  Italian  prelate  and 

scholar,  born  Feb.  13,  1480,  died  Jan.  31,  1542. 

He  was  early  distinguished  for  great  and  varied 

j  learning,  and  was  associated  with  Aldus  Ma- 

nutius  and  Erasmus  at  Venice.     In  1508  Louis 

}  XII.   called  him  to   Paris,   where   he  became 

j  rector  of  the  university.      He  was  afterward 

|  chancellor  of  the  bishopric  of  Liege,  in  1517 

librarian  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  and  in  1520 

papal   envoy  to  Germany  to  oppose  Luther's 

heresy,   which   he   did   especially  at  the   diet 

I  of  Worms   in   the   following   year.      Clement 

!  VII.   made   him   archbishop    of  Brindisi   and 

:  papal  nuncio  in  France,  and  in  company  with 

Francis  I.  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia  in 

1525,  and  ransomed.  In  1531  he  was  again  papal 


ALECTO 


ALEMJBERT 


2T1 


nuncio  in  Germany,  and  afterward  in  Venice,  i 
arid  in  1538  he  was  made  cardinal.     Of  his  nu 
merous   writings   none  were  published   but  a 
Greek-Latin  lexicon,  an  abridged  Greek  gram 
mar,  and  a  short  Latin  poem. 

ALECTO,  in  Greek  mythology,  one  of  the  Eu- 
menides  or  Furies.     (See  EUMENIDES.) 

ALEGAMBE,  Philippe,  a  Belgian  Jesuit,  born  in 
Brussels,  Jan.  22,  1592,  died  in  Rome,  Sept.  6, 
1652.     He  taught  philosophy  at  the  college  of 
Gratz,  but  finally  settled  at  Rome,  where  he  { 
became  superior  of  the  house  of  the  Jesuits,  i 
and   secretary   to   the   general   of    the   order,  j 
Alegambe  continued  and  improved  the  BiUio-  j 
theca  Scriptorum  Societatis  Jesu,  begun  by  Ri-  j 
badeneira  and  completed  by  Nathaniel  Sotwell.  j 
He    also   wrote    two    biographical   works  on  j 
Jesuit  martyrs  to  their  faith  and  to  their  zeal 
in  works  of  charity,  and  a  life  of  Cardan. 

ALEMAX,  Mateo,  a  Spanish  novelist,   born  in 
Seville  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  century,  j 
died  probably  in  Mexico.     In  1508  he  was  com-  j 
missioner  of  finance  in  his  native  land,  but  be-  j 
ing  falsely  accused   of  maladministration,   he 
was  removed  from  public  service,  and  suffered 
a  long  imprisonment.     He  then  betook  himself 
to  literature.     The  first  volume  of  a  humorous 
romance,  entitled  La  vida  y  hechos  del  p'icaro  \ 
Guzman  de  Alfarache,  which  he  published  in  ! 
1599,  passed  through  26    editions  within  the  | 
following   six   years,   besides  being  translated 
into  the  French  and  Italian.     A  continuation 
appeared  in  1603,  which  Aleman  repudiated; 
and  the  genuine  second  part  was  published  in 
Valencia  in  1605,  but  the  work  was  never  com-  ! 
pleted.      Aleman  afterward  went  to  Mexico,  | 
but  of  his  subsequent  career  nothing  is  known.  | 

ALEMANM,    or  Alamaimi   (Ger.,   all   men),  a 
confederacy  of  warlike   German  tribes,   with  j 
whom  the  Romans  first  came  into  collision  in  I 
the  reign  of  Caracalla,     They  then  dwelt  on  j 
the  Main,  and  subsequently  spread  toward  the  ! 
Danube,  the  Helvetian   Alps,  and  across  the  ! 
Rhine  into  eastern  Gaul.     The  Tencteri  and  ; 
Usipetes,  who  previously  inhabited  the  terri 
tories  of  modern  Westphalia,  are  supposed  to  j 
have  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  confederation.  '• 
Caracalla    made    an    unsuccessful     campaign 
against  the  Alemanni  in  214,  and  boastfully  ' 
assumed    the    surname   Alemannicus.      Alex"-  | 
ander  Severus  and  Maximin  also  fought  against  | 
them,  without  impairing  their  growing  power.  | 
1  hiring  the  joint  reign  of  Valerian  and  his  son  j 
Gallienus  they  crossed  the  Rhjetian  Alps,  in 
vaded  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  advanced  as  far  as 
Raverma,  but  were  repulsed,  and  subsequently  i 
suffered  greater  defeats  at  the  hands  of  the  em-  ; 
perors  Aurelian  and  Probus.    In  the  4th  century  i 
they  made  constant  inroads  into  Gaul,  but  were  j 
chastised  by  Constantius  Chlorus,  Julian,  Va- 
lentinian  I.,   and  Gratian;  in  spite  of  which, 
however,  their  power   continued  to  increase,  j 
They   were   at   that   period   united   with   the 
Suevi,  a  kindred  nation,  with  whom  they  grad 
ually  became  more  and  more  confounded,  until  ' 
both  nations  were  subdued  by  the  Franks  under 


Clovis.  The  northern  portions  of  the  Aleman - 
nic  territories  remained  a  domain  of  the  Frank- 
ish  kings;  the  rest  was  afterward  formed  into 
a  Germanic  duchy  of  Alemannia,  between  the 
Alps,  the  Jura,  the  Vosges,  the  Neckar,  and 
the  Lech,  the  eastern  part  of  which  finally  as 
sumed  the  name  of  Swabia  (Suevia).  The 
Swabian  dialect  of  the  German  language  is 
known  as  the  Alemannic. 

ALEMBERT,  Jean  le  Rond  d',  a  French  mathe 
matician  and  man  of  letters,  born  in  Paris, 
Nov.  16,  1717,  died  there,  Oct.  29,  1783.  He 
was  the  illegitimate  child  of  the  poet  Des- 
touches,  commissary  of  artillery,  and  Madame 
de  Tencin,  a  court  lady,  more  celebrated  for 
wit  and  beauty  than  for  virtue.  The  infant, 
exposed  on  the  steps  of  the  church  of  St.  Jean 
le  Rond,  Avas  picked  up  by  the  police,  and 
given  to  a  glazier's  wife,  to  whose  affection  the 
great  philosopher  responded  throughout  his 
life.  lie  lived  with  her  for  40  years,  and  when 
in  the  days  of  his  fame  Madame  de  Tencin  came 
forward  and  avowed  her  relationship,  he  re 
pudiated  her,  alleging  that  she  was  but  a  step 
mother,  and  the  glazier's  wife  his  real  parent. 
Soon  after  his  discovery  his  father  acknowledged 
him  and  settled  upon  him  a  pension  of  1,200 
francs,  which  was  sufficient  to  provide  for  his 
education.  In  1721  he  was  sent  to  a  boarding 
school.  At  the  age  of  12  he  was  transferred  to 
the  Mazarin  college  of  Paris.  His  philosophi 
cal  studies  here  were  eminently  successful. 
He  was  for  some  time  restrained  from  the 
study  of  mathematics,  and  applied  himself  to 
law,  which  he  soon  abandoned  for  medicine; 
but  the  irrepressible  bent  of  his  mind  overcame 
all  obstacles,  and  he  at  last  betook  himself 
with  renewed  ardor  to  his  favorite  employ 
ments.  A  memoir  and  some  remarks  on  the 
Analyse  demontree  of  Reyneau  procured  him 
the  membership  of  the  academy  of  sciences  in 
1741.  His  celebrated  Traite  de  dynamique 
appeared  in  1743,  and  created  a  new  branch 
of  science.  In  1744  he  published  his  Traite  de 
Vequilibre  et  du  mouvement  des  fluides.  In 
1746,  the  Berlin  academy  of  sciences  having 
proposed  the  general  causes  of  the  winds  as 
the  subject  for  the  prize  essay,  D'Alembert's 
treatise  gained  him  the  prize  and  the  member 
ship  of  the  academy ;  in  this  he  attributed  the 
currents  to  the  combined  influence  of  the  sun 
and  moon  in  creating  an  action  resembling  the 
flux  and  reflux  of  the  tides.  In  1754  he  be 
came  a  member  of  the  French  academy,  and  in 
1772  its  perpetual  secretary,  and  within  the 
next  three  years  wrote  historical  eulogies  upon 
70  members  deceased  since  1700,  which  were 
published  in  6  vols.  12mo.  He  was  early  con 
nected  with  the  freethinkers  of  his  age  in  the 
preparation  of  the  Encyclopedic,  and  his  Dis- 
cours  preliminaire  was  designated  by  his  associ 
ate  editor  Condorcet  as  a  production  of  which 
only  one  or  two  men  in  a  century  could  be 
found  capable.  The  progress  of  the  work 
was  interrupted  by  the  government  at  the 
end  of  the  second  volume,  at  which  time 


272 


ALEMBIC 


ALEPPO 


D'Alembert  finally  withdrew  from  the  editor 
ship,  but  continued  to  write  the  mathemati 
cal  articles,  lie  was  a  member  of  most  of 
the  learned  societies  of  Europe,  and  was  in 
intimate  personal  communication  with  Fred 
erick  the  Great,  who  invited  him  to  reside  at 
the  court  of  Berlin.  This,  however,  he  de 
clined.  The  empress  Catharine  offered  him 
the  post  of  tutor  or  governor  to  the  cezarevitch, 
with  an  income  of  100,000  livres,  but  this  he 
also  declined.  He  was  a  man  of  singularly 
independent  mind  and  manners,  without  de 
generating  into  discourtesy  or  indifference  to 
the  feelings  or  necessities  of  others.  His  con 
nection  with  the  Encyclopedic  involved  him 
unjustly  in  the  general  censure  which  attached 
itself  to  the  impiety  and  intolerance  of  many 
of  its  contributors.  D'Alembert's  means  were 
limited  and  insufficient  to  keep  pace  with  his 
benevolence ;  for  when  only  in  the  enjoyment  of 
two  pensions  of  about  $000  a  year,  one  from 
Frederick,  and  the  other  from  his  own  country, 
he  gave  away  more  than  half  their  amount  in 
charity.  His  grief  on  the  death  of  Mile,  de 
1'Espinasse,  for  whom  he  entertained  a  strong 
attachment,  which  she  requited  with  less  ar 
dent  sentiments,  is  believed  to  have  hastened 
his  death.  Among  his  works  not  already  men 
tioned  are:  Rcchcrches  sur  different^  points 
important*  du  systeme  du  monde^  (3  vols.  4to, 
1754-'6);  Opuscules  matJiematiques  (8  vols. 
4to,  17C1-'80),  a  rich  mine  of  original  materi 
als;  Elements  de  musique,  upon  the  system  of 
Kameau ;  Melanges  de  litterature  et  de  philo 
sophic  (5  vols.  12mo);  Sur  la  destruction  des 
Jesuites  en  France  ;  and  a  life  of  Queen  Chris 
tina  of  Sweden.  No  single  collection  of  his 
mathematical  works  has  been  published,  but 
Bastien  collected  his  literary  and  philosophi 
cal  writings  in  18  vols.,  with  a  full  life  of 
the  author  prefixed  (Paris,  1805).  A  more 
complete  edition  was  published  by  Bossange  in 
5  vols.  8vo  (1821),  containing  several  pieces 
not  before  published,  and  the  correspondence 
of  D'Alembert  with  Voltaire  and  Frederick  II. 
ALEMBIC  (Arab,  al,  the,  and  Gr.  a///fc£  a 
cup),  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  vessels  used 
for  distillation,  and  the  type  of  all  later  kinds 
of  apparatus  for  the  same  purpose.  It  consists 
of  a  vessel  in  the  form  of  a 
flask  with  wide  neck,  on 
which  is  lilted  a  head  con 
nected  with  a  downward 
running  tube,  the  whole  so 
arranged  that  all  vapors 
condensed  against  the  in 
side  of  the  head  run  through 
a  surrounding  gutter  to  the 
t'ibe  and  so  into  a  receiver. 
Our  engraving  represents  a 
glass  alembic  on  a  stand, 
heated  by  a  spirit  lamp, 
and  connected  with  the 
receiver,  which  is  supported  on  a  separate 
stand.  Notwithstanding  this  apparatus  is  at 
'present  little  used  in  its  original  shape,  and  is 


superseded  by  the  retort,  it  must  be  confessed 
that  it  has  its  advantages,  and  was  especially 
adapted  for  the  class  of  researches  with  which 
the  alchemists  occupied  themselves.  These  ad 
vantages  are  that  the  head  can  be  separated  from 
the  body,  which  is  very  convenient  for  the  in 
troduction  of  solid  or  semi-fluid  substances,  and 
also  for  cleaning  out  after  the  operation.  In 
some  manufacturing  processes  alembics  are 
still  employed,  as  in  that  of  hydrocyanic  acid. 
In  France  they  are  still  more  employed  than 
elsewhere;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  French  call  nearly  all  kinds  of  distilling 
arrangements  alembics,  so  that  many  of  their 
so-called  alembics  are  very  different  from  the 
apparatus  here  described. 

ALEMTEJO,  the  largest  province  of  Portugal, 
bounded  by  Estremadura,  Beira,  Spain,  Al- 
garve,  and  the  Atlantic  ocean  ;  area,  9,416  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1808,  332,237.  The  surface  on 
the  E.  is  traversed  by  irregular  chains  and 
groups  of  hills,  which  in  the  western  section 
almost  entirely  disappear.  On  the  southern 
border  the  Algarvian  chain  rises  to  the  height 
of  4,000.  feet.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Guadiana,  Tagus,  and  Sadao.  The  climate  on 
the  barren  plains  of  the  S.  and  W.  is  hot  and 
dry.  In  the  E.  it  is  more  salubrious  and  the 
soil  more  fertile,  yielding  good  crops  of  wheat, 
barley,  rice,  and  maize.  The  vine  is  univer 
sally  cultivated.  The  citron,  lemon,  figs,  and 
pomegranates  abound.  Attention  is  paid  to 
the  breeding  of  sheep,  hogs,  and  goats.  In  a 
few  places  there  are  manufactures  of  woollen 
cloths  and  of  earthenware.  Alemtejo  is  di 
vided  into  the  three  districts  of  Portalegre, 
Evora,  and  Beja,  so  called  after  their  chief 
towns.  Capital,  Evora. 

ALEJV^ON,  a  town  of"  France,  in  Normandy, 
capital   of   the  department  of   Orne,   on   the 
I  Sarthe,   116   m.  W.   S.   W.   of   Paris;  pop.  in 
1866,    16,116.      It   has   a   considerable   inland 
trade,  and  is  known  for  the  famous  lace,  point 
d^Alencon.     The  fabrication  of  this  costly  ar 
ticle,   however,   now  gives   employment  to  a 
comparatively    small   number   of    families,    in 
which   it   is    an   hereditary    occupation.     The 
|  trade    was  one  of  the  forced  productions  of 
I  Colbert,  who  gave   a  monopoly  of  it  for  ten 
'  years,  and  a  bounty  from  the  crown.     The  in- 
\  habitants   are    generally   engaged   in    making 
!  muslin,   embroidery,  leather,   glass,   and   iron. 
'  Alencon  is  mostly  built  of  granite,  and  has  a  ca 
thedral,  library,  museum,  college,  theatre,  and 
:  annual  horse  races.     Its  counts  were  conspicu- 
1  ous  in  the  history  of  Normandy  and  of  France 
from  the   10th  century.     In  1219  it  was  made 
an  apanage  of  the  French  crown,  with  lords 
;  of  the  royal  family;  and  in  the  15th  century  it 
Avas  erected  into  a  royal  duchy.     The  second 
son   of   the  duke  de  Nemours,  born  in  1844, 
now  bears  the  title  of  duke  d'Alencon. 
ALE^OIV,  Francois,  duke  of.     See  AXJOF. 
ALEPPO     (Arab.    Haleb ;     anc.     Chalylon, 
'  afterward  Bercza},  a  city  of  N.  Syria,  capital  of 
1  a  Turkish  vilayet  of  the  same  name,  in  lat.  3P>g 


ALEPPO 


A  LESS  AND  El 


11'  N.,  Ion.  37°  WE.,  on  the  borders  of  the  '• 
Syro- Arabian  desert,  about  60  in.  E.  of  Antioch  \ 
and  70  m.  from  the  Mediterranean.  The  popula-  j 
tion,  formerly  estimated  at  upward  of  200,000, 
has  been  reduced   by   earthquakes,  and  now  j 
numbers  about  100,000,  including  10,000  Chris-  | 
tians  and  -1,000  Jews;  the  rest  being  Greeks,  ; 
Armenians,  Arabs,  and  Turks.    The  city  is  en-  : 
compassed  by  low   and    barren    hills   and  ir 
regular  mounds,  intersected  by  fertile  valleys. 
The   gloomy   aspect   of  the   projecting   chalk 
rocks  is  relieved  by  gardens  along  the  rivulet 
Nahr   Kowaik,    planted   with    the    celebrated 
pistachio  trees  and  abounding  in  exquisite  fruits  1 
and  flower-'.     Including  the  straggling  suburb,  ! 
the  circumference  of  Aleppo  is  5  to  6  m.,  but 
the  city  proper  is  not  over  3  in.  in  circuit,  and 
it  is  shut  in  by  a  ruinous  Saracenic  wall.    Alep 
po  is  a  city  of  a  thoroughly  oriental  type,  with 
extensive  bazaars,   numerous  mosques,   and  a 
population  remarkable  for  its  elegant  bearing. 
The   streets   are   better   than    those    of    most 
eastern  cities,  though  many  of  them  are  arched 
over.     The  houses  are  of  stone,  substantially 
built,  with  terraces  for  evening  promenades. 
The  commerce,  though  considerably  less  than 
formerly,  is  still  active,  the  value  of  the  imports  j 
in  1806,  chiefly  English,  being  $6,500,000,  and 
of  the  exports,  $2,700,000.    The  trade  in  Alep 
po  brocades  and  silks  has  declined  since  the 
introduction  of  European  silks.     The  principal 
exports  are  wool,  cotton,  pistachio  nuts,  oil,  ce 
reals,  &c.    Aleppo,  being  on  the  only  safe  route 
between  Syria  and  eastern  Asia,  is  the  great 
centre  of  the  Damascus  and  Bagdad  caravans. 
— The  name  of  Haleb  is  traced  by  some  Arab 
philologists  of  the  14th  century  to  the  days  of 
Abraham,    who,   according  to   this   tradition, 
stopped  there  on  his  way  to  Canaan,  distribut 
ing  milk  to  the  poor  and  repeating  the  words 
Ibrahim  aleb,  "Abraham  has  milked."    In  638 
Aleppo  was  taken  from  the  Byzantine  empire  I 
by  the  Arabs  and  made  the  seat  of  a  sultanate.  | 
It  was   reconquered   by   John   Zimisces,    and  j 
afterward   became   the  capital  of  the  Seljuk  j 
Turks.    After  being  besieged  by  the  crusaders,  j 
desolated    by   the   followers   of   Timour,    op-  j 
pressed  by  the  Mamelukes  of  Egypt,  and  de 
stroyed  several  times  by  earthquakes,  it  be-  | 
came,  after  the  Turkish  conquest  at  the  begin-  j 
ning  of  the  10th  century,  a  prosperous  city,  ! 
and  the  seat  of  a  branch  of  the  Levant  com-  j 
pany.     In  1850  it  was  the  scene  of  massacres  j 
of  Christians,  and  of  revolts,  which  were  sup-  ! 
pressed  in  November  with  the  aid  of  Generals  ! 
Bern  and    Guyon,    then    in    Turkish    service,  j 
Prelates  of  the  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  Ar-  I 
menian,  and  Syriac  churches,  and  consuls  of  j 
the   principal  Christian  nations,   reside   here.  I 
The  place  has  been  often  visited  by  the  plague  j 
and  the  cholera.— A  disease  of  the  skin  called  ! 
the  Aleppo  button  (Arab,  heblet),  or  boil,  at-  | 
tacks  most  of  the  residents,  and  is  attributed  I 
to  the  unwholesome  water.     The  natives  gen-  ] 
orally  have  it  in  infancy,   and  chiefly  in  the  ! 
face.      The  eruption  makes  its  appearance  in  ; 
VOL.  i. — 18 


the  form  of  a  small,  hard,  red  tubercle,  increas 
ing  in  size  after  several  weeks,  discharging  pus, 
and  eventually  forming  a  scab,  which  on  dis 
appearing  leaves  an  indelible  mark.  Dogs  and 
cats  are  commonly  attacked  by  it  in  the  nose. 
Strangers  are  attacked  sometimes  soon  after 
their  arrival,  sometimes  not  until  years  after 
their  departure.  The  malady,  which  usually 
lasts  a  year,  prevails  all  along  the  adjacent 
rivers,  arid  along  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates, 
as  far  as  Bagdad. 

ALESI1KI  (formerly  Dnieprovslt),  a  town  in 
S.  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Taurida,  on 
an  arm  of  the  Dnieper,  5  in.  S.  E.  of  Kherson; 
pop.  in  1870,  8,484,  and  rapidly  increasing. 

ALESIA,  a  fortified  town  of  the  Mandubii, 
in  Celtic  Gaul,  renowned  for  its  siege  by  Csesar 
in  52  B.  C.  It  was  a  very  old  town,  built  on  a 
high  hill,  washed  by  the  Lutosa  and  Osera  (be 
lieved  to  be  the  Ozc  and  Ozeraine,  in  Cote  d'Or), 
near  the  sources  of  the  Sequana  (Seine).  Its 
fall,  and  the  surrender  of  Vercingetorix,  who 
defended  it,  decided  the  subjugation  of  Gaul. 
It  was  destroyed  by  Caesar,  but  was  subse 
quently  rebuilt,  and  became  a  very  consider 
able  city  under  the  Romans.  It  was  ruined  by 
the  Normans  in  the  9th  century.  At  the  foot 
of  the  hill  (Mont  Auxois)  now  stands  the  vil 
lage  of  Alise  Ste.  Reine,  6  m.  S.  of  Montbard. — 
M.  Delacroix,  an  architect  of  Besancon,  called 
attention  in  1855  to  the  village  of  Alaise,  near 
Ornans,  in  the  department  of  Doubs,  as  the 
site  of  the  battlefield  of  Alesia.  Excavations 
were  made  at  Alaise  and  at  Alise,  at  the  latter 
place  under  the  auspices  of  Napoleon  III.,  and 
archaeological  evidence  was  produced  in  sup 
port  of  the  two  localities,  that  respecting  Alise 
Ste.  Reine  being  regarded  as  conclusive  in 
favor  of  this  site  by  F.  de  Saulcy  and  other 
competent  persons  who  conducted  the  re 
searches  there  in  1861.  Many  works  have  been 
written  on  this  controversy.  The  most  impor 
tant  publications  in  behalf  of  Alaise  are  four 
by  J.  £.  J.  Quicher.it  (Paris,  1857-'02);  in 
favor  of  Alise,  by  Rossignol  (Dijon,  1850),  the 
duke  d'Aumale  (Paris,  1858),  and  F.  de  Saulcy 
(1802).  The  academy  of  inscriptions  and  belles- 
lettres  conferred  a  prize  upon  Rossignol's  es 
say.  In  1802  M.  Gravot  published  his  opinion 
that  the  battle  of  Alesia  was  fought  neither  at 
Alise  Ste.  Reine  nor  at  Alaise,  but  at  Alise- 
Izernore,  in  the  department  of  Ain. 

ALESSAXDRESKU,  Gregory,  a  Roumanian  poet, 
born  at  Tergovist,  Wallachia,  about  1812. 
After  a  short  service  in  the  army,  he  became 
conspicuous  as  a  liberal  politician,  and  was 
banished  to  a  monastery  for  publishing  satires 
and  fables  reflecting  upon  the  government.  In 
1859  he  was  for  a  short  time  minister  of 
finance.  A  second  edition  of  his  most  impor 
tant  work,  entitled  "Reminiscences,  Impres 
sions,  Letters,  and  Fables,"  was  published  at 
Bucharest  in  1803. 

ALESSANDRI,  Basil,  a  Roumanian  poet  of  Ve 
netian  origin,  born  in  Moldavia  in  1821.  He 
was  educated  at  Jassy  and  Paris,  joined  the 


274: 


ALESSANDRIA 


ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS 


party  of  young  Roumania.  and  produced  bal 
lads  and  plays  which  are  popular  in  Moldo- 
Wallachia.  His  principal  works  have  been 
published  at  Jassy,  Bucharest,  and  Paris  (1852 
-'63).  After  the  death  of  his  father  he  eman 
cipated  all  his  serfs,  arid  his  example  was  fol 
lowed  by  nearly  1,000  other  serf-holders  pre 
vious  to  the  act  of  general  emancipation  pro 
mulgated  by  Prince  Gregory  Ghika.  In  1859 
-'GO  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He 
published  in  French  a  collection  of  Ballades  et 
chants  populaires  de  la  Rowmanie  (Paris,  1855). 
ALESSANDRIA.  I.  A  N".  W.  province  of  Italy, 
in  Piedmont,  embracing  the  former  duchy  of 
Montferrat;  area,  1,952  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
683,473.  It  is  traversed  E.  and  W.  by  the  Turin 
and  Stradella,  and  N".  and  S.  by  the  Genoa  and 
Lago  Maggiore  railroad.  The  principal  rivers 
flowing  through  it  are  the  Tanaro,  Bormida, 


and  Scrivia.  Among  the  chief  products  are 
maize,  wine,  silk,  madder,  and  flax.  The  east 
ern  •  part  is  an  extensive,  fertile  plain ;  the 
centre  consists  partly  of  barren  hills,  and  partly 
of  excellent  table  land ;  the  western  portion 
is  hilly,  and  produces  the  best  wine  of  Pied 
mont.  It  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
Tortona,  Alessandria,  Asti,  Casale,  Acqui, 
and  Novi.  II.  A  fortified  city  (Ital.  Ales 
sandria  della  Paylia,  of  the  straw,  from  its 
houses  having  originally  been  thatched),  capi 
tal  of  the  above  province,  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Bormida  and  Tanaro,  a  few  miles  from 
the  Po,  and  46  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Turin ;  pop.  in 
1872,  including  suburbs,  57,079.  It  was  founded 
in  1168  by  the  Lombard  league,  as  a  bulwark 
against  the  German  emperors,  and  in  modern 
times  again  received  significance  as  a  national 
Italian  fortress  against  Austria.  Though  up 


Alessandria. 


to  the  beginning  of  this  century  its  defences 
were  indifferent,  the  French  in  vain  besieged 
it  in  1657,  and  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  in  1707 
only  took  it  after  a  protracted  defence.  Na 
poleon  I.  strengthened  it,  after  the  annexation 
of  Piedmont  to  France,  with  casemated  bat 
teries  for  the  defence  of  the  ditch,  great  addi 
tions  to  the  citadel,  and  a  bridge-head  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Bormida.  It  is  now  the 
strongest  fortified  city  of  Italy,  after  Verona. 
During  the  war  of  1848-'9  it  was  the  prin 
cipal  arsenal  of  the  Italians,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Novara  it  was  temporarily  occupied 
by  an  Austrian  force  during  the  truce.  It  was 
the  headquarters  of  Napoleon  III.  and  Victor 
Emanuel  in  the  campaign  of  1859.  The  city 
has  a  college,  a  theological  seminary,  about  20 
churches,  including  a  cathedral,  an  academy 
of  science  and  arts,  several  palaces,  and  manu 


factories  of  linen,   silks,   cloths,  and  wax  can 
dles.     It  is  an  important  railway  centre. 

ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS,  a  chain  "of  islands  nt- 
uated  between  Alaska  and  Kamtchatka,  and 
separating  Behring  sea  from  the  North  Pacific- 
ocean,  between  lat.  51°  and  56°  N.,  and  Ion. 
163°  and  188°  W.  The  origin  of  the  name  is 
unknown,  but  is  believed  to  be  Russian.  Al 
though  the  Aleutian  chain  is  usually  regarded 
as  co-extensive  with  the  Catharine  archipel 
ago,  an  appellation  applied  to  all  the  islands  of 
this  region  in  honor  of  Catharine  II.  of  Russia, 
some  geographers  do  not  include  in  it  Behring 
island  and  Copper  island,  near  the  Asiatic 
coast.  These  are  known  as  the  Komandorski 
or  Commander's  islands,  and  are  situated  in 
about  Ion.  193°  W. ;  the  Russian  explorer 
Behring  died  upon  that  which  bears  his  name. 
Omitting  them,  the  Aleutian  islands  consist  of 


ALE  WIFE 

four  groups,  as  follows:  1,  the  Nearer  (Blizh- 
ni)  or  Sasignan  islands,  5  in  number,  which  lie 
W.  of  the  185th  parallel  of  W.  longitude,  and 
derive  their  name  from  their  proximity  to  Karn- 
tchatka ;  2,  the  Rat  (Krisi)  islands,  of  which 
there  are  15,  situated  between  Ion.  185°  and 
180°  W. ;  3,  the  Andreanovski  group,  extend 
ing  from  Ion.  180°  to  172°  W.,  and  containing 
30  islands,  on  one  of  which,  Goreloi  (Burnt) 
island,  is  a  mountain  8,000  feet  in  height; 
and  4,  the  Fox  (Lisi)  islands,  numbering  31, 
lying  between  Ion.  172°  W.  and  the  shore  of 
the  American  continent,  and  including  Unimak 
and  Unalashka.  The  entire  area  of  the  islands 
is  6,391  geog.  sq.  m.  Dall  estimates  the  native 
population  at  1,500,  though  it  probably  was 
not  less  than  10,000  when  the  Russians  first 
occupied  the  country.  The  half-breeds  and 
resident  Russians  do  not  exceed  800  in  number. 
Unimak  is  the  largest  island  of  the  chain  and 
the  most  mountainous.  Unalashka  contains  the 
greatest  number  of  inhabitants  and  the  finest 
land  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  also  pos 
sesses  the  best  anchorage  and  principal  port, 
Iliuliuk  or  Captain's  Harbor.  Traces  of  the 
action  of  subterranean  igneous  forces  are  nearly 
everywhere  apparent,  and  the  whole  archipel 
ago  is  believed  to  be  the  result  of  volcanic  up 
heaval.  Hot  springs  are  of  frequent  occur 
rence.  Of  the  numerous  mountains,  several 
are  upward  of  5,000  ft.  high,  and  many  are 
volcanoes,  some  of  which  show  slight  signs  of 
activity.  A  rolling  country,  with  hills  of  mod 
erate  elevation,  intervenes  between  the  moun 
tains  and  the  coast,  which  on  most  of  the 
islands  is  abrupt  and  accessible  from  the  sea  at 
comparatively  few  points.  The  soil  in  many 
districts  is  fertile,  and  produces  turnips,  car 
rots,  parsnips,  and  cabbages  of  fair  quality,  as 
well  as  a  few  potatoes.  There  is  a  most  lux 
uriant  growth  of  wild  grass  suitable  for  cattle, 
of  which,  however,  very  few  are  kept,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  housing  them  in  winter 
from  the  scarcity  of  wood  for  building  pur 
poses.  The  islands  are  entirely  destitute  of  j 
timber.  The  climate  is  moist  and  equable,  { 
with  an  average  annual  temperature  of  from  j 
36°  to  40°.  The  Aleuts  resemble  the  North 
American  Indians  in  color  and  other  respects, 
but  are  variously  regarded  as  of  American  and 
Asiatic  origin.  An  active  and  formerly  a  cheer 
ful  race,  their  character  has  acquired  a  degree 
of  sombreness  from  the  forced  adoption  of 
Russian  manners,  customs,  and  religion.  Their 
principal  occupations  are  hunting  and  fishing. 
-The  Aleutian  islands  were  discovered  by 
Behring  in  1741,  and  subsequently  in  the  same 
century  were  acquired  and  occupied  by  Russia, 
together  with  her  possessions  on  the  American 
mainland.  In  1867  they  were  transferred  with 
the  latter  to  the  United  States,  and  now  form 
a  part  of  the  territory  of  Alaska. 

ALEWIFE,  a  fish  of  the  genus  alosa  (A. 
tyrannus,  Latrobe),  also  called  spring  herring, 
and  in  the  British  provinces  gaspereau,  or 
American  alewife.  It  appears  in  great  num- 


ALEXAXDER 


275 


bers  in  Chesapeake  bay  from  the  south  in 
March,  on  the  New  York  and  New  England 
coasts  with  the  shad  in  April,  and  in  the  Brit 
ish  provinces  about  May  1.  Like  the  shad,  it 
ascends  the  northern  rivers  to  deposit  its 
spawn.  In  the  bay  of  Fundy  the  alewife  is 
abundant ;  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  it  is  less 
common,  and  of  smaller  size  ;  the  bay  of  Mira- 
michi  appears  to  be  its  extreme  northern  limit. 
It  ascends  rivers  generally  to  the  head  of  the 
tide,  and  returns  to  the  sea  in  July.  The 
fishery  is  prosecuted  with  small  meshed  seines 
drawn  across  the  streams,  and  so  successfully 
that  hardly  a  fish  escapes ;  the  fishing  lasta 
about  six  weeks,  commencing  as  soon  as  the 
rivers  are  clear  of  ice.  It  prefers  a  soft,  muddy 
bottom,  and  turbid  water,  and  its  favorite  food 
is  shrimps  and  the  shad  worm.  The  length  of 
the  alewife  is  4  to  12  inches  ;  the  body  is  com 
pressed  ;  the  head  small,  with  golden  gill 
covers;  the  eyes  large,  with  silvery  iris  and 
black  pupil ;  the  mouth  very  large,  the  lower 
jaw  slightly  the  longer,  and  the  upper  jaw 
deeply  notched  in  its  centre.  The  color  on  tlie. 
back  is  bluish  purple ;  the  sides  are  light  cop 
per  color,  beneath  silvery ;  on  the  sides  are  4, 
5,  or  even  more  indistinct  greenish  lines  pass 
ing  from  the  head  to  the  tail ;  just  behind  the 
upper  angle  of  the  gill  cover  is  a  deep  black 
spot.  The  scales  on  the  body  are  very  large, 
and  deciduous;  the  entire  abdominal  edge  ia 
serrated  by  strong  bony  spines,  largest  between 
the  ventrals  and  the  vent;  the  dorsal  fin  is 
single,  and  the  tail  is  deeply  notched.  Though 
thin,  dry,  and  inferior  to  the  herring  and  the 
shad,  the  alewife  is  a  valuable  fish.  For  home 
consumption,  alewives  are  salted  and  smoked, 
like  herring.  The  fishery  in  the  British  prov 
inces  is  valuable. 

ALEXANDER.  I.  A  N.  W.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  bounded  S.  by  the  Catawba  river ; 
area,  300  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,868,  of  whom 
611  were  colored.  The  staple  products  are 
wheat,  corn,  and  oats.  There  are  19  churches, 
and  20  manufactories.  Capital,  Taylorsville. 
II.  A  S.  county  of  Illinois,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers,  the  latter 
forming  its  S.  and  S.  W.  boundary  and  separat 
ing  it  from  Missouri ;  area,  245  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  10.564.  The  face  of  the  county  is 
low  and  level,  and  in  some  parts  liable  to  in 
undation,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  staple 
products  are  corn  and  wheat.  The  southern 
terminus  of  the  Illinois  Central  railroad  is  at 
Cairo  in  this  county.  Capital,  Thebes. 

ALEXANDER,  surnamed  the  Great,  son  of  Phil 
ip  of  Macedon  and  of  Olympias  of  Epirus,  born 
in  356  B.  C.,  died  in  323.  His  first  tutor  was- 
a  Greek,  Lysimachus,  and  the  first  thing  which 
he  learned  was  the  Iliad.  At  the  age  of  13  he 
received  further  instruction  from  Aristotle,  and 
enjoyed  this  teaching  for  three  years,  being 
then  warmly  attached  to  the  philosopher. 
During  his  lather's  lifetime  he  shared  in  his 
wars,  and  in  the  government  of  the  kingdom, 
early  showing  a  strong  will  and  an  imperious 


276 


ALEXANDER   THE   GREAT 


temper.  By  his  bravery  he  decided  the  issue  | 
of  the  battle  of  Chaeronea  (338),  which  made  j 
Philip  the  master  of  Greece,  lie  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  age  of  20,  on  the  assassination  j 
of  his  father,  and  put  to  death  several  of  the  j 
guilty,  as  well  as  many  relations  of  his  father's  ! 
second  wife,  and  soon  afterward  Philip's  infant  ! 
son.  At  the  head  of  an  army  he  at  once  en-  j 
tered  Greece,  strengthened  the  submission  of 
the  Greek  republics,  and  at  a  general  Grecian 
assembly  at  Corinth  was  made  cominander-in- 
chief,  with  full  powers  on  land  and  sea  to  pros 
ecute  the  war  against  Persia.  In  the  follow-  I 
ing  spring  (335),  in  an  armed  excursion  against  | 
various  tribes  of  Thracians  and  others  north 
of  Macedonia,  he  crossed  the  Danube  without 
a  bridge  and  in  the  face  of  an  enemy.  During 
this  campaign  rumors  of  his  death  arose  in 
Greece.  Demosthenes,  in  Athens,  and  the 
patriots  of  other  Greek  cities,  and  above  all 
the  Thebans,  considered  this  to  be  a  propitious 
moment  to  emancipate  Hellas  from  Macedonian 
domination.  The  Thebans  rose  in  arms.  Alex 
ander  returned  with  his  army  in  13  days  from 
beyond  the  north  of  Macedonia  to  Bceotia. 
After  a  murderous  assault  he  razed  Thebes  to 
the  ground,  leaving  only  the  house  of  Pindar 
standing,  and  sparing  only  the  descendants  of 
the  poet  from  slavery  or  massacre.  This  blow 
crushed  the  aspirations  of  the  Greeks  for  free 
dom. — Alexander  now  completed  his  prepara 
tions  for  the  invasion  of  Asia.  In  March  or 
April,  334,  he  crossed  the  Hellespont  from 
Sestos  to  Abydos,  with  a  force  of  30,000  foot 
and  4,500  horse.  This  army  was  composed  in 
great  part  of  Macedonians,  with  Macedonian 
commanders.  At  Ilium  (Troy)  he  performed 
various  rites  and  sacrifices  in  honor  of  the 
ancient  heroes,  a  manifestation  of  that  le 
gendary  sympathy  which  formed  the  only  real 
relation  let  ween  him  and  the  Greeks.  A 
Persian  army  defended  the  passage  of  the 
Granicus.  Alexander  was  the  first  to  enter 
the  river  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  fought  fore 
most  with  great  personal  courage,  and  won  a 
decisive  victory.  Nearly  the  whole  of  Asia 
Minor  submitted  to  him,  and  the  few  cities  that 
attempted  to  resist,  among  them  Halicarnassus, 
were  taken  by  storm.  At  Tarsus  in  Cilicia  he 
was  seized  with  a  violent  fever,  after  bathing 
in  the  chilly  waters  of  the  Cydnus,  and  owed  his 
recovery  to  the  skill  of  his  physician,  Philip. 
The  king  of  Persia,  Darius  III.,  commanding  in 
person  an  army  of  five  or  six  hundred  thousand  I 
men,  met  him  in  a  valley  near  Issus,  and  one  | 
of  the  most  important  and  decisive  battles  re 
corded  in  history  was  fought  there  (333).  Da 
rius  was  defeated  with  immense  slaughter,  and 
the  loss  of  his  camp  and  treasures ;  while  his 
mother,  his  wife  Statira,  celebrated  as  the 
handsomest  woman  in  Asia,  his  infant  son  and 
two  daughters,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victor, 
by  whom  they  were  treated  with  unexpected 
magnanimity.  Syria  and  Phoenicia  submitted, 
with  the  exception  of  Tyre,  which  was  taken 
after  an  arduous  siege  of  seven  months.  Alex 


ander  was  twice  obliged  to  construct  a  mole 
more  than  200  feet  wide  across  the  half-mile 
channel  between  the  mainland  and  the  islet 
on  which  Tyre  was  situated.  At  the  final 
storm  the  carnage  was  terrible,  and  2,000  of 
the  defenders  were  hung  on  the  walls,  30,000 
inhabitants  sold  into  slavery,  and  the  ancient 
and  free-spirited  population  wholly  extirpated. 
— Alexander  now  marched  toward  Egypt.  Of 
the  cities  of  Palestine,  only  Gaza,  commanded 
by  Batis,  a  eunuch,  resisted  him.  The  town 
had  hitherto  been  thought  impregnable,  but 
Alexander  surrounded  it  with  artificial  mounds 
equal  in  elevation  to  the  hill  on  which  the 
stronghold  was  situated,  and,  after  having  been 
beaten  oif  in  several  attacks,  in  one  of  which 
he  was  severely  wounded,  took  the  city,  and 
slaughtered  nearly  the  whole  population  (332). 
Batis,  covered  with  wounds,  was  taken  prisoner. 
The  infuriated  victor  ordered  his  feet  to  be 
bored,  and  his  living  body  to  be  attached  to  a 
chariot,  which  he  drove  himself  in  full  speed 
through  the  streets.  Thus  he  copied  the  igno 
minious  treatment  which,  according  to  the  le 
gend,  was  infiicted  by  Achilles,  from  whom  he 
claimed  descent,  on  the  dead  bc/dy  of  Hector. 
Egypt  submitted  without  otfering  the  slightest 
resistance.  Alexander  founded  the  city  of 
Alexandria,  and  marched  through  the  desert 
into  Libya  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon 
(331).  The  priest  addressed  him  as  the  son  of 
the  god,  and  the  conqueror  henceforth  assumed 
such  to  be  his  parentage,  to  the  great  dissatis 
faction  of  his  Macedonian  army  and  compan 
ions.  4Ie  was  now  master  of  the  whole  eastern 
Mediterranean  coast,  and  of  all  the  islands,  and 
returned  to  Asia  in  search  of  Darius,  who  was 
lost  in  the  immense  dominions  which  still  re 
mained  to  him.  Alexander  crossed  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  and  in  the  plains  of  Gaugamela,  near 
Arbela,  in  Assyria,  reached  the  Persian  army, 
made  up  of  the  contingents  from  the  Caspian 
sea,  the  rivers  Oxus  and  Indus,  the  Persian 
gulf,  and  the  Red  sea.  It  is  said  that  this  army 
numbered  1,000,000  infantry,  40,000  cavalry, 
200  chariots  armed  with  scythes,  and  15  ele 
phants,  which  then  made  their  first  appearance 
on  a  field  of  battle  beyond  their  native  country. 
Alexander  commanded  40,000  foot  and  7,000 
horse.  The  battle  was  severely  contested,  but  at 
last  the  Persians  were  utterly  routed  (October, 
331).  The  Persian  empire  was  destroyed.  Its 
two  capitals,  Babylon  and  Susa,  surrendered, 
with  immense  treasures.  From  Susa  Alexander 
marched  into  Persia  proper,  the  cradle  of  the 
earlier  Persian  conquerors,  overpowering  va 
rious  barbarian  mountain  tribes  on  the  march. 
Persepolis  and  Pasargada  fell  into  his  hands, 
with  treasures  surpassing  those  of  Babylon  and 
Susa.  He  set  fire  to  Persepolis;  the  male 
inhabitants  were  slain,  and  the  females  dragged 
into  servitude.  Next  he  continued  the  con 
quest  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Persian  empire, 
following  Darius  into  Media,  Ilyrcania,  and 
Parthia,  where  the  fugitive  king  was  murder 
ed  by  his  revolted  satraps  (330).  Alexander 


ALEXANDER   THE    GREAT 


277 


278 


ALEXANDER   THE   GREAT 


ordered  the  body  to  bo  buried  with  regal  pomp 
i  i  the  royal  sepulchres  of  Pcrsis.  Pursuing  the 
satraps,  lie  entered  Aria,  in  the  region  adjoin 
ing  the  modern  Herat.  Thence  he  marched 
into  Drangiana,  the  modern  Sejestan.  While 
at  the  chief  town  of  this  province,  on  the  plea 
of  a  conspiracy  against  his  life  discovered 
among  those  nearest  his  person,  he  condemned  ! 
to  death  Philotas,  one  of  his  first  generals,  and  j 
son  of  Parmenio,  his  best  captain,  and  the  j 
companion  in  arms  of  his  father  Philip ;  and  j 
after  this  he  ordered  the  murder  of  Parmenio 
himself.  He  had  now  become  very  intemperate, 
and,  full  of  suspicion,  opened  the  letters  of  his 
officers  and  soldiers  to  their  relations  in  Europe,  j 
He  reduced  Arachosia  and  the  Paropamisus  re 
gion  (modern  Afghanistan),  founding  various 
cities  of  Greeks  and  Macedonians.  Then  he 
overran  Bactria  (329),  crossed  the  Oxus, 
marched  through  Sogdiana,  entering  the  prin 
cipal  city  Maracanda,  now  Samarcand,  and 
reached  the  river  Jaxartes  (Sir  Daria),  which 
he  thought  was  the  Tanai's  (Don),  then  con 
sidered  to  be  the  boundary  between  Europe 
and  Asia.  On  its  banks  he  founded  a  city 
named  Alexandria,  as  a  fortress  against  the  no 
madic  Scythians,  in  whose  pursuit  he  reached 
the  present  khanate  of  Khokand.  This  was 
the  utmost  limit  of  Alexander's  northern  pro 
gress.  During  his  stay  at  Samarcand,  on  his 
return,  in  a  drunken  orgy,  he  killed  with  his 
own  hand  his  general  and  friend  Clitus,  who 
had  saved  his  life  at  the  battle  of  the  Granicus, 
and  now  ventured  to  rebuke  him  for  his  over 
bearing  pride  and  infatuated  belief  in  his  di 
vine  origin.  After  this  bloody  deed,  the  mur 
derer,  seized  with  remorse,  passed  three  days 
without  food  and  drink.  In  Bactra  (Balkh), 
the  capital  of  Bactria,  he  celebrated  in  327  an 
oriental  marriage  between  himself  and  his 
captive  Roxana,  and  in  the  festivities  of  this 
ceremony  demanded  prostration  and  worship 
from  the  Greeks  as  well  as  the  Asiatics.  Some 
Greek  philosophers,  Anaxarchus  among  them, 
led  the  way  in  this  degradation;  but  Callis- 
thenes,  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Aris 
totle,  opposing  it,  was  falsely  accused  of  a  con 
spiracy,  tortured,  and  put  to  death.  From 
Bactra  Alexander  marched  southward,  recross- 
ing  the  Paropamisus,  or  eastern  Caucasus,  now 
known  as  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  and  went  into 
Cabool,  descending  along  the  right  bank  of  the 
Indus,  and  reducing  various  mountain  tribes 
on  the  way.  He  crossed  the  Indus  at  or  near 
Attock,  a  passage  now  much  used,  and  entered 
Taxila,  whose  prince,  Taxiles,  at  once  submit 
ted,  becoming  a  tributary  ally,  and  furnishing 
a  contingent  to  the  Macedonian  army.  On  the 
further  side  of  the  Hydaspes  (Jhylum,  in  the 
Punjanb),  he  met  the  Indian  prince  Porus,  with 
a  formidable  force,  which  he  defeated,  taking 
Porus  prisoner.  The  latter,  however,  had  his 
possessions  restored  and  became  an  ally  and 
friend  of  Alexander.  After  conquering  various 
Indian  princes  and  nations,  Alexander  passed 
the  river  Acesines  (Chenaub),  and  advancing 


across  the  Punjaub  to  the  river  Hydraotea 
(Ravee),  demolished  the  city  of  Sangala,  put 
ting  to  death  17,000  persons,  and  making 
70,000  captives  from  various  free  Indian  tribes. 
Thence  he  marched  to  the  river  Ilyphasis  (Sut- 
lej).  Here  the  Macedonians  of  the  army, 
averse  to  plunging  further  into  unknown  des 
erts,  refused  to  cross  the  river,  and  Alexander 
gave  the  order  to  return.  To  mark  the  limit 
of  his  eastward  progress,  he  erected  12  altars 
of  extraordinary  height  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Hyphasis.  Late  in  the  autumn  of  327  he  em 
barked  with  a  part  of  his  army  on  the  Ilydas- 
pes,  and  sailed  down  to  the  Indus,  which  he 
descended  to  its  mouth,  disembarking  per 
petually  to  attack,  subdue,  and  slaughter  the 
tribes  near  the  shore.  He  reached  the  Indian 
ocean  in  the  summer  of  320.  Nearchus,  his 
admiral,  took  the  fiect  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Indus  round  the  Persian  gulf  to  the  Tigris, 
while  Alexander  himself  inarched  westward 
along  the  shores  of  'the  gulf,  then  through  the 
desert  of  Gedrosia  (Beloochistan)  to  the  city  of 
Pura  (Bahnpoora).  In  this  march  the  soldiers 
suffered  much  from  thirst  und  hunger.  To 
compensate  for  this,  and  in  imitation  of  the 
festivals  of  Bacchus,  Alexander  and  his  army 
marched  seven  days  in  drunken  bacchanalian 
procession  through  Carmania  (Kerman),  en 
tering  Persis,  and  finally,  in  the  beginning  of 
325,  reaching  Susa.  Here  he  adopted  the 
Persian  costume  and  ceremonial,  made  a  eunuch, 
Bagoas,  his  favorite,  and  contracted  two  addi 
tional  Asiatic  marriages.  lie  sailed  down  the 
river  Pasitigris  (Karun)  to  the  Persian  gulf, 
and,  anxious  for  naval  glory,  projected  the  cir 
cumnavigation  and  conquest  of  Arabia.  An 
immense  fleet  was  built  in  the  Phoenician  ports, 
taken  to  pieces,  and  conveyed  to  Babylon, 
which  was  transformed  into  a  harbor  for  the 
purpose.  At  this  time  he  received  embassies 
from  all  the  nations  around  the  Mediterranean, 
including  the  Romans,  Iberians,  and  Gauls. 
Having  entered  Babylon  in  324,  he  spent  sev 
eral  days  in  surveying  the  surrounding 
marshes,  where  he  contracted  the  germs  of  a 
violent  fever.  This  malady  was  developed 
and  heightened  by  his  daily  revelries,  and  final 
ly  put  an  end  to  his  life  after  a  reign  of  12 
years  and  8  months.  He  appointed  no  succes 
sor,  but  before  his  death  gave  his  ring  to  Per- 
diccas.  Shortly  afterward  Roxana  gave  birth  to 
a  son,  Alexander  ^Egus,  who  was  put  to  death 
with  his  mother  by  Cassander  in  311,  while 
the  conqueror's  great  empire  was  divided  by 
his  generals. — Alexander's  reign  forms  one  of 
the  pivots  of  the  world's  history.  By  it  Asia 
and  the  East  were  interwoven  with  Europe  and 
Greece,  while  the  free  Greek  communities  were 
crushed  and  democratic  progress  and  liberty 
entombed.  His  generalship,  his  knowledge  of 
command,  his  strategic  combinations,  his  far- 
reaching  plans,  his  foresight  and  fertility  in  dif 
ficulties,  his  rapidity  of  movement,  are  almost 
without  a  parallel  in  history,  when  we  consider 
the  time,  the  regions  where  he  acted,  and  the 


ALEXANDER   (POPES) 


279 


resources  at  liis  disposal.  "With  all  his  courage 
and  his  sanguine  temperament,  nothing  was 
ever  omitted  in  the  way  of  systematic  military 
precaution.  Nor  is  his  life  devoid  of  other 
traits  of  greatness.  The  acquisition  of  univer 
sal  dominion  was  the  master  passion  of  his 
soul.  lie  had  no  attachment  for  any  special 
nationality,  but  looked  on  all  mankind  as  on  a 
realm  to  he  conquered  and  ruled.  His  con 
quests  caused  an  immense  diffusion  of  Hellenic 
culture,  and  influenced  for  ages  the  condition 
of  western  Asia  and  of  Egypt. 

ALEXANDER,  the  name  of  eight  popes.  !. 
Saint,  a  Roman  by  birth,  according  to  ecclesias 
tical  tradition,  governed  the  church  from  108 
to  119,  and  was  beheaded  by  order  of  the  em 
peror  Hadrian.  A  beautiful  church  has  been 
erected  over  his  tomb.  II.  Anselmo  Badatrio. 
born  in  Milan,  was  bishop  of  Lucca,  became 
pope  through  the  influence  of  llildebrand  (af 
terward  Gregory  VII.),  and  reigned  from  1061 
to  1073.  Tiie  first  few  years  of  his  reign  were 
troubled  by  a  contest  with  an  anti-pope  named 
Cadaloiis,  who  took  the  name  of  Honorius  II. 
He  carried  out  with  great  vigor  and  ability  the 
measures  of  the  reforming  party  in  the  church 
of  which  llildebrand  was  the  life  and  soul, 
against  simony  and  concubinage  among  the 
clergy,  and  the  intrusion  of  unworthy  bishops 
into  the  episcopal  sees  through  the  influence  of 
princes  and  nobles.  By  the  advice  of  llilde 
brand,  he  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  claims  of 
William  of  Normandy  to  the  crown  of  England, 
as  successor  to  Edward  the  Confessor.  After 
th'e  success  of  William's  arms,  in  1066,  he  sent 
as  legate  into  England  Bishop  Ermenfroi,  and 
the  cardinals  Peter  and  John,  who  crowned 
King  William,  and  afterward  held  a  council  at 
Winchester,  in  which  Stigand,  the  excommu 
nicated  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  had  in 
truded  himself  into  that  see  during  the  lifetime 
of  the  archbishop  Robert,  was  deposed.  The 
celebrated  Lanfranc,  formerly  the  preceptor  of 
Alexander,  was  placed  in  that  see,  and  after 
ward  received  by  the  pope  with  great  honor  at 
Rome.  Alexander  maintained  close  relations 
with  the  Byzantine  empire,  and  sent  a  legate  to 
the  Greek  court.  A  number  of  his  epistles  are 
extant,  among  which  is  one  addressed  to  the 
bishops  of  France,  in  which  he  condemns  in  the 
strongest  terms  the  cruelties  practised  by  some 
Christians  on  the  Jews.  III.  Rolando  Bandinclli, 
born  in  Siena,  elected  Sept,  7,  1159,  died  Aug. 
1,  1181.  He  had  to  sustain  a  long  conflict  with 
Frederick  Barbarossa  and  four  successive  anti- 
popes,  one  of  whom,  styling  himself  Calixtus  III., 
<:ame  to  him  at  Frascati  in  1178,  threw  himself 
at  his  feet,  and  demanded  absolution,  which 
Pope  Alexander  granted  immediately,  inviting 
him  to  his  own  table.  The  emperor,  who  had 
been  excommunicated,  submitted  after  a  pro 
tracted  struggle  in  1177,  and  was  absolved  from 
his  excommunication  at  Venice.  On  this  occa 
sion  he  paid  the  ordinary  homage  to  the  pope 
by  kissing  his  foot,  and  leading  the  mule  on 
which  he  rode ;  but  the  story  that  the  pope  put 


his  foot  on  his  neck  appears  to  rest  on  no  his 
torical  foundation.  Alexander  entered  into 
correspondence  with  the  Greek  emperor  Man 
uel,  with  the  view  of  inducing  him  to  consent 
to  a  project,  much  favored  at  that  time  in  Italy, 
of  transferring  the  imperial  throne  to  Rome, 
and  thus  effecting  a  permanent  reconciliation 
of  the  Greeks  to  the  Roman  church.  These 
negotiations,  however,  had  no  result.  He  also 
held  at  Tours  in  France,  where  lie  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  early  part  of  his  pontificate,  a 
council  against  the  Albigenses.  Supported  by 
him,  Thomas  a  Becket  carried  on  the  ecclesias 
tical  struggle  with  King  Henry  II.  of  England, 
A  Becket  and  St.  Bernard  were  canonized  by 
Alexander  III.,  a  right  which  he  first  reserved 
exclusively  to  the  holy  see  by  a  decree  promul 
gated  at  the  council  of  Tours.  It  was  this  pope 
who  instituted  the  ceremony  of  the  espousal  of 
the  Adriatic  by  the  doge  of  Venice.  The  last 
remarkable  act  of  his  life  was  the  celebration  of 
the  third  general  council  of  Lateran  at  Rome,  in 
1179.  IV.  Rinaldo  di  Segni,  a  Roman,  nephew  of 
Gregory  IX.,  and  cardinal  bishop  of  Ostia, 
elected  at  Naples,  Dec.  12,  1254,  died  at  Vi- 
terbo,  May  25,  1261.  During  his  reign  the 
states  of  the  church  were  devastated  by  Man 
fred,  the  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 
He  declared  a  crusade  against  Manfred,  which 
proved  unsuccessful,  even  with  the  aid  of  Hen 
ry  III.  of  England,  to  whose  second  son  Ed 
mund  he  gave,  in  quality  of  suzerain,  the  in 
vestiture  of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily.  During  his 
reign  occurred  also  the  crusade  and  captivity 
of  St.  Louis  of  France.  By  request  of  this 
prince,  the  inquisition  was  established  in 
France  in  1255.  This  pontiff  was  compelled 
to  pass  the  latter  part  of  his  life  at  Viterbo,  on 
account  of  seditions  among  the  Roman  popu 
lace.  He  labored  to  reunite  the  Greek  to  the 
Roman  church,  and  to  combine  the  Christian 
nations  against  the  Moslems.  The  hostility  of 
the  Venetians  and  Genoese  prevented  the  suc 
cess  of  his  plans,  and  the  chagrin  which  he  ex 
perienced  in  consequence  is  said  to  have  caused 
his  death.  V.  Pietro  Filargo,  born  in  Candia, 
elected  by  the  general  council  of  Pisa,  June  26, 
1409,  died  May  3,  1410.  He  was  originally  a 
beggar,  and  was  educated  by  a  charitable  Fran 
ciscan,  and  sent  to  Oxford  and  Paris,  where  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself.  On  his  return 
he  became  private  tutor  to  the  duke  of  Milan, 
and  afterward  archbishop  of  that  city.  Inno 
cent  VII.  made  him  cardinal  and  papal  legate 
in  Lombardy.  After  his  elevation  to  the  pon 
tificate,  he  resided  at  Bologna.  VI.  Rodrigo 
Lenznolo,  or  Borgia,  born  in  Valencia,  Spain,  in 
1431,  elected  pope  Aug.  11,  1492,  died  Aug.  18, 
1503.  His  mother  was  a  Borgia  and  the  sister 
of  Pope  Calixtus  III.  His  father  was  an  officer 
of  rank,  and  Rodrigo  passed  his  youth  first  in 
the  study  of  law  and  in  civil  offices,  and  after 
ward  in  the  profession  of  arms,  for  which  he 
displayed  considerable  talent.  He  formed  a 
criminal  relation  with  a  widow,  and  after  her 
death  took  for  his  mistress  her  daughter,  Rosa 


280 


ALEXANDER  (POPES) 


ALEXANDER  (RUSSIA) 


Vanozza,  by  whom  he  had  five  children,  one  of 
whom  was  Caesar  Borgia,  and  another  Lucretia, 
afterward  duchess  of  Este.  When  his  uncle 
became  pope,  Rodrigo  was  summoned  to  Rome, 
lie  went  with  reluctance;  hut  whatever  unwil 
lingness  he  may  have  felt  to  abandon  his  pleas 
ures  in  Spain  was  overcome  by  the  generosity 
of  the  pontiff,  who  hastened  to  appoint  him 
archbishop  of  Valencia,  cardinal  deacon,  and 
vice  chancellor  of  the  church,  and  gave  him  a 
revenue  of  28,000  crowns  a  year.  Without 
breaking  off  his  connection  with  Vanozza,  he 
now  assumed  an  exterior  of  piety  and  humility, 
visited  the  hospitals,  gave  much  to  the  poor, 
and  acquired  a  reputation  for  extraordinary 
virtue.  Lender  Popes  Pius  II.  and  Paul  II., 
who  wore  the  tiara  after  Calixtus,  little  is 
known  of  his  life.  He  was  high  in  the  favor 
of  Sixtus  IV.,  who  sent  him  as  legate  to  Aragon 
and  Portugal;  but  he  is  said  to  have  caused 
some  scandal  at  the  court  of  Lisbon  by  his 
licentious  behavior.  After  the  accession  of  In 
nocent  VIII.  (1484)  he  brought  his  mistress 
secretly  to  Rome,  and  furnished  her  with  an 
ostensible  husband,  in  the  person  of  a  Spaniard 
who  had  been  her  majordomo.  Under  the 
protection  of  this  pseudo  count,  the  cardinal 
was  enabled  to  visit  Vanozza  without  suspi 
cion.  On  the  death  of  Innocent  in  1492  he- 
bought  the  suffrages  of  the  adherents  of  Cardi 
nals  Sforza,  Orsino,  Riario,  and  Colonna,  and, 
having  been  thereupon  elected  to  the  pontifi 
cate,  delivered  an  edifying  discourse  in  which 
he  urged  the  sacred  college  to  reform  their 
lives,  and  denounced  with  especial  severity  the 
crimes  of  avarice  and  simony.  His  eldest  son, 
Francesco,  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
papal  troops  ;  his  second  son,  Caesar,  was  made 
archbishop  of  Valencia,  and  a  year  later  cardi 
nal.  The  Papal  States  were  at  this  time  in  a 
very  disturbed  condition,  and  Alexander's  first 
care  was  to  strengthen  the  temporal  power  by 
crushing  the  turbulent  lords  of  Ferrara,  Bolo 
gna,  Rimini,  Faenza,  Ostia,  and  Urbino,  forming 
a  league  against  Naples  with  Venice  and  Milan, 
and  then  a  league  with  Naples  against  France. 
Unable  to  prevent  the  invasion  of  Italy  by 
Charles  VIII.,  he  made  his  peace  with  the 
French  king  at  an  interview  in  the  Vatican ; 
and  after  Charles  had  taken  possession  of  Na 
ples  he  instigated  a  new  confederation  against 
him,  composed  of  the  republic  of  Venice,  the 
duke  of  Milan,  and  the  other  princes  of  Italy, 
and  succeeded  at  last  in  ridding  the  peninsula 
of  the  invaders.  _  He  allied  himself  with 
Charles's  successor,  Louis  XII.,  in  an  attack 
upon  Milan,  granted  the  king  a  divorce,  and 
obtained  for  his  son  Caesar  a  splendid  position 
at  the  French  court.  He  was  a  party  to  the 
treachery  by  which  Ferdinand  of  Spain  first 
betrayed  the  cause  of  his  relative  Frederick  of 
Naples  by  partitioning  that  kingdom  between 
Louis  XII.  and  himself,  and  then  betrayed 
Louis  by  seizing  the  whole  conquest.  Caesar 
had  accompanied  the  French  to  Mr.in,  and 
thence  waged  incessant  war  upon  the  Italian 


princes,  the  pope's  purpose  being  not  only  to 
consolidate  his  own  temporal  power,  but  to 
elevate  his  family  to  the  dignities  of  the  dispos 
sessed  barons.  Vile  as  the  means  were  by 
which  he  accumulated  wealth,  he  spent  it  in 
such  a  way  within  his  dominions,  restoring 
order  and  reviving  trade,  that  he  was  popular 
with  his  subjects.  He  carried  simony  to  a 
point  never  before  dreamed  of,  and  a  contem 
porary  pasquinade  began  with  the  lines, 

Vendit  Alexander  claves,  altnra,  Christum ; 
Vendere  jure  potest,  emerat  ille  prius. 

The  crimes  of  wholesale  poisoning  and  other 
murders  commonly  laid  to  his  charge  are  not 
all  supported  by  sufficient  evidence,  but  enough 
is  known  to  entitle  him  to  remembrance  as  the 
worst  of  all  the  popes.  His  death  is  said  by 
some  historians  to  have  been  caused  by  poison 
which  he  intended  for  a  large  party  of  cardi 
nals  whom  he  had  invited  to  a  banquet.  VII. 
Fabio  Chigi,  born  of  an  illustrious  family  at 
Siena,  Feb.  13,  1599,  elected  April  7,  1655, 
died  May  22,  1667.  Before  his  election  he 
filled  several  of  the  highest  offices  of  the  Ro 
man  church  with  credit.  During  his  pontifi 
cate  he  was  zealous  in  the  reformation  of  dis 
cipline.  He  confirmed  the  bull  of  Innocent  X. 
against  the  five  propositions  of  Jansenius,  and 
prescribed  a  formulary  condemning  the  prin 
ciples  of  Jansenism,  which  all  persons  con 
cerned  were  required  to  sign.  He  finished  the 
college  of  Sapienza,  commenced  by  Leo  X. 
after  designs  of  Michel  Angelo,  and  constructed 
the  beautiful  colonnade  in  the  piazza  of .  St. 
Peter's.  VIII.  Marco  Ottobcni,  son  of  the  grand 
chancellor  of  Venice,  where  he  was  born,  April 
19,  1610,  elected  Oct.  6,  1089,  died  Feb.  1, 
1691.  lie  studied  at  Padua  and  Rome,  was 
successively  bishop  of  Brescia  and  Frascati,  and 
cardinal.  He  condemned  the  four  articles  of 
the  Gallican  assembly,  and  assisted  the  empe 
ror  Leopold  I.  and  the  Venetians  with  large 
sums  in  the  wars  against  the  Turks.  He  pos 
sessed  a  high  degree  of  prudence,  moderation, 
and  political  sagacity,  and  was  very  benevolent 
to  the  poor,  but  too  much  inclined  to  favor  his 
own  relations. 

ALEXANDER  I.,  PailOTitcli,  emperor  of  Russia, 
eldest  son  of  Paul  I.  and  Maria  Feodorovna, 
princess  of  W^urtemberg,  born  Dec.  23,  1777, 
died  Dec.  1,  1825.  His  grandmother,  Catharine 
II.,  designed  to  place  him  on  the  throne  in  prefer 
ence  to  his  father,  and  intrusted  the  care  of  his 
education  to  Count  Nicholas  Soltikoff,  drawing 
up  the  plan  of  his  instruction  with  her  own 
hand.  Every  possible  branch  was  taught  ex 
cept  music  and  singing.  In  1783  Count  Solti 
koff  selected  as  his  tutor  Frederic  Cesar  de  la 
Harpe,  who  inculcated  in  the  mind  of  his  pupil 
the  ruling  liberal  ideas  of  the  18th  century. 
Toleration,  philanthropy,  and  love  of  truth 
were  from  his  childhood  familiar  to  the  future 
czar.  Sometimes  he  dreaded  the  task  before 
him,  and  wished  to  escape  with  his  youthful 
friend  Prince  Czartoryski  to  America,  and  to 
live  there  as  a  private  citizen.  At  the  age  of 


ALEXANDER   (RUSSIA) 


281 


15  he  was  married  to  Louisa  Maria  Augusta, 
princess  of  Baden,  who  was  somewhat  younger 
Gtill.  This  marriage  was  not  a  happy  one. 
Catharine  died  three  years  afterward,  and  was 
succeeded  by  her  son  Paul  I.,  whoso  short 
reign  was  ended  by  murder,  March  23,  1801. 
Alexander  stands  accused  of  having  been  ac 
cessory  t<>  this  crime,  lie  was  acquainted  with 
the  conspiracy,  whose  chief,  Count  Pahlen, 
persuaded  him"  that  his  mother  and  his  brother 
Constantino  were  in  danger  of  losing  their 
liberty,  and  even  their  lives,  from  the  jealous 
suspicions  of  his  half-insane  father.  Alexan 
der,  fully  believing  his  father  incompetent  to 
reign,  gave  his  consent  to  the  dethronement, 
which  alone  was  represented  to  bo  the  aim  of 
the  conspirators.  Once  on  the  throne,  the 
young  czar  attracted  the  attention  of  the  world, 
and  his  generous  qualities  promised  a  brilliant 
future,  lie  began  by  releasing  and  indemni 
fying  the  victims  of  the  violent  injustice  of 
his  father,  and  recalled  many  who  had  been 
exiled  to  Siberia.  lie  kindled  civilization 
among  the  masses,  made  efforts  to  create  a 
public  spirit  among  the  people,  and  accom 
plished  radical  reforms  in  the  administration. 
He  abolished  the  secret  tribunal  established  by 
Paul,  suppressed  the  censorship,  reorganized 
tha  beard  constituted  by  Catharine  for  the 
creation  of  a  national  code,  ordered  every 
minister  to  publish  yearly  reports,  decreed  the 
abolition  of  torture  (which,  however,  contin 
ued  to  be  partially  applied  even  under  him), 
and  renewed  the  ukasj  of  Catharine  in  virtue 
of  which  hereditary  estates  could  not  be  con 
fiscated,  and  proclaimed  that  henceforth  the 
czars  should  not  give  away  estates  with  crown 
peasants,  but  lands  alone.  He  prohibited  the 
public  exposure  of  serfs  in  markets  for  sale, 
and  allowed  them  to  be  sold  only  with  the  land 
to  which  they  were  attached.  He  chose  for 
ministers  men  of  large  and  clear  minds,  de 
voted  to  his  reformatory  ideas.  Among  these 
were  Czar tory ski,  Novosiltzoff,  and  Speranski. 
He  was  impressible,  enthusiastic,  and  easily 
influenced,  not  steady  and  persistent.  His 
mode  of  life  was  simple  and  unostentatious; 
his  manners  were  amiable,  refined,  and  ele 
gant.  He  concluded  commercial  treaties  with 
various  powers,  and  published  new  regulations 
for  navigation.  He  protected  the  arts,  and  in 
order  to  stir  up  the  intellectual  powers  of  the 
people  allowed  his  subjects  of  various  classes, 
except  those  serfs  who  were  private  property, 
to  select  their  own  trades  and  pursuits.  The 
raw  products  of  Russia,  and  even  some  manu 
factures,  now  began  to  appear  in  the  marts  of 
Europe.  In  1809  he  erected  three  universities, 
at  St.  Petersburg,  Kharkov,  and  Kazan,  and 
added  to  them  afterward  that  of  Dorpat  for 
the  German  Baltic  provinces.  lie  also  reor 
ganized  that  of  Wilna  for  his  Polish  subjects, 
whom  at  that  early  epoch  he  treated  gener 
ously,  flattering  them  with  hopes  of  the  recon 
struction  of  their  kingdom.  He  founded  many 
gymnasia  and  high  schools,  ordering  their 


number  to  be  increased  to  204,  with  2,000  sub 
ordinate  elementary  schools;  but  this  project 
was  only  partially  executed.  He  was  wont  to 
travel  over  the  country  in  every  direction,  see 
ing  persons  of  all  classes  and  receiving  their 
memorials,  lie  scrupulously  observed  the 
ordinances  of  the  national  church,  but  later  in 
life  he  became  a  pietist  and  mystic,  at  the  same 
time  that  he  turned  against  the  liberal  politics 
of  his  youth. — At  an  early  period  in  his  career 
Alexander  was  entangled  in  the  great  events 
which  shook  Europe  in  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century.  The  greatness  of  Napoleon, 
then  first  consul,  impressed  his  imagination. 
His  father  had  commenced  a  friendly  inter 
course  with  Napoleon,  which  the  son  contin 
ued.  On  Oct.  8,  1801,  he  concluded  a  treaty 
of  friendship,  and  when  next  year  a»  general 
peace  was  established  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens, 
the  new  territorial  organization  of  Germany 
was  regulated  by  the  two.  But  when  Napo 
leon,  after  making  himself  emperor,  violated 
the  territory  of  Baden,  announced  his  purpose 
to  assume  the  crown  of  Italy,  prepared  to  de 
stroy  the  independence  of  the  Batavian  repub 
lic,  and  occupied  almost  the  whole  coast  of 
northern  Germany,  Alexander  put  forth  a 
solemn  protest  along  with  a  warning  against 
a  continuance  in  this  course  of  usurpation. 
Finally,  although  a  war  was  brewing  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  and  another  actually  wag 
ing  against  Persia,  Alexander  entered  the  third 
coalition  to  overthrow  Napoleon  formed  by 
Sweden,  England,  and  Austria.  On  Oct.  5, 
1805,  a  Russian  army  debarked  in  Pomerania, 
and  at  the  same  time  another  traversed  Prus 
sia,  although  that  power  was  neutral.  The 
battle  of  Austerlitz,  Dec.  2,  1805,  destroyed 
the  coalition,  and  Alexander  barely  escaped  be 
ing  made  prisoner  by  a  French  general  cutting 
off  the  retreat  of  his  escort.  The  czar  pledged 
his  written  word  of  honor  to  this  officer  that 
an  armistice  had  been  concluded,  which,  how 
ever,  was  not  the  case.  The  Russian  troops 
retreated  to  Silesia,  and  Alexander  returned 
to  St.  Petersburg  to  prepare  new  armaments, 
when  his  ally  Francis  of  Austria  made  peace 
with  the  enemy.  The  czar,  however,  refused 
to  ratify  the  treaty  made  in  Paris  by  his 
minister  D'Oubril,  and  formed  an  intimate  alli 
ance  with  Prussia.  He  conceived  a  Platonic 
affection  for  Queen  Louise,  to  whose  husband, 
Frederick  William  III.,  he  was  bound  by  the  ties 
of  a  strong  friendship.  This  new  coalition  had 
no  better  luck  than  its  predecessor.  The  Prus 
sian  forces  were  annihilated  at  Jena  and  Auer- 
stadt  (Oct.  14, 1800),  the  Russian  Marshal  Ben- 
ningsen  was  beaten  at  Eylau  (Feb.  8,  1807)  and 
Friedland  (June  14),  and  Kamenski  was  defeat 
ed  at  Pultusk.  The  Russian  armies  reentered 
their  own  country,  and  the  king  of  Prussia  was 
left  in  possession  of  only  the  city  of  Memel,  on 
the  Russian  frontier.  At  the  same  time,  how 
ever,  the  Russian  arms  were  more  successful 
in  the  war  with  the  Turks.  The  Serbs  rose 
against  the  Porte,  and  Admiral  Seniavin 


ALEXANDER   (RUSSIA) 


beat  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  Archipelago. 
Prussia  being  annihilated,  and  Napoleon  at  the 
threshold  of  Russia,  Alexander  was  forced  to 
negotiate.  In  June,  1807,  the  two  emperors 
met  on  a  raft  on  the  river  Niemen,  the  frontier 
between  Prussia  and  Russia.  In  the  course  of 
their  now  almost  daily  intercourse,  Napoleon 
not  only  bewitched  Alexander  by  his  genius 
and  his  manners,  but  did  not  disdain  to  flatter 
the  foibles  of  the  czar,  whose  former  resent 
ment  gave  way  to  the  most  enthusiastic  friend 
ship  and  admiration.  By  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
Alexander  got  from  the  Prussian  spoils  the  dis 
trict  of  Bialystok  in  Lithuania,  lie  entered 
warmly  into  all  the  Napoleonic  schemes,  and 
accepted  the  continental  system,  though  it  was 
pernicious  at  the  start  to  the  agricultural  inter 
ests  and  the  exporting  trade  of  Russia.  Gus- 
tavus  IV.  having  rejected  every  plan  of  ac 
commodation  with  France,  and  refused  the 
invitation  of  Russia  to  exclude  English  vessels 
from  Swedish  harbors,  Alexander  declared 
war  against  Sweden,  invaded  Finland,  and  con 
quered  the  long-coveted  duchy.  The  war  wr.s 
not  yet  ended  when  the  interview  of  Erfurt 
took  place,  beginning  Sept.  27,  1808.  Here 
culminated  the  friendship  of  the  two  emperors, 
who,  representing  the  west  and  the  east,  de 
cided  the  destinies  of  Europe.  The  resistance 
of  the  Spaniards  to  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and 
English  subsidies,  encouraged  the  court  of 
Vienna  to  appeal  to  arms  for  the  third  time  in 
1809.  Alexander,  as  the  ally  of  Napoleon, 
occupied  Galicia,  and  at  the  peace  got  a  slice 
of  it.  In  Turkey,  the  fortresses  of  Rustchuk, 
Giurgevo,  and  Silistria  were  taken,  and  the 
bulk  of  the  Turkish  army  on  the  left  side  of 
the  Danube  laid  down  their  arms  before  Kutu- 
zoff.  The  war  with  Persia  was  also  successful. 
In  the  interior  Alexander  continued  the  work 
of  reform.  The  exclusion  of  English  manu 
factures  gave  activity  to  domestic  industry. 
In  1810  he  reorganized  the  council  of  the  em 
pire,  and  formed  eight  separate  departments  or 
ministries.  He  regulated  the  value  of  the  cur 
rency,  introduced  a  new  organization  into  Fin 
land,  and  in  1811  inaugurated  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Virgin  of  Kazan,  one  of  the  great  mon 
uments  of  St.  Petersburg.  About  this  epoch  a 
revolution  took  place  in  his  feelings  toward  Na 
poleon,  and  he  inclined  to  the  ancient  party  of 
his  nobles,  who  were  enemies  of  France  and  of 
domestic  reforms,  and  partisans  of  England. 
Under  this  influence  he  exiled  some  of  his  for 
mer  favorites,  who  for  years  had  labored  with 
him  in  the  task  of  reform.  Napoleon  now  oc 
cupied  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  and  Alexander 
refused  him  his  sister  in  marriage.  The  im 
mense  majority  of  the  Russian  nobility  were 
hostile  to  the  French  alliance.  Animosity  in 
creased,  and  the  war  of  1812  broke  out.  Eng 
land  and  Sweden  alone  stood  by  Russia — at 
that  time  helpless  and  negative  allies;  but  the 
treaty  of  Bucharest,  concluded  in  that  year  by 
the  mediation  of  England,  on  terms  wholly  ad 
vantageous  to  Russia,  disengaged  the  Russian 


|  armies  operating  on  the  Pruth  and  the  Danul  e. 
Napoleon  rapidly  crossed  the  Niemcn  arid  in 
vaded  Russia,  directing  one  part  of  his  forces 
north  toward  St.  Petersburg,  while  he  himself 
pressed  with  the  mass  upon  the  centre  of  the 
empire  toward  Moscow.  Alexander  was  taken 
almost  unawares,  lie  adopted  the  plan  of 
Gen.  Barclay  de  Tolly,  retiring  slowly  step  by 
step,  to  draw  the  enemy  into  the  interior,  de 
stroying  everything  in  the  retreat,  and  thus 
facilitating  the  union  of  the  central  army  with 
that  coming  from  Turkey.  lie  made  an  ap 
peal  to  the  religious  and  national  feelings  of 
the  Russians,  and  organized  levies  en  masse. 
The  people  were  even  more  excited  than  their 
ruler.  After  the  battle  of  Smolensk  (Aug.  17) 
he  transferred  the  command  of  the  retreating 
but  not  dispirited  army  to  Kutuzoff,  yielding  to 
the  desire  of  the  nation  to  be  commanded  by  a 
native  Russian.  It  is  not  ascertained  whether 
he  ordered  the  burning  of  Moscow,  but  at  any 
rate  he  approved  the  act.  lie  refused  all  ac 
commodation  with  Napoleon,  answering  that 
lie  had  only  begun  the  campaign,  and  would 
not  treat  while  a  foot  of  his  dominions  was  oc 
cupied  by  the  enemy.  The  retreat  of  the 
French,  the  terrible  crossing  of  the  Beresina, 
and  the  final  annihilation  of  the  invaders,  are 
well  known.  The  Russian  forces  now  overran 
the  duchy  of  Warsaw,  which  had  been  created 
by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  and  whose  free  institu 
tions  had  caused  much  uneasiness  in  Russia ; 
and  soon  afterward  it  was  definitively  incorpo 
rated  with  the  empire.  The  advisers  of  Alexan 
der — Kutuzoff,  Volkonski,  Araktchcyeff,  Bala- 
shoff—  insisted  on  arresting  there  the  further 
pursuit  of  the  French,  and  leaving  the  rest  of 
Europe  to  its  fate.  But  England  urged  the 
continuation  of  the  war,  Prussia  asked  lor  help, 
and  Alexander,  in  his  manifestoes  from  War 
saw,  Feb.  22,  and  Kalisz,  March  25,  1813,  ap 
pealed  to  the  European  nations  as  the  redeemer 
of  the  continent.  In  Kalisz  an  offensive 
treaty  against  Napoleon  was  concluded  be- 
twTeen  Russia,  Prussia,  and  England,  at  the 

I  same  time  that  the  czar,  animated  with  new 
impulses  of  religion,  founded  a  Bible  society,  to 
spread  the  gospel  among  all  nations,  lie  took 
part  personally  in  various  battles  in  Germany 
and  France,  where  he  arrived  as  the  leader  of 
the  crusade  rgainst  Napoleon.  On  Oct.  12, 

1813,  the  treaty  of  Gulistan  put  an  end  to  the 
war  with  Persia,  and  Russia  acquired  thereby 
a  part  of  the  Caucasus  and  of  Armenia.     In 
Paris,   Alexander    defended   the   integrity   of 
France  against  others  of  the  allies.     In  June, 

1814,  he  visited  London,  where  he  was  bril- 
!  liantly  received.     In  July  of  the  same  year  he 
I  made  a   short   visit   to   St.   Petersburg.     The 

senate   proffered   to   him   the   title  of   "  God- 
sent,"  which  he  refused.     At  the  congress  of 
|  Vienna,  of  which  he  was  the  most  influential 
\  member,  he  gave  to  his  newly  conquered  sub 
jects,  the  Poles,  a  constitution,  of  which  Car- 
not  said  that  it  was  too  good  to  be  observed. — 
I  Napoleon's  escape  from  Elba  now  shook  Eu- 


ALEXANDER   (RUSSIA) 


283 


rope  anew.  On  March  13,  1815,  Alexander 
signed  the  proclamation  by  which  the  great  sol 
dier  was  outlawed.  Waterloo  soon  followed, 
and  for  the  second  time  Alexander  entered  j 
Paris  victoriously,  July  11,  1815.  His  religious 
excitement  now  increased,  and  with  it  his  in 
difference  first,  and  then  his  hostility  to  liberty. 
In  Paris,  in  1815,  under  the  inspirations  of  the 
celebrated  Mine.  Krudener,  he  formed  the  holy 
alliance,  which  was  to  base  the  political  order 
of  the  world  on  the  princ'ples  of  Christianity, 
or,  as  it  came  to  be  understood,  of  despotism. 
The  czar  now  took  the  lead  in  European  affairs. 
In  Russia  trade  and  industry  revived,  and  j 
efforts  were  made  to  expand  the  national  re 
sources.  Alexander  was  inspired  with  the  best  | 
intentions,  but  lacked  the  energy  to  carry  them  j 
out.  He  began  a  partial  abolition  of  serfdom 
by  emancipating  the  serfs  in  the  German  Baltic 
provinces,  but  without  allowing  the  peasantry 
the  liberty  of  migrating  from  one  province  to 
another.  In  1818  he  virtually  presided  at  the 
congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  from  that 
epoch  may  be  dated  the  complete  abandon 
ment  of  his  once  cherished  liberal  and  reform 
atory  ideas.  Exhausted  bodily  by  various  ex 
cesses,  and  mentally  by  the  pressure  of  the 
terrible  events  in  which  for  more  than  ten 
years  he  had  played  a  part  requiring  almost 
superhuman  efforts,  he  became  the  leader  of 
tho  reaction  against  all  free  tendencies.  Met- 
ternich  adroitly  played  upon  his  fears,  and  he 
almost  wholly  abandoned  to  his  ministers  the 
internal  administration  of  Russia,  while  he  de 
voted  himself  to  suppressing  liberal  movements 
in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Germany.  At 
the  congresses  of  Troppau  (1820),  Laybach 
(1821),  and  Verona  (1822),  he  urgently  sus 
tained  this  policy.  The  constitution  of  Poland 
had  been  violated  in  its  principal  parts.  Irri 
tation  increased  between  the  nation  and  the 
sovereign;  conspiracies  were  formed  in  con 
nection  with  the  Carbonarism  then  existing 
in  France  and  the  south  of  Europe.  At  the 
same  timo  new  ideas  were  brought  to  Russia 
by  the  armies  returning  from  the  west,  especial 
ly  by  those  which  had  occupied  France  for  sev 
eral  years.  The  political  institutions  and  social 
state  of  other  nations  thus  becoming  better 
known,  the  desire  spread  rapidly  for  changes 
more  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  age. 
Discontent  was  increased  by  the  absence  of 
administrative  ability  and  integrity.  The  army 
was  disorganized.  In  imitation  of  Austria,  and 
with  the  view  of  surrounding  St.  Petersburg 
with  an  immense  military  force,  military  colo 
nies  of  the  peasantry  were  created  by  Arak- 
tcheyeff,  now  the  virtual  ruler  of  the  country. 
The  censorship  of  the  press  was  exceedingly  se 
vere.  Alexander  became  more  and  more  the  prey 
of  hypochondria,  gloomy,  distrustful,  inaccessi 
ble.  The  man  who  once  received  with  a  smile 
the  memorials  presented  by  his  subjects,  now 
ordered  that  any  one  who  approached  him  in 
public  should  be  arrested  and  kept  24  hours 
in  prison.  Once  an  active  freemason,  he  now 


suppressed  the  lodges  throughout  the  empire. 
The  secret  police,  whose  operations  embraced 
not  only  Russia  but  all  Europe,  became  more 
active  than  ever,  the  grand  duke  Constantine, 
brother  of  the  czar,  being  at  its  head.  The 
Jesuits,  who,  even  after  their  suppression 
in  the  18th  century  all  over  the  world,  had 
been  tolerated  in  Lithuania  and  Russia,  were 
expelled  in  1821  and  1822,  for  spreading  Ro 
man  Catholicism  among  wealthy  Russian  fami 
lies,  and  their  establishment  at  St.  Petersburg 
was  handed  over  to  the  Dominicans.  Alexan 
der  estranged  himself  from  many  who  had  once 
been  his  friends.  Only  Volkonski,  a  thorough 
absolutist,  but  otherwise  noble-minded,  and 
Araktcheyeff,  a  despot  by  nature,  remained  un 
shaken  in  his  favor.  Araktcheyeff,  indeed, 
had  been  the  favorite  of  Paul,  and  Alexander 
retained  him  near  his  person  during  his  whole 
reign,  as  if  to  atone  for  his  father's  murder.  Jo 
seph  de  Maistre,  the  philosopher  of  absolutism, 
then  residing  at  St.  Petersburg,  said  of  the 
czar  after  an  interview  that  despotism  was 
breathed  out  of  his  nostrils.  Alexander  ac 
cused  his  people,  the  Poles,  and  all  Europe 
indeed,  of  ingratitude.  lie  hated  every  spot 
in  turn,  quitting  St.  Petersburg  and  Russia  to 
visit  foreign  countries,  and  returning  equally 
dissatisfied.  Finally  the  outbreak  in  Greece 
fearfully  increased  the  dissidence  between  the 
czar  and  the  nation.  The  feeling  and  sympa 
thies  of  the  people  were  with  the  insurgents. 
For  more  than  half  a  century  the  whole  in 
fluence  of  Russia  had  been  employed  to  stir 
up  the  Greeks.  Now,  when  the  moment  of 
action  came,  Alexander,  under  the  advice  of 
Metternich  and  Nesselrode,  opposed  the  natr- 
ral  policy  of  Russia,  abandoned  the  Greeks  to 
their  fate,  and  suffered  one  of  their  leaders, 
Alexander  Ypsilanti,  once  his  favorite  aide-de- 
camp  and  confidant,  to  pine  in  Austrian  dun 
geons.  The  marriage  of  the  czar  being  child 
less,  he  had  become  fondly  attached  to  a  natu 
ral  daughter  by  Mme.  Naryshkin.  The  death 
of  this  girl,  coupled  with  a  fearful  inundation 
at  St.  Petersburg  in  1824,  destroyed  his  mental 
equilibrium.  These  catastrophes  he  considered 
as  the  punishment  of  parricide.  In  September, 
1825,  in  compliance  with  the  order  of  his  phy 
sicians,  he  went  with  his  wife  on  a  journey  to 
southern  Russia.  Arriving  at  Taganrog,  he 
left  the  empress  and  continued  his  excursion 
into  the  Crimea.  Attacked  by  the  Crimean 
fever,  combined  with  erysipelas,  he  returned 
to  Taganrog,  where  he  died.  A  few  weeks 
before  his  death  Count  Witt,  one  of  the  chief 
authorities  of  the  military  colonies  in  the  south 
of  Russia,  disclosed  to  him  the  existence  of  a 
wide-spread  conspiracy  against  the  imperial 
family.  He,  however,  was  unmoved  by  the 
information,  and  his  successor,  his  brother 
Nicholas,  had  to  fight  his  way  to  the  throne. 

ALEXANDER   II.,   Nicolaievitch,    emperor    of 
Russia,  son  of  the  czar  Nicholas  and  Alex- 
I  aridra    Feodorovna    (originally    Charlotte),    a 
!  sister  of  Frederick  William  IV.  and  William.  L 


2S4- 


ALEXANDER   (RUSSIA) 


of  Prussia,  born  April  20,  1818.  From  the 
cradle  he  was  the  object  of  tbe  most  tender 
love  of  both  his  parents.  His  education  was 
exceedingly  careful.  His  father  directed  it, 
and  gave  almost  daily  attention  to  its  progress. 
Gen.  Frederics,  and  afterward  Gen.  Kavelin, 
were  bis  immediate  tutors.  Contrary  to  the 
previous  usage  with  Russian  imperial  princes, 
his  uncle  Alexander  I.  and  bis  lather  were 
educated  by  foreigners.  Alexander  II.  re 
ceived  instruction  mainly  from  native  Russians, 
among  whom  Zhukovsky,  one  of  the  greatest 
Russian  poets,  filled  the  chief  place.  Without 
transcendent  abilities,  Alexander  learned  well 
everything  taught  him.  His  judgment  and 
perception  were  clear,  and  he  seldom  showed 
those,  outbreaks  of  violent  passion  which  had 
always  been  prominent  characteristics  of  the 
Romanoffs.  This  gentleness  of  character  he 
inherited  from  his  mother.  Early  in  youth  he 
showed  a  love  of  justice  and  forbearance,  often 
trying  to  assuage  the  feelings  which  had  been 
wounded  by  the  asperity  of  his  father.  Before 
seeing  foreign  countries,  according  to  the  wish 
of  Nicholas,  he  travelled  all  over  Russia. 
When  he  approached  manhood,  the  prince  de 
Lieven,  formerly  Russian  ambassador  in  Eon- 
don,  was  made  his  tutor,  principally  to  acquaint 
him  with  the  diplomacy  of  Europe,  its  routine 
and  etiquette,  and  to  accompany  him  in  his 
travels  in  England,  Germany,  and  Italy.  His 
father's  antipathy  to  Louis  Philippe,  however, 
prevented  him  from  visiting  France  during  the 
reign  of  that  king.  On  April  28,  1841,  he 
married  Maria  Alexandrovna,  daughter  of  the 
grand  duke  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  born  in  1824. 
It  was  wholly  a  love  match,  the  young  prince 
having  made  his  own  choice  among  a  host  of 
German  princesses.  His  majority  was  declared 
on  May  8,  1834,  and  from'  the  age  of  18  he 
was  admitted  by  his  father  to  study  the  diffi 
cult  task  of  governing  the  empire,  by  attend 
ance  at  all  the  sittings  of  ministers  with  the 
emperor;  and  when  in  1840  Nicholas  resided 
for  several  months  in  Italy,  he  delegated  to  his 
son  all  his  vast  powers.  Indeed,  to  the  end 
of  his  father's  life  the  relations  of  the  two 
were  most  confidential  and  affectionate.  On 
March  2,  1855,  he  mounted  the  throne,  at  a 
most  critical  moment  for  Russia.  Nicholas 
had  left  the  country  engaged  single-handed  in 
a  war  against  England,  France,  Turkey,  and 
Sardinia,  with  Austria  as  a  passive  enemy.  For 
a  year  Alexander  unflinchingly  continued  the 
strife.  Sebastopol  was  taken  in  September, 
1855 ;  but  the  allies  won  nothing  more,  and  the 
Russian  resistance  continued.  During  the  en 
suing  winter  the  neutral  German  states,  espe 
cially  Prussia  and  Saxony,  finding  Louis  Na 
poleon  not  averse  to  peace,  offered  mediation. 
An  armistice  was  agreed  upon  in  March,  1856, 
a  conference  convoked  at  Paris,  and  a  final 
treaty  concluded  there  on  the  30th  of  that 
month.  On  Sept.  7,  1856,  Alexander  was 
solemnly  crowned  at  Moscow.  Since  then  he 
has  relaxed  the  lines  drawn  to  the  utmost  ten 


sion  by  his  predecessor.  Tie  began  with  eman 
cipating  the  nation  from  the  military  routine 
which  permeated  every  branch  of  the  adminis 
tration.  He  reorganized  the  army,  dissolved 
the  greater  part  of  the  military  colonies,  freed 
public  instruction  from  military  discipline,  and, 
instead  of  placing  discharged  officers  as  tutors 
and  professors  at  the  head  of  the  educational 
establishments,  appointed  men  fitted  by  special 

j  studies  for  these  positions.  The  censorship 
was  considerably  relaxed  and  limited,  and  for 

I  the  first  time  genuine  publicity  was  introduced 
into  Russia.  He  prohibited  espionage,  and  in 
stituted  measures  against  official  corruption, 
allowing  it  to  be  ferreted  out  and  exposed. 
He  advanced  young  men  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  public  service,  superseding 
those  whose  only  merit  was  long  routine.  He 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  internal  industry  and 
trade,  at  the  same  time  that  he  sought  to  de 
velop  the  national  commercial  marine,  and  to 
induce  native  merchants  to  extend  their  rela 
tions  with  foreign  countries.  He  annulled  the 
impediments  which  prevented  Russians  from 
visiting  foreign  lands ;  granted  a  general  am 
nesty  for  political  offenders,  Poles  and  Russians, 
recalling  the  exiles  from  Siberia,  and  allowing 
fugitives  to  return  ;  and  inaugurated  that  vast 
system  of  internal  communication  which  is  to 
cover  his  immense  empire  with  nets  of  rail 
roads.  His  greatest  men  sure  of  reform,  how 
ever,  is  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs.  He  had 
conceived  from  his  earliest  youth  the  idea  of 
this  measure,  and  was  assisted  by  Nicholas 
Milutin  and  Gen.  Bostoftzoft' in  the  preliminary 
steps.  He  silenced  the  opposition  of  the  serf- 
owners  by  intimating  to  them  that  if  there  was 
to  be  revolution,  it  had  better  begin  at  the 
summit  than  at  the  bottom  of  society.  Their 
emancipation  was  decreed  March  3,  1861,  and 
carried  out  within  the  following  two  years. 
His  reformatory  activity,  however,  was  in 
terrupted,  and  to  a  degree  checked,  by  the 
Polish  insurrection  of  January,  18(58,  which 
was  finally  crushed  in  the  spring  of  1864,  and 
punished  by  the  most  rigorous  measures 
against  Polish  nationality,  followed  by  re 
strictions  of  a  milder  kind  imposed  upon  other 
non-Russian  provinces  of  the  empire.  In  1865 
the  czar  rejected  the  demand  of  the  old  Mos 
cow  nobility  for  a  representative  government. 
An  attempt  upon  his  life,  April  16,  1866,  by 
Dimitri  Karakozoff,  was  frustrated  by  the  in 
terposition  of  the  peasant  Komisaroff,  who 
wras  ennobled  as  a  reward  for  his  action.  A 
second  attempt  upon  his  life  was  made  at  the 
Paris  exhibition  of  1867,  by  Berezowski,  a 
Pole.  The  work  of  reform  was  resumed  in 
1870,  when  the  surprising  successes  of  the 
Germans  startled  the  Russian  nation.  The 
hereditary  character  of  the  priesthood  was 
abolished,  the  army  system  was  reorganized 
on  the  Prussian  model,  and  vast  measures  for 
education  were  inaugurated.  While  persever 
ing  in  his  steady  progress  of  annexation  in 
central  Asia,  the  czar  in  1867  divested  him- 


ALEXANDER 


285 


sell  of  his  foothold  on  the  American  continent 
by  the  sale  of  Alaska.  During  the  Franco- 
Genn.in  war  he  secured  at  the  London  con 
ference  of  1870,  by  a  modification  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris  of  185(i,  the  deneutraliza- 
tion  of  the  Black  sea. — ALEXANDER  ALEX- 
AXDROVITCII,  sjn  of  the  preceding,  and,  since 
the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Nicholas  in 
18G5,  cezarevitch  or  heir  apparent  to  the  throne, 
was  born  March  10,  184-3.  In  1806  he  married 
the  Danish  princess  Dagmar,  who  had  been 
engaged  to  his  elder  brother.  Their  eldest 
child,  NICHOLAS  ALSXAXDROVITCII,  was  born 
May  18,  18'JS.  The  cezarevitch  is  noted  for  his 
sympathies  with  the  old  Russian  party,  who 
are  prejudiced  against  the  Germans,  and  against 
all  foreigners,  ilis  younger  brother,  the  grand 
duke  Alexis,  visited  the  United  States  in 
1871-'2. 

ALEXANDER,  the  namo  of  three  kings  of  Scot 
land.  I.  Succeeded  his  brother  Edgar,  Jan.  8, 
1107,  and  died  April  27, 1124.  He  was  a  prince 
of  singular  energy  and  capacity,  which  stood 
him  in  good  stead  during  the  rebellions  that 
disturbed  his  reign,  all  of  which  he  suppressed. 
He  scoured  the  independence  of  the  Scottish 
hierarchy,  opposed  the  pretensions  of  the  Eng 
lish  bishops,  and  cultivated  letters.  II. .Suc 
ceeded  his  father,  William  the  Lion,  Dec.  4, 
1214,  and  died  July  8,  1240.  He  stands  con 
spicuous  among  Scottish  kings  for  adminis 
trative  ability  and  equity.  He  united  with 
the  league  of  English  barons  against  King 
John,  and  was  consequently  for  two  years  un 
der  excommunication.  On  the  accession  of 
Henry  III.,  Alexander  ratified  a  peace  with 
England  by  marrying  Henry's  sister,  after 
whose  death  without  issue  Henry  invaded 
Scotland;  but  the  Scottish  barons  rallied  in 
such  force  to  the  support  of  their  king  that  the 
war  was  concluded  without  a  battle.  III.  Son 
of  the  preceding  by  his  second  wife,  a  French 
lady,  succeeded  his  father  at  the  age  of  8,  mar 
ried  the  daughter  of  Henry  III.  at  the  age  of 
10,  and  died  March  16,  1286.  He  defeated  the 
attempts  of  Henry  to  obtain  a  controlling  in 
fluence  in  Scottish  affairs,  repelled  an  invasion 
of  Haco,  king  of  Norway  (1263),  securing  as  a 
consequence  the  allegiance  of  the  Hebrides  and 
the  Isle  of  Man,  and  brought  about  a  marriage 
between  his  daughter  Margaret  and  the  Nor 
wegian  king  Eric  (1282).  Margaret  died  the 
next  year,  leaving  a  daughter  Margaret,  called 
the  Maiden  of  Norway,  whose  death  on  the 
way  to  take  possession  of  her  throne  was  the 
cause  of  great  misfortunes  to  Scotland. 

ALEXANDER,  Alexander  Humphreys,  a  claimant 
of  the  earldom  of  Stirling,  born  in  Birmingham, 
England,  about  1783.  In  1824  he  obtained  the 
royal  license  to  assume  the  name  of  Alexander, 
0:1  the  ground  that  he  had  a  maternal  grand 
father  of  that  name,  that  his  deceased  mother 
was  a  great-great-granddaughter  of  the  Hon. 
John  Alexander,  fourth  son  of  the  last  earl  of 
'^tiding  (see  ALEXAXDEB,  WILLIAM),  and  that,  all 
intermediate  heirs  being  extinct,  he  was  sole 


heir  to  the  honors  and  property  of  the  earldom 
and  charter.  For  a  short  time  he  succeeded 
in  exercising  the  privileges  of  earl  without  un 
dergoing  any  legal  investigation  of  his  claims, 
and  he  even  claimed  from  the  crown  a  vast 
territory  in  Nova  Scotia,  which  he  declared 
had  been  granted  to  the  earls  of  Stirling.  He 
raised  large  sums  on  these  pretensions,  and 
assumed  various  rights  in  connection  with 
them;  but  at  last  his  claims  were  challenged  by 
the  crown  lawyers  of  Scotland  in  1839,  and  a 
trial  ensued,  in  which  Humphreys  (Alexander) 
brought  forward  to  prove  his  pedigree  several 
documents  purporting  to  be  old  manuscripts 
brought  to  light  in  various  mysterious  ways. 
These  were,  however,  proved  to  be  forgeries; 
and  his  pretensions  being  thus  brought  to  an 
end,  he  withdrew  into  obscurity. 

ALEXANDER,  Archibald,  I).  D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  in  Augusta  county 
(now  Rockbridge),  Va.,  April  17,  1772,  died  in 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Oct.  22,  1851.  His  grand 
father,  Archibald  Alexander,  was  of  Scotch  de 
scent,  though  an  emigrant  from  Ireland,  whence 
he  came  to  Pennsylvania  in  1736,  and,  after  a 
residence  there  of  about  two  years,  removed  to 
Virginia.  His  son  William,  the  father  of  the 
subject  of  this  sketch,  was  a  farmer  and  trader. 
At  the  age  of  10  years  Archibald  was  sent  to 
the  academy  of  the  Rev.  William  Graham,  at 
Timber  Ridge  meeting  house,  and  at  the  age  of 
17  he  became  tutor  in  the  family  of  Gen.  John 
Posey,  of  the  Wilderness,  twelve  miles  west  of 
Fredericksburg.  He  remained  there  but  one 
year,  and  in  1789  he  returned  home  and  re 
sumed  his  studies  with  Mr.  Graham.  At  this 
time  his  mind  became  influenced  by  the  re 
markable  religious  movement  which  is  yet 
spoken  of  as  "the  great  revival,"  and  he  turned 
his  attention  to  divinity.  lie  was  licensed  at 
Winchester,  Oct.  1,  1791,  and  spent  some  years 
in  itinerant  missionary  service  in  different 

Sirts  of  his  native  state.  In  1789  he  succeeded 
r.  John  Blair  Smith  as  president  of  Ilampden 
Sidney  college,  but  in  1801  resigned,  and  made 
a  journey  to  New  York  and  New  England. 
While  on  his  way  to  the  north  he  visited  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Waddel,  the  celebrated  "  blind  preach 
er  "  mentioned  by  Mr.  Wirt  in  the  "  British 
Spy,"  and  contracted  a  matrimonial  engage 
ment  with  his  daughter,  Janetta,  whom  he 
married  on  his  return  in  1802.  He  then  re 
sumed  his  former  position  at  Ilampden  Sidney 
college,  but  owing  to  insubordination  among 
the  students  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  Pine 
street  church  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  was 
installed  pastor  May  30,  1807.  The  degree  of 
D.  D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  college 
of -New  Jersey  in  1810,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  was  elected  president  of  Union  college 
in  Georgia,  a  tact  which  remained  unknown 
even  by  his  family  until  after  his  death.  The 
theological  seminary  at  Princeton  was  estab 
lished  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  Presby 
terian  church  in  1811,  and  Dr.  Alexander  was 
by  common  consent  elected  as  its  first  theologi- 


286 


ALEXANDER 


cal  professor,  which  position  he  sustained  until 
his  death,  lie  published  "Outlines  of  the  Evi 
dences  of  Christianity,"  which  has  passed 
through  numerous  editions  in  various  lan 
guages,  and  is  recognized  as  a  text  book  in  sev 
eral  colleges;  "Treatise  on  the  Canon  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament"  (1820);  "History  of 
the  Patriarchs"  (1833);  "Essays  on  Religious 
Experience"  (1840);  "History  of  African 
Colonization"  (1846);  "History  of  the  Log 
College"  (1840);  and  a  "History  of  the  Israel- 
itish  Nation  "  (1852).  His  work  on  "  Moral  Sci 
ence  "  was  published  after  his  death ;  and  among 
his  unfinished  works  are  one  on  the  "Duties 
and  Consolations  of  the  Christian";  one  on 
"Patriarchal  Theology";  a  memoir  of  his  old 
instructor,  Mr.  Graham ;  a  history  of  the 
Presbyterian  church  in  Virginia;  biographical 
sketches  of  distinguished  American  clergymen 
and  alumni  of  the  college  of  New  Jersey ;  and 
a  work  on  "Church  Polity  and  Discipline." 

ALEXANDER,  Sir  James  Edward,  a  British  sol 
dier  and  writer,  born  in  Scotland  in  1803.  He 
is  descended  from  the  Stirling  family,  studied 
at  Sandhurst,  served  in  the  Burmari  war  (1825), 
in  the  Russian  service  against  Turkey  (1829), 
in  Dom  Pedro's  cause  in  Portugal  (1834),  in 
quelling  the  disturbances  in  Canada  (1839),  in 
the  Crimean  war,  after  the  close  of  which  he  be 
came  colonel  (1858),  and  in  the  Maori  war  in 
New  Zealand  (1803).  He  has  published  "  Trav 
els  from  India  to  England"  (London,  1827); 
"Expedition  of  Discovery  into  the  Interior  of 
Africa"  (1838),  undertaken  while  stationed 
at  Cape  Town;  "Passages  in  the  Life  of  a 
Soldier"  (1857);  and  "Incidents  of  the  late 
Maori  War"  (1803). 

ALEXANDER,  James  Waddel,  D.  D.,  eldest  son 
of  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander,  born  in  Louisa 
county,  Va.,  March  13,  1804,  died  at  the  Red 
Sweet  Springs,  Va.,  July  31,  1859.  He  gradu 
ated  at  the  college  of  New  Jersey  in  1820,  was 
appointed  a  tutor  there  in  1824,  resigned  in  the 
following  year,  was  settled  as  pastor  of  a  con 
gregation  in  Charlotte  county,  Ara.,  and  in  1828 
accepted  a  call  to  Trenton,  N.  J.  In  1830  he 
resigned  that  charge  and  became  editor  of  "  The 
Presbyterian, "a  religious  newspaper  published 
in  Philadelphia,  whence  he  was  called  in  1833 
to  the  professorship  of  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres 
in  the  college  of  New  Jersey.  In  1844  he  ac 
cepted  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  Duane  street 
church  in  New  York.  In  1849  he  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and 
church  government  in  the  theological  semi 
nary  at  Princeton,  where  he  remained  till  1851, 
when  he  was  chosen  pastor  of  the  Fifth  avenue 
church  in  New  York,  which  station  he  held 
till  his  death.  His  published  works  include 
"  Consolation,  in  Discourses  on  Select  Topics, 
addressed  to  the  Suffering  People  of  God"; 
"  Thoughts  on  Family  Worship  "  ;  "  Plain 
Words  to  a  Young  Communicant "  ;  "  Thoughts 
on  Preaching";  a  series  of  essays  entitle'd 
"The  American  Mechanic  and  Workingman"  ; 
"Discourses  on  Christian  Faith  and  Practice " ; 


a  biography  of  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander  ;  and 
numerous  contributions  to  the  "Biblical  Re- 

J  pertory  "  and  "Princeton  Review,"  as  well  as 
to  the  publications  of  the  American  tract 
society.  The  Rev.  John  Hall,  D.  D.,  edited  in 
1800  "Forty  Years'  Familiar  Letters  of  James 
W.  Alexander,"  with  notes  (2  vols.  12mo). 

ALEXANDER,  Joseph  Addison,  I).  D.,  third  son 
of  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander,  born  in  Phila 
delphia,  April  24,  1809,  died  at  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  Jan.  28,  1860.  He  graduated  at  the 
college  of  New  Jersey  in  1820,  and  from  1880 
to  1833  was  adjunct  professor  of  ancient 
languages  and  literature.  He  was  afterward 
assistant  teacher  of  Biblical  and  oriental  litera 
ture  in  Princeton  theological  seminary,  and  in 
1838  was  elected  by  the  general  assembly  of 
the  Presbyterian  church  professor  of  Biblical 
criticism  and  ecclesiastical  history.  In  1852  he 
was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  Biblical  and 
ecclesiastical  history,  which  he  occupied  till 
his  death.  He  published  "The  Psalms  Trans 
lated  and  Explained"  (3  vols.  12mo,  1850); 
"The  Prophecies  of  Isaiah"  (revised  ed.,  2 
vols.  8vo,  1864),  and  an  abridgment  of  the 
same  work ;  a  volume  on  primitive  church  gov 
ernment,  and  numerous  essays  in  the  "Biblical 
Repertory"  and  "Princeton  Review."  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged,  in  connec 
tion  with  Dr.  Hodge,  in  preparing  a  commen 
tary  on  the  New  Testament,  of  which  "Notes 
on  the  New  Testament  Literature  "  and  "  The 

j  Gospel  according  to  Matthew "  have  been 
published. 

ALEXANDER,  Ludwig  Christian  Gcorg  Friedrich 
Emil,  prince  of  Hesse,  son  of  Louis  II.  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  brother  of  the  present 
empress  of  Russia,  born  July  15,  1823.  He 
served  in  the  Russian  army  in  the  Caucasus, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  1845  during  the 
storming  of  Shamyl's  residence.  In  1851  he 
retired  from  the  czar's  service,  and  married 
the  daughter  of  the  late  Russian  general  Count 
Hauke,  -who  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  coun 
tess,  and  in  1858  to  that  of  the  princess  of 
Battenberg.  In  1852  he  entered  the  Austrian 
service,  took  an  active  part  in  the  war  against 
Italy  in  1859,  and  was  charged  by  Francis  Jo 
seph  to  negotiate  a  truce  with  Napoleon  III. 
In  1866  he  commanded  the  8th  corps  in  the 
war  against  Prussia.  He  was  repeatedly  de 
feated,  and  was  obliged  to  publish  in  1867  his 
diary  of  the  war  in  self-defence. 

ALEXANDER,  Stephen,  LL.  I).,  an  American 
astronomer,  born  in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
1,  1806.  He  was  educated  at  Union  college 
and  at  Princeton  theological  seminary,  was 
appointed  tutor  in  the  college  of  New  Jer 
sey  in  1833,  adjunct  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  same  institution  in  1834,  professor  of 
astronomy  in  1840,  of  mathematics  in  1845, 
and  of  mechanics  and  astronomy  in  1854.  In 
1860  he  went  to  the  coast  of  Labrador  at 
the  head  of  an  expedition  to  observe  the 
solar  eclipse  "of  July  18.  He  has  written 
many  scientific  papers,  which  have  excited 


ALEXANDER 


ALEXANDER   OF   KALES        28T 


considerable  interest,  including  one  on  the 
"Physical  Phenomena  attendant  upon  Solar 
Eclipses,"  read  before  the  American  philoso 
phical  society  at  their  centenary  meeting  in 
1843;  one  on  the  ''Fundamental  Principles  of 
Mathematics,1'  read  before  the  American  as 
sociation  for  the  advancement  of  science  in 
1848;  one  on  the  "Origin  of  the  Forms  and 
the  Present  Condition  of  some  of  the  Clusters 
of  Stars,  and  several  of  the  Nebulae,"  read  at 
the  meeting  of  the  American  association  at 
Albany  in  1850;  and  several  communications 
to  the  same  association  relative  to  the  *k  Form 
and  Equatorial  Diameter  of  the  Asteroid  Plan 
ets,"  and  also  on  the  "Harmonies  in  the  ar 
rangement  of  the  Solar  System,  which  seem  to 
be  confirmatory  of  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  of 
Laplace." 

ALEXANDER,  William.  I.  First  earl  of  Stirling, 
a  Scottish  poet,  courtier,  and  speculator,  born 
about  1580,  died  in  1640.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  private  gentleman,  was  at  an  early  age  trav 
elling  tutor  to  the  earl  of  Argyle,  and  about 
1604  became  attached  to  the  court  of  James  I., 
who  in  1614  knighted  him  and  appointed  him 
gentleman  usher  to  Prince  Charles  and  master 
of  requests.  In  1621  he  received  a  royal  grant 
of  Nova  Scotia,  and  made  strenuous  efforts  to 
sell  it  in  parcels,  issuing  a  glowing  description 
of  the  country  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  "An 
Encouragement  to  Settlers."  To  aid  him, 
Charles  I.  in  1625  created  the  order  of  baronets 
of  Nova  Scotia,  the  title  to  be  conferred  upon 
purchasers  of  large  tracts,  and  granted  him 
the  privilege  of  coining  base  copper  money. 
According  to  Sir  Thomas  LTrquhart,  after  sell 
ing  300  of  these  baronetcies,  instead  of  150,  to 
which  number  they  were  to  have  been  limit 
ed,  and  those  who  emigrated  to  the  colony 
having  failed  to  make  a  settlement,  Alexander 
disposed  of  all  rights  and  interests  there  to  the 
French  on  his  own  account.  He  obtained  from 
the  king  in  1628  a  charter  of  the  lordship  of 
Canada,  and  from  the  council  of  New  England 
a  grant  of  territory,  including  Long  Island 
under  the  name  of  the  island  of  Stirling ;  and 
he  had  also  received  at  different  times  royal 
grants  of  five  baronies  in  Scotland.  But  not 
withstanding  all  these  favors,  he  died  so  in 
volved  that  his  family  estates  were  given  up 
to  his  creditors.  He  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state  in  1626,  keeper  of  the  signet  in  1627, 
a  commissioner  of  th  >  exchequer  in  1628,  and 
an  extraordinary  lord  of  session  in  1631.  In 
1630  he  was  created  Viscount  Stirling,  and  in 
1633  earl  of  Stirling,  Viscount  Canada,  &c. 
James  I.  called  Alexander  his  philosophical 
poet.  His  works  are  numerous,  and  all  didac 
tic,  heavy,  and  turgid,  even  when  in  the  dra 
matic  form.  The  principal  are  "Doomsday," 
in  more  than  10,000  lines,  and  "Four  Mo- 
narchicke  Tragedies,"  viz. :  "Darius,"  "Julius 
Cresar,"  "Croesus,"  and  "The  Alexandrian 
Tragedy."  His  titles  expired  with  the  fifth 
earl,  his  last  male  descendant,  in  1739,  but  sev 
eral  claimants  have  since  arisen.  II.  A  major 


general  in  the  American  revolutionary  army, 
born  in  New  York  in  1726,  died  Jan.  15, 
1783.  Claiming  the  earldom  of  Stirling,  to 
which  many  of  his  contemporaries  believed 
him  to  be  entitled,  he  is  generally  known  in 
American  history  as  Lord  Stirling.  Having 
received  an  excellent  education,  more  partic 
ularly  in  mathematics,  he  attained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  man  of  science.  During  the 
French  and  Indian  war  he  Avas  a  member  of 
the  military  family  of  Gen.  Shirley,  acting  at 
different  times  as  commissary,  aide-de-camp, 
and  secretary.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he 
went  to  Scotland,  where  he  spent  a  large  por 
tion  of  his  fortune  in  the  unsuccessful  prosecu 
tion  of  his  claims  to  the  title  and  estates  of 
Stirling.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of 
the  revolution  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  a 
regiment,  and  while  stationed  at  Ne\v  York, 
previous  to  the  arrival  of  Washington  from 
Boston,  he  fitted  out  an  expedition  consisting 
of  a  pilot  boat  and  some  smaller  boats,  with 
which  he  put  to  sea  at  night,  eluding  the  vigi 
lance  of  the  sentinels  of  the  British  frigate 
Asia,  which  then  lay  in  the  harbor,  and  cap 
tured  a  transport  laden  with  stores  for  the 
enemy  at  Boston.  He  opened  the  tattle  of 
Long  Island,  where,  though  he  fought  with  ob 
stinate  bravery,  he  was  compelled  to  sur 
render,  after  having  secured  the  retreat  of  a 
large  portion  of  his  command.  Having  been 
exchanged,  he  fought  under  Washington  at 
Brandywine,  commanded  the  reserve  at  Ger- 
mantown,  and  led  a  division  at  Monmouth.  He 
died  from  an  attack  of  gout.  The  name  of  Lord 
Stirling  will  always  occupy  an  honorable  place 
in  American  history,  not  only  for  his  unques 
tioned  patriotism  and  personal  courage,  but 
also  for  the  part  he  took  in  exposing  and  de 
feating  the  designs  of  the  "Conway  cabal." 

ALEXANDER  OF  APHRODISIAS  (in  Caria),  sur- 
named  the  Expounder  from  his  commenta 
ries  on  Aristotle,  flourished  at  the  beginning 
of  the  3d  century  of  the  Christian  era.  His 
most  important  work,  "On  Fate,"  in  which  he 
controverts  the  doctrine  of  necessity,  was  pub 
lished  by  Orelli  at  Zurich  in  1824.  His  other 
writings,  mostly  made  up  of  notes  upon  Aris 
totle,  were  highly  valued  by  the  Arabs. 

ALEXANDER  ARCHIPELAGO.     See  ALASKA. 

ALEXANDER  BALAS,  king  of  Syria  from  150 
to  146  B.  C.  lie  pretended  to  be  a  natural 
son  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  his  claim  to 
succeed  him  was  supported  by  the  Romans 
and  several  of  the  princes  of  Asia.  lie  de 
feated  the  troops  of  Demetrius  Soter,  and  took 
possession  of  his  throne,  after  which  he  aban 
doned  himself  to  pleasure.  Demetrius  Nica- 
tor,  son  of  Demetrius  Soter,  dethroned  him 
and  drove  him  into  Arabia,  where  he  was 
murdered  by  the  chieftain  with  whom  he  had 
taken  refuge. 

ALEXANDER  OF  HALES,  an  English  theologian, 
surnamed  the  Irrefragable  Doctor,  died  Aug.  27, 
1245.  A  great  part  of  his  life  was  passed  at 
Paris,  where  he  taught  philosophy  and  theology. 


288        ALEXANDER  JANN^EUS 


ALEXANDER   NEVSKOI 


In  1222  lie  became  a  Franciscan  monk,  and 
was  the  first  of  his  order  to  retain  his  doctor 
ate  in  the  university.  Bonaventura  was  his 
pupil,  and  perhaps  also  Aquinas.  His  chief 
work  was  his  tiumma  Theologice,  which,  after 
being  examined  and  approved  by  a  committee 
of  70  doctors,  was  accepted  as  a  complete  man 
ual  of  instruction  in  theology  for  all  institu 
tions  of  learning  in  Christendom. 

ALEXANDER  JANNJEUS,  king  of  the  Jews,  of 
the  house  of  the  Asraoneans,  from  105  to  78 
B.  C.  (See  HEBREWS.) 

ALEXANDER  JOHN  I.,  prince  of  Roumania,  of 
the  house  of  Cuza,  born  in  Galatz,  March  20, 
1 820.  lie  was  educated  in  Paris,  became  a  colo 
nel  in  the  Moldavian  service,  and  held  several 
civil  offices,  resigning  in  consequence  of  disagree 
ment  with  the  government  about  the  Austrian 
occupation.  He  was  an  active  partisan  of  the 
uniop  party,  which  favored  the  political  union 
of  the  two  .Danubian  principalities,  arid  was 
hostile  to  Austrian  influence.  He  was  ap 
pointed  minister  of  Avar  in  1858,  and  elected 
prince  of  Moldavia  Jan.  17,  1850,  and  of  "\Val- 
lachia  Feb.  5.  In  October,  1800,  he  obtained 
the  recognition  of  the  sultan,  and  on  Dec.  28, 
1861,  he  proclaimed  the  union  of  the  two  prin 
cipalities  under  the  name  of  Roumania.  He 
dissolved  the  national  assembly  March  14,  1863, 
abrogated  the  electoral  law  May  14,  1864,  and 
promulgated  a  new  and  entirely  arbitrary  con 
stitution.  A  conspiracy  formed  against  him  in 
1865  was  suppressed,  but  one  instigated  in  1866 
by  Bratiano,  Ghika,  Cantacuzene,  and  other 
eminent  public  men,  put  an  end  to  his  reign. 
On  the  night  of  Feb.  23  they  sent  officers  to 
his  house,  who  forced  him  to  sign  his  abdica 
tion.  A  provisional  government  was  pro 
claimed  April  13,  1866.  Prince  Charles  of 
Hohenzollern,  a  relative  of  the  king  of  Prussia, 
was  chosen  reigning  prince,  and  Alexander 
Cuza  has  since  lived  in  retirement  at  Vienna. 

ALEXANDER  KARAGEORGEHTCH,  a  Servian 
prince,  born  at  Topola,  Oct.  11,  1806.  After 
the  execution  of  his  father,  Czerny  or  Kara 
George,  at  Belgrade  in  1817,  his  "mother  went 
with  him  to  Wallachia.  He  Avas  for  some  time 
in  the  Russian  military  service,  until  permis 
sion  was  granted  for  his  return  to  Servia,  when 
he  became  aide-de-camp  of  the  reigning  prince, 
Michael  Obrenovitch.  After  the  downfall  of 
the  Obrenovitch  dynasty,  Alexander  Avas 
elected  prince  of  Servia,  Sept.  14,  1842.  This 
choice  was  ratified  by  Turkey,  but  not  by  Rus 
sia.  Both  governments  sent  commissioners  to 
Servia,  and  on  June  15,  1843,  he  was  reflected 
with  the  consent  of  the  two  powers.  He  pro 
moted  education  and  industry,  and  improved 
the  civil  and  military  service.  lie  was  soon 
accused,  however,  of  leaning  too  much  toward 
Turkey,  especially  during  the  Crimean  Avar, 
when  he  prevented  the  national  party  from 
rising  in  rebellion  against  the  Porte,  The  sul 
tan  rewarded  his  loyalty  by  confirming  the 
privileges  which  he  had  granted  to  Servia,  and 
by  allowing  the  country  to  be  placed,  by  the 


I  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  March  30,  1856, 
:  under  the    collective  protection  of  the  great 
!  powers,  instead  of,   as  previously,   under  the 
sole  protection  of  the  Porte.      A   conspiracy 
I  against  him  Avas  discovered   in   1857,  and  its 
'  two  ringleaders,  the  presidents  of  the  senate  and 
|  the  supreme  court  of  Servia,  Stethnovitch  and 
I  Rayovitch,  were  sentenced  to  death,  and  their 
|  six  accomplices  to  haul   labor  for  life.      The 
popular  feeling  against  this  sentence  ran   so 
high  that  the  authorities  durst  not  execute  it, 
1  while  Alexander  incurred  still  greater  odium 
|  by  invoking  the  assistance  of  the  Turkish  au- 
!  thorities  for  the  dcteetk  n  and  punishment  of 
!  the  conspirators.      He  Avas  called  upon  to  re 
sign  ;  and  on  his  retiring  to  the  fortress  of  Bel 
grade,  under  the  protection  of  Turkish  guns, 
his  expulsion  from  the  throne  and  the  country 
Avas  decreed  by  the  Servian  national  assembly 
(December,  1858),  and  Prince  Milosh  Obreno 
vitch,   then  an  octogenarian,  was   reinstated. 
I  Milosh,  on  his  death,  Sept.  26,  18(;0,  was  suc- 
i  ceeded  by  his  sen,  Prince  Michael  Obrenovitch. 
Alexander,  living  in  Hungary,  constantly  in- 
1  trigued  with  Servian  revolutionists  and  foreign 
schemers.     A  conspiracy  instigated  by  them  in 
1864  was  frustrated,  but  that  of  1868  resulted 
in  the   assassination  of  Prince  Michael  (June 
10),  but  not  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Obreno- 
j  vitch  dynasty.     Milan  (Obrenovitch  IV.),  Mi- 
|  chad's  cousin  and  adopted  son  (born  in  1854), 
was  proclaimed  his  successor  under  a  regency. 
j  The  murderers  were  arrested,  and  15  of  them, 
I  including  t\vo  brothers  of  Prince  Alexander, 
were  at  once  put  to  death,  while  the  prince 
himself,  convicted  of  having  planned  and  given 
I  money  for  the  executien  of  the  murder,  was 
i  sentenced  to  20    years'  imprisonment  by  the 
!  court  of  Belgrade.      His  surrender  being  de- 
!  mended,  the   Hungarian  authorities  ordered  a 
i  neAv  trial  at  Pesth,  and  the  evidence  Avas  not 
I  deemed  sufficiently  strong  for  his  conviction. 
I  He  was  not  molested  in  Pesth  for  nearly  18 
!  months,  when  another  trial  took  place  (1870), 
which  again  resulted  in  his  favor.     In  Janu 
ary,  1871,  this  verdict  was  reversed  by  a  court 
of  appeal,  and  he  was  sentenced  to  eight  years' 
close  imprisonment  and  to  payment  of  costs; 
but  the  sentence  has  not  been  executed. 

ALEXANDER  KEYSKOI,  a  Russian  hero  and 
saint,  son  of  the  grand  duke  Ycroslav  II.  of 
Novgorod  and  Vkdimi-r,  born  in  1219,  died 
in  1263.  In  his  youth  he  fought  against  the 
Tartars,  who,  however,  in  12C8  succeeded 
in  making  Russia  tributary.  He  was  more 
!  successful  in  defending  the  northern  bor-nda- 
|  ries  against  the  encroachments  of  the  Danes, 
!  the  Swedes,  and  the  knights  sword-bearers. 
He  Avon  a  great  battle  against  the  Swedes  in 
1240,  on  the  banks  of  the  Neva,  near  the  mod 
ern  St.  Petersburg;  hence  his  surname  of 
Nevskoi.  In  1243  he  deieated  the  knights  on 
the  ice  of  Lake  Peipus.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1247  he  became  grand  duke  of  Nov 
gorod,  and  on  that  of  his  brother  Andrew 
grand  duke  of  Vladimir,  and  lord  paramount 


ALEXANDER  SEVERUS 


ALEXANDRIA 


289 


of  all  the  other  sovereign  Russian  dukes.  To 
an  embassy  from  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  sent  to 
unite  the  western  and  eastern  churches,  he 
answered :  u  We  know  the  true  teaching  of  the 
church ;  we  will  neither  accept  yours  nor  hear 
anything  about  it."  The  Russian  church  can 
onized  him,  and  his  name  is  preserved  in  the  na 
tional  songs.  Peter  the  Great  erected  to  his 
memory  a  great  monastery  on  the  spot  where 
the  battle  on  the  Neva  was  won,  and  created 
the  order  of  Alexander  Nevskoi. 

ALEXANDER  SEVERUS,  Roman  emperor  from 
A.  D.  222  to  235,  the  son  of  Gessius  Marcianus 
and  Julia  Mammasa,  born  at  Arce  in  Phoenicia, 
in  the  temple  of  Alexander  the  Great,  during 
the  attendance  of  his  parents  there  at  a  reli 
gious  festival.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  uncer 
tain,  but  most  historians  ascribe  it  to  the  au 
tumn  of  205.  His  original  name  was  Alexia- 
nus  Bassianus.  On  the  elevation  of  his  cousin 
Elagabahis  to  the  purple,  he  accompanied  his 
mother  to  Rome.  In  221  he  was  adopted  by 
the  emperor,  and  created  Caesar,  pontiff,  con 
sul  elect,  and  princeps  juventutis.  He  now  as 
sumed  the  name  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Alexan 
der.  Elagabahis  soon  regarded  him  as  a  rival 
whose  destruction  was  essential  to  his  own 
safety ;  but  Alexander's  life  was  preserved  by 
the  watchfulness  of  his  mother  and  the  affec 
tion  of  the  soldiers,  who  ultimately  avenged 
his  injuries  by  sacrificing  his  enemy.  On  the 
death  of  Elagabalus  he  was  proclaimed  em 
peror  by  the  praetorians,  and  the  choice  was 
confirmed  by  the  senate.  He  now  took  the 
appellation  of  Severus,  as  he  was  ambitious  of 
being  thought  a  descendant  of  the  emperor 
Septimius  Severus.  During  nine  years  of  peace 
he  reformed  abuses,  promoted  men  of  merit 
and  capacity,  and  restored  health  to  the  em 
pire.  In  231,  however,  he  assumed  command 
of  the  eastern  legions  to  defend  his  Asiatic 
provinces  from  a  Persian  invasion.  Crossing 
the  Euphrates,  he  encountered  the  hostile 
hosts  in  Mesopotamia,  and  defeated  them  with  i 
great  slaughter.  Receiving  intelligence  that 
the  Germans  were  up  in  arms  and  preparing  | 
for  an  irruption  into  Gaul,  he  hastened  back  I 
to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Rhenish  I 
army;  but  at  the  very  opening  of  the  campaign  | 
he  was  waylaid  and  slain,  along  with  his  mother 
(to  whose  care  his  elevated  character,  in  the 
midst  of  corruption,  is  attributed),  by  a  party 
of  mutineers,  who  had  probably  been  instigated  ! 
to  the  deed  by  his  successor  Maximin. 

ALEXAXDRE,  Aaron,  a  chess  player,  born  at  ' 
Hohenfeld,  Bavaria,  about  1766,  died  in  Lon 
don,  Nov.  16,  1850.  He  was  for  some  time  ! 
rabbi  at  Fiirth,  and  afterward  teacher  of  Ger-  I 
man  at  Paris,  where  he  established  a  boarding 
school.  His  Encyclopedic  des  ecliecs  (Paris,  j 
1837),  and  his  Collection  des  plus  beaux  pro-  \ 
Wemes  d'echecs  (Paris,  1840),  established  for  ! 
him  a  high  reputation  as  an  authority  on  chess.  | 
tie  was  among  the  first  chess  players  of  the  ; 
century,  and  in  his  80th  year  continued  to  be  j 
u  thorough  master  of  the  game.  In  France  ! 
VOL.  i-19 


and  in  Europe  generally  he  was  known  among 
chess  players  as  "Father  Alexandre." 

ALEXANDRETTA  (Turk.  Iskanderun;  anc. 
Alexandria  ad  Issum),  a  Turkish  seaport 
on  the  N.  coast  of  Syria,  in  the  vilayet  of 
Aleppo,  situated  on  the  E.  side  of  the  bay  of 
Iskanderun,  in  lat.  36°  35'  N.,  Ion.  30°  E.,  23 
m.  X.  of  Antioch;  pop.  about  1,000.  Though 
much  improved  of  late  years,  especially  by  the 
drainage  of  a  pestilential  marsh  in  its  rear,  it 
is  still  a  wretched  and  unhealthy  village.  The 
harbor  is  capacious,  and  the  town  has  consid 
erable  commercial  importance  as  the  port  of 
Antioch  and  Aleppo.  The  products  of  north 
ern  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  consisting  of  grain, 
oils,  soaps,  gallnuts,  wool,  cotton,  tobacco,  &c., 
and  European  manufactures,  pass  through  this 
port.  English  capitalists  have  projected  a  rail 
road  from  this  port  through  the  valley  of  the  Eu 
phrates  to  the  Persian  gulf,  to  be  ultimately  ex 
tended  N.  W.  to  Constantinople. — Alexandretta 
was  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great  to  com 
memorate  his  victory  over  Darius  III.  in  333 
on  the  neighboring  plains  of  Issus.  In  1097  it 
was  taken  by  Tancred ;  and  in  1832  it  was  the 
scene  of  a  victory  by  the  army  of  Mehemet  Ali 
over  the  Turks. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
on  the  Potomac,  opposite  Washington ;  area, 
36  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,755,  of  whom  7,310 
were  colored.  It  was  once  a  part  of  the  Dis 
trict  of  Columbia,  and  was  retroceded  to  Vir 
ginia  by  act  of  congress  in  1846.  Its  sur 
face  is  hilly  and  its  soil  is  poor  and  thin.  The 
staple  products  are  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  hay. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  port  of  entry  and  capital 
of  Alexandria  county,  Va.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Potomac,  7  m.  below  Washington ; 
pop.  in  1860,  12,652;  in  1870,  13,570,  of  whom 
5,300  were  colored.  The  Potomac  is  here  a 
mile  wide,  forming  a  harbor  able  to  accommo 
date  the  largest  ships.  The  city  is  generally 
well  paved  and  lightgd  with  gas,  and  water  has 
been  introduced  by  machinery.  It  is  con 
nected  by  a  railroad  90  ni.  long  with  the  Cen 
tral  railroad  of  Virginia  at  Gordonsville,  and 
has  a  railroad  to  Leesburg,  40  m.  distant,  and 
one  to  Washington  connecting  with  the  Balti 
more  and  Ohio  railroad.  It  also  has  a  canal 
joining  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  at 
Georgetown.  The  imports  from  foreign  coun 
tries  in  1870  amounted  to  $33,822,  and  the  ex 
ports  to  $39,648 ;  24  vessels  were  entered  from 
foreign  countries  with  a  tonnage  of  5,697 
and  crews  of  192  men;  4  vessels  with  a  ton 
nage  of  1,029  were  cleared  for  foreign  countries. 
The  number  of  vessels  registered,  enrolled,  and 
licensed  was  128,  with  a  tonnage  of  7,646. 
Two  daily  newspapers  with  tri- weekly  editions 
and  one  monthly  are  published  here. — The 
city  of  Alexandria  belongs  to  the  territory 
ceded  by  Virginia  in  1789  to  the  Union  as 
part  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  retro- 
ceded  in  1846.  At  the  opening  of  the  civil 
war  Alexandria  was  in  possession  of  the  con 
federates.  On  the  24th  of  May  it  was  entered 


290 


ALEXANDRIA 


Alexandria,  Egypt— Mehemet  Ali  Square. 


by  the  Union  forces  under  Col.  Ellsworth,  who 
was  shot  while  hauling  down  a  confederate 
flag.  It  was  subsequently  the  seat  of  govern 
ment  of  the  few  counties  of  eastern  Virginia 
which  adhered  to  the  Union,  being  occupied 
by  the  federal  army,  and  recognized  Francis 
II.  Pierpont  as  governor  of  the  state. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  town,  capital  of  the  parish  of 
Rapid cs,  La.,  on  the  Red  river,  about  50  m. 
(direct)  from  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,218,  of  whom  448  were  colored ; 
in  1860,  1,461.  It  is  the  shipping  point  of  a 
rich  cotton  country. — When  the  Shreveport 
expedition  of  Gen.  Banks  and  Admiral  Porter 
was  descending  the  river  in  April,  1864,  the 
fleet,  owing  to  low  water«  was  unable  to  pass 
the  falls  at  Alexandria,  and  the  destruction  or 
capture  of  all  the  vessels,  valued  at  nearly  $2,- 
000,000,  seemed  inevitable.  In  this  emergency 
Lieut.  Col.  Joseph  Bailey,  engineer  of  the  19th 
corps,  proposed  to  construct  a  dam  across  the 
channel  of  the  river — here  758  feet  wide,  4  to 
6  feet  deep,  and  running  at  the  rate  of  10  miles 
an  hour — a  short  distance  below  the  falls. 
Eight  days'  work  had  nearly  completed  the 
dam,  and  the  water  had  risen  enough  for  all 
oxcept  the  largest  vessels  to  pass,  when  a  por- 
iion  of  the  work  gave  way.  Admiral  Porter 
immediately  ordered  the  four  smaller  vessels 
of  the  fleet  to  pass  through  the  breach,  which, 
though  attended  with  great  danger,  was  suc 
cessfully  accomplished.  Several  wing  dams 
directly  at  the  head  of  the  falls  were  now  con 
structed,  raising  the  water  on  the  rapids  more 
than  a  foot  additional,  when  the  rest  of  the 
fleet  passed  safely  down.  The  town  was  near 
ly  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire  on  the  day  of 
its  evacuation  by  the  federal  troops,  May  13 
following. 


ALEXANDRIA  (Turk.  IsJcanderiyeli),  a  city  of 
Egypt,  on  the  Mediterranean,  112  m.  N.  W.  of 
Cairo,  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great  after  the 
destruction  of  Tyre,  332  B.  C.  Dinocrates  or 
Dinochares  was  the  architect,  and  the  site  se 
lected  was  at  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile, 
between  the  sea  and  Lake  Mareotis.  The  city 
was  regularly  laid  out  and  intersected  by  two 
main  streets,  upward  of  100  feet  wide,  run 
ning  from  N.  to  S.  and  from  E.  to  W.  respec 
tively.  On  the  island  of  Pharos  a  lighthouse  of 
vast  height  was  erected,  and  this  island  itself 
was  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  dike 
which  divided  the  inner  from  the  outer  harbor, 
and  through  which  vessels  could  pass  by  means 
of  movable  bridges.  The  east  end  of  the 
town  was  called  the  Bruchium,  and  here  was 
the  royal  palace  of  the  Ptolemies.  Under  them 
Alexandria  was  the  great  centre  to  which  the 
trade  of  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  with 
Persia  and  the  far  east  converged.  It  num 
bered  about  300,000  free  inhabitants,  of  vari 
ous  nationalities,  and  also  became  the  centre 
of  universal  learning.  Here  the  schools  of 
Grecian  philosophy,  and  especially  the  Plato- 
nists,  flourished.  Among  its  ornaments  were 
its  library  and  the  museum,  an  establishment 
in  which  scholars  were  maintained  at  public- 
cost.  In  Alexandria  the  Scriptures  Avere  first 
made  known  to  the  heathen  by  the  Septuagint 
version,  and  here  Christianity  early  took  root, 
although  the  city  soon  became  the  scene  of  ran 
corous  and  unchristian  disputation  and  violence. 
In  no  place  were  religious  conflicts  more  fre 
quent  or  more  sanguinary.  It  also  witnessed 
much  political  strife,  suffering  especially  dur 
ing  the  struggle  of  Cleopatra  with  her  broth 
er  Ptolemy  (Caesar's  Alexandrine  war).  In 
30  B.  C.  it  fell  permanently  under  the  power 


ALEXANDRIAN  CODEX 


ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY       291 


of  the  Romans ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  re 
moval  of  many  of  the  most  precious  works  of 
art  to  Rome,  its  greatness  continued  till  the 
establishment  of  the  seat  of  empire  at  Con 
stantinople.  From  the  rise  of  Constantino 
ple,  though  still  a  centre  of  commerce,  Alex 
andria  as  a  capital  began  seriously  to  de 
cline.  In  A.  I).  640  it  was  taken  by  the  Sara 
cens  under  Amrn,  the  general  of  the  caliph 
Omar,  and  in  960  Cairo  was  founded  by  the 
caliphs  of  the  Fatimite  dynasty,  and  made  the 
capital  of  Egypt.  The  discovery  of  the  route  to 
India  and  the  East  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
completed  its  decay.  At  present  the  under 
ground  cisterns  for  the  preservation  of  the  Nile 
water  are  the  only  perfect  relics  of  the  past. — 
Modern  Alexandria  is  situated  on  the  causeway 
which  once  formed  the  communication  between 
the  mainland  and  the  Pharos,  and  which  by 
constant  accumulation  of  sand  and  material  is 
now  formed  into  a  neck  of  land.  There  are 
two  ports,  one  at  the  extremity  of  an  extensive 
roadstead  west  of  the  Pharos,  in  which  ves 
sels  of  the  line  may  lie ;  the  other,  the  modern 
port,  on  the  east  of  the  Pharos,  is  less  advan 
tageous.  Lake  Mareotis  was  dried  up  by  ac 
cumulations  of  sand,  but  in  1801  the  British 
army  cut  through  the  narrow  strip  which  sep 
arated  it  from  the  lake  of  Aboukir,  and  let  in 
the  sea  again.  Alexandria  is  fast  becoming  as 
populous  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  antiqu'ity,  and 
looks  (1873)  rather  like  an  Italian  than  an  ori 
ental  city.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  and 
the  wretched  habitations  of  the  Arabs  are  no 
longer  as  conspicuous  as  they  were  formerly. 
Large  streets  well  paved  and  lighted  with  gas  are 
seen  in  the  European  quarter,  and  abound  with 
fine  residences.  The  great  promenade  of  the 
Mehemet  Ali  square,  formerly  the  square  of  the 
Consuls,  is  the  central  and  most  animated  point 
of  the  city.  The  population  was  estimated  in 
1870  at  238,888,  including,  besides  Arabs,  Copts, 
Turks,  Persians,  Armenians,  and  Jews,  25,000 
Greeks,  20,000  Italians,  15,000  French,  12,000 
English  Maltese,  12,000  Levantines  of  miscella 
neous  European  descent,  8,000  Germans  and 
Swiss,  8,000  various  foreigners,  comprising  a 
number  of  American  officers  in  the  khedive's 
army  and  American  engineers  and  mission 
aries.  Railways  connect  the  city  with  Cairo 
and  the  Suez  canal  and  with  Ramleh.  It  is 
as  a  place  of  transit  for  passengers  that  Alex 
andria  is  most  remarkable,  the  steamers  to  and 
from  India,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Levant 
all  contributing  to  the  prosperity  of  the  city. 
In  1869  there  were  56,000  passengers  in  the 
2,000  sailing  ships,  and  nearly  80,000  in  the 
1,000  steamers  which  entered  the  port,  besides 
men-of-war. 

ALEXANDRIAN  CODEX,  an  uncial  manuscript 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  so  named  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  found  at  Alexandria  by 
Cyrillus  Lucaris,  the  patriarch  of  Constantino 
ple,  who  presented  it  in  1628  to  Charles  I. 
of  England.  It  was  written  on  vellum,  in 
double  columns,  condensed  and  unaccented. 


It  contains,  besides  the  canonical  books,  slight 
ly  varied  in  their  order,  most  of  the  apoc 
rypha.  Some  writers  have  been  of  the  opinion 
that  the  writer  of  this  codex  followed  three  dif 
ferent  editions — the  Byzantine  in  the  gospels, 
the  western  in  the  Acts  and  catholic  epistles, 
and  the  Alexandrine  in  the  epistles  of  Paul — and 
therefore  speak  disparagingly  of  its  authority. 
Others  consider  it  the  most  perfect  copy  of  the 
Scriptures  extant.  The  famous  passage  con 
cerning  the  three  witnesses  (1  John  v.  7)  is  not 
contained  in  this  codex  ;  and  there  are  several 
chasms  in  the  text,  more  especially  in  the  New 
Testament.  A  portion  of  the  gospels  of  St. 
Matthew  and  of  St.  John,  as  well  as  of  the 
Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  is  wanting. 
On  the  first  page  of  the  text  of  Genesis  is  a 
declaration  that  the  MS.  was  dedicated  to  the 
use  of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  an 
anathema  of  excommunication  against  him  who 
shall  remove  it  from  the  library.  Cyrillus,  the 
donor  of  the  MS.  to  Charles,  was  a  patriarch 
of  Alexandria  before  his  removal  to  Constanti 
nople.  By  some  he  has  been  accused  of  for 
gery  in  this  whole  matter.  The  MS.  is  in  very 
good  condition  generally.  It  is  the  only  one 
known  which  contains  the  genuine  epistle  of 
Clement  to  the  Corinthians.  This  codex  is 
now  preserved  in  the  British  museum. 

ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY,  a  collection  of 
books  formed  by  Ptolemy  I.  and  Ptolemy  II. 
of  Egypt,  and  probably  the  largest  prior  to 
the  invention  of  printing.  It  was  founded,  it 
is  said,  at  the  suggestion  of  Demetrius  Phale- 
reus,  who,  when  a  fugitive  at  the  Egyptian 
court,  spoke  with  admiration  of  the  public  li 
braries  at  Athens.  Demetrius  was  appointed 
superintendent,  and  diligently  employed  him 
self  in  the  collection  of  the  literature  of  all 
nations,  Jewish,  Chaldee,  Persian,  Ethiopian, 
Egyptian,  Greek,  Roman,  &c.  According  to 
Eusebius,  there  were  100,000  volumes  in  the 
library  at  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus ; 
and  subsequently  the  number  was  increased  to 
700,000.  The  volumina  or  rolls,  however, 
contained  far  less  than  a  printed  volume ;  as, 
for  instance,  the  "Metamorphoses  "  of  Ovid,  in 
15  books,  would  be  considered  as  15  volumes. 
During  the  siege  which  Caesar  stood  in  Alexan 
dria,  a  large  part  of  the  library  was  burned. 
Gibbon  asserts  that  the  old  library  was  totally 
consumed,  and  that  the  collection  from  Perga- 
mus,  which  was  presented  by  Mark  Antony  to 
Cleopatra,  was  the  foundation  of  the  new  one, 
which  continued  to  increase  in  size  and  repu 
tation  for  four  centuries,  until  dispersed  by 
Theophilus,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  at  the  de 
struction  of  the  Serapeum,  about  A.  D.  390. 
Still  the  library  was  reestablished ;  and  Alex 
andria  continued  to  flourish  as  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  literature  until  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Arabs  in  640.  The  library  was  then  burned, 
according  to  a  story  of  very  questionable  au 
thenticity,  in  consequence  of  the  fanatic  deci 
sion  of  the  caliph  Omar :  "  If  these  writings 
of  the  Greeks  agree  with  the  Book  of  God, 


292 


ALEXANDKIAN  SCHOOL 


ALEXIS 


they  are  useless  and  need  not  be  preserved ;  if 
they  disagree,  they  are  pernicious  and  ought 
to  be  destroyed."  Accordingly,  it  is  said, 
they  were  employed  to  heat  the  4,000  baths 
of  the  city;  and  such  was  their  number,  that 
six  months  were  barely  sufficient  for  the  con 
sumption  of  the  precious  fuel.  There  is  no 
doubt,  however,  that  after  040  the  library 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  public  institution.  Con 
nected  with  the  library  was  a  college,  or  re 
treat  for  learned  men,  called  the  museum, 
where  they  were  maintained  at  public  expense. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL,  a  term  vaguely  ap 
plied  to  a  development  of  Neo-Platonisni  by 
the  philosophers  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt  about 
the  end  of  the  2d  century.  The  characteristic 
of  the  school  was  a  broad  eclecticism  based 
upon  the  rationalism  of  Plato  and  largely  in 
fluenced  by  the  supernaturalism  of  the  Grecian- 
ized  Jews.  Afterward  the  early  teachers  of 
Christianity  modified  it  still  more  by  an  ad 
mixture  of  Aristotelianism,  and  it  became  a 
transition  system  between  the  pagan  and  Chris 
tian  beliefs,  aiming  to  harmonize  all  philosophy 
and  all  religion.  The  earliest  philosopher  of 
this  school  was  the  Jew  Philo,  but  it  first  took 
decided  form  from  Ammonias  Saccas,  about  193. 
The  other  chief  names  identified  with  it  are 
those  of  Plotinus,  Porphyry,  lamblichus,  lliero- 
cles,  Proclus,  Pantasnus,  Clement,  Origen, 
Athanasius,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Cyril. 
Of  these,  Philo  represents  the  Judaistic  ex 
treme,  while  Clement  is  the  great  Christian 
Alexandrian. — The  history  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  has  been  written  by  Matter  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1840-'44)  and  Simon  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1844-'5).  See  also  De  Vecole  cTAlexandrie, 
by  Barthelemy  Saint-IIilaire  (Paris,  1845). 

ALEXANDRINE,  or  Alexandrian,  in  poetry, 
a  metre  consisting  of  12  syllables,  or  12 
and  13  alternately;  so  called,  according  to 
some,  from  a  poem  on  the  life  of  Alexander 
written  in  this  kind  of  verse  by  a  French 
poet  of  the  latter  half  of  the  12th  century. 
The  French  have  ever  since  cultivated  this  spe 
cies  of  verse  more  than  any  other  European 
nation.  Their  tragedies  are  mostly  composed 
of  Alexandrines.  In  his  "Essay  on  Criticism," 
Pope  gives  the  English  opinion  of  them  : 

A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 

That  like  a  wounded  snake  drags  its  slow  length  along. 

ALEXANDROPOL  (formerly  Gumr-i),  an  im 
portant  fortress  and  town  in  Russian  Armenia, 
near  the  frontier  of  Turkey,  54  m.  N".  W.  of 
Erivan;  pop.  in  1870,  17,272.  Near  it  the 
Russians  under  Bariatinski  obtained  on  Oct. 
30,  1853,  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks. 

ALEXANDROV,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Vladimir,  58  m.  N.  E.  of  Mos 
cow,  on  the  river  Seraya;  pop.  in  1870, 
5,810.  It  contains  dye  works  and  manu 
factories  of  iron  ware  and  muskets.  Among 
the  many  churches  is  one  with  a  nunnery 
and  the  tombs  of  Martha  and  Theodosia, 
two  sisters  of  Peter  the  Great.  The  czar  Ivan 
II.  Vasilievitch  established  here  the  first 


;  printing  press  introduced  into  Russia,  and  in 

I  1560  made  the  town  the  capital  of  his  newly 

I  founded   dominion  of  Opritchina.     Near  the 

town  is  an  extensive  imperial  stud  of  horses 

founded  by  the  empress  Elizabeth  in  1761  and 

completed  in  1781,  famous  for  the  variety  of 

the  breeds. 

ALEXANDROVSK,  a  town  of  Little  Russia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  below  its  cata 
racts,  in  the  government  and  48  m.  S.  of  Ye- 
katerinoslav ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,001.  It  is  the 
place  of  shipment  by  the  Dnieper  for  the  Black 
sea,  though  the  trade  might  be  much  more 
active  considering  the  excellent  situation  of 
the  town.  The  district  of  Alexandrovsk  for 
merly  contained  the  lines  of  fortifications  from 
the  Dnieper  to  the  sea  of  Azov,  established  in 
1770  against  the  Tartars.  The  neighboring 
village  of  Stilja  is  noted  for  its  extensive  coal 
mines.  Many  settlements  of  foreigners,  chiefiy 
Germans,  are  in  this  district. 

ALEXEI,  the  Russian  form  of  Alexis.  See 
ALEXIS. 

ALEXIS  (or  Alexius)  It,  Comnenus,  emperor  of 
Trebizond  (Trapezus),  born  in  1182,  died  in 
February,  1222.  The  enmity  of  Isaac  Angelus 
to  the  family  of  the  Comneni  threatened  the 
I  entire  extermination  of  that  illustrious  house. 
The  sons  of  the  last  Comnenian  emperor  of 
Constantinople,  John  and  Manuel,  were  by 
his  command  mutilated  and  murdered  in 
prison.  The  latter,  however,  left  two  infant 
sons,  Alexis  and  David,  who  fled  with  their 
mother  to  their  relative  Thamar,  the  Georgian 
queen  of  Tiflis,  by  whom  they  were  protected 
and  educated.  They  gradually  formed  a  do 
minion  on  the  banks  of  the  Phasis,  which  the 
distracted  government  of  the  Angeli  failed  to 
suppress.  On  the  second  capture  of  Constan- 
I  tinople  by  the  Latins,  in  1204,  Alexis  and 
his  brother  rallied  around  them  numerous 
discontented  Greeks,  left  their  retreat,  and 
!  passed  the  Phasis.  Alexis  captured  Trebizond, 
Cerasus,  and  Mesochaldion,  and  took  posses 
sion  of  all  that  coast  of  the  Black  sea  as  far  as 
Amisns,  while  David  advanced  beyond  tjie 
Ilalys,  took  Sinope,  and  pushed  his  conquests 
to  the  environs  of  Constantinople.  Alexis 
now  assumed  the  imperial  title,  proclaiming 
himself  king  and  ruler  of  all  Anatolia.  His 
reign  was  troubled  by  perpetual  wars  with  the 
Turks,  and  with  Theodore  Lascaris,  who  having, 
like  Alexis,  become  master  of  a  fragment  of  the 
empire,  was  entitled  the  emperor  of  Nica3a.  In 
1214  Alexis  concluded  a  peace  with  Theodore, 
but  the  same  year  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
sultan  of  Iconium,  and  purchased  his  liberty 
by  yielding  to  the  Turks  the  town  and  dis 
trict  of  Sinope.  His  empire  at  his  death  was 
reduced  to  the  coast  of  the  Black  sea,  com 
prised  between  the  Phasis  on  the  east  and  the 
Thermodon  on  the  west. 

ALEXIS  (or  Alexius)  I.,  Conmenus,  emperor  of 
Constantinople,  born  in  1048,  died  Aug.  15, 
1118.  He  was  the  son  of  John  Comnenus, 
who  refused  the  succession  bequeathed  to  him 


ALEXIS 

by  his  brother  Isaac.    Alexis  in  his  youth  served  : 
the  emperor  Michael  VII.  in  the  Turkish  war,  \ 
and  against  the  rebel  Nicephorus  Botaniates.  J 
He  was  one  of  the  most  faithful  adherents  of  j 
Michael    till  he  was  deposed  by  his  rebel  en 
emy,  when  he  offered  his  services  to  the  new  | 
emperor.     Nicephorus  bestowed  honors  upon  : 
him,  and  charged  him  with  restoring  the  peace 
of  the  empire,  then  disturbed  by  many  rebel 
lions.    Alexis  triumphed  over  the  most  power-  j 
ful  leaders  of  revolt,  Bryennius  and  Basilacius,  • 
but  his  victories  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  ; 
emperor  and  the  envy  of  the  courtiers;  and  ''•• 
when  he  refused  to  march  against  a  new  rebel,  ; 
the  husband  of  his  sister,  his  destruction  was  I 
resolved  upon.     Escaping  by  the  protection  of  | 
the  empress  to  the  army,  of  which  he  was  the  ; 
favorite,  he  was  immediately  proclaimed  em-  j 
peror  by  the  soldiers,  captured  Constantino-  ! 
pie  in  1081,  and  gave  it  up  to  pillage.     Ni- 
cephorus  was  permitted  to  retire  to  a  convent.  ! 
Alexis   found  the  empire  in  internal  discom-  j 
posure,  and  surrounded  by  enemies.     On  the  I 
east  the  Seljuk  Turks,  overrunning  the  prov-  ! 
inces  of  Asia,  had  spread  from  Persia  to  the  j 
Hellespont;  on  the  west,  the  Normans,  under 
Robert  Guiscard,    after   brilliant  successes  in 
Italy,    were   advancing    eastward;    and  new 
swarms  of  barbarians  from  the  north,  having  ! 
crossed  the  Danube  and  occupied  Thrace,  had  j 
several  times    defeated  the   imperial   troops. 
The  first  measure  of  Alexis  was  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  the  Turks  by  abandoning  to  them 
the  provinces  of  which  they  already  had  pos 
session.     Heavy  exactions  and  spoliations  of 
the  churches  furnished  him  the  means  to  at 
once  raise  an  army  of  70,000  men,  with  which  | 
he  marched  for  the  deliverance  of  Durazzo,  ! 
besieged  by  the   Normans.     His  treaty  with 
the  sultan  had  procured  him  an  auxiliary  force 
of  some  thousand  Turks,  and  he  had  even  suc 
ceeded  in  enlisting  under  his  banner  some  of 
the   wild   Transdanubians.      The    battle    was 
fought  Oct.  18,  1081 ;  and  the  Normans,  led  by  ! 
Robert  and  his  wife  Gaita,  gained  a  complete  | 
victory.     Robert  was  now  obliged  by  a  revolt 
of  his   vassals  to  return  for  a  time  to  Italy, 
which  gave  Alexis  leisure  to  repel  the  incur 
sions  of  the  Turks.     By  means  of  his  navy  he 
contended  with  doubtful  success  against  them 
till  1095,  but  was  in  despair  when  he  learned 
that  the  Turks  had  availed  themselves  of  the  | 
art  of  some  Greek  prisoners  to  build  a  fleet,  j 
with  which  they  were  approaching  Constan 
tinople.     He  now  addressed  himself  for  aid  to 
the  West,  declaring  that  the  existence  of  Chris-  • 
tendom  was    threatened    by  this    new    erup- 
tipn  of  barbarians.     The  capture  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  Moslems,  the  preaching  of  Peter  the 
Hermit,  and  the  activity  of  Pope  Urban    II., 
produced  a  meeting  of  the  Christian  princes 
at  Piacenza.     The  ambassadors  of  Alexis  con-  j 
tributed  much  toward  deciding  the  princes  to  ; 
join  the  first   crusade.     Alexis   had   thought  • 
only  of  a  moderate   succor   from   the  West;  I 
when  therefore  in  1096  the  promiscuous  armies 


ALEXIS  MIKIIAILOVITCII       293 

of  the  crusaders  began  to  arrive,  numbering 
untold  hosts,  and  led  on  by  the  most  renowned 
leaders  of  Europe,  his  fears  were  quite  as  great 
as  his  hopes,  and  he  was  glad  to  give  them  a 
quick  passage  into  Asia,  where  at  first  the 
Turks  found  little  difficulty  in  annihilating 
them.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and  Hugh,  count 
of  Vermandois,  encamped  during  the  winter 
in  the  environs  of  Constantinople,  and  it  was 
only  by  a  skilful  display  of  his  military  forces 
that  the  emperor  felt  his  capital  safe.  He 
failed  to  give  them  the  assistance  which  he  had 
promised,  and  in  1097-  demanded  from  the 
chiefs  of  the  crusade  that  they  should  restore 
to  him  his  ancient  possessions  in  Asia,  and 
should  do  homage  to  him  for  all  the  territory 
which  they  conquered  out  of  certain  prescribed 
limits.  They  consented,  though  Bohemond,  the 
son  of  the  emperor's  old  enemy  Robert  Guis 
card,  long  refused,  and  Tancred  passed  over 
into  Asia  to  avoid  the  public  ceremony  of  do 
ing  homage,  at  which  Count  Robert  of  Paris 
insulted  before  the  world  the  imperial  majesty. 
Harmony  never  existed  between  Alexis  and 
the  leaders  of  the  crusades;  and  though  he 
rendered  them  important  assistance  in  the 
siege  of  NicaBa,  and  by  their  aid  recovered  some 
important  towns  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  islands 
of  Rhodes  and  Chios,  yet  by  abandoning  the 
Christians  before  Antioch,  he  so  outraged  Bo 
hemond  that  that  prince  returned  to  Europe, 
increased  his  army,  and  began  to  wage  war  in 
Thrace  against  Alexis.  He,  however,  gained 
but  slight  successes,  and  soon  made  peace.  In 
the  last  years  of  his  life  Alexis  continued  to 
war  against  the  Turks,  and  defeated  them  in 
great  battles  in  1115  and  1116.  Alexis  was  an 
able  ruler,  valiant,  active,  and  politic ;  but  he 
was  also  dissembling  and  hypocritical. 

ALEXIS,  Wilibald.     See  HIKING. 

ALEXIS  MIKHAILOVITCH,  second  czar  of  Rus 
sia  of  the  Romanoff  lineage,  born  March  10, 
1629,  succeeded  his  father  Michael  Fedoro- 
vitch  July  12, 1645,  died  Jan.  29,  1676.  During 
the  earlier  years  of  his  reign  he  had  for  ad 
visers  his  tutor,  Morozoff,  and  the  grand  chan 
cellor  Plesoff.  An  insurrection  broke  out 
against  his  counsellors,  and  Plesoff  was  slain. 
Next  (1648)  appeared  two  pretenders  to  the 
crown :  one  calling  himself  Dimitri  (the  last 
pretender  who  took  that  name),  the  other  a 
certain  Ankudinoff,  calling  himself  a  son  of  the 
czar  Basil  Shuiskoi.  Alexis  put  them  down, 
and  afterward  proved  himself  one  of  the  best 
sovereigns  who  ever  occupied  the  Russian 
throne.  His  reign  marked  the  dawn  of  that 
civilization  which  his  son  Peter  the  Great 
more  widely  diffused  over  Russia.  He  encour 
aged  learning,  fostered  printing  establishments, 
attracted  to  Russia  from  abroad  men  of  letters, 
artists,  physicians,  manufacturers,  and  opera 
tives.  He  was  active,  intelligent,  and  tem 
perate.  To  break  the  pride  of  the  princes  and 
boyars,  who  refused  generally  to  obey  the 
orders  of  a  military  or  civil  superior  when  the 
date  of  '  his  title  was  later  than  their  own, 


294 


ALEXIS   PETROVITCH 


ALFIERI 


Alexis  ordered  these  rebels  to  deposit  all  the 
documents  relating  to  their  rank  in  the  chan 
cery  of  the  imperial  council,  and  then  burned 
them  together  with  the  old  nobiliar  record  of 
the  empire,  called  the  Velvet  Book.  Under 
his  reign  Russia  for  the  first  time  began  to 
have  the  advantage  over  the  Poles,  whom  he 
defeated  in  two  wars.  By  the  treaties  of  Mos 
cow  (1656)  and  Andruszow  (1667)  Alexis  re 
covered  several  provinces  formerly  taken  from 
Russia.  lie  was  also  for  several  years  at  war 
with  Sweden,  which  ended  with  an  armistice 
in  1658  and  a  treaty  in  1661,  mutually  guaran 
teeing  their  former  possessions.  During  his 
reign  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine,  for  centuries 
tributaries  of  Poland,  seceded  and  submitted 
to  Russia.  lie  was  twice  married,  and  left 
children  by  both  wives.  The  first  was  a  Milos- 
lavska,  of  a  Russian  boyar  family ;  the  sec 
ond  a  Naryshkin,  a  person  of  lower  rank, 
whom  Alexis  chose  from  the  sight  of  her  shoe, 
which  made  him  think  she  had  a  very  small 
foot.  She  was  the  mother  of  Peter  the  Great. 

ALEXIS  PETROVITCH,  the  eldest  son  of  Peter 
the  Great  and  of  Eudoxia  Lapukhin,  born  in 
Moscow,  Feb.  18,  1690,  died  July  7, 1718.  Sur 
rounded  from  childhood  by  the  relations  of  his 
mother,  he  was  the  centre  of  all  those  who 
were,  like  her,  averse  to  the  reforms  introduced 
by  his  father.  He  affected  a  fanatic  love  of 
old  Russian  customs  and  superstitions,  and  Pe 
ter  decided  to  exclude  him  from  the  throne. 
Alexis,  then  about  22  years  old,  seemingly  con 
sented  to  this  plan,  saying  it  was  his  wish  to 
become  a  monk.  lie  entered  a  monastery,  but 
still  kept  up  his  intercourse  with  the  malcon 
tents,  with  his  mother,  who  had  likewise  been 
shut  up  in  a  convent,  and  with  her  numerous 
dissatisfied  relations.  During  the  travels  of 
Peter  through  various  European  countries  in 
1717,  Alexis  announced  that  he  had  re 
ceived  the  order  of  his  father  to  join  him 
abroad.  He  thus  managed  to  escape  to  Vien 
na,  where  he  claimed  the  protection  of  the  Ger 
man  emperor,  and  thence  he  went  to  Naples. 
Peter  sent  after  the  fugitive  Rumiantzoff,  cap 
tain  of  the  guards,  and  Tolstoi,  the  privy  coun 
cillor,  who,  partly  by  coaxing,  partly  by  men 
aces,  succeeded  in  bringing  him  back  to  St. 
Petersburg.  On  Feb.  2,  1718,  Peter  disinherit 
ed  Alexis,  impeaching  him  and  many  of  his 
kindred  and  advisers  for  high  treason.  He 
was  found  guilty  by  the  great  council  of  the 
empire  and  condemned  to  death.  Peter  par 
doned  him,  but  he  died  July  7,  1718,  a  few  days 
after  the  condemnation,  some  say  from  fear 
and  excitement ;  but  the  more  general  belief  is, 
that  he  was  either  poisoned  or  secretly  be 
headed  by  the  order  of  his  father.  Peter  him 
self  published  the  proceedings  of  the  trial. 
Alexis,  when  very  young,  was  married  to  a 
princess  of  Wolfenbuttel,  who  died  in  1715, 
leaving  a  daughter,  and  a  son  who  reigned 
afterward  as  Peter  II. 

ALFANI,  the  name  of  two  Italian  painters, 
Dome-nico  di  Paris,  born  in  Perugia  about  1483, 


died  after  1540 ;  and  Orazio  di  Paris,  son  of 
the  former,  born  in  Perugia  in  1510,  died  in 
1583.  Their  pictures  have  often  been  con 
founded  with  each  other,  and  also  mistaken 
for  those  of  Raphael. 

ALFARABIIS,  an  Arabian  philosopher,  died 
about  950.  He  travelled,  acquired  the  knowl 
edge  of  a  large  number  of  languages,  and  settled 
at  Damascus,  where  he  was  joyfully  received 
by  the  Abbasside  caliph,  who  settled  a  pen 
sion  upon  him.  He  led  an  extremely  temper 
ate  life,  approaching  asceticism.  His  writings 
were  very  voluminous  and  comprehensive,  and 
he  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first  who  at 
tempted  the  compilation  of  an  encyclopaedia, 
the  MS.  of  which  is  in  the  Escurial. 

ALFIERI,  Yittorio,  count,  an  Italian  tragic 
poet,  born  at  Asti,  Piedmont,  Jan.  17,  1749, 
died  in  Florence,  Oct.  8,  1803.  lie  received  a 
very  imperfect  education  at  the  college  of 
nobles  in  Turin,  which  was  terminated  by  his 
entrance  at  the  age  of  1 7  into  the  army.  As 
his  regiment  was  a  provincial  one,  from  which 
only  a  few  days'  service  at  stated  annual  pe 
riods  was  required,  he  easily  obtained  the  roy 
al  assent  to  an  extended  leave  of  absence  for 
the  purpose  of  travel.  With  ample  wealth,  a 
restless  and  excitable  temperament,  and  a  keen 
appreciation  of  the  pleasures  of  life,  he  passed 
several  years  in  wandering  over  the  continent, 
and  in  1773  returned  to  Turin.  This  period  of 
travel  was  without  any  considerable  benefit  to 
him,  being  spent  in  a  great  measure  in  frivo 
lous  dissipation,  and  at  the  age  of  25  he  had 
given  no  hint  of  any  dramatic  talent  or  literary 
ability.  Chance  seems  to  have  led  him,  while 
watching  at  the  sick  bed  of  his  mistress,  to 
sketch  a  few  scenes  in  Italian  between  Antony 
and  Cleopatra.  Crude  as  these  necessarily 
were,  the  occupation  developed  his  latent  pow 
ers  and  gave  the  first  impulse  to  literary  com 
position.  It  awakened  in  him  also  the  desire 
to  lead  a  more  profitable  and  reputable  life. 
"Cleopatra"  was  gradually  finished,  and,  to 
gether  with  a  farce  called  "The  Poets,"  was  in 
1775  produced  with  considerable  success  on  the 
stage.  His  labors  on  these  pieces  having  re 
vealed  to  him  his  ignorance  of  the  structure  and 
resources  of  his  own  language,  at  the  age  of  27 
he  deliberately  set  about  educating  himself  in 
Italian.  A  year  or  two  of  study  in  the  society 
of  learned  men  sufficed  to  familiarize  him  with 
the  works  of  the  classic  writers  of  Italy,  an 
cient  and  modern,  and  in  1777  he  returned 
with  enthusiasm  to  his  dramatic  labors.  At 
this  time  he  met  the  beautiful  and  accom 
plished  countess  of  Albany,  the  ill-treated  wife 
of  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  pretender  to  the 
English  crown.  For  this  lady  he  conceived  an 
absorbing  passion,  and  the  desire  to  win  her 
approbation  stimulated  his  genius  to  higher  ef 
forts.  To  be  near  her  he  took  up  his  resi 
dence  in  Florence,  having  first  settled  the  bulk 
of  his  fortune  upon  his  sister,  while  reserving 
to  himself  an  annuity ;  and  during  the  next  few 
years  he  labored  with  an  energy  and  success 


ALFIERI 


ALFONSO 


295 


which  fairly  redeemed  the  lost  opportunities  of  j 
his  youth.     By  the  year  1782  he  had  produced  i 
14  dramas.     In  1785  he  followed  the  countess  j 
to  France,  and  upon  the  death  of  her  husband 
in  1788  is  believed  to  have  been  married  to  her 
in  that  country,  although  the  relation  was  never  \ 
publicly  acknowledged,  and  there  is  no  positive  j 
evidence  to  sustain  it.     lie  continued  to  reside  ; 
in  France,  and  was  engaged  in  superintending 
the  publication  of-  an  edition  of  his  works  in 
Paris  when  tho  French  revolution  reached  its  j 
first  alarming  crisis.      Compelled  to   flee   the  ; 
country,  with  the  loss  of  almost  everything  he  ; 
had  possessed  there,  he  returned  to  Florence,  ' 
where,  in  the  society  of  the  countess  of  Albany,  \ 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.     His  latter  : 
years  were  clouded  by  various  troubles,  but  he  i 
still  pursued  his  literary  labors.     He  wrote  sa 
tires,  panegyrics,  and  sonnets,  translated  Vir 
gil  and  Terence,  and  when  nearly  50  years  of  j 
age  began  the  study  of  Greek.     lie  died  of  an  j 
attack  of  gout,  tenderly  cared  for  to  the  last  by  ; 
the  countess  of  Albany,  who  caused  a  monu-  j 
ment,  sculptured  by  Canova.  to  be  erected  over 
his  remains  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce.     His  j 
dramatic  works  comprise  21  tragedies,  6  come-  i 
dies,  and  a  "tramelogedia,"  a  name  invented  I 
by  himself.      lie   also  produced    translations  I 
from  the  Greek  dramatists,  an  epic  poem  in  four  j 
books,  a  treatise  on  tyranny,  and  a  number  of  ! 
satires  and  lyrical  pieces,  including  five  odes  on 
the  American  revolution.     After  his  death  ap 
peared  his  Mixogallo,  a  collection  of  satirical 
pieces  in  prose  and  verse,  inspired  by  a  lively 
hatred   of  the   French   nation;    and  his  auto 
biography,  in  which  he  records  with    singu 
lar  frankness  the   story  of  his  life. — Alfieri's  I 
reputation   rests   almost  exclusively  upon  his  J 
tragedies.      Their  literary  rank  is  permanent.  I 
Remarkable  for  a  vigor  and  intensity  of  expres-  j 
sion  worthy  of  the  best  days  of  Italian  litera-  I 
ture,  their  classic  subjects  and  stern  outline,  j 
however  opposed  to  the  romantic  school,  have 
a  grand  and  solemn  charm.     Though  simple  to  ' 
meagreness  in  construction,  and  admitting  of 
little  by-play  or  scenic  effect,  they  are  said  to 
hold  an   Italian  audience  spell-bound  by  the 
nervousness  of  the  language  and  the  condensed  ! 
energy  and  passion  with  which  the  higher  pas 
sages   are   infused.     Saul^  Hirra,  Oreste,  and 
Filippo  are  considered  the  best.      To  Alfieri 
belongs  the  distinction  of  having  founded  the 
Italian  school  of  tragedy.     Avoiding  pedantic  | 
obedience  to  Greek  or  French  models,  he  em-  ' 
bodied  the  earnestness  of  the  one  and  the  mod 
ern  form  of  the  other  in  the  language  of  his 
country.    He  was  a  man  of  strong  likes  and  dis-  | 
likes  and  a  violent  temper,  but  candid,  inde-  j 
pendent,  and  generous  to  a  fault.     Two  marked  ! 
peculiarities  of  his  character  were  his  detesta-  i 
tion  of  the  French  and  his  fondness  for  horses. 
He  was  a  liberal  in  politics,  although  his  faith  in 
democracy  is  supposed  to  have  been  somewhat 
shaken  by  the  excesses  of  the  French  revolu 
tionists  ;  he  hated  kingcraft,  and  prized  his  own 
nobility  chiefly  that  he  was  free  to  abuse  it. 


Two  editions  of  Alfieri's  complete  works  have- 
been  published — 22  vols.  4to,  Pisa,  1808,  and 
22  vols.  8vo,  Padua,  1809-'  10.  The  best  edi 
tion  of  his  tragedies,  autobiography,  and  some 
of  his  minor  works,  is  contained  in  the  Milan 
collection  of  the  Italian  classics,  entitled  Opere 
scdte  (4  vols.  8vo,  1818). 

ALFONSO,  the  name  of  several  kings  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  also  written  ALOXSO,  ALONZO, 
ALPIIONSO,  and  in  Portuguese  AFFOXSO.  There 
were  five  in  Aragon,  six  in  Portugal,  and 
twelve  in  Leon  and  Castile.  The  kingdom  of 
Leon  is  generally  considered  to  have  commenc 
ed  with  Alfonso  I.,  the  Catholic,  who  was  elect 
ed  about  739  king  of  Asturia,  subsequently 
called  the  kingdom  of  Leon  and  Oviedo,  and 
died  in  757.  lie  carried  on  a  war  of  extermi 
nation  with  the  Moors. — Alfonso  II.,  the  Chaste, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  elected  king  in  791, 
died  in  842.  lie  is  famous  in  the  national  an 
nals  for  having  abolished  the  annual  tribute  of 
100  Christian  maidens  to  the  Moors.  In  his 
reign  lived  the  great  Bernardo  del  Carpio,  the 
hero  of  Spanish  romance. — Alfonso  III.,  the 
Great,  son  of  Ordono  L,  born  in  818,  king  in 
866,  died  in  912.  lie  extended  the  limits  of 
the  Christian  rule  to  the  Guadiana,  put  down 
a  rebellion  fomented  by  discontented  nobles  in 
favor  of  his  son  Garcia,  but  afterward  abdicated, 
and  won  a  victory  over  the  infidels  as  general 
of  his  son's  troops. — Alfonso  VI.,  the  Valiant, 
son  of  Ferdinand  L,  born  in  1030,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  Leon  in  1065,  and  died  in  1109. 
Under  the  preceding  reign  the  kingdoms  of 
Leon  and  Old  Castile  had  been  united,  and  af 
ter  much  internal  warfare  with  his  brothers, 
among  whom  the  father  had  parcelled  out  the 
kingdom,  Alfonso  made  himself  master  of  Leon, 
Old  Castile,  the  Asturias,  and  Galicia.  His 
successes  against  the  Moors  led  to  the  invasion 
of  the  peninsula  by  the  Almoravides  from  Af 
rica,  against  whom  Alfonso  furnished  assist 
ance  to  his  old  enemy  the  king  of  Seville, 
but  ineffectually.  Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Bivar, 
the  celebrated  Cid,  lived  in  this  reign.  Al 
fonso  VI.  died  without  heirs  male,  and  the 
united  crowns  fell  to  his  daughter  Urraca. 
She  married  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon,  who  in 
her  right  claimed  the  crown  of  Castile  and 
Leon.  The  marriage  was,  however,  dissolved 
on  account  of  Queen  Urraca's  misconduct. — 
Alfonso  VII.  or  VIII.  (see  ALFONSO  I.  of  Ar 
agon),  RAIMOXDEZ,  son  of  Queen  Urraca  and 
her  first  husband,  Count  Raymond  of  Bur 
gundy,  born  in  1105,  died  in  1157.  He  was 
proclaimed  king  of  Galicia  in  1109,  was  for 
some  time  at  war  with  his  mother,  and  suc 
ceeded  her  in  Leon  and  Castile  in  1126.  In 
1135  he  was  crowned  emperor  of  Spain,  though 
he  hardly  possessed  a  third  of  it,  and  did  not 
transmit  the  title.— Alfonso  X.,  the  Wise,  king 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  born  in  1226,  succeeded 
his  father  Ferdinand  III.  in  1252,  and  died  in 
1284.  He  compelled  the  king  of  Granac  a  to 
do  homage  to  the  crown  of  Castile,  and  to  pay 
a  considerable  °um  of  monev.  In  1256  Alfonso 


29G 


ALFONSO 


was  chosen  by  some  of  the  electors  emperor  of 
Germany,  while  Richard  of  Cornwall  was  sup 
ported  by  others ;  but  his  power  in  Germany 
remained  a  mere  shadow,  and  in  1273  Rudolph 
of  Hapsburg  put  an  end  to  the  interregnum. 
His  reign  \vas  disturbed  by  the  revolt  of  his 
brother  Philip  and  Alhamar,  king  of  Granada, 
an  invasion  by  the  king  of  Morocco,  and  a  civil 
war  caused  by  the  claim  of  his  second  son  San- 
cho  to  be  recognized  as  heir  to  the  throne. 
Sancho  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope  and 
the  kingdom  placed  under  an  interdict.  Alfon 
so  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age. 
He  laid  the  foundation  of  Spanish-  prose  by 
causing  a  translation  of  the  Bible  to  be  made 
into  that  language,  by  ordering  all  legal  pro 
ceedings  to  be  conducted  in  it,  and  by  the 
excellent  specimens  which  he  himself  gave  of  it 
in  his  writings.  He  is  also  distinguished  as  a 
poet  and  as  a  man  of  science.  He  is  best 
remembered,  however,  for  his  celebrated  body 
of  laws,  known  usually  as  Las  siete  Partidas 
("The  seven  Parts"),  but  named  by  its  author 
the  Setenario,  from  a  code  begun  by  his  father. 
The  materials  for  this  work  were  drawn  from 
the-  code  of  Justinian,  the  Visigothic  laws,  the 
local  institutions  of  different  parts  of  the  king 
dom,  and  other  sources.  Its  enforcement  was 
long  resisted  by  the  great  cities,  but  it  was  at 
last  in  1348  established  on  a  firm  footing,  and 
has  been  ever  since  the  basis  of  Spanish  com 
mon  law,  and  has  even,  by  the  admission  of 
Florida  and  Louisiana  into  the  United  States, 
been  introduced  into  the  legal  system  of  our 
own  country.  Another  important  work  of 
which  Alfonso  is  the  author  is  the  Cronica 
general  de  EspaM  ("  General  Chronicle  of 
Spain  ").  He  established  on  a  firm  basis  the 
university  of  Seville,  and  was  eminent  for  his 
astronomical  and  mathematical  attainments, 
and  for  his  researches  in  alchemy.  The  as 
tronomical  tables  which  bear  his  name,  and 
were  probably  constructed  by  Moorish  astron 
omers  invited  to  his  court  for  that  purpose, 
were  celebrated  for  a  long  time.  His  astro 
nomical  works  have  been  published  in  several 
volumes,  by  order  of  the  Spanish  government, 
edited  by  Manuel  Rico  y  Sinobas  (1864  ct  seg.}. 
ALFOASO  I.,  king  of  Aragon  and  Navarre, 
surnamed  el  Batallador  (the  battler),  son  of 
Sancho  V.,  succeeded  his  brother  Pedro  I.  in 
1104,  died  in  1134.  He  married  Urraca,  daugh 
ter  of  Alfonso  VI.  of  Leon  and  Castile,  and  in 
her  right  claimed  the  sovereignty  of  those 
states  also,  and  is  sometimes  counted  as  Al 
fonso  VII.  of  that  line.  The  first  years  of  his 
reign  were  distracted  by  violent  quarrels  and 
wars  with  his  wife,  whom  he  finally  divorced 
in  1114.  The  Moors  under  Ali  ben  Yusuf  in 
vaded  the  province  of  Toledo,  and  carried 
terror  to  the  gates  of  the  capital  of  Christian 
Spain ;  a  second  army  appeared  in  Portugal ; 
and  a  third  laid  siege  to  Barcelona.  Alfonso 
fought  an  indecisive  battle  with  these  last 
in  1111,  after  which  they  abandoned  Catalonia, 
Subsequently  he  directed  his  rnns  against  the 


I  invaders  in  other  quarters,  and  rescued  almost  all 
the  territory  S.  of  the  Ebro  from  Mohammedan 
!  domination.     He  took  Saragossa  (1118)  after  a. 
|  four  years'   series  of  operations,  and  made  it 
!  his  capital.     In  1125  he  invaded  Andalusia  at 
|  the  invitation  of  the  Mozarabes,  or  Christian 
I  inhabitants  of  that  country;   and  though  he 
|  failed  in  the  siege  of  Granada,  he  performed 
I  the  remarkable  feat  of  leading  an  army  through 
i  hostile  territory  from  Saragossa  to  the  Mediter 
ranean,  somewhere  between  Malaga  and  Al- 
meria,   and  back   again,  without  serious  loss. 
On  the  death  of  his  divorced  queen  he  made 
:  preparations  to  enforce  his  claims  in  Castile, 
|  but  was  persuaded  by  the  church  to  agree  to  a 
truce   and  renounce  the  title  of  emperor  of 
Spain,  which  he  had  assumed.     He  finally  un 
dertook  to  secure  the  free  navigation  of  the 
Ebro  by  reducing  the  Moorish  city  of  Tortosa 
near  its  mouth.     As  a  preliminary  to  this  en 
terprise  he  besieged  Fraga,  on  the  Ciuga,  an 
affluent  of  the  Ebro,  and  was  there  slain  in 
battle — the   only   engagement,    it   is  said,   in 
which  he  was  ever  vanquished. 

ALFONSO  V.  of  Aragon,  and  I.  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  surnamed  the  Magnanimous,  born  about 
1390,  died  June  27,  1458.  He  succeeded  his 
father  Ferdinand  I.  in  1416,  and  the  first  act 
of  his  reign  displayed  the  generosity  of  his 
character.  Having  received  a  list  of  nobles 
who  were  conspiring  to  dethrone  him,  he  tore 
the  paper  in  pieces  without  reading  it.  In  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  he  left  Spain  to  make 
good  his  claims  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  which  were 
then  partly  in  the  power  of  the  Genoese.  In 
the  war  which  followed  he  met  with  some 
success,  but  soon  relinquished  this  project  for 
more  dazzling  schemes  of  ambition.  Joanna, 
queen  of  Naples,  being  attacked  by  Louis  III., 
duke  of  Anjou,  sent  to  Alfonso,  offering  to 
make  him  duke  of  Calabria  and  heir  to  the 
throne  of  Naples  if  he  would  aid  her  against 
the  duke  of  Anjou.  Alfonso  eagerly  accept 
ed  this  proposition,  abandoned  Sardinia  and 
Corsica,  over  which  his  sovereignty  thenceforth 
amounted  to  but  little,  and,  sailing  to  Naples, 
obliged  the  duke  of  Anjou  to  raise  the  siege, 
and  make  a  peace  on  terms  advantageous  to 
the  queen.  But  Joanna  became  jealous  of  the 
power  of  her  new  ally,  and  open  war  broke 
out  between  them.  The  queen  summoned  to 
her  aid  Sforza  Attendolo,  the  general  of  the 
duke  of  Anjou,  who  defeated  Alfonso.  The 
latter  was  soon  enabled  by  the  arrival  of  fresh 
troops  from  Spain  to  make  himself  master  of 
the  city  of  Naples,  and  to  hold  his  enemies  in 
check.  But  his  presence  was  now  required  in 
Spain  to  protect  his  kingdom  of  Aragon,  then 
at  war  with  Castile.  Accordingly,  leaving  his 
brother  Don  Pedro  in  charge  of  his  affairs  in 
Italy,  he  sailed  for  Spain  in  1423.  On  his  way 
thither  he  made  a  descent  on  Marseilles,  then 
belonging  to  the  duke  of  Anjou,  captured  the 
city  without  difficulty,  but  neither  sacked  it 
nor  carried  away  from  it  any  booty,  with  the 


ALFONSO 


ALFORD 


exception  of  the  body  of  a  dead  saint,  Louis, 
formerly  bishop  of  Tonlouse.  Alfonso  passed 
about  eight  years  in  Spain,  and  then  again 
turned  his  attention  to  Italy.  Here  the  Span 
iards,  pressed  by  the  queen,  the  pope,  the 
dukes  of  Anjou  and  Milan,  and  the  Genoese, 
had  been  almost  overwhelmed.  Alfonso  ar 
rived,  in  1432,  and,  seeing  the  desperate  state 
of  affairs,  sailed  to  the  island  of  Jerba  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  which  he  conquered,  after 
gaining  a  victory  over  the  bey  of  Tunis,  to 
whom  the  island  belonged.  After  this  exploit 
he  returned  to  Italy,  where  he  engaged  in  ne 
gotiations  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  with 
Queen  Joanna,  and  in  intrigues  to  obtain  ad 
herents.  In  1435  the  queen  died,  bequeathing 
her  crown  to  Rene  of  Anjou,  count  of  Pro 
vence,  brother  and  successor  of  Louis  III.,  who 
had  died  some  time  before ;  and  Alfonso,  think 
ing  the  occasion  a  favorable  one  for  asserting 
his  claims,  renewed  the  war,  and  besieged  the 
city  of  Gaeta  by  sea  and  land.  But  in  a  naval 
battle  near  the  island  of  Ponza,  he  was  totally 
defeated  by  the  Genoese  and  the  duke  of  Milan, 
and  was  taken  prisoner  with  a  great  number 
of  his  followers ;  and  shortly  afterward  his  land 
forces  were  routed  and  dispersed  under  the 
walls  of  Gaeta.  Having  by  his  nobleness  of 
disposition  and  gallant  bearing  gained  the  affec 
tion  of  his  captor,  the  duke  of  Milan,  the  latter 
set  him  at  liberty  and  became  his  ally,  and  Al 
fonso  was  thus  enabled  to  resume  his  opera 
tions  under  better  auspices.  After  a  contest 
of  several  years  without  effecting  much,  he 
succeeded,  by  the  treachery  of  one  of  the  ad 
herents  of  Rene,  in  making  himself  master  of 
Naples  in  1442,  and  compelled  Rene  to  seek 
refuge  in  Provence.  Alfonso  was  soon  after 
recognized  as  king  of  Naples  by  the  assembled 
states  of  the  kingdom,  and  by  Pope  Eugenius 
IV.,  who  also  issued  a  bull  legitimatizing  Ferdi 
nand,  the  bastard  son  of  the  king.  From  this 
time  Alfonso  resided  in  Naples,  exerting  him 
self  to  improve  the  condition  of  that  kingdom, 
the  affairs  of  which,  during  the  reign  of  Jo 
anna  II.  and  the  disturbances  which  followed, 
had  fallen  into  much  disorder;  and,  though 
taking  part  in  some  Italian  wars  of  little  im 
portance,  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
comparative  quiet.  At  his  death  his  brother 
John  inherited  the  crowns  of  Aragon,  Sardinia, 
and  Sicily,  while  his  son  Ferdinand  received 
that  of  Naples. 

ALFONSO  I.,  the  first  king  of  Portugal,  son 
of  Henry  of  Burgundy,  count  of  Portugal,  died 
in  1185.  He  was  several  times  at  war  with 
the  kingdom  of  Castile  ;  but  on  the  establish 
ment  of  peace  he  turned  his  arms  against  the 
common  enemy,  the  Moors,  and  fought  a  battle 
in  1139,  on  the  plains  of  Ourique,  against  the 
Moorish  king  of  Badajoz  and  his  allies,  which 
completely  broke  the  Moslem  power  in  Portu 
gal.  After  this  victory  he  assumed  the  royal 
title.  In  1140  he  took  the  town  of  Santarem 
after  an  obstinate  defence,  and  put  to  the 
sword  every  living  soul;  and  the  following 


|  year  Portugal  was  free.  He  instituted  a  code 
!  of  laws,  still  known  as  the  laws  of  Alfonso. 
!  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sancho  I. 

ALFONSO  V.,  king  of  Portugal,  snrnamed  the 

African,    born   in  1432,    succeeded  his  father 

Duarte  in  1438,  died  at  Cintra,  Aug.  28,  1481. 

During  his  minority  the  regency  was  held  tirst 

|  by  his  mother  and  afterward  by  his  uncle  Dom 

Pedro,  whose  daughter  the  young  king  married 

1  on  coming  of  age.    A  few  years  later  Dom  Pe- 

dro  was  declared  a  rebel  and  killed  in  battle, 

I  but  Alfonso  soon  became  convinced  of  his  loy- 

!  alty,   paid  great  honors  to  his  memory,   and 

|  punished  those  who  had  traduced  him.     Dur- 

|  ing  his  reign  the  Portuguese  discovered  and 

colonized  Guinea.     In  answer  to  the  call  of 

\  Pope  Calixtus  III.  for  a  general  crusade  against 

j  the  Moslems,  he  equipped  a  fleet  of  250  vessels 

j  for  an  expedition  to  Africa,  and  in  1458  landed 

I  near  Tangier  with  20,000  men.     It  was  not 

!  until  13  years  later  that  he  found  himself,  after 

|  severe  campaigns,  master  of  Tangier  and  seve- 

|  ral  other  cities,  his  conquests  surpassing  in  im- 

|  portance  those  of  any  other  Portuguese  mon- 

I  arch  in   Africa.      Having   been   affianced    to 

I  Joanna  of  Castile  (his  wife  being  dead),  he  pro- 

;  claimed  himself  king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  but 

s  was  defeated  at  Toro  in  1476  by  Ferdinand  the 

Catholic,    and    driven  to    seek    assistance   in 

France.     There  Louis  XL  treacherously  held 

him  prisoner  till  1479,  when  he  made  peace 

with  Ferdinand,  and  renounced  his   Spanish 

pretensions.     Joanna  took  the  veil  in  1480,  and 

Alfonso  was  about  to  enter  a  monastery  when 

he  died  of  the  plague.     He  founded  at  Coim- 

bra  the  first  library  in  Portugal.     For  his  zeal 

|  in  ransoming  Christian  slaves  he  was  called 

"the  redeemer  of  captives.1' 

ALFORD,  Henry,  an  English  author  and  cler 
gyman,  born  in  London  in  1810,  died  Jan.  12, 
1871.     He  was  educated  at  Ilminster,  and  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge.    In  1833  he  was  ap 
pointed  curate  of  Ampton,  Suffolk,  and  soon  af- 
!  terward  vicar  of  TTymeswold,  Leicestershire, 
I  where  he  spent  18  years.   He  was  a  fellow  of  his 
I  college,  and  from  1841  to  1857  was  examiner  of 
|  logic  and  moral  philosophy  in  the  university 
I  of  London.     During  the  years  1841  and  1842 
I  he  was  also  Hulsean  lecturer  at  Cambridge. 
On  leaving  Leicestershire  he  became  minister 
of  Quebec  street  chapel  (1853),  where  he  was 
distinguished   as   an    eloquent  preacher.      In 
j  1857,  upon  the  death  of  Dean  Lyall,  Lord  Pal- 
I  merston  appointed  him  dean  of  Canterbury. 
He  wrote  poetry  in  the  early  part  of  his  life, 
publishing  among  other  volumes  "The  School 
of  the  Heart  and  other  Poems  "  (Cambridge, 
1835),   of  which   several   editions   have  since 
appeared.      Didactic   and   defective   in   form, 
many  of  his  .poems  are  nevertheless  regarded 
as  gems  of  exquisite  thought  and  religious  feel- 
j  ing.     Amon^his  other  works  are  his  "Plea  for 
the   Queen's   English"  (18!>G),  and   "Plow  to 
|  Study  the  New  Testament  "  (1807).     But  he 
j  will  be  best  remembered  by  his  edition  of  the 
!  Greek  Testament  with  English  notes,  referen- 


298 


ALFOET 


ALG.E 


ces,  critical  commentary,  &c.  (5  vols.,  1841 
-'61  ;  new  aud  abridged  edition  by  B.  H.  Al- 
ford,  1869);  and  by  ''The  New  Testament  for 
English  Readers,"  consisting  of  the  authorized 
version,  with  notes,  marginal  references,  and 
commentary  (4  vols.  8vo,  revised  ed.,  1867). 

ALFORT,  a  village  of  France,  department  of 
Seine,  5  m.  S.  E.  of  Paris,  on  the  Marne,  op 
posite  Charenton,  forming  with  the  village  of 
Maisons  the  commune  of  Maisons-Alfort ;  pop. 
2,500.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  famous  national  veteri 
nary  school  established  by  Bourgelat  ki  1766, 
having  courses  of  instruction  in  anatomy,  bot 
any,  pharmacy,  and  the  diseases  and  training 
of  animals,  a  library  of  zoological  works,  lab 
oratories,  a  pharmacy,  a  botanic  garden,  rich 
cabinets  of  specimens,  a  collection  of  living  ani 
mals,  and  a  sheepfold  in  which  merino  sheep 
are  raised  for  the  improvement  of  breeds.  A 
certain  number  of  scholars  are  admitted  at  the 
national  expense,  and  others  pay  their  own  fees. 
The  course  of  study  lasts  eight  years. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT,  king  of  the  West  Sax 
ons,  born  at  Wantage  in  Berkshire  in  849,  died 
probably  in  901  (Oct.  26  or  28).  He  was  the 
fifth  and  youngest  son  of  Ethelwolf,  king  of  the 
West  Saxons,  and  seems  to  have  been  his  fa 
vorite  child,  lie  was  sent  in  his  fifth  year  to 
Rome,  where  Leo  IV.  (according  to  the  Saxon 
chronicles)  "  consecrated  him  king."  However, 
the  throne  was  first  occupied  by  three  of  his 
brothers  in  succession.  In  the  reign  of  Ethel- 
red,  the  last  of  them,  an  unusually  formidable 
invasion  of  the  Danes  occurred,  and  Ethelred 
was  slain  (871).  Alfred,  who  had  been  his 
brother's  most  efficient  general,  was  thereupon, 
at  the  age  of  22,  declared  king  by  the  earls  and 
chiefs,  with  the  consent  of  the  whole  nation. 
He  succeeded  in  making  a  temporary  peace 
with  the  invaders,  which  left  them  free  to  over 
run  the  other  provinces  of  the  island.  This 
truce  lasted  till  876.  Alfred,  meanwhile.,  find 
ing  it  impossible  to  raise  an  army  able  to  cope 
with  them  in  the  field,  fitted  out  a  naval  force, 
with  which  on  the  commencement  of  hostili 
ties  he  worsted  them  in  several  engagements, 
and  in  the  spring  of  877,  according  to  Asser, 
drove  120  Danish  ships  on  shore,  causing  the 
destruction  of  all  on  board.  The  next  January 
they  invaded  the  kingdom  in  greater  numbers 
than  ever.  The  king,  with  a  few  followers, 
sought  safety  in  the  woods  and  among  the 
hills,  and  for  a  few  months  found  shelter  in  the 
hut  of  a  cowherd  at  Athelney,  a  secluded  spot 
surrounded  by  marshes  and  accessible  only  by 
a  single  bridge.  Here  after  a  while  he  was 
joined  by  a  band  of  fighting  men,  and,  fortify 
ing  his  position,  made  occasional  inroads  upon 
the  possessions  of  the  enemy.  In  May,  878, 
having  been  joined  by  an  armed  body  of  his 
subjects,  he  attacked  the  main  army  of  Danes 
at  Eddington,  and  routed  them  with  great 
slaughter.  It  was  on  the  day  before  this  bat 
tle  that  he  is  said  to  have  entered  the  enemy's 
camp  disguised  as  a  harper.  The  defeated 
king  Godrun  or  Guthrun  and  his  followers 


were  made  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  re 
ceived  the  modern  counties  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk, 
and  Cambridge  as  a  place  of  residence.  They 
became  the  subjects  of  Alfred,  who  in  the 
course  of  six  years  seems  to  have  made  himself 
the  virtual  ruler  of  all  England,  though  never 
formally  recognized  as  such.  His  conduct  be 
fore  his  misfortunes  seems  to  have  been  haugh 
ty  and  selfish ;  but  after  his  restoration  his  rule 
was  wise  and  beneficent.  The  few  years  of 
tranquillity  from  886  to  893  were  employed  by 
him  in  restoring  the  cities  and  fortresses  which 
had  been  destroyed  during  the  war,  improving 
the  navy,  of  which  he  is  esteemed  the  founder, 
systematizing  the  laws,  and  in  literary  labors. 
The  last  invasion  of  the  Northmen  in  his  reign 
took  place  in  894,  under  a  leader  named  Hast 
ings,  and  after  a  struggle  which  lasted  three 
years,  of  which  every  part  of  the  country  was 
in  turn  the  theatre,  they  were  once  more  driven 
out.  He  established  an  elaborate  system  of  coast 
defences,  erecting  some  50  fortresses  at  various 
points,  and  regulated  the  military  service  so  as 
|  to  keep  only  one  half  the  population  capable 
of  bearing  arms  in  the  field  at  a  time,  leaving 
the  remainder  to  cultivate  the  soil.  It  is  prob 
able  that  the  code  of  laws  which  bears  his 
name  is  chiefly  compiled  from  the  enactments 
of  his  predecessors.  He  made  great  improve 
ments  in  the  administration  of  justice,  caused 
the  rights  of  property  to  be  respected,  and 
made  great  efforts  for  the  advancement  of  lit 
erature  and  education.  Although  he  is  said  to, 
have  been  12  years  of  age  before  he  was  taught 
the  alphabet,  he  afterward  became  possessed 
of  extraordinary  learning.  He  invited  literary 
men  to  his  court  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and 
although  the  prevailing  tradition  that  he  found 
ed  the  university  of  Oxford  is  doubtful,  he  cer 
tainly  did  much  for  the  improvement  of  the 
monastic  school  which  had  previously  existed 
in  that  place.  He  made  numerous  translations 
from  the  Latin  of  works  which  he  considered 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  his  countrymen,  among 
which  are  the  Liber  Pastoralis  CUTCK  of  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great,  Boethius's  De  Consolatione 
Philosophic!?,  and  Bede's  "  History  of  England." 
He  married  Elswith,  the  daughter  of  a  Mercian 
nobleman,  by  whom  he  is  said  to  have  had  four 
sons.  His  disposition  was  gentle  and  amiable, 
and  his  bearing  frank  and  afl'able  toward  all. 
He  was  merciful  and  forgiving  toward  his  ene 
mies.  His  health  was  never  good;  in  his 
!  youth  he  suffered  from  piles ;  and  at  the  age 
|  of  20  he  was  attacked  by  an  undetermined 
|  internal  disease  causing  terrible  pangs,  which 
|  he  bore  with  stoical  serenity,  never  suffering 
his  labors  to  be  interrupted. 

ALGJS,  a  large  family  of  cellular  flowerless 

1  plants,  in  which  there  is  a  complete  series  of 

forms,  from  plants  of  merely  one  or  two  cells 

I  to  most  complicated  and  extensive  growths,  as 

seen  in  many  seaweeds.     Algae    live   for   the 

most  part   entirely   in  water,    fresh,    salt,    or 

brackish,  and  take  their  food  b;y  their  whole 

surface  from  the  medium  in  which  they  grow. 


ALG.E 


299 


A  convenient  classification  divides  them  into  j 
five  orders,  diatomacece,  confervacem,  fucacea,  \ 
ceramiacece,  and  characece. — The  diatoms  are  | 


Laurencia  pinnatiflda. 


Laminaria  digitata. 


microscopic  bodies,  having  a  spontaneous  move 
ment  through  the  water  in  which  they  live, 
and  silicious  skeletons  or  frames,  often  of  won 
derful  beauty,  which  accumulate  in  vast  depos 
its  at  the  bottom  of  ponds.  (See  DIATOMACE.E.) 
— The  confervas  are  plants  of  simple  cells  or 
series  of  cells,  commonly  found  in  fresh  water, 
but  also  in  salt,  growing  with  great  rapidity, 
and  forming  a  green,  red,  or  violet  scum  on 
water,  or  stain  on  snow  or  moist  stones.  The 
red  snow  (protococcus  niralis)  consists  of  a 
single  cell,  which  subdivides  into  other  cells 
forming  new  individuals,  so  that  in  a  few  hours 
a  large  extent  of  snow  may  be  covered  by  this 
plant,  which  is  only  visible  by  its  conglomera 
tion.  A  similar  plant  often  colors  many  square 
miles  of  the  sea,  and,  according  to  some,  has 
given  the  Red  sea  its  name.  Many  fresh-water 
confervas  appear  in  early  spring,  and  when 
examined  by  the  microscope  are  shown  to  be 
delicate  threads  composed  of  a  single  line  of 
transparent  cells  of  varied  shapes,  containing 
several  forms  of  greenish  nuclei ;  these  are  the 
reproductive  particles  which  are  to  form  the 
spores.  The  star  jelly  (nostoc)  springs  up  sud 
denly  after  a  rain  as  a  greenish  trembling  jelly. 
Lavers  (porphyra  and  uha)  are  stewed  and 
eaten  in  Europe,  and  the  ulva  compressa  by 
the  Hawaiian  Islanders.  Several  confervas 
have  been  found  growing  in  hot  springs  of  an 
elevated  temperature  ;  as  at  the  geysers  in  Cal 
ifornia,  in  a  spring  of  a  temperature  of  120°  F. 
(W.  T.  Brigham). — The  fucacece  or  seaweeds, 
when  found  in  fresh  water,  much  resemble 
confervas,  but  are  distinguished  from  all  other 
algse  by  the  position  of  the-  spores  in  cells  or 
receptacles  sunk  in  the  substance  of  the  plant 
and  opening  at  the  surface  by  a  small  pore. 
The  sea  aprons  (lominarid)  have  broad  flat 
tened  fronds  attached  to  a  cylindrical  stem, 
which  holds  the  plant  during  growth  fastened 
to  rocky  bottoms ;  when  torn  off  by  waves, 
they  are  found  floating,  and  sometimes  of  a 
length  of  several  hundred  feet.  The  lamina- 
rid  saccharina  is  eaten  in  Japan,  and  the  lami- 
naria  digitata  (called  "  tangle  ")  in  Scotland. 


Bory  de  St.  Vincent  describes  an  alga  of  this 
family  which  attains  a  length  of  25  or  30  feet, 
and  the  trunk  is  often  as  thick  as  a  man's 
thigh.  The  sargassum  or  gulf  weed  forms  im 
mense  beds  in  the  Atlantic,  covering  40,000 
square  miles.  The  bladder-weed  (fucus  vesi- 
culosus)  is  common  on  rocky  coasts  in  temper 
ate  regions,  and  is  easily  recognized  by  its 
olive-green,  strap-shaped,  branching  divisions, 
bearing  at  small  intervals  air  bladders  by 
means  of  which  its  free  end  floats  in  the  rising 
tide.  This  fucus  is  used  for  manure,  and  also 
for  the  manufacture  of  kelp,  and,  with  other 
algse,  as  a  source  of  iodine.  A  nutritious  gela 
tine  is  secreted  by  many  of  the  fuci,  and  they 
are  eaten  by  swine  or  other  animals  in  times 
of  scarcity,  and  even  by  man.  Perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  fucus  is  the  liydrogastrum, 
described  by  Endlicher  as  a  branching  plant, 
imitating  the  root,  stem,  bud,  and  fruit  of  the 
higher  plants,  but  all  composed  of  a  single 
branching  cell. — The  fourth  order,  or  cerami- 
acece  (rose  tangles),  comprises  seaweeds  of  a 
rose  or  purplish  color,  seldom  olive  or  violet ; 
the  spores  are  grouped  in  fours  or  threes.  The 
order  is  distinguished  also  for  the  amount  of 
gelatine  many  of  its  species  contain,  rendering 
them  most  useful  among  seaweeds.  Carra 
geen  moss  (chondrus  crispus)  is  used  in  place 

^iMw5jL 


Chondrus  crispus. 


Fucus   yesiculosus. 


of  Iceland  moss  (a  lichen,  cetraria  Islandicd), 
and  its  bitter  flavor  is  partly  removed  by  steep 
ing  in  fresh  water  for  some  time  before  boil 
ing  ;  it  then  takes  the  place  of  isinglass  in  pre 
paring  jellies  and  blanc-mange.  Dulse  (iridcea 
edulis)  is  a  thin  purplish  seaweed,  which  i* 
eaten,  as  well  as  another  alga,  rhodomcnia 
palmata,  by  the  Scotch  and  Irish,  who  call  it 
dillesk,  and  the  Icelanders,  who  name  it  sugar 
seaweed  ;  within  a  few  years  it  has  become 
an  article  of  food  among  the  foreign  popula 
tion  of  Boston,  and  is  sold  in  the  streets.  The 
East  Indian  swallows  are  said  to  construct  the 
edible  birds'  nests  from  the  gclidium,  a  genus 
of  this  order.  The  plocaria  tenax  (glceopeltis) 
furnishes  so  much  good  gelatine  that  it  is  an 
important  article  of  commerce  among  the  Chi 
nese,  many  tons  being  annually  imported  at 
Canton  for  the  preparation  of  glue  and  varnish 
for  lanterns,  windows,  and  paper  umbrellas, 


300 


ALGAROTTI 


also  to  give  a  gloss  to  silks  and  to  size  paper ; 
windows  are  frequently  made  of  strips  of  bam 
boo  coated  with  this  glue.  As  objects  of  beauty 
this  order  affords  many  fine  species,  as  the  lau- 
rencla  pmnatifida,  shown  in  the  first  cut. — The 
characeoR  are  aquatic  plants  of  a  more  obscure 
organization  than  any  of  the  previous  orders ; 
they  usually  exhale  a  fetid  odor,  supposed  to 
be  unwholesome,  and  are  curious  as  exhibiting 
under  the  microscope  a  circulation  in  their 
transparent  stems  and  branches. — Reproduc 
tion  of  the,  algcv.  There  are  four  principal 
ways  in  which  algos  may  produce  new  individ 
uals.  1.  A  direct  action  is  exercised  by  forma 
tions  playing  the  part  of  male  organs  upon  a 
minute  mass  of  protoplasm,  which  before  this 
action  has  no  coating  of  cellulose,  but  now  ac 
quires  this  and  becomes  a  spore.  This  male 
organ  is  analogous  to  the  anther  of  flowering 
plants,  and  is  hence  called  antheridium;  but 
while  the  anther  produces  pollen,  the  antheri 
dium  gives  birth  to  little  bodies  of  a  very  dif 
ferent  nature,  which  have  the  power  of  loco 
motion  by  means  of  vibratile  cilia?  and  closely 
resemble  animalcules  ;  these  are  called  anther- 
ozoids.  An  example  of  this  method  is  seen  in 
vaucheria,  an  alga  consisting  of  green,  one- 
celled  filaments,  common  in  ditches.  The  an 
theridium  develops  from  the  side  of  one  of 
these  filaments  as  a  horn-like  projection,  and  is 
soon  followed  by  a  similar  excrescence  in  its 
immediate  neighborhood  called  the  sporangi 
um  ;  these  are  at  first  continuous  with  the  tube 
on  which  they  grow,  but  finally  form  a  parti 
tion  completely  separating  their  contents  from 
the  parent  plant.  The  antheridium  then  opens, 
discharging  the  antherozoids,  which  move  at 
once  toward  the  opening  end  of  the  sporangi 
um,  and  are  met  by  a  layer  of  mucilage,  into 
which  they  thrust  themselves  and  then  retire, 
repeating  this  curious  action  for  half  an  hour, 
until  a  thin  membrane  appears  across  the  open 
ing,  due  doubtless  to  the  penetration  of  an  an- 
therozoid  ;  and  then  the  others  move  more  and 
more  slowly,  and  at  last  become  quite  still. 
The  fecundated  sporangium  when  grown  de 
taches  itself  from  the  plant  as  a  cell  filled  with 
brownish  particles.  After  three  months  it  re 
covers  its  green  color  and  elongates  into  a  tubu 
lar  filament  of  the  perfect  alga.  2.  The  same 
vaucheria  often  shows  the  extremity  of  its 
filament  swollen  into  a  club  shape,  and  the 
green  matter  is  condensed  there  until  it  as 
sumes  a  blackish  tint  and  becomes  enclosed  in 
its  own  membrane.  The  end  of  the  filament 
bursts  and  permits  the  escape  of  a  zoospore, 
which  is  covered  with  vibratile  cilia  having  so 
rapid  a  motion  that  to  make  them  visible  it  is 
necessary  to  retard  the  motion  by  opium,  or 
arrest  it  entirely  by  a  very  weak  solution  of 
iodine.  The  zoospores,  produced  apparently 
without  the  intervention  of  sexes,  move 
through  the  water  for  some  time,  and  when 
the  cilia  cease  to  vibrate  soon  germinate.  3. 
The  ordinary  fucus  presents  in  its  substance 
cavities  or  conceptacles  opening  when  mature 


by  small  pores,  through  which  escape,  in  the 
female  plants,  the  sporangia,  which  contain 
eight  spores  in  a  membrane  which  soon  dis 
solves,  setting  free  in  the  water  the  spores,  and 
in  the  male  plants  the  antheridia,  which  also 
burst  and  discharge  antherozoids,  which  are 
small  bodies  with  two -long  cilia.  The  anthero 
zoids  meet  the  spores,  which  seem  simply  mu 
cilaginous  globules,  and  attaching  themselves 
impart  to  the  spores  a  rapid  rotary  motion, 
lasting  usually  six  or  eight  minutes.  The  spore 
immediately  becomes  covered  with  a  mem 
brane,  and  is  ready  to  germinate  as  a  new 
fucus.  4.  Reproduction  by  conjugation  is  seen 
in  the  fresh-water  alga  spirogyra,  which  is 
common  in  stagnant  water  in  the  early  spring. 
The  slender  filaments  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  divided  into  cells  by  transverse  partitions, 
and  these  cells  contain  gelatinous  endochrome. 
Two  adjacent  filaments  conjugate  on  contact, 
two  cells  swelling  toward  each  other  and  final 
ly  uniting,  when  the  contents  of  one  are  trans 
ferred  to  the  other,  and  the  communication  is 
closed  and  the  full  cell  develops  a  spore.  The 
spores  arc  formed  sometimes  in  one  filament, 
sometimes  in  the  other,  and  when  mature 
break  away  the  cells  and  elongate  into  new 
spirogyras.  This  process  may  be  seen  with  a 
microscope  of  low  power,  and  so  short  is  the 
time  occupied  that  it  may  be  easily  followed 
from  beginning  to  end.— Like  higher  plants, 
algra  absorb  carbonic  acid  and  exhale  oxygen 
in  sunlight,  although  they  are  not  so  dependent 
on  the  sun  for  their  bright  colors,  these  exist 
ing  at  depths  where  the  light  would  be  less 
than  half  a  candle.  Professor  Harvey  has 
adopted  a  classification  from  the  color  of  the 
spores,  which  is  often  used  as  exceedingly  con 
venient,  into  chlorosperms,  with  green  spores 
and  usually  with  a  greenish  color  over  all  the 
plant ;  rhodosperms,  with  rose-colored  spores ; 
melanospores,  with  olive-brown  spores.  From 
the  motive  powers  of  the  zoospores  of  algae,  it 
is  not  strange  that  the  early  microscopists 
should  have  confounded  the  animal  and  vege 
table  kingdoms,  which  come  so  close  together 
in  the  spores  of  algre  and  the  lowest  of  animals. 

ALGAIIDI,  Alessandro,  an  Italian  sculptor,  born 
in  Bologna  about  the  year  1600,  died  in  1G54. 
Domenichino  obtained  employment  for  him  at 
Rome.  By  a  statue  of  St.  Philip  Neri  in  the 
sacristy  of  the  Oratorian  church  in  that  city, 
and  a  colossal  group  representing  the  decapi 
tation  of  St.  Paul  in  the  church  of  the  Barna- 
bites  at  Bologna,  he  achieved  a  reputation  as 
the  first  sculptor  of  his  time.  lie  was  chosen 
to  execute  the  bronze  statue  of  Innocent  X., 
erected  to  commemorate  the  completion  of  the 
capitol  at  Rome.  He  produced  the  monument 
of  Leo  XL  in  St.  Peter's;  and  for  one  of  the 
altars  in  the  same  church  he  made  the  largest 
basso-rilievo  in  the  world — a  work  in  marble 
representing  Attila  checked  by  St.  Leo. 

ALGAROTTI,  Francesco,  an  "Italian  scholar, 
born  in  Venice,  Dec.  11,  1712,  died  in  Leg 
horn,  March  3,  1764,  After  studying  in  Rome 


ALGAROVILLA 


ALGEBRA 


and  Bologna,  he  visited  France  and  England, 
and  in  Paris  wrote  "  New tonianism  for  Ladies  " 
(Neutonianismo  per  le  dame,  1734).  He  then 
went  to  Russia  with  Lord  Baltimore,  and  pub 
lished  an  account  of  the  country,  and  in  Ger 
many  became  acquainted  with  Frederick,  then 
crown  prince  of  Prussia,  one  of  whose  first 
acts  on  coming  to  the  throne  was  to  invite 
Algarotti  to  his  court.  Henceforth  the  Italian 
lived  in  close  intercourse  with  the  king.  He 
was  created  a  count,  appointed  chamberlain, 
employed  occasionally  in  diplomatic  affairs, 
and  commissioned  by  the  elector  of  Saxony  to 
collect  works  of  art  for  the  Dresden  gallery. 

ALGAROYILLA,  an  astringent  substance,  pro 
duced  by  the  tree  juga  Martha,  an  acacia, 
found  at  Santa  Marta  in  Xew  Granada.  The 
portions  taken  to  England,  and  examined  by 
Dr.  Ure,  were  pods  bruised  and  agglutinated 
with  the  extractive  exudation  of  the  seeds  and 
husks.  It  is  replete  with  tannin,  and  for  tan 
ning  leather  possesses  more  than  four  times  the 
strength  of  good  oak  bark.  It  is  also  well 
adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  black  ink,  for  a 
yellow  dye,  and  for  an  astringent  medicine. 

ALGARYE,  the  southernmost  province  of  Por 
tugal,  bounded  by  Alemtejo,  Spain,  and  the  At 
lantic;  area,  1,872  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1868,  177,- 
342.  It  is  watered  by  several  small  rivers  and 
by  the  Guadiana,  which  divides  it  from  Spain. 
A  considerable  mountain  range  in  the  north 
forms  a  watershed  between  it  and  Alemtejo. 
The  S.  W.  part  of  the  province  is  mountainous 
and  rocky,  and  of  wild  and  dreary  aspect.  The 
plains  and  valleys  produce  fruits  in  abundance, 
among  them  dates,  figs,  almonds,  and  oranges, 
which,  with  wines  and  fish,  form  the  chief  ex 
ports.  The  principal  towns  are  Faro,  the  cap 
ital,  Tavira,  and  Lagos,  all  on  the  S.  coast, 
which  ends  in  Cape  St.  Vincent,  the  S.  W.  ex 
tremity  of  Europe. — Algarve  originally  ex 
tended  over  much  of  S.  Spain,  and  also  in 
cluded  a  portion  of  N.  "W.  Africa,  where  the 
name  is  still  retained  by  a  province  of  Morocco 
(El  Gharlie,  the  western  land).  It  constituted 
a  Moorish  kingdom  till  the  13th  century,  when 
it  was  gradually  conquered,  and  the  part  W.  of 
the  Guadiana  finally  annexed  to  Portugal  as 
Algarve  d'aquem  Mar  (this  side  the  sea)  in 
1253.  The  African  portion  was  conquered  by 
Alfonso  V.  and  formed  into  the  province  of  Al 
garve  d'alem  Mar  (beyond  the  sea)  in  1471 ; 
and  his  successors  are  still  called  kings  of  Por 
tugal  and  the  Algarves. 

ALGAZZALI,  Aba  Hamed  Mohammed,  a  Moslem 
philosopher,  born  at  Tus,  P.ersia,  about  1058, 
died  in  1111.  His  father  was  a  dealer  in  cot 
ton  thread  (yazzal,  whence  the  name  Algazzali), 
and  on  his  death  the  son  was  intrusted  to  the 
care  of  a  sufi,  or  mystical  philosopher.  He  be 
came  a  professor  of  theology  at  Bagdad,  and 
attracted  hundreds  to  his  lectures.  Anxious 
to  attain  to  the  purest  state  of  which  man  is 
capable,  he  found  that  for  this  purpose  the  soul 
must  be  purified  from  all  connection  with 
earth.  Accordingly  he  distributed  his  wealth, 


and  sought  in  Syria,  in  solitary  communion  with 
himself,  to  attain  that  ecstatic  state  for  which  he 
longed.  He  spent  some  time  in  this  manner,  and 
in  travelling,  settling  at  last  at  Nishapoor,  and 
there  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days,  some 
times,  as  he  says,  experiencing  the  highest  bliss 
of  the  ecstatic  state,  but  only  occasionally,  and 
for  a  short  time.  lie  was  a  very  prolific 
writer,  but  his  works  were  not  all  considered 
entirely  orthodox  by  the  Mohammedans,  and 
one  of  them  was  condemned  to  be  burned  on 
account  of  some  strictures  on  the  Mohamme 
dan  law.  One  of  his  works  attained  so  high 
a  reputation  among  the  Moslems,  that  they 
sometimes  said,  if  all  Islam  were  destroyed,  it 
would  be  but  a  slight  loss  provided  Algazzali's 
work  on  the  "Revivification  of  the  Sciences  of 
Religion "  were  preserved.  (See  Lewes's 
"Biographical  History  of  Philosophy.") 

ALGEBRA  (Arab.  al-ja1>ei\  the  science  of  so 
lution),  originally,  a  kind  of  higher  arithmetic 
in  which  the  numbers  are  replaced  by  symbols ; 
but  by  later  applications  the  symbols  are  used 
as  well  for  geometrical  quantities  in  space,  or 
in  mechanics  for  velocities,  distances,  and  times, 
so  that  at  present  algebra  occupies  itself  with 
quantities  in  general,  whatever  be  their  nature. 
The  oldest  work  on  this  science  is  that  of  Dio- 
phantus  of  Alexandria,  a  Greek  writer,  who 
possibly  flourished  as  early  as  the  4th  century, 
of  which  the  six  books  that  have  come  down  to 
us  do  not  contain,  the  elements,  but  the  theory 
of  the  evolution  of  powers,  and  the  method  of 
solving  undetermined  problems.  Many  prob 
lems  of  this  kind  were  by  the  ancients  consid 
ered  determined,  as  they  threw  out  all  solu 
tions  in  irrational  quantities.  The  Brahmins 
of  Hindostan  also  had  a  knowledge  of  algebra, 
as  well  as  the  Arabs ;  but  to  whom  belongs  the 
priority  of  the  invention  it  is  at  present  impos 
sible  to  determine.  It  is  only  known  that  this 
science  was  introduced  into  Christian  Europe 
by  the  Moors  of  Spain,  a  little  before  the  year 
1100.  For  the  first  three  centuries  after  its 
introduction  it  was  chiefly  studied  in  Italy,  and 
Lucas  Paciolus  de  Burgo  (Luca  di  Borgo)  was 
the  first  European  writer  on  the  subject.  His 
principal  work,  Summa  Ariihmetica  et  Geo- 
metrica,  was  published  in  Venice  in  1494,  and 
republished  in  1523.  He  mentions  a  Pisan 
merchant,  Leonardo  Bonaccio,  who  lived  in 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  and  learned 
algebra  in  travelling  among  the  Arabs  along 
the  coast  of  Africa  and  in  the  Levant.  Some 
historians  give  to  him  the  honor  of  having  in 
troduced  this  science  in  Europe,  while  others, 
among  them  Montucla,  the  great  historian  of 
mathematics,  mention  Paolo  de  1'Abacco  and 
Belmondo  of  Padua,  who  preceded  Bonaccio. 
From  the  works  of  Luca  di  Borgo  it  appears 
that  in  1500  the  science  did  not  go  beyond 
equations  of  the  second  degree,  the  negative 
solutions  were  rejected,  and  the  symbols  con 
sisted  chiefly  of  abbreviations  of  words.  Great 
advance  was  made  by  Jerome  Cardan,  who  in 
1545  published  his  Ars  Magna^  in  which  he 


302 


ALGEBRA 


ALGERIA 


gave  the  solution  of  equations  of  the  third  de-  ' 
gree,  by  an  operation  which  is  still  known  among  ! 
all  mathematicians  as  the  formula  of  Cardan ;  | 
those  of  the  fourth  degree  were  solved  by  his  [ 
pupil  Ludovico  Ferrari,  and  published  in  the  j 
Ars  Magna,  in  which  also  he  makes  the  distinc 
tion  between  positive,  negative,  and  irrational  I 
solutions.  At  the  same  time  Stifelius  in  Germany  \ 
invented  the  signs  -f ,  — ,  and  ^/,  which  did  so  : 
much  to  simplify  the  formulas  ;  he  published 
his  Arithmetica  Integra  in  Nuremberg  in  1544. 
In  1552  Robert  Record e  published  in  England 
"The  Whetstone  of  Witte,"  in  which  for  the 
first  time   the  sign  of  equality  (=)  is  intro-  j 
duced.     From  that  time  not  much  progress  was  j 
made  till  Vieta  in  France  perfected  the  alge 
braic  operations   and   transformations   of  for-  j 
mulas,  and  even  advanced  so  far  as  the  general 
solution  of  equations  of  all  degrees.     He  first 
applied  algebra  to  geometry,  and  he  also  found 
the  remarkable  expression   which  solved  nu 
merically  the  problem  of  the  quadrature  of  the 
circle.    His  works  were  written  about  the  year 
1600,  but  only  published  long  after  his  death, 
by  Schooten.     Among  the  eminent  mathema 
ticians  of  that  time  we  must  also  mention  Ge 
rard  in  Flanders,  who  was  the  first  to  indicate  j 
the   important  use  of  the   negative   roots   of 
equations  in  geometrical  constructions,   while 
in  England  Harriot  introduced  the  signs  >  and 
<,  and  Oughtred  first  wrote  the  decimal  frac 
tions  simply  by  the  decimal   point,  as  we  do 
now,  without  writing  the  denominator  always, 
as  was  customary  till  his  time.     The  17th  cen 
tury  was  the  most  brilliant  of  all  centuries  in 
mathematical   discoveries,   producing   the   im 
mortal    Descartes,    Fermat,    Wallis,     Galileo, 
Huyghens,    Kepler,    Newton,    Leibnitz,    Ber-  I 
noulli,  and   many  others   not  less  illustrious ; 
and  that  century  closed  with   the   important  j 
discovery  of  the  logarithms  and   of  the  dif 
ferential  calculus.     The  18th  century  enriched  ' 
the  vast  domain  transmitted,    and  men   like  j 
Laplace,  La  Grange,  D'Alembert,  Maupertuis,  ! 
Maclaurin,  Waring,  Lambert,  Cutler,  Stirling,  j 
De   Moivre,   and   above   all   Euler,  developed  j 
and  perfected  all  the  branches  of  the  science. 
— The  operations  of  algebra  are  founded  on  a  | 
mutual  agreement  concerning  signs  and  sym-  | 
bols.     The  first  letters  of  the  alphabet,  <7,  b,  c, 
&c.,  are  used  to  represent  known  quantities, 
whether  of  space,  time,  or  number,  and  the 
last,  z,  y,  a1,  &c.,  are  used  for  the  unknown 
quantities.     They  are  connected  by  the  signs 
-f,  — ,  x ,  and  -=-,  meaning  respectively  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division.     The 
powers  of  quantities  are  expressed  by  superior 
numbers,  as  a2  for  a  x  a,  a5  for  a  x  a  x  a  x  a  x  a  ; 
the  roots  by  the  sign  -y,  or  \f  and  ^/,  &c.     The 
small  space  in  which  a  long  operation  can  be 
indicated  by  these  signs  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  following  algebraic  expression  : 

17«  x  (c — tZ)2-f-c3x  V  (ri* — &2) — axe      <i/3ab 

!_ 

which  is  an  ordinary  expression  involving  so 


many  operations  that  to  describe  them  clearly 
would  occupy  a  whole  page. 

ALGEC1RAS,  a  seaport  and  town  of  Spain,  in 
Andalusia,  province  of  Cadiz,  on  the  W.  side 
of  Gibraltar  bay,  opposite  and  6  m.  W.  of  Gib 
raltar;  pop.  18,000.  Charles  III.  rebuilt  it  in 
1760,  as  a  point  of  annoyance  against  Gibraltar. 
It  is  constructed  of  stone,  and  presents  a  fair 
appearance  compared  with  many  of  the  smalk. 
Spanish  towns.  The  port  is  guarded  by  a  bat 
tery  called  the  Fuerte  de  Santiago.  The  town 
is  supplied  with  water  conveyed  by  an  aque 
duct  over  the  Miel.  The  principal  trade  is  the 
export  of  coal  from  the  neighboring  mountains, 
charcoal,  and  leather.  Two  considerable  sea 
fights  took  place  oft'  Algeciras  in  July,  1801, 
between  the  English  and  French  squadrons, 
and  in  the  second  the  English  were  victorious. 

ALGERBA,  the  third  star  in  the  constellation 
of  Leo.  It  is  a  noted  star  among  astronomers, 
being  used  as  a  test  for  telescopes,  which  prove 
it  to  be  double.  One  of  its  constituents  is 
orange,  the  other  green. 

ALGER,  Horatio,  Jr.,  an  American  author, 
born  at  Revere,  near  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  13, 
1884.  lie  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1852, 
and  was  afterward  engaged  partly  in  teach 
ing  and  partly  in  writing,  being  for  a  time 
editorially  connected  with  two  Boston  news 
papers.  He  then  spent  a  year  in  travel  in 
Europe,  corresponding  with  American  papers. 
Upon  his  return  he  resumed  teaching  and 
writing.  In  1866  he  took  up  his  residence  in 
New  York,  where  he  became  deeply  inter 
ested  in  the  condition  of  the  street  boys.  This 
has  given  form  to  most  of  his  later  writ 
ings.  Prominent  among  these  are  the  "Rag- 
gen  Dick "  series  and  the  "  Tattered  Tom  " 
series.  With  the  exception  of  "  Helen  Ford, 
a  Novel,"  and  various  magazine  papers,  Mr. 
Alger's  writings  belong  mainly  to  the  class  of 
books  for  the  young. 

ALGER,  William  RonnseyiHe,  an  American 
clergyman  and  author,  cousin  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Freetown,  Mass.,  in  1823.  lie  gradu 
ated  at  Harvard  college  in  1847,  studied  for  the 
ministry,  and  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian 
church  in  Roxbury.  In  1855  he  removed  to  Bos 
ton,  \vhere  he  succeeded  Theodore  Parker  as 
minister  of  the  "Liberal  Christians"  who  wor 
ship  in  Music  Hall,  Boston,  where  he  still  contin 
ues  to  preach  (1873).  His  w^orks  comprise  "  The 
Poetry  of  the  Orient,  or  Metrical  Specimens  of 
the  Thought,  Sentiment,  and  Fancy  of  the 
East"  (1856);  "A  Critical  History  of  the 
Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life"  (1861);  "The 
Genius  of  Solitude,  or  the  Loneliness  of  Hu 
man  Life"  (1867);  and  u  Friendships  of  Wo 
men  "  (1870). 

ALGERIA,  a  division  of  N.  Africa,  formerly 
the  Turkish  pashalic  of  Algiers,  but  since  1831 
included  in  the  foreign  dominions  of  France, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Mediterranean,  E.  by  Tunis, 
W.  by  Morocco,  S.  by  the  Great  Sahara.  It  is, 
in  the  main,  situated  between  lat.  32°  and  37° 
N.,  and  Ion.  2°  W.  and  9°  E.  The  bounda- 


ALGERIA 


303 


ries  are  not  well  defined,  as  large  portions  of  I 
the  border  districts  are  claimed  both  by  the  j 
French  government   and   the   nomadic  tribes  I 
which  inhabit  them.     An  official  statement  in  j 
1850  estimated  the  area  at  150,568  sq.  m.,  dis 
tributed  as  follows  among  the  three  provinces :  j 
Algiers,  43,627  sq.  m. ;  Gran,  39,375;  Constan- 
tine,  67,566.    Later  unofficial  calculations  make 
it  as  high  as  258,317  sq.  m.  (Algiers,  39,120; 
Oran,    111,831  ;    Constantino,    107,366).      The 
Atlas  mountains  constitute  an  important  physi-  | 
cal  feature  in  the  country.   The  Little  Atlas  runs  j 
along  the  rocky  coast,  and  varies  from  3,000  to  j 
near  7,000  ft.  in  height;  while  in  the  south  the 
Greater  Atlas  reaches,  or  even  exceeds,  in  some 
points  an  elevation  of  8,000  ft.     Between  the 
Little  and  the  Greater  Atlas  extends  a  plateau 
called  the  Tell  (highlands),  varying  in  height 
from  1,900  to  3,600  ft.,  and  containing  a  large  j 
number  of  salt  lakes,  which  dry  up  during  the  ! 
summer  months.     Long,  winding  defiles  lead  j 
S.  from  the  Greater  Atlas  into  the  Algerian  Sa 
hara.     This  desert,  occupying  more  than  half 


*£     i          li£-Tek.v<i      N — ^s=y.o-a/,v«!m>,     .  o'   .; 

•  K  i;#yf-/.oK  r  Ajv^;^^l^ 

4A  ite^.  u^/^§S?^  %'-  ^  ^ 
^'K       H  "^o^Xfe't  3^i;i 

^  "'  = 


z^pj-*;/^;   ;"---:-;. 

\ (j_  T.unml^,!,'  J.'.:.-.r  ,,/'  I, 


the  country,  contains  many  fertile  oases  and 
the  large  salt  lake  of  Melrir,  which  receives  a 
number  of  small  rivers.  The  number  of  oases 
has  been  increased  by  means  of  artesian  wells 
dug  by  order  of  the  French  government.  The 
principal  plain  of  the  country,  that  of  Metid- 
jah,  belongs  to  the  region  of  *the  Little  Atlas, 
The  Greater  Atlas  forms  the  watershed  of  the 
country.  The  principal  river  is  the  Shelliff, 
which  has  a  tortuous  course  of  about  200  m.  and 
flows  into  the  Mediterranean.  The  rivers  which 
flow  from  the  S.  side  of  the  Greater  Atlas  lose 
themselves  in  the  desert,  and  none  are  naviga- 
ble.  They  are  nearly  dried  up  in  the  summer, 
but  overflow  a  considerable  extent  of  country 
in  the  spring  and  fertilize  the  soil. — The  cli- 
mate  is  generally  warm,  but  the  heat  is  rarely 
oppressive  except  under  the  prevalence  of  the 
simoom  or  hot  wind  from  the  Sahara,  when 
the  temperature  ranges  as  high  as  110°.  A 


large  portion  of  the  country  is  healthy,  even 
for  Europeans ;  but  in  the  marshy  districts 
the  foreign-born  population  generally  succumb 
to  fevers.  Ophthalmia  and  cutaneous  diseases 
are  common.  On  the  limits  of  the  desert  the 
soil  is  arid  and  sandy,  but  between  the  moun 
tain  districts  it  is  fertile,  and  especially  so  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  streams.  Grain  crops 
of  all  kinds,  European  and  tropical  fruits, 
flowers,  and  particularly  roses,  of  remarkable 
beauty,  and  a  species  of  sugar  cane,  said  to  be 
the  largest  and  most  productive  of  any  known 
species,  grow  in  Algeria.  Domestic  animals 
of  every  variety  are  numerous.  The  horses 
are  excellent ;  the  asses  are  of  fine  growth  and 
much  used  for  riding.  The  camel  and  drome 
dary  of  Algeria  are  very  superior.  The  merino 
sheep  is  indigenous.  The  Numidian  lion,  the 
panther  and  leopard,  ostriches,  serpents,  scor 
pions,  and  many  venomous  reptiles  are  abun 
dant. — The  chief  towns  are  Algiers,  the  capi 
tal  (pop.  in  1866,  52,614),  Constantine  (35,417), 
and  Oran  (34,058).  Near  Bona,  on  the  north 
eastern  coast,  are  the  coral  fisheries,  frequented 
by  the  fishers  from  France  and  Italy.  Bougiah 
is  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name.  On  the  coast, 
between  Algiers  and  Oran,  are  Koleah,  Cher- 
chell  (the  ancient  Cassarea,  the  residence  of 
Juba),  and  Mostaganem.  Tlemcen,  once  the 
residence  of  Abd-el-Kader,  is  situated  in  a  fer 
tile  country,  near  the  Moroccan  border;  the 
ancient  city  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1670,  and 
the  modern  town  was  almost  destroyed  by  the 
French.  Other  towns  of  the  interior  are  Bli- 
dah,  Medeah,  and  Milianah,  S.  and  S.  W.  of 
the  capital.  South  of  the  Greater  Atlas  is  the 
Zaab,  the  ancient  Gcetulia.  The  chief  place  is 
Biscara ;  the  Biscareens  are  a  peaceful  race, 
much  liked  in  the  northern  ports  as  servants 
and  porters.  There  are  many  remains  of  an 
tiquity  in  the  interior,  especially  in  the  province 
of  Constantine,  among  others  those  of  the  an 
cient  city  of  Lambessa,  with  remains  of  the  city 
gates,  part  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  a  mausole 
um  supported  by  Corinthian  pillars. — The  total 
population  in  1866  was  2,921,246,  of  whom 
217,990  were  of  European  descent.  Among  the 
latter  there  were  122,119  Frenchmen,  58,510 
Spaniards,  16,655  Italians,  10,627  Maltese, 
5,436  Germans,  and  4,643  of  other  nationali 
ties  ;  72,508  were  born  in  Algeria.  In  1831  the 
European  population  was  3,228;  in  1836,  14,- 
560;  in  1841,  35,727;  in  1846,  99,801 ;  in  1851, 
131,283;  in  1856,  159,282;  in  1861,  192,746. 
The  number  of  Mohammedans  living  in  the 
territory  subject  to  civil  government  in  1870 
was  225,693;  nomads,  2,434,974;  native  Jews, 
33,117.  A  comparison  of  the  above  figures 
with  former  censuses  shows  a  decrease  of 
tiie  native  population,  while  the  Europeans 
slowly  increase.  The  great  efforts  made  by 
the  government  to  promote  colonization  in 
duced  from  1830  to  1855  about  one  million 
Europeans  to  emigrate  to  Algeria;  but  the 
majority  either  returned  after  a  short  time 
or  succumbed  to  the  climate.  From  1830  to 


30-i. 


ALGERIA 


1851  the  number  of  deaths  (60,678)  exceeded  | 
the   births  (44,900)    by    16,000.     Among   the  \ 
children  of  the  Europeans  the  mortality  is  even  ! 
greater  than  among  the  adults.     The  Moorish 
population   in  the  cities  is  likewise  decreas-  • 
ing;    only  the  Jews   show  a  steady  increase. 
The  general    result  of  the  efforts  for  coloniza-  ; 
tion  is  trilling.     From  1831  to  1866  the  gov 
ernment   had    ceded  to  European  settlers  no 
more  than  222, 209  hectares.     For  several  years  j 
the  number  'of  Europeans  leaving  the  country 
was  almost  as  large  as  the  number  of  new  ar 
rivals.     Thus  in  1856,  30,460  returned  to  Eu 
rope,  and  only  39,239  arrived.     The  republican 
government  hoped  for  an  improvement  of  this 
state  of  affairs  from  a  limitation  of  the  military 
and  an  enlargement  of  the  civil  authority  of 
the  country ;  and  in  order  to  induce  the  mal 
content  inhabitants  of  the  districts  ceded  in  1871 
to  Germany  to  emigrate  to  Algeria,  it  placed  by 
a  decree  of  June  21,  1871,  100,000  hectares  of 
the  best  government  lands  at  their  disposal. 
The  Berbers  or  Kabyles,  who  call  themselves 
Mazidh   (noble),    are    believed   to   have   been  I 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  the  Numidians  and 
Ga3tulians   of  antiquity.     Arabs,  the    descen 
dants    of    the    Mussulman    invaders,    Moors, 
Turks,  Kulughs,  Jews,  and  negroes,  and  lastly 
the   French   and    other   European    Christians, 
form   the   rest  of  the  population.     The   Ka 
byles  are  an  industrious  race,  living  in  regu 
lar  villages,  excellent  cultivators,   and  work 
ing  in  mines,  in  metals,  and  in  coarse  woollen 
and  cotton  factories.     They  make  gunpowder 
and  soap,  gather  honey  and  wax,  and  supply 
the  towns  with  poultry,  fruit,  and  other  pro 
visions.     The  Arabs  follow   a  nomadic    life,  i 
shifting  their  camps  from  place  to  place.     The 
Moors  are  probably  the  least  respectable  of  the 
inhabitants.     Living  in  the  towns,   and  more 
luxurious  than  either  the  Arabs  or  Kabyles, 
they  are,  from  the  constant  oppression  of  their 
Turkish  rulers,  a  timid  race,  reserving  never 
theless  their  cruelty  and  vindictiveness,  while 
in  moral  character  they  stand  very  low.     The 
nomads   live    in   tents ;    o'ther   tribes  inhabit  | 
dwellings  of  somewhat  greater  stability  called  j 
gourbis;  only  a  few  have  houses.      The  pro-  j 
portion  of  the  three  classes  in  1857  is  shown  ' 
by  the  following  table  : 


PROVINCES. 

Mountain 
Kabyles. 

Kabyles 

of  the 
Plain. 

Arabs. 

Tents. 

Gourbis. 

Houses. 

Algiers  
Oran  

Constantine. 

Total  

280.474     27.  SOD 
22.819    45.462 
277,185  305,691 

447.752    55.529 
431.485    77.389 
506,195  111,181 

65.837  39.381 
6.9S6     8.772 
63.405  31,327 

580.428  378.953  1,385,432  244,099 

136,228,  79,480 

—The  census  of  1866  returned  211,195  Catho 
lics,  5,002  Protestants,  33,952  native  Jews,  1,785 
European  Jews,  17,232  members  of  other  Chris 
tian  sects  or  persons  of  unknown  religion,  and 
2,652,072  Mohammedans.  For  the  Catholics 
a  bishopric  was  erected  at  Algiers  in  1838, 
wkich  in  1867  was  raised  to  an  archbishopric ; 


in  the  same  year  the  new  dioceses  of  Oran  and 
Constantine  were  created.  For  the  Protestants 
a  decree  of  1857  created  consistories  at  Al 
giers,  Oran,  and  Constantine,  under  which  both 
the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  churches  are 
placed.  The  religious  affairs  of  the  Moham 
medan  population  are  placed  under  the  muftis 
of  the  two  principal  mosques  at  Algiers.  The 
number  of  free  public  schools  in  1866  was  426, 
with  45,375  pupils.  For  secondary  instruction 
there  wrere  lyceums  at  Algiers,  Bona,  Con 
stantine,  Philippeville,  and  Oran,  the  second 
ary  institutions  at  Tlemcen,  and  the  free  school 
of  Oran.  The  system  of  public  instruction  for 
the  Mohammedans  comprised  the  douar  schools, 
the  law  schools  (zaiouas),  the  schools  of  law 
and  literature  (medresas),  the  French-Arabic 
schools,  and  the  French-Arabic  colleges.  The 
French  troops  in  Algeria  consisted  in  1866  of 
67,774  men.  Besides  the  garrison  troops, 
which  after  a  certain  number  of  years  return 
to  France,  there  are  the  so-called  native  troops, 
which  do  not  leave  the  colony  except  in  time 
of  war,  and  consist  of  three  regiments  of 
Turcos,  three  of  zouaves,  three  of  chasseurs 
d'Afrique,  and  three  of  spahis ;  altogether 
15,000  infantry  and  3,000  horse. — The  admin 
istration  of  Algeria  was  in  1859  placed  under 
a  special  ministry,  which  was  abolished  by 
decree  of  Dec.  11,  1860.  It  was  then  placed 
in  the  hands  of  a  military  governor  general,  to 
whom  all  civil  as  well  as  military  authorities 
were  subordinate.  The  republic,  established 
in  1870,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  administra 
tion  a  civil  governor,  who  convokes  annually 
for  the  establishment  of  the  budget  a  council, 
consisting  of  the  three  prelects,  the  archbishop, 
the  military  commander,  and  other  notables. 
Algeria  also  received  the  right  to  send  six  dep 
uties  to  the  national  assembly.  At  the  head 
of  each  of  the  three  provinces  is  a  prefect. — 
The  revenue  of  Algeria  in  1866  amounted  to 
42,223,000  francs,  and  the  expenditure  to  47,- 
470,000.  The  French  budget  provides  in  ad 
dition  for  the  maintenance  of  the  army,  for 
public  works,  and  for  many  other  expenditures. 
In  the  budget  of  ordinary  and  extraordinary 
expenditures  of  1871,  the  expenditure  for  Al 
geria  is  set  down  at  22,691,925  francs.  Ac 
cording  to  a  statement  made  by  Picard  in  tha 
legislative  body  in  1854,  Algeria  at  that  time 
had  cost  France  about  three  milliards  of  francs 
and  the  lives  of  150,000  soldiers.  In  1868  the 
government  made  an  agreement  with  the 
societe  generale  algerienne  for  a  loan  of  100,- 
000,000  francs,  which  is  gradually  to  be  used 
for  the  general  improvement  of  the  country. 
The  imports  in  1868  were  valued  at  192,664,- 
360  francs,  and  the  exports  at  103,069,304. 
The  chief  articles  of  import  in  that  year  were 
cotton  cloth,  woollens,  leather  and  leather 
goods,  wine,  brandy,  and  spirits,  fresh  fruit, 
sawed  timber,  and  materials  for  building.  The 
exports  included  sheep,  wool,  tallow,  hides, 
coral,  iron,  fibre,  reeds,  cork,  olive  oil,  tobacco, 
fruit,  vegetables,  rags,  and  cotton.  In  1870 


ALGERIA 


305 


the  most  important  article  of  export  was  es 
parto  for  making  paper.     The  movement  of 

si 


FLAG. 

ENTERED. 

Vessels.            Tons. 

CLEARED. 

Vessels.           Tons. 

French 

527    !     121,010 
1.714    ;     164,285 

659 
1,625 

131.831 
149,192      j 

Total  

2,241    1     285,295 

2,284 

2S0.523      | 

i 

The  merchant  navy  of  Algeria,  on  Dec,  31, 
18(58,  consisted  of  147  sailing  vessels,  of  4,098 
tons.  A  decree  of  July  11,  1860,  gave  to  a 
company,  at  the  head  of  which  were  Count 
Branicky  and  the  banker  Gautier,  a  charter  of 
99  years  for  the  construction  of  a  number  of 
important  railroad  lines;  but  in  1870  only  one 
of  them,  that  from  Constantino  to  the  sea,  was 
near  its  completion.  The  telegraphic  connec 
tion  of  Algeria  with  France  was  established 
in  July,  1870,  by  a  submarine  cable  between 
Bona  and  Marseilles.  —  The  earliest  inhabi 
tants  of  Algeria  of  whom  we  have  any  trust 
worthy  accounts  were  the  Numidians  and  the 
Moors  (Mauri).  The  former  lived  in  the  moun 
tain  districts  of  the  east,  and  the  Moors  in  the 
west,  where  they  established  many  flourishing 
coast  towns,  which  carried  on  a  brisk  trade 
with  Europe.  The  conquest  of  Carthage  in  146 
B.  C.  laid  the  foundation  of  the  rule  of  the  Ro 
mans  in  this  part  of  Africa,  which  was  gradu 
ally  extended  over  the  whole  of  the  present 
Algeria.  The  eastern  district  at  first  constituted 
a  portion  of  the  province  of  Africa,  but  from 
the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great  it  formed  the 
province  of  Numidia,  and  the  western  district 
became  the  province  of  Mauritania  CaBsariensis. 
The  whole  country  attained  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity.  As  a  defence  against  the  savage 
mountain  tribes  the  Romans  built  several  forts, 
one  of  which,  Guelma,  is  still  extant.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  5th  century  the  country  was 
conquered  by  the  Vandals,  in  whose  possession 
it  remained  till  534,  when  Belisarius  subjected 
it  to  the  Byzantine  empire.  The  Arabs  about 
160  years  later  advanced  into  the  mountains 
of  the  Numidians.  The  Christian  religion,  which 
had  early  been  introduced  into  the  country,  was 
wholly  extinguished  by  the  Mohammedan  con 
querors  ;  but  the  people  partially  recovered  from 
the  state  of  barbarism  into  which  they  had  re 
lapsed  under  the  rule  of  the  Vandals.  After 
belonging  for  a  time  to  the  dominions  of  the 
Ommiyade  caliphs,  Algeria  became  an  inde 
pendent  Moorish  state,  under  the  dynasty  of  the 
Zereides,  which  ruled  it  from  970  to  1148,  when 
Roger  of  Sicily  conquered  northern  Africa. 
A  few  years  later  (1159)  the  Almohades  of  Mo 
rocco  obtained  possession  of  Algeria  and  ruled 
there  till  1269,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the 
Zianides  of  Fez.  This  dynasty  became  at  the 
close  of  the  loth  century  involved  in  protracted 
conflicts  with  the  Spaniards,  especially  when 
about  20,000  families  of  Moors  and  Jews,  who 
in  1492  had  been  expelled  from  Spain,  settled 
in  Algeria  and  sought  revenge  in  piracy.  In 
VOL.  i. — 20 


1506  the  Spaniards  took  Bona,  and  in  1509  the 
capture  of  Oran  by  Cardinal  Xiinenes,  and  of 
the  city  of  Algiers  itself,  completed  the  sub 
jection  of  nearly  the  entire  province.  The 
Spaniards  erected  fortifications  at  Algiers,  but 
shortly  before  the  death  of  King  Ferdinand  in 
1516  the  emir  of  Metidja  called  to  his  aid  the 
pirate  Horuk  Barbarossa.  This  chief  expelled 
the  Spaniards  from  Algiers,  murdered  the  emir, 
and  made  himself  ruler  of  the  city  and  its  ter 
ritory.  Soon  afterward  he  conquered  Tenez 
and  Tlemcen.  The  Spaniards  defeated  him  in 
1517,  and  in  1518  put  him  to  death.  His 
brother  and  successor  Khair-ed-Din  sought 
assistance  from  the  sultan  Selim  I.,  and  ac 
knowledged  that  prince  as  his  sovereign.  Se 
lim  appointed  him  pasha  of  Algiers,  and  sent 
him  a  body  of  troops  with  which  he  repulsed 
the  Spaniards  and  made  himself  master  of  the 
country.  Charles  V.  made  an  attempt  to  rein 
state  the  Spanish  authority,  and  a  powerful  expe 
dition  of  370  vessels  and  30,000  men  crossed  the 
Mediterranean  in  1541 ;  but  a  storm  and  earth 
quake  dispersed  the  fleet,  and  cut  off  all  com 
munication  between  it  and  the  army.  The 
troops  made  their  escape  with  a  loss  of  8,000 
men,  15  vessels  of  war,  and  140  transports. 
From  this  time  forward  there  were  unceasing 
hostilities  between  the  Barbary  powers  and  the 
knights  of  Malta;  thence  sprang  that  system 
of  piracy  which  made  the  Algerine  corsairs  so 
terrible  in  the  Mediterranean.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  boundaries  of  Algeria  were  constantly 
extended  in  the  wars  with  the  neighboring 
tribes.  Before  the  close  of  the  16th  century 
the  pasha  of  Algeria  had  advanced  westward 
as  far  as  the  frontier  of  Morocco.  Oran,  how 
ever,  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards 
till  1708.  Bugia  in  the  east  was  conquered  in 
1554,  and  in  the  south  the  territory  of  Algeria 
was  extended  as  far  as  the  desert.  Several 
attempts  made  by  the  Spaniards  to  reconquer 
the  western  provinces  utterly  failed.  In  1501 
an  entire  Spanish  army  was  annihilated  at 
Mostaganem,  the  Algerines  capturing  12,000 
men.  The  duke  of  Beaufort  in  1003  and  sub 
sequent  years  gained  several  successes,  but  they 
had  no  permanent  results.  The  English  under 
Blake  (1055),  the  French  under  Duquesne 
(1682  and  1683),  the  Dutch,  and  other  pow 
ers,  at  various  times  attacked  Algiers ;  and 
Duquesne  twice  bombarded  it.  Thousands  of 
Christian  slaves  constantly  languished  in  captiv 
ity  in  Algiers ;  and  societies  of  pious  men  were 
formed,  whose  express  object  was  to  ransom  the 
prisoners.  Meanwhile  the  authority  of  the  Turk 
ish  government  had  been  reduced  to  a  name. 
The  janizaries  from  1600  elected  their  deys,  and 
these  finally  declared  their  independence  of 
the  Porte.  The  last  Turkish  pasha  was  expelled 
by  Dey  Ibrahim  in  1705;  and  the  janizaries 
by  tumultuous  elections  appointed  new  chiefs, 
whom  in  their  mutinies  they  often  murdered. 
The  janizaries  were  recruited  from  the  immi 
grants  from  Turkey,  no  native,  though  the  son 
of  a  janizary  by  a  woman  of  the  country,  being 


306 


ALGERIA 


admitted  into  their  ranks.  The  dey  sent  occa 
sional  presents  to  Constantinople  as  a  token  of 
his  nominal  allegiance ;  but  all  regular  tribute 
was  withdrawn,  and  the  Turks,  hampered  by 
their  constant  struggles  with  Russia,  were  too 
weak  to  chastise  the  rebels  of  a  distant  prov 
ince.  In  1775  Spain  undertook  her  last  great 
expedition  against  Algiers.  The  fleet  consisted 
of  44  war  vessels  and  340  transports  under  Ad 
miral  Castejon,  and  the  army,  which  was  under 
the  command  of  Gen.  O'Reilly,  of  25,000  men. 
Like  all  the  former  expeditions,  it  was  utterly 
unsuccessful.  The  weaker  Christian  powers, 
like  Naples,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  the  Hanse 
towns,  submitted  to  the  annual  payment  of  a 
tribute,  which  nevertheless  did  not  always  pro 
tect  their  vessels.  England  remained  inactive 
because  the  insecurity  of  the  Mediterranean 
injured  the  commerce  of  other  powers  more 
than  her  own.  During  the  French  revolution 
and  the  empire,  the  presence  of  large  fleets 
in  the  Mediterranean  put  a  check  to  the  pira 
cies.  On  the  renewal  of  peace,  however,  the 
Algerines  recommenced  their  depredations ; 
but  now  the  Americans,  who  in  1795  had  been 
compelled  to  follow  the  example  of  European 
nations,  and  to  subsidize  the  dey  for  peace,  re 
fused  the  tribute.  In  June,  1815,  Commo 
dore  Decatur  encountered  an  Algerine  squadron 
near  Cartagena,  took  a  frigate  and  a  brig,  and 
sailed  into  the  bay  of  Algiers,  where  he  forced 
the  dey  to  surrender  all  American  prisoners, 
and  to  abandon  all  future  claims  for  tribute. 
This  bold  example  was  followed  by  the  Eng 
lish,  who,  under  Lord  Exmouth,  bombarded 
the  city  in  1816,  and  reduced  it  to  ashes,  com 
pelling  the  dey  to  surrender  his  prisoners.  Pi 
racy,  however,  was  not  suppressed,  and  in  1826 
the  Algerines  openly  seized  Italian  vessels  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  even  carried  their  in 
cursions  into  the  North  sea.  Meanwhile  a 
serious  quarrel  had  broken  out  with  France. 
In  1823  the  dwelling  of  the  French  consul  had 
been  plundered ;  the  Algerine  ruler,  Hussein 
Bey,  personally  insulted  the  consul  and  spoke 
disrespectfully  of  the  French  king ;  and  vari 
ous  outrages  were  committed  on  French  vessels. 
Algiers  was  blockaded,  and  negotiations  were 
opened  between  France,  Mehemet  Ali,  and  the 
Porte,  by  which  Mehemet  Ali,  with  the  assist 
ance  of  France,  undertook  to  conquer  Algiers, 
and  to  pay  a  regular  tribute  to  the  sultan. 
This  was  broken  off,  and  the  government  of 
Charles  X.  at  last  sent  an  expedition  against 
Algiers  in  June,  1830,  consisting  of  38,000  men 
and  4,000  horses,  under  command  of  Gen. 
Bourmont.  Algiers  capitulated  July  4,  on  con 
dition  that  private  property  and  the  religion  of 
the  country  should  be  respected,  and  that  the 
dey  and  his  Turks  should  retire.  The  French 
took  17  ships  of  war,  1,500  bronze  cannon,  and 
nearly  $10,000,000  in  specie.  They  immedi 
ately  garrisoned  Algiers,  and  established  a  mili 
tary  regency.  Small  squadrons  sailed  to  Tunis 
and  Tripoli,  and  concluded  treaties  with  these 
states,  which  put  an  end  to  piracy.  Gen.  Bour 


mont  was  made  a  marshal,  and  within  a  short 
time  captured  Bona,  Oran,  and  Bugia.  The 
French  intended  to  surrender  Algiers  to  the 
sultan,  and  instructions  to  that  effect  were 
actually  on  their  way  to  Constantinople  when 
Charles  X.  was  dethroned,  and  Louis  Philippe 
decided  to  retain  the  conquest.  Clausel  was 
sent  over  as  general-in-chief  in  place  of  Bour 
mont.  As  the  Turkish  soldiers,  who  had  thus 
far  ruled  Algeria,  were  driven  out  of  the  coun 
try,  the  Arab  and  Kabyle  tribes  soon  ro,-e 
against  the  new  rulers.  Each  town  had  to  bo 
captured  in  detail  at  an  immense  sacrifice  of 
life.  The  Marabouts  preached  a  holy  war 
against  the  Christian  conquerors,  and  the  in 
surgents  found  an  able  chief  in  the  young  emir 
Abd-el-Kader.  Clausel  was  replaced  by  Ber- 
thezene,  and  the  latter  by  Lieut.  Gen.  Savary, 
duke  of  Rovigo,  in  the  course  of  1831.  In  carry 
ing  on  the  war  against  the  natives  Savary  com 
mitted  the  most  treacherous  acts.  The  whole 
Arab  tribe  El-Uffia,  including  the  old  men,  wo 
men,  and  children,  were  massacred  in  one  night 
on  account  of  a  robbery  committed  by  some 
members  of  the  tribe.  In  consequence  of  such 
cruelties  the  entire  nation  again  flew  to  arms, 
under  the  lead  of  Abd-el-Kader,  who  main 
tained  the  struggle  through  the  reign  of  Louis 
Philippe.  (See  ABD-EL-!VADEE.)  In  Decem 
ber,  1847,  he  surrendered  to  Gen.  Lamoriciere. 
The  war  against  Abd-el-Kader  thus  closed  had 
been  signalized  on  the  part  of  the  French  by 
many  cruelties,  none  of  which  produced  so  pain 
ful  a  sensation  as  an  act  of  Col.  Pelissier,  in  1845, 
in  smothering  several  hundred  Arabs  in  a  cav 
ern.  The  next  notable  insurrection  was  that  of 
the  fanatical  Marabout  Si-Bou-Zian,  who  in  1 849 
raised  a  rebellion  among  the  mountain  tribes, 
but  was  finally  pursued  by  the  French  to  the 
oasis  of  Zaatsha,  where  he  perished  (Nov.  26), 
with  the  entire  population  of  his  last  strong 
hold.  Gen.  St.  Arnaud  in  1851,  and  Marshal 
Randon  in  1857,  fought  with  success  against  the 
Kabyles. — The  administration  of  Algeria  under 
went  a  considerable  change  by  the  imperial 
decrees  of  1858,  which  abolished  the  office  of 
governor  general,  and  appointed  Prince  Napo 
leon  chief  of  a  special  ministry  for  Algerian  af 
fairs.  The  civil  districts  were  more  strictly  sep 
arated  from  the  military  territory,  and  general 
councils  introduced.  But  after  a  trial  of  only 
two  years,  the  government  was  regarded  as  a  fail 
ure  ;  the  Algerian  ministry  was  abolished,  and 
Marshal  Pelissier  reappointed  to  the  office  of  gov 
ernor  general,  which  he  had  previously  filled  for 
a  few  months  in  1851.  One  of  the  greatest  bene 
fits  which  the  French  rule  has  conferred  upon 
both  colonists  and  natives  is  the  successful  bor 
ing  of  a  number. of  artesian  wells  in  the  desert, 
the  first  of  which  was  begun  in  1856.  In  Feb 
ruary,  1863,  Napoleon  III.,  in  a  letter  to  the 
governor  general,  expressed  the  opinion  that 
Algeria  properly  was  not  a  French  colony,  but 
an  Arabic  kingdom ;  that  it  was  wrong  to  take 
from  the  natives  any  part  of  their  property : 
that,  on  the  contrary,  the  tribes  and  parts  of 


ALGERIA 


ALGIERS 


307 


tribes  should  be  made  the  owners  of  the  territory 
they  occupied;  and  that  a  careful  legislation 
should  regulate  the  conditions  of  personal 
property.  Though  this  letter  appeared  to 
make  some  impression  upon  the  minds  of  the 
natives,  the  year  1864  witnessed  anew  insurrec 
tion  in  the  south  of  Algeria,  which  was  headed 
by  Si-Lala ;  but  at  the  close  of  the  year  the 
country,  of  which  Gen.  MacMahon  after  the 
death  of  Pelissier  had  been  appointed  governor 
general,  was  again  fully  paciried.  In  May,  1865, 
Napoleon  paid  a  visit  to  Algeria,  and  there 
addressed  a  proclamation  to  the  population, 
in  which  he  repeated  the  sentiments  expressed 
in  the  letter  to  Pelissier.  From  October,  1865, 
to  the  beginning  of  1867,  the  French  were  again 
harassed  by  new  insurrections  under  the  leader 
ship  of  Si-Lala  and  Si-IIamed  ben  llamza,  who 
in  1861  had  been  made  a  commander  of  the  le 
gion  of  honor.  Si-IIamed,  at  the  head  of  about 
12,000  cavalry,  committed  great  depredations 
among  the  tribes  friendly  to  the  French  rule ; 
but  at  the  beginning  of  1867  all  the  insurgents 
had  either  been  driven  into  the  Sahara  or  anni 
hilated.  From  1869  to  1870  the  colony  suffered 
from  famine,  locusts,  and  earthquakes,  but  was 
almost  free  from  warfare.  After  the  outbreak 
of  the  Franco -German  war,  the  French  govern 
ment  in  July,  1870,  called  Governor  General 
MacMahon,  and  with  him  the  larger  portion  of 
the  native  troops,  to  the  seat  of  war  in  France. 
The  news  of  the  disaster  at  Sedan  caused  insur 
rectionary  movements  in  the  province  of  Con- 
stantine  in  September,  1870,  and  in  October  in 
Oran,  where  the  insurgents  were  joined  by  some 
Moroccan  tribes;  but  Gen.  Durieu,  the  succes 
sor  of  MacMahon,  succeeded  in  preventing  the 
troubles  from  spreading.  At  the  same  time 
the  European  colonists  asked  for  the  aboli 


tion  of  the  military  administration ;  and  a  civil 
governor  was   appointed,   under  whom    three 
i  prefects  administer  the  three  p'rovinces.     Al 
geria  also  obtained  representation  in  the  na 
tional  assembly  which  in  February,  1871,  met 
in    Bordeaux. — See   MacCarthy,   Algeria   Ro 
mano,   (Algiers,    1867);    Daumas,    Le   Sahara 
Algerien  (Paris,  1845),  Le  grand  desert  (2d  ed., 
1849),  and  La  Grande  Kabylie  (1847);  Yusuf 
'<  (a  chief  of  the  Turkish  troops  in  Algeria  who 
joined  the  French  as  early  as  1882,  and  subse 
quently  rose  to  the  rank  of  a  general),  Sur  les 
\  guerres  en  Afrique  (Algiers);  Xettement,  Ilis- 
toire  de  la  conquete  d'Alger,  ecrite  mr  les  docu- 
'  merits  inedits  et  authentiques  (2d  ed.,  1871). 

ALGHERO,  or  Algheri,  a  strongly  fortified  sea 
port  town  on  the  X.  W.  coast  of  Sardinia,  in 
the  province  and  11  in.  S.  W.  of  Sassari ;  pop. 
8,000.  It  was  a  favorite  residence  of  Charles  V. 
The  coral  found  here  is  the  finest  obtained  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

ALGIERS  (Arab.  Al-Jezireh,  the  island,  be 
cause  there  was  originally  an  island  before  the 
city,  which  has  been  joined  by  a  mole),  a  sea 
port  and  city  of  X.  Africa,  in  lat.  36°  47'  X., 
Ion.  3°. 4'  E.     It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
pashalic  of  the  same  name,  and  dependent  on 
the  Ottoman  empire,  but  since  1830  has  been 
the  capital  of  the  French  colony  of  Algeria. 
:  The  population,  which  under  the  Turks  was 
estimated  at  100,000,  has  since  been  subject  to 
1  great  fluctuations.     In  1838  it  was  30,395;  in 
1846,  70,582  ;  in  1851,  50,111  ;  in  1862,  58,315  ; 
in  1866,  52,614 ;  and  at  present  it  is  estimated 
\  at  60,000.     Of  these,    16-, 000  are  French  and 
j  6,000  Jews.     The  Jews  have  since  the  occupa- 
i  tion  of  the  country  by  the  French  become  the 
I  most  prosperous  part  of  the  population,  own- 
I  ing  most  of  the  land  in  the  city.     The  natives 


Algiers,  from  the  Parade  Ground. 


308 


ALGOA  BAY 


ALGONQUINS 


manufacture  arms,  leather,  silk  stuffs,  jewels,  , 
&c.     The  town  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  am-  i 
phitheatre,  on  the  X.  slope  of  Mount  Boujarin,  ! 
which    rises  500  feet  above  the  bay,  and  as  i 
seen  from  a  distance  presents  a  very  imposing 
and  picturesque  appearance,  heightened  by  the 
dazzling  whiteness  of  its  houses,  which  rise  in  ; 
terraces    on  the    side  of  the  hill.     In   conse-  ; 
quence  of  earthquakes  they  are  seldom  built 
more  than  one  story  above  the  basement.     On 
the  summit  and  overlooking  the  town  stands 
the  Casbah,  the  castle  in  which  the  last  cloy 
lived.     Its  walls  are  20  feet  thick,  and  tbe  in 
terior  consists  of  a  large  courtyard  and  some 
four  or  five  stories  of  porches  arched  and  pil-  ; 
lared  after  the  twisted  spiral  Byzantine  order,  i 
It  also  contains  several  other  houses  and  gardens 
adorned  with   sycamores  and   bananas.     The 
city  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  30  feet  high  and  12 
thick,   with  towers  and  batteries.     Each  side 
of  the  harbor  is  defended  by  a  strong  battery. 
Many  of  the  streets  of  Algiers,  like  those  of 
other  Moorish  towns,  are  narrow  and  tortuous,  j 
but  in  the  lower  part  of  the  city  arcades  have 
been  built    and    the    streets   widened,   giving 
the   place  a  French  aspect.     All  the    streets 
now  have  French  names.     Algiers  has  a  light 
house,  arsenal,  dockyard,  many  mosques,  banks,  j 
theatres,    fountains,    baths,    factories,    hotels,  i 
several  synagogues,  a  handsome  cathedral  and  I 
three  other  Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  Prot-  , 
estant  chapel,   six  colleges,  an  episcopal  sem-  j 
inary,    a   government  house,   exchange,  bish 
op's  palace,  and  public   library.     In   1838  an 
episcopal  see  was  established  in  Algiers,  which 
in  1867  was  elevated  to  an  archbishopric.     It 
is  also  the  seat  of  a  Protestant  consistory,  of 
an  academy,  a  lyceum,  an  Arabic-French  col 
lege,  a  museum,  and  other  literary  institutions. 
The  governor  general   of  the  French  posses 
sions  in  Africa  and  other  chief  functionaries 
reside  here.     The  port  is  a  sheltered  body  of 
water  of  about  220  acres.     It  was  first  formed 
by  Barbarossa   in   1530  ;  the  French  govern 
ment  have  spent  upon  it  upward  of  20,000,- 
000  francs.     In  1862  a  railroad  was  built  be 
tween  Algiers  and  Blidah,  30  m.,  and  a  tele 
graph    cable   was  laid    between    Algiers   and 
France.     Algiers  has  become  the  entrepot  of 
four  fifths  of  the  trade  of  the  colony.     Steam 
vessels  start  for  this  port  from  Toulon  and  Mar 
seilles,  and  the  passage  is  made  in  48  or  50 
hours.     The  commerce    between  France  and 
Algiers  is  regarded  as  a  coasting  trade  and  re 
served  to  vessels  of  French  register  only.    The 
imports  are  chiefiy  coffee,  sugar,  wine,  spirits, 
and   cloths;    and    the    exports,    grain,    wool, 
hides,  tobacco,  iron  and  copper  ore,  and  coral. 

ALGOA  BAY,  an  indentation  of  the  S.  E.  coast 
of  Africa,  in  Cape  Colony,  about  425  m.  E.  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  has  excellent  an 
chorage,  and  receives  the  Sunday  river.  Near 
Cape  Recife,  the  W.  point,  is  Port  Elizabeth, 
the  port  of  Uitenhage,  18  m.  inland. 

ALG03IA,  a  judicial  district  of  the  province  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  forming  the  extreme  N.  W. 


part  of  the  province,  bordering  on  Lakes  Supe 
rior  and  Huron,  and  extending  E.  as  fur  as  the 
most  westerly  branch  of  the  French  river ; 
pop.  in  1871,  4,807.  The  W.  and  N.  bounda 
ries  are  undetermined,  but  the  area  is  prob 
ably  not  less  than  40,000  sq.  m.  The  district  is 
divided  into  East,  West,  and  Centre.  In  the  first 
are  Killarney,  Spanish  River,  and  Mississaga ; 
in  the  second,  Bruce  Mines  and  Sault  Ste.  Ma 
rie :  in  the  third,  Batche waning,  Michipocoter, 
Pic  St.  Ignace,  Nipigon,  andKaministiqua.  The 
chief  productions  are  timber  and  minerals ;  but 
though  its  pine  forests  have  been  worked  for  20 
years,  the  mines,  rich  in  copper,  silver,  iron,  and 
tin,  were,  with  a  few  exceptions,  neglected  till 
1871,  when  a  large  number  of  Americans  en 
gaged  in  silver  mining,  and  by  the  end  of  that 
year  about  20  mines  had  been  opened,  generally 
with  great  promise  of  success.  The  Lake  Su 
perior  part  of  the  district  is  probably  one  of  the 
richest  mineral  regions  anywhere  known.  In 
1847  numerous  companies  were  formed  to  work 
the  mines,  but  most  of  them  failed,  and  some 
years  ago  the  government  cancelled  many  of 
the  grants  and  resumed  the  land.  This  district  is 
approached  by  steamboats,  which  ply  regularly 
in  summer.  Capital,  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

ALGONQUIN'S,   a  family   of  Indian    tribes   in 
North  America,   which  at  the  commencement 
of   the    17th    century  covered  a  vast  region, 
bounded  on  the  north   and  northeast  by  the 
Esquimaux,  on  the  northwest  by  the  Athabas 
can  tribes,  on  the  west  by  the  Dakotas,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  Catawbas,  Cherokees,  Mo- 
bilian  tribes,  and  Natchez,  and  extending  from 
about  lat.  37°  to  53°  N.,  and  from  Ion.  25°  E. 
to  15°  W.  of  Washington.     All   the   tribes  of 
i  the    family   were    nomadic,    cultivating   very 
little  ground,  and   moving  about  in  their  own 
districts  as  hunting  and  fishing  required.   They 
!  resemble  each  other  strongly  in  manners  and 
i  customs,    and    the    differences   of    dialect   are 
1  easily  traced  to  a  common  source.     Within  the 
•  same  limits  also  dwelt  the  Winnebagoes,  a  Da- 
i  kota  tribe,  in  the  west,  and  a  large  family  of 
tribes  extending  from  Lake  Huron  through  the 
present  states  of  New  York  and  Ohio  to  North 
Carolina,  and  comprising  the  Wyandots  or  Ilu- 
rons,  Tionontatez,  Neutres,  Iroquois,  Andastes 
or  Susquehannas,  Nottoways,  Tuscaroras,   and 
some  smaller  tribes,  all  of  the  same  origin  and  lan 
guage,  but  differing  essentially  from  the  Algon- 
quins.      The  chief  Algonquin  tribes  were  the 
Crees,  from  Hudson  Bay  to  Lake  Superior ;  Nas- 
quapees,  on  the  Saguenay ;  Montagnais,  on  the 
St.  Lawrence ;  Algonquins  proper,  on  the  Otta- 
:  wa;  Nipissings  and  Ottawas,  on  Manitouline; 
!  Chippewas,  Menomonees,  and  Pottawatamies, 
I  on  Lake  Michigan;  Miamis,  Sacs,  Foxes,  Kicka- 
I  poos,  and  Illinois,  in  the  west;  and  on  the  Atlan- 
!  tic  the  Micmacs,  Etechemins,  Abenaquis,  Soko- 
\  kes,  Massachusetts  tribes,  Pequods,  Narragan- 
!  setts,  Mohegans,  Lenni  Lenape  or  Delawares, 
Nanticokes,  the  Powhatan  tribes  in  Virginia, 
Pampticoes  in   North  Carolina,  and  Shawnees 
in  the  south.     West  of  the  Mississippi  were 


ALGONQU1NS 


ALIIAMBRA 


809 


the  Blackfect  and  Clieyennes,  regarded  as  iso 
lated  branches  of  the  same  family.  Various 
dialects  of  the  Algonquin  have  been  studied 
and  reduced  to  grammatical  rules,  by  mission 
aries  and  others,  Eliot's  Indian  Bible  being  the 
most  extensive  work  published  in  it,  while  the 
labors  of  Eliot,  Edwards,  Roger  Williams,  House, 
Schoolcruft,  Zeisberger,  Du  Ponceau,  Gravier, 
Rale,  Le  Boulanger,  Baraga,  and  Cuoq  furnish 
the  best  data  for  study  and  comparison.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  the  Algon- 
quins  numbered  apparently  more  than  a  quar 
ter  of  a  million;  and  the  survivors  must  even 
now  number  40,000. — There  is  no  little  con 
fusion  in  the  later  writers  as  to  the  locality  of 
the  Algonquin  tribe,  from  which  the  family 
took  its  name ;  but  from  the  earlier  explorers 
it  is  evident  that  they  lived  on  the  Ottawa 
river,  the  chief  band  being  called  also  Kichi- 
sipirini  (men  of  the  great  river).  They  were 
enemies  of  the  Iroquois,  and  levied  a  sort  of 
toll  on  all  the  canoes  that  passed  down  the 
river  to  trade  with  Europeans.  They  induced 
the  French  to  join  in  the  war  against  the  Iro 
quois,  but  were  almost  annihilated  by  war  and 
disease.  The  only  remnant  of  the  Algonquins 
is  at  the  Lake  of  the  Two  Mountains.  Their  | 


dialect  has  been  modified  by  intermixture  with 
the  kindred  Nipissings  and  O  jib  ways,  so  that  its 
original  dialectic  forms  are  scarcely  traceable. 

ALGUAZIL,  or  ilgnacil,  in  Spain,  an  inferior 
officer  of  the  law,  answering  to  a  constable  or 
bailiff.  The  alguazils  are  appointed  by  the 
judges,  the  alguazil  mayor  or  head  constable 
by  the  town  council. 

ALHAMA,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  Spain., 
from  the  Arabic  al  and  hammiyat,  a  warm 
bath.  The  most  important  is  about  25  in.  S. 
W.  of  Granada,  picturesquely  situated  in  the 
Sierra  de  Tejada;  pop.  about  7,500.  Its  mine 
ral  waters  were  in  much  request  among  the 
Moors,  wRo  drew  a  large  revenue  from  the 
springs.  The  water  is  sulphurous,  strongly  im 
pregnated  with  nitrogen  gas,  and  on  the  surface 
a  substance  like  oil  may  be  observed  ;  while  in 
cold  weather  a  sort  of  soapy  substance  is  de 
posited  on  the  pipes  through,  which  the  water 
passes.  In  Roman  times  the  site  was  occupied 
by  Artigi  (or  Astigi)  Juliensis,  one  of  the  chief 
inland  cities  of  Ba3tica.  It  was  afterward  a 
Moorish  stronghold,  in  which  the  treasury  of 
the  kings  of  Granada  was  guarded.  It  was 
captured  by  the  Spaniards  by  a  night  assault  in 
February,  1482. 


The  Alhambra,  from  the  Albaycin. 


ALHAMBRA  (Ar.  KaV -al-liamrah,  the  red 
castle),  a  suburb  of  Granada,  fortified  in  the 
strongest  manner  known  to  the  middle  ages, 
capable  of  containing  40,000  men,  and  enclos 
ing  the  exquisite  remains  of  a  Moorish  palace, 
whose  beauties  have  been  celebrated  by  all 
travellers,  and  admirably  illustrated  by  the  pen 
of  Washington  Irving.  Situated  in  the  midst 
of  noble  woods,  surrounded  by  gardens,  and 
built  with  sumptuousness  and  yet  with  taste, 
this  beautiful  spot  contained  everything  that 
could  contribute  to  the  security  and  gratifica 


tion  of  the  Granadian  princes.  The  Hall  of 
Lions  is  the  grand  apartment  of  the  palace ;  it 
is  so  called  from  a  splendid  fountain  supported 
by  lions,  and  is  entirely  constructed  of  marble 
and  alabaster,  and  ornamented  with  the  most 
delicate  fretwork  and  arabesques.  The  Hall 
of  the  Abencerrages  is  still  more  beautiful. 
The  ceiling  is  of  cedar  wood,  inlaid  with 
mother-of-pearl,  ivory,  and  silver;  and  the 
walls  are  stuccoed  and  ornamented  with  ara 
besques  of  the  most  elegant  and  intricate  de 
sign.  The  colors  still  retain  their  brilliancy, 


310 


ALIIOXDEGA 


ALI 


and  the  delicate  filigree  and  tracery  are  in  per 
fect  order,  after  a  lapse  of  500  years.  The 
principal  building;  was  begun  by  Ibn  al-Ahmar 
in  12-48,  and  finished  by  his  grandson  Moham 
med  III.  about  1314,  but  the  principal  decora 
tor  was  Yusuf  I. 
Since  the  Castil- 
ian  conquest  of 
Granada  it  has 
undergone  a  se 
ries  of  disfig 
urements  almost, 
without  interrup 
tion.  Charles  V. 
modernized  some 
of  its  most  charac 
teristic  portions 
in  order  to  fit  it 
for  his  own  resi 
dence.  Successive 
governors  after 
ward  pillaged  it. 
The  French  blew 
up  eight  of  the 
towers  and  tried 
to  demolish  the 
whole;  and  it  is 
only  within  ten 
years  that  the  re 
mains  have  re 
ceived  intelligent 
care.  The  palace 
is  now  under  the 
charge  of  a  gov 
ernor  and  a  num 
ber  of  invalid  sol 
diers.  The  Al- 
hambra  style  is 
reproduced  in  a 
particular  court 
in  the  crystal  pal 
ace  at  Sydenham; 
and  Owen  Jones  has  published  a  work  richly 
illustrated  on  the  ornamentation  and  architec 
ture  of  the  Alhambra. 

ALIIOXDEGA,  a  fortified  granary  in  the  sub 
urbs  of  Guanajuato,  Mexico,  which  gives  its 
name  to  the  first  battle  between  the  insurgents 
and  the  troops  of  the  mother  country  in  1810.  Af 
ter  the  priest  Hidalgo  had  taken  up  arms,  he  first 
endeavored  to  attack  Guanajuato,  against  which 
he  marched  Sept.  28.  Rianon,  the  commander, 
did  not  attempt  to  defend  the  city,  but  shut 
himself  up  with  the  Spanish  troops  and  old 
Spaniards  in  the  Alhondega.  The  Spaniards 
were  well  armed,  and  the  troops  of  Hidalgo, 
except  two  Creole  regiments,  were  equipped 
with  slings,  bows,  pikes,  machetes  or  cane 
knives,  and  clubs.  The  Indians  assaulted  the 
place  with  great  gallantry,  charging  up  to  the 
Spanish  artillery,  which  they  sought  to  muzzle 
with  their  hats  and  blankets.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Spanish  fire  did  fearful  execution, 
until  at  last,  the  guns  being  without  balls, 
shells  were  improvised  by  filling  with  powder 
the  iron  flasks  in  which  quicksilver  was  brought 


Interior  of  the  Alhambra — Hall  of  the  Abencerrages. 


from  Spam,  and  firing  them  among  the  assail 
ants.  It  has  also  been  said  that  bags  of  dollars 
were  used  instead  of  grape-shot  by  the  des 
perate  defenders.  At  last  Rianon  was  killed, 
the  works  were  carried  by  storm,  and  the  whole 
garrison  was  mas 
sacred.  The  num 
ber  of  victims  is 
estimated  at  2, 000, 
one  family  alone 
having  lost  17 
members.  The 
battle  terminated 
on  Friday  night, 
and  on  Saturday 
morning  not  a 
Spaniard  was  alive 
in  the  city,  and  the 
very  houses  they 
had  occupied  were 
destroyed. 

ALI,  pasha  of 
Janina,  born  at 
Tepeleni,  Albania, 
about  1741,  exe 
cuted  in  February, 
1822.  His  family 
had  for  genera 
tions  held  the  town 
and  territory  of 
Tepeleni  as  a  fief 
from  the  pasha  of 
Berat.  His  father, 
having  been  driv 
en  from  his  home 
by  his  own  broth 
ers,  afterward  be 
sieged  them  at  the 
head  of  a  troop  of 
klephts  and  burn 
ed  them  alive.  His 
mother,  of  the 
wealthy  Kamco  family,  was  noted  for  her  fero 
cious  character.  At  her  instigation  the  young 
Ali  affiliated  with  brigands,  and  having  regained 
his  father's  estates,  made  marauding  incursions 
into  neighboring  territories.  His  subsequent 
alliance  with  the  pasha  of  Janina,  and  the  ex 
tent  of  his  depredations,  subjected  him  for  some 
time  to  the  displeasure  of  the  Porte ;  but  after 
the  execution  of  his  father-in-law,  the  pasha  of 
Delvino,  and  the  marriage  of  the  latter's  suc 
cessor  with  Ali's  sister,  lie  acquired  supporters 
at  the  divan,  and  procured  the  appointment  of 
sub-inspector  of  highways,  in  which  post  he 
compounded  with  robbers  for  a  share  of  the 
booty.  His  superior  was  beheaded,  while  Ali 
saved  himself  by  timely  presents  at  Constanti 
nople.  During  the  war  of  1787  and  the  suc 
ceeding  years,  between  the  Porte  and  Russia 
and  Austria,  Ali  Pasha,  though  keeping  up  a 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  Russians, 
rendered  good  service  to  Turkey.  He  obtained 
the  appointment  of  inspector  of  public  high 
ways,  with  peremptory  orders  to  suppress 
brigandage.  Levying  a  strong  force,  he  soon 


ALI 


ALIBERT 


311 


carried  out  his  instructions,  and  having  cleared  : 
the  roads  and  made  war  on  his  former  ally,  the  j 
pasha  of  Janina,  lie  concocted  a  forged  order 
from  the  Porte  under  which  he  occupied  that 
pashalic,  the  subordinate  beys  of  which  were  | 
in  a  state  of  open  revolt.     His  public  services,  j 
and  still  more  his  bribery,  procured  him  the  ap-  ' 
pointment  to  the  pashalic  in  1788,  and  by  force  | 
or   fraud  he  extended  his  dominion  over  the  ! 
greater  part  of  northern  Greece.     He   seized 
the  Venetian  territories  on  the  coast  of  Alba 
nia  so  soon  as  the  French  army  occupied  the  | 
Italian  possessions  of  the  republic  in  1797,  and  ; 
opened  a  negotiation  with   Xapoleon  for  his  j 
support  in  case  the  French  expedition  against 
Turkey  should  succeed.     Xapoleon  sent  M.  de 
Pouqueville  to  Janina;  but  on  the  defeat  of 
the  French  in  Egypt  Ali  Pasha  sided  with  the 
Turks  and  the  English,  and  assisted  in  driving 
out  the  French  from  Prevesa  and  Parga  (1802).  j 
He  carried  on  a  war  of  extermination  against 
the  Suliotes,  an  independent  Christian  moun 
taineer  population  of  Epirus,  and  subdued  them  j 
(1803)  after  three  years'  heroic  resistance  on 
their  part.     He  still  continued  to  keep  up  a 
show  of  allegiance  to  the  Porte,  by  which  he  ; 
was  appointed  governor  general  of  Roumelia.  j 
His  schemes  of  aggrandizement  were  notorious,  | 
but   he    bribed    Turkish    officials,    and   never  j 
openly  set  the  power  of  the   Porte   at  defi-  ; 
ance.     This  cautious  policy  was  at  last  forgot 
ten.     Ismail  Pasha,  a  former  confidant  of  Ali, 
held  an  appointment  at  Constantinople.     Ali, 
either  from  revenge  or  fear  of  disclosures,  hired 
assassins  to  kill  him.     The  attempt  having  fail 
ed,  the  assassins  made  a  full  confession.     Ali 
was  now  outlawed.    An  army  marched  against 
him,  which  he  at  first  repulsed  (1821),  but  at  | 
last,  besieged  by  Kurshid  Pasha  in  Janina,  and  j 
deserted  by  his  Ottoman  adherents,  he  retired  to  \ 
a  stronghold  on  the  lake,  in  which  he  kept  his 
treasures  and  his  magazine,  threatening  to  blow 
himself  up  unless  he  received  an  amnesty.    The  I 
cupidity  of  the  Turks   being   aroused   by  his 
treasure,  it  became   important  to   secure  the  • 
place.     The  incidents  of  the  closing  scene  are 
variously  narrated;  but  the  general  facts  are  ; 
that  he  was  deluded  by  a  pretended  firman  of  | 
pardon  into  a  personal  interview  with    Kur 
shid.  Pasha,  in   which  he  was   attended  by  a 
small  body  of  his  officers.      In  this  interview 
the   sultan's    commands   for   his    decapitation 
were  made  known,  on  which  Ali  Pasha  imme 
diately   fired    at  his   enemies,    and   killed   or 
wounded   some,  but   was   himself  shot   dead. 
His  head  was  cut  off" and  sent  to  Constantinople. 
Only  about  20,000,000  francs  of  his  money  were 
found  by  the  Turks.     His  daughters  were  sold 
as  slaves ;  his  sons  were  all  put  to  death  ;  his 
daughter-in-law  was  dishonored  and  drowned. 
As  he  contributed  to  the  prosperity  of  the  ter 
ritories  under  his  rule,  he  u  as  regarded  as  rather 
an  enlightened  ruler  by  many  Englishmen,  in 
cluding  Lord  Byron,  who  visited  him  at  Janina. 
ALI  (Ali  ben  Abu  Taleb),  a  Mohammedan  caliph, 
reigned  055-661.    He  was  adopted  and  brought 


up  by  Mohammed,  his  blood  relation,  married 
the  prophet's  daughter  Fatima,  and  is  believed 
to  have  been  his  first  disciple.  On  the  cleat] i 
of  Mohammed  without  male  issue,  he  I>  t<l 
claims  as  next  of  kin  to  the  succession ;  hi  _.  he 
deferred  to  those  of  Abubekr,  Omar,  and  Oth- 
mau,  who  were  successively  elected  by  the 
Moslems,  and  were  supported  by  Ayesha,  the 
prophet's  widow,  an  inveterate  enemy  of  Ali. 
It  was  not  till  after  the  assassination  of  Oth- 
man  that  he  assumed  the  sovereign  power. 
The  question  of  his  right  to  the  succession  di 
vides  the  Mohammedan  world  into  the  two 
great  sects  of  Sunnis  and  Shiahs,  the  former 
denying  Ali's  right,  the  latter  affirming  it. 
Ali's  first  act  of  power  was  the  suppression  of 
a  rebellion  fomented  by  other  pretenders  to  the 
crown,  who  were  abetted  by  Ayesha.  The 
rebels  Zoba'ir  and  Talha  were  defeated  and 
slain,  and  Ayesha  was  taken  prisoner.  A  new 
opponent  soon  arose  in  Moawiyah,  who  suc 
ceeded  in  establishing  himself  in  Damascus, 
and  even  carried  the  war  into  Ali's  own  terri 
tories  and  seized  the  two  holy  cities.  Three 
fanatics,  having  determined  on  ridding  the 
world  of  both  pretenders,  succeeded  in  killing 
Ali,  but  failed  in  their  attempt  on  the  life  of 
Moawiyah.  Ali  left  three  sons,  one  of  whom, 
Hassan,  succeeded  him  for  a  short  time. 

ALIBAUD,  Louis,  a  Frenchman  notorious  for 
his  attempt  to  murder  Louis  Philippe,  born  at 
Ximes  in  1810,  died  on  the  scaffold,  July  11, 
1836.  In  his  18th  year  he  entered  the  army 
as  a  volunteer.  During  the  revolution  of  1830 
he  went  over  to  the  popular  side,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  barricades.  Invalided  in  1834, 
he  resided  alternately  at  Perpignan,  Barcelona, 
and  Paris.  Etis  attempt  to  shoot  the  king,  in 
spired  by  political  fanaticism  and  a  morbid 
satiety  of  life,  was  made  June  25,  1836,  as  his 
majesty  was  leaving  the  Tuileries  in  his  carriage. 
Being  instantly  seized  by  the  soldiery,  his  only 
regret  was  that  he  had  failed  in  his  endeavor. 

ALIBERT,   Jean    Louis,    a   French   physician, 
known  for  his  study  of  cutaneous  diseases,  born 
in  Villefranche,  May  26,  1776,  died  in  Paris, 
Xov.  6,  1837.     His  inaugural  thesis,  on  "  Perni 
cious  Intermittent  Fevers,'' passed  through  five 
;  editions  and  had  an  unusual  success  for  a  treat- 
I  ise  of  that  nature.  About  1803  he  was  appointed 
\  physician  to   the   hospital  St.  Louis  in   Paris, 
:  and  immediately  began  the  investigation  of  dis- 
;  eases  of  the  skin,  publishing  in  1806  the  first 
numbers  of  his  great  work  on  cutaneous  diseases. 
In  1821  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  the 
rapeutics  in  the  faculty  of  medicine.     He  wrote 
on  a  variety  of  medical  subjects,  and  was  re 
markable  for  an  elegant  style.     He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  xocicte  m-cdicale  cVemula- 
tion,   and   several  of  the  addresses  which  he 
pronounced   before    this   society  did  much  to 
establish  his  literary  reputation.  *•  He  was  phy 
sician  in  ordinary  to  Louis  XVIII.,  by  whoin^he 
was  created  a  baron  and  officer  of  the  legion 
of  honor.     He  was  also  physician  to  Charles  X. 
His  principal  works  are  :  Traite  desjievres  per- 


312 


ALI  BEY 


ALIEN 


nicieuses  intermittent^  (180-4) ;  Description  des 
maladies  de  la  peau  observees  a  fhopital  St. 
Louis  (large  folio,  with  51  plates,  1806-'26); 
Precis  theorique  et  pratique  sur  les  maladies 
de  la  peau  (1810-'18) ;  Physiologie  des  passions, 
ou  nouielle  doctrine  des  sentiments  moraux 
(1825);  Monographic  des  dcrmatoses  (1832); 
Clinique  de  VJiopital  St.  Louis  (1833). 

ALI  BEY,  a  Caucasian  slave,  who,  by  the  favor 
of  his  master,  Ibrahim  Bey,  rose  to  wealth  and 
importance  in  Egypt,  and  became  one  of  the 
Mameluke  beys,  born  in  1728,  died  in  1773.    He 
became  chief  of  the  Mamelukes  in  1763,  and,  ; 
having  secured  himself  adherents  in  Cairo,  he  \ 
slaughtered   the    other  beys  in  1706,  and  as 
sumed   the  government,  proclaiming   himself 
sultan    in    1768.      The    Porte,   then    occupied  ' 
with  war  against  Eussia,  left  him  uncontrolled. 
His  idea,  derived  from  intercourse  with  Euro 
peans,   was   the   restoration   of  the   Egyptian 
kingdom.     He  formed  an  alliance  with  l)aher,  | 
pasha  of  A-cre,  and  they  seized  on  Mecca,  and 
sent  a  fleet  into  the  Red  sea.     In  1770  they 
overran   Syria,   and   Daher    and   Mohammed,  | 
All's  general  and  adopted  son,  having  routed  j 
the  Turkish  army,  were  on  the  point  of  render-  ! 
ing  themselves  masters  of  the  country,  when  1 
Mohammed,  either  alarmed  for  himself  or  gain 
ed  over  by  the  Turks,  precipitately  quitted  the  | 
iirmy,  and,  returning  to  Egypt,  engaged  in  a  | 
war  against  Ali,  who  fled.     The  latter,  how 
ever,  renewed  the  contest  jointly  with  Daher, 
and  for  a  time  with  great  success,  but   was  | 
finally  captured  in  battle  and  slain. 

ALICANTE.     I.  A  S.  E.  maritime  province  of 
Spain,  forming  a  part  of  the  former  kingdom 
of  Valencia;  area,  2,096  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867  | 
(estimated),  426,656.     One  half  of  the  province 
consists   of  a   bare  chain  of  high  mountains,  | 
with  partly  sterile  steppes,  without   trees   or 
water ;  but  the  southern  portion  is  generally 
level  and  fertile,  with  a  mild  climate,  and  agri 
culture  flourishes.      Among  the  products   are  ' 


Alicante 


mineral  salt,  sea  salt,  and  esparto,  besides 
silk,  grain,  and  fruits  of  all  kinds.  The  chief 
river  is  the  Segura.  The  principal  towns, 
besides  the  capital,  are  Alcoy,  Denia,  Villa- 
joyosa,  Jijona,  Monovar,  Elche,  and  Ori- 
huela.  II.  The  capital  of  the  province,  and 
the  principal  port  of  Valencia,  on  a  bay  of  the 
Mediterranean,  230  m.  S.  E.  of  Madrid ;  pop. 
about  32,000.  It  is  situated  partly  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  400  feet  high,  on  the  top  of  which 
is  a  strong  castle,  and  partly  on  the  shore  of 
the  bay.  The  latter  portion  is  modern  and 
elegant.  From  the  northern  slope  of  the  moun 
tain  is  produced  the  celebrated  Aloque  wine. 
The  commerce  of  Alicante  was  formerly  ex 
tensive,  but  has  decreased  during  the  last  20 
years.  The  chief  exports  are  raisins,  almonds, 
olive  oil,  saffron,  and  vanilla.  The  city  has  a 
cathedral,  a  government  tobacco  factory  em 
ploying  about  4,500  girls,  and  a  bull  ring  capa 
ble  of  seating  11,000  persons. 
ALICATA.  See  LICATA. 

ALIEN,  a  person  who  was  born  out  of  the 
jurisdiction  and  allegiance  of  a  country,  and 
who  is  not  a  citizen  of  that  country.     Not  all 
foreign-born  persons  are  aliens  by  our  law,  be 
cause   they   may  be   within    certain   excepted 
classes,  as  the  children  of  the  nation's  ambassa 
dors  born  in  other  countries,  or  of  American 
citizens  temporarily  sojourning  abroad ;  or  they 
may  have  become  citizens   by  naturalization. 
In  the  United  States  citizenship  and  alienage 
are  determined  by  the  laws  of  the  federal  gov 
ernment.     The  subject  of  naturalization  under 
these  laws  is  treated  elsewhere.     (See  NATU- 
EALIZATION.) — Attica,  the  foremost  state  of  an 
cient  Greece,  treated  foreigners  with  much  lib 
erality.     While  Sparta  was  jealous  of  strangers 
and  excluded  them,  at  Athens  foreigners  were 
freely  admitted,  and  at  one  time  constituted  half 
her  residents.     They  were  subjected  to  taxes 
and  to  some  other  light  burdens  and  disabili 
ties  which  were  not  imposed  on  native  citizens; 
but  on  the  whole  the  pol 
icy  observed  toward  them 
•_-  :      \v;is  huiiiaiieaiu]  generous, 
!     and  sometimes  they  were 
received  into  citizenship. 
In  other  states  of  Greece 
!  individuals  and  sometimes 

,:\-      :  whole    classes    of    aliens 

were  endowed  with  civil 
rights,  such  as  the  privi 
lege  of  intermarriage,  of 
holding  real  property,  and 
of  exemption  from  special 
taxation.  In  Home,  un 
der  the  emperors,  foreign 
ers  could  acquire  and  dis 
pose  of  property,  could  de 
vise  and  inherit  it,  and  sue 
in  the  courts ;  and  they  en 
joyed  other  rights  accord 
ed  by  the  jusgentiwn,  that 
is  to  say,  the  mere  natural 
rights  of  persons,  though 


ALIEN 


313 


tliey  were  deemed  the  especial  and  distinctive 
privilege  of  Roman  citizens.  In  Germany  and 
France,  in  the  later  periods,  foreigners  were 
not  only  denied  civil  rights,  but  were  forced  to 
invoke  the  protection  of  the  native  barons  or 
seigneurs,  who  imposed  the  heaviest  exactions 
as  the  price  of  their  protection.  In  France,  in 
some  districts,  the  alien  was  forbidden,  after  a 
certain  term  of  residence,  to  leave  the  lord's 
domain;  and  if  he  died  within  it,  leaving  no 
heirs  there,  the  lord  claimed  the  right  of  suc 
cession  to  his  property.  This  prerogative  of 
the  seigneurs,  later  assumed  by  the  sovereign 
himself,  was  what  in  modern  times  was  known 
as  the  droit  tVaubaine.  It  has  existed  down 
to  a  very  recent  period  in  Europe,  at  least  in 
the  milder  form  of  the  droit  de  detraction,  and 
practically  exists  nowT,  or  did  only  a  few  years 
ago,  as  Mr.  Attorney  General  Gushing  sug 
gested,  in  many  of  our  own  states ;  and  it  is 
the  subject  of  clauses  in  some  of  our  latest 
treaties  with  European  powers.  This  droit 
d'aubaine,  as  it  was  asserted  by  the  king  of 
France,  consisted  sometimes  in  a  right  to  levy  a 
tax  on  strangers  on  certain  occasions,  and  some 
times  in  the  claim  of  inheriting  to  strangers  who 
left  no  heirs  within  the  kingdom.  It  was  abol 
ished  in  France  in  1790,  restored  by  the  Code 
Napoleon  on  the  plea  of  reciprocity,  and  abol 
ished  finally  in  1819,  when  the  right  of  succes 
sion  was  conceded  to  foreigners  to  the  same 
extent  as  it  was  enjoyed  by  native-born  French 
men.  The  French  legislation  has  had  the  effect 
to  break  down  this  exaction  in  other  European 
states ;  but  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
have  not  been  so  liberal.  A  very  recent  treaty 
with  Prussia,  which  will  illustrate  the  present 
international  practice  on  this  point,  contained 
provisions  intended  to  relieve  the  subjects  of 
Prussia  from  their  disabilities  in  respect  to  real 
;ind  personal  property  here,  and  declared  that 
on  the  death  of  such  an  alien  in  possession  of 
property,  his  heirs  should  have  reasonable  time 
to  sell  it  and  withdraw  the  proceeds,  "exempt 
from  all  droits  of  detraction  on  the  part  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States."  Soon  after 
the  conclusion  of  this  treaty,  the  Prussian  min 
ister  complained  that  his  countrymen  did  not 
enjoy  in  all  our  states  the  benefit  of  the  treaty 
stipulation,  and  the  question  arose  whether  the 
federal  government  could  make  a  treaty  whose 
provisions  of  this  character  could  bind  the 
states  ;  for  though  the  federal  government  has 
supreme  and  exclusive  cognizance  of  questions 
of  citizenship  and  alienage  merely,  yet  each  state 
is  at  liberty  to  make  its  own  laws  in  relation 
to  the  enjoyment  and  devolution  of  property 
within  its  own  limits.  The  opinion  of  the  at 
torney  general  was  very  clear  and  explicit  to 
the  effect  that  the  treaty-making  power  of  the 
general  government  must  bind  the  states  as  to 
the  provisions  in  question.  But,  so  far  as  ap 
pears,  no  decision  on  the  subject  has  ever  been 
made  by  the  courts. — As  to  real  property,  sub 
ject  to  the  right  of  forfeiture  in  the  state 
or  sovereign,  aliens  under  the  common  law 


|  may  take  by  act  of  the  party,  as  the  phrase  is, 
though  they  may  not  take  by  act  of  the  law. 
In  other  words,  an  alien  may  take  real  estate 
by  purchase,   or  even  by  devise,  these  being 
acts  of  parties ;  but  he  cannot  take  by  inherit- 
|  ance,  for  that  is  a  mere  operation  of  the  law. 
j  When  the  alien  takes,  as  in  the  two  former 
!  cases,  the  estate  vests  in  him,  and  he  may  hold 
j  it  against  every  one  but  the  state ;  nor  can  the 
I  state   enforce   its   right  of  forfeiture   without 
|  proceedings  for  that  purpose,  or,  in  legal  phra- 
i  seology,   without  an  inquest   of  office   found. 
Until  this  is  done,  the  alien  may  exercise  com- 
|  plete  legal  domain  over  the  property,  just  as  a 
I  citizen  may  do.    But  though  he  may  sell  it,  his 
grantee  takes  no  better  title  than  the  alien  had, 
and  he  is  therefore  as  liable  to  forfeit  the  lands 
I  as  the  alien  was.     At  common  law,  as  just  im- 
i  plied,  the  alien  has  no  inheritable  blood,  that  is 
to  say,  he  can  neither  take  nor  transmit  real 
!  property  by  descent.     Thus   it  was   formerly 
!  held  that  a  grandson  could  not  inherit  to  his 
!  grandfather,   though    both    were    native-born 
;  subjects,  if  the  intervening  son,  the  grandson's 
|  father,  were  an  alien.     But  a  statute  was  pass- 
|  ed  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  which  cured 
i  this  disability,   by  providing  that  native-born 
i  citizens  might  inherit  to  their  ancestors,  not- 
!  withstanding  the  alienage  of  any  intervening 
|  ancestor.     This  statute  was  reenacted  in  1830 
i  in  New  York,  and  in  many  other  states  before 
!  that  time. — The  disabilities  of  aliens  in  respect 
to  real  property  have  been  materially  lessened 
j  in  most  of  our  states ;  and  in  some  they  are 
I  entirely  removed,   as  in  Massachusetts,  Mary- 
;  land,   Florida,    Ohio,    Illinois,    Iowa,   Wiscon- 
i  sin,  Nebraska,  Dakota,  and  Nevada.     In  New 
;  York,  South  Carolina,  Texas,  and  many  others, 
the  alien  may  take,  hold,  and  devise  lands  after 
declaring  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen  in 
'  conformity  with  the  naturalization  laws.     In 
i  Connecticut  and  California  the  alien,  if  a  resi 
dent  in  the  state,  may  purchase,  hold,  inherit, 
and  transmit  lands  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
citizen.     The  right  of  forfeiture,  it  should  be 
i  observed,  is  very  rarely  exercised  by  the  states ; 
!  on  the  contrary,  the  legislatures  are  very  liberal 
;  in  making  laws  to  cure  defects  of  titles  arising 
'  out  of  the  alienage  of  former  holders,  and  in 
1  releasing  in  favor  of  the  natural  heirs  the  right 
of  escheat  which    may  have   accrued  to   the 
state  by  the  death  of  an  alien  ancestor  in  pos 
session  of  lands. — In  respect  to  personal  prop 
erty,  aliens  may  at  common  law  take,  hold,  and 
dispose  of  it,  and  make   and  enforce  contracts 
i  in  respect  to  it,  just  as  native  citizens  may  do. 
An  alien  in  New  York  may  take  a  purchase- 
money  mortgage  on  land  sold  by  him,  and  on  a 
foreclosure  may  buy  and  hold  the  land.     But 
it  is  doubtful  whether  he  could  make  such  a 
purchase   on   foreclosure  of  his  mortgage  on 
lands  in  which  he  never  had  any  other  title 
than  the  mortgage.     The  revisers  in  1830  pro 
posed  a  section  to  confer  the  power,  but  it  was 
not  adopted. — An  alien  enemy,  that  is  to  say, 
the  subject  of  a  state  actually  at  war  with  us, 


ALIEN 


ALIMENT 


cannot  maintain  an  action  in  our  courts,  unless 
he  is  here  by  license  of  our  government  or  is 
otherwise  under  its  protection.  But  an  alien 
friend,  whether  resident  here  or  not,  may  sustain 
in  our  courts  an  action  like  our  own  citizens  for 
any  injury  to  his  person  or  rights.  As  to  non 
resident  aliens,  an  illustration  of  the  rule  is 
furnished  by  the  suits  for  infringement  of  trade 
marks  in  this  country,  which  have  been  in 
several  instances  maintained  by  English  manu 
facturers.  Suits  by  or  against  aliens,  whether 
living  here  or  abroad,  to  which  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  is  an  opposite  party,  may  be 
brought  under  the  laws  of  the  federal  govern 
ment  in  the  United  States  circuit  courts ;  and 
suits  by  aliens  for  torts  in  violation  of  the  law 
of  nations  may  be  brought  in  the  district  courts. 
Upon  the  outbreak  of  a  war  with  the  alien's 
country  his  civil  capacity  to  sue  is  suspended, 
and  his  property  is  subject  to  confiscation.  A 
statute  of  the  United 'States  of  1798,  still  in 
force,  provides  that  in  such  an  event  the  sub 
jects  of  the  hostile  nation  within  our  territory 
may  be  restrained,  secured,  or  removed  as  alien 
enemies,  though  they  shall  be  allowed  such 
time  for  removal  of  their  effects  as  is  provided 
by  treaties  with  their  countries.  Aliens  are  in 
capable  of  serving  on  juries,  voting,  or  holding 
office.  Where  they  can  hold  property,  they 
are  generally  subject  to  militia  duty  and  the 
other  burdens  and  taxes  of  citizens.  The  prac 
tice  of  trying  aliens  by  a  jury  de  medietate  lin- 
guoz  (half  aliens)  lias  fallen  into  general  disuse. 
The  power  to  expel  aliens  from  the  state  is 
vested  in  France  in  the  minister  of  the  interior, 
and  in  England  and  America  theoretically  in 
the  executive,  though  it  has  never  been  exer 
cised  in  either  of  the  two  latter  countries  ex 
cept  in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  parliament  or  of 
congress.  Such  an  act  was  passed  in  England 
in  1848,  but  a  report  made  in  1850  showed 
that  it  had  not  been  enforced  in  a  single  in 
stance. — In  England  some  important  points  of 
the  law  respecting  aliens  have  been  lately  set 
tled  by  the  enactment  of  the  naturalization  act 
of  1870.  It  declares  that  henceforth  real  and 
personal  property  of  every  description  may  be 
taken,  acquired,  held,  and  disposed  of  by  an 
alien,  in  the  same  manner  in  all  respects  as  by 
a  native-born  British  subject;  and  that  a  title 
to  real  and  personal  property  of  every  descrip 
tion  may  be  derived  from,  through,  or  in  suc 
cession  to  an  alien,  as  it  may  be  from  a  native 
citizen  of  the  kingdom.  The  act  also  provides 
that  any  alien  naturalized  in  Great  Britain  may 
make  a  declaration  of  alienage  after  proclama 
tion  of  any  treaty  with  his  native  state  which 
insures  that  privilege  for  its  subjects  ;  and  also 
that  any  person  born  out  of  her  majesty's  do 
minions  of  a  British  father  may,  if  of  full  age 
and  under  no  disability,  make  a  declaration  of 
alienage.  From  the  passage  of  the  act  no  alien 
shall  be  entitled  to  be  tried  by  a  jury  de  medie 
tate  lingua,  but  shall  be  triable  like  a  native 
British  subject.  Provisos  of  the  act  declare 
that  its  terms  shall  not  qualify  an  alien  for  any 


office  or  for  any  municipal,  parliamentary,  or 
other  franchise,  nor  enable  him  to  enjoy  any 
rights  or  privileges  as  a  British  subject,  except 
the  rights  and  privileges  as  to  property  con 
ceded  by  the  act.  Other  significant  but  less  im 
portant  provisions  are  contained  in  the  statute. 

ALIGHIEUI,  Dante  degli.     See  DASTE. 

ALIGIIIR,  or  Allygurli.  I.  A  district  of  Brit 
ish  India,  in  the  Meerut  division  of  the  North 
western  Provinces,  between  lat.  27°  27'  and 
28°  ll'N.,  and  Ion.  77°  32'  and  78°  47'  E.  ; 
area,  2,149  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  about  1,200,000.  With 
the  exception  of  a  ridge  near  the  middle  of  the 
district,  the  surface  is  almost  level.  The  crops 
are  wheat,  barley,  millet,  pulse,  indigo,  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  sugar.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
century  Alighur  was  the  seat  of  power  of  the 
French  adventurer  Perron.  II.  A  fort  in  the 
preceding  district,  55  m.  N.  of  Agra,  on  the 
road  to  Meerut.  It  was  held  by  Perron  with 
a  force  of  Mahrattas  in  1803,  and  was  stormed 
by  the  British „ Sept,  4,  about  2,000  of  the 
garrison  falling  in  the  assault.  A  regiment  of 
sepoys  mutinied  here  in  May,  1857,  and  held 
the  place  till 'October,  the  English  escaping 
without  loss  of  life. 

ALOIEXT,  or  Food,  all  the  solid  and  liquid 
substances  requisite  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
body.  The  living  body  is  in  a  constant  state 
of  change.  Every  one  of  its  motions,  every 
exertion  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  even  the 
contractions  of  the  heart  and  the  movements 
of  respiration,  are  attended  by  the  disintegra 
tion  of  some  portion  of  the  tissues,  which  must 
be  renovated  in  order  to  maintain  their  vital 
activity.  This  constant  waste  of  tissues  de 
mands  a  corresponding  supply  of  food,  by 
which  the  loss  may  be  made  good.  Properly 
speaking,  all  the  ingredients  of  the  body  con 
stantly  require  to  be  replaced,  and  must  there 
fore  form  a  part  of  the  food.  Alimentary  ma 
terials  are  accordingly  divided  into  groups,  dis 
tinguished  from  each  other  by  certain  char 
acteristics.  1.  The  first  comprises  the  inor 
ganic  substances  proper,  namely,  water  and 
the  mineral  salts.  They  are  all  essential  as 
ingredients  of  the  food,  since  they  form  an  es 
sential  part  of  the  bodily  frame.  Of  these  in 
organic  substances,  water  is  the  most  abundant 
and  the  most  constantly  indispensable.  It  forms 
from  two  thirds  to  three  quarters  of  the  entire 
mass  of  the  human  body,  and  is  constantly  dis 
charged  from  the  body  by  the  perspiration, 
the  respiration,  and  the  urine.  The  water 
thus  lost  must  consequently  be  replaced  by  that 
which  is  taken  with  the  food  and  drink.  The 
quantity  of  water  taken  in  to  supply  the  wants 
of  the  system  is  for  an  adult  man,  on  the  aver 
age,  about  4^  pounds  per  day.  Of  the  mineral 
salts  which  are  necessary  constituents  of  the 
body  and  of  the  food,  chloride  of  sodium,  or 
common  salt,  and  phosphate  of  lime  are  the 
most  important.  They  exist  in  greater  or  less 
abundance  in  every  one  of  the  solids  and  fluids 
of  the  body.  Chloride  of  sodium,  for  example, 
i  is  present  in  the  blood  in  the  proportion  of  4^ 


ALIMEXT 


315 


parts  per  thousand  ;    and   phosphate    of  lime  j 
exists  in  the  bones  and  other  solid  tissues  in 
much  greater  proportion.  Both  these  substances 
are  also  ingredients  of  the  food.     Chloride  of 
sodium  is  found  in  muscular  flesh,  or  lean  meat, 
in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  per  thousand,  ; 
and  we  are  also  in  the  habit  of  adding  it  to  the  | 
food  as  a  condiment.     Breeders  of  sheep,  cat-  j 
tie,  and  horses  always  find  that  a  liberal  sup-  ! 
ply  of  common  salt  improves  greatly  the  con-  | 
dition  of  the  animals.   Phosphate  of  lime  exists 
in  the  muscular  flesh  of  animals,  in  fish,  oysters, 
eggs,  in  the  cereal  grains,  in  peas,  beans,  pota-  I 
toes,  beets,  turnips,  &c.,  and  even  in  most  of 
the  juicy  fruits.     The  alkaline  salts,  the  car 
bonates  of  soda  and  potassa,  are  also  necessary 
to   the   nourishment   of  the  body;    since  the 
blood  and  most  of  the  secretions  must  have  an 
alkaline  reaction,  and  this  reaction  is  for  the 
most  part  communicated  to  them  by  the  pres 
ence  of  the  carbonates  of  soda  and  potassa. 
Unlike  the  mineraj  salts,  however,  the  alkaline 
carbonates  are  not  usually  introduced  into  the 
body  under  their  own  form.    Many  of  the  sum-  j 
mer  fruits  and  vegetables  contain  salts  of  soda  j 
and  potassa   combined  with  various  organic  | 
acids,  such  as  the  malates,  tartrates,  and  ci 
trates  of  these  bases.     These  salts  are  decom-  ! 
posed  in  the  interior  of  the  body,  and  their  | 
vegetable  acids  replaced  by  the  carbonic  acid,  j 
Thus  they  become  alkaline  salts,  and  provide  j 
for  the  proper  constitution  of  the  animal  flu 
ids.     2.  Another  group  of  the  alimentary  sub 
stances  comprises  starch  and  sugar.    These  two 
resemble  each  other  in  their  chemical  constitu 
tion,  being  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen  alone.     They  are  further  connected  by 
the  fact  that  starch  may  by  various  means  be 
converted  into  sugar.     The  readiest  mode  of 
doing  this  is  perhaps  by  boiling  with  a  dilute 
acid.     If  320  grains  of  starch  be  boiled  for  five  I 
hours  with  about  two  fluid  drachms  of  sul-  | 
phuric  acid  in  a  pint  of  water,  it  will  be  found  I 
to  have  lost  the  properties  of  starch  and  ac 
quired  the  sweet  taste  and  other  characteristic  i 
qualities  of  sugar.     There  are  various   other  | 
modes  by  which  the  same  change  may  be  ac 
complished;    and  in  fact  in  very  many  in 
stances,  if  not  in  all,  in  which  sugar  is  formed 
in  the  juices  of  vegetables,  it  has  first  appeared 
in  the  form  of  starch.     Of  the  substances  be 
longing  to  this  group,  the  different  varieties  of 
starch  are  the  most  abundant.    Starch  is  found,  I 
in  the  form  of  minute  rounded  grains,  in  a  vast  j 
number  of  vegetable  productions.     It  is  abun-  j 
dant  in  wheat  flour,  in  rice,  Indian  corn,  rye,  j 
barley,   oats,    potatoes,   peas,  and  beans,   and 
enters  in  smaller  proportion  into  nearly  every 
article  of  vegetable  food.     In  the  process  of  I 
cooking,  or  heating  the  starch  in  contact  with 
water,  its  grains  swell  up,  become   softened, 
absorb  water,  and  at  last,  if  the  heat  be  suffi 
ciently  long  continued  and  the  water  sufficiently 
abundant,  they  fuse  together  into  a  gelatinous, 
homogeneous  mass.     In  this  condition  they  are 
much  more  digestible  than  in  the  raw  state, 


and  it  is  in  this  form  that  starch  is  almost  al 
ways  actually  used  as  food.  Sugar  is  also  taken 
not  only  in  its  purified  form,  as  an  addition 
to  other  substances,  but  also  as  a  natural  in 
gredient  in  the  sweet  juices  of  nearly  all  the 
fruits  and  most  vegetables.  Wheat  flour  con 
tains  5  per  cent,  of  sugar,  milk  nearly  5  per 
cent.,  beets  9  per  cent.,  pears  over  10  per  cent., 
and  peaches  and  cherries  from  16  to  18  per 
cent.  Vegetable  substances  containing  starch 
and  sugar  are  always  useful,  and  in  the  long 
run  indispensable  for  maintaining  health  in  the 
human  species.  A  diet  exclusively  composed 
of  meat  and  other  animal  substances  becomes 
after  a  short  time  exceedingly  distasteful,  and 
an  almost  irresistible  desire  is  experienced  for 
food  of  a  vegetable  origin.  This  is  an  instinct 
ive  demand  of  the  system.  Even  dried  or  pre 
served  vegetables  will  not  answer  the  purpose 
indefinitely,  for  there  is  something  in  the  fresh 
vegetable  juices  which  is  essential  to  health ; 
and  if  fresh  vegetables  are  excluded  from  the 
food  for  a  long  time,  all  the  symptoms  of  scurvy 
begin  to  manifest  themselves,  showing  a  gener 
ally  disordered  condition  of  the  nutritive  func 
tions.  3.  A  third  group  of  alimentary  ma 
terials  comprises  the  fats.  These  substances, 
like  starch  and  sugar,  consist  of  carbon,  hydro 
gen,  and  oxygen  as  their  chemical  elements, 
but  the  proportions  in  which  the  elements  are 
combined  are  not  analogous  to  those  in  the 
former  group ;  and  the  fats  have  other  dis 
tinctive  characteristics  also.  They  are  both  of 
animal  and  vegetable  origin.  They  constitute 
the  greater  part  of  the  adipose  tissue  or  fat  of 
animals,  more  than  25  per  cent,  of  the  yolk  of 
eggs,  the  whole  of  the  butter  derived  from 
cow's  milk,  9  per  cent,  of  Indian  corn,  32  per 
cent,  of  olives,  and  in  walnuts  and  filberts  as 
much  as  50  or  even  60  per  cent.  Fat,  in  some 
one  or  more  of  these  forms,  is  extremely  useful 
and  perhaps  indispensable  as  an  article  of  food. 
The  fact  that  it  constitutes  over  34-  per  cent,  of 
human  milk,  which  is  the  first  and  exclusive 
food  of  the  infant,  shows  this  to  be  the  case,  at 
least  for  that  age ;  and  the  general  desire  which 
is  felt  by  the  healthy  appetite  for  a  certain  pro 
portion  of  fat  is  a  sufficient  indication  of  its 
importance.  4.  The  last  group  of  alimentary 
materials  comprises  albuminoid  substances. 
(See  ALBUMEN.)  They  are  distinguished  from 
both  the  starchy  and  fatty  substances  by  the 
fact  that  they  all  contain  nitrogen ;  and  they 
are  sometimes  designated  as  the  nitrogenous 
elements,  in  distinction  from  the  others,  which 
are  non-nitrogenous.  The  albumen  of  the 
white  of  egg  is  one  of  the  most  important 
and  familiar.  A  substance  very  similar  in 
composition  to  albumen,  namely,  musculine, 
forms  the  principal  mass  of  muscular  flesh,  and 
is  the  chief  ingredient  in  lean  meat  used  for 
food.  Caseine  is  present  in  milk,  and  in  a  co 
agulated  form  constitutes  the  principal  part  of 
cheese.  Legumine  is  found  in  peas  and  beans, 
and  gluten  is  the  albuminoid  ingredient  of 
wheat  flour.  Altogether,  an  adult  man  usually 


316 


ALIMENT 


consumes  rather  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  albuminoid  matters  (calculated  in  the 
dry  state)  during  24  hours. — Xo  one  of  the 
groups  of  alimentary  materials  enumerated 
above,  taken  singly,  is  sufficient  for  the  contin 
ued  nourishment  of  the  body.  This  is  sufficiently 
evident  for  the  inorganic  suhstances,  such  as 
water  and  the  mineral  salts.  Vegetables  have 
the  power  of  assimilating  these  matters,  and 
converting  them  into  the  ingredients  of  the 
vegetable  fabric  ;  but  animals  require  for  their 
nourishment  materials  which  are  already  ani 
mal  or  vegetable  in  their  nature.  But  even 
these  suhstances,  combined  with  starch,  sugar, 
or  oil,  are  also  insufficient.  Dumas  and  Milne- 
Edwards  found  that  bees  fed  upon  pure  sugar 
and  water  soon  ceased  to  work,  and  afterward 
perished.  They  thrive  only  when  supplied 
with  waxy  and  other  vegetable  substances  in 
addition.  Magendie  found  that  dogs  fed  upon 
starch  and  sugar,  or  upon  an  exclusive  diet  of 
fat,  became  after  a  time  debilitated,  and  died 
with  symptoms  of  great  disturbance  of  the 
nutritive  functions.  Boussingault  fed  a  duck 
upon  butter  alone  ;  but,  although  the  quantity 
of  this  alimentary  substance  was  abundant, 
namely,  from  1,350  to  1,500  grains  per  day, 
the  animal  at  the  end  of  three  weeks  died  of 
inanition.  All  the  tissues  of  the  body  were 
infiltrated  with  oleaginous  material,  but  this 
substance  had  proved  incapable  of  supporting 
life.  Lehmann  put  himself  upon  a  regimen 
consisting  solely  of  non-nitrogenous  substances, 
such  as  starch,  sugar,  gum,  and  oil,  but  was 
only  able  to  continue  this  course  for  two  or  at 
most  for  three  days  at  a  time,  owing  to  the  dis 
turbance  of  the  general  health  produced  by  it. 
The  unfavorable  symptoms,  however,  rapidly 
disappeared  on  his  resuming  an  ordinary  mixed 
diet.  The  substances  just  mentioned  being  de 
ficient  in  so  important  an  element  as  nitrogen, 
this  was  at  one  time  regarded  as  a  sufficient 
explanation  of  their  inability  to  sustain  life  ; 
and  the  albuminoid  or  nitrogenous  materials 
were  therefore  supposed  to  be  the  only  ab 
solute  and  completely  nutritious  ingredients  of 
the  food.  Direct  experiment,  however,  showed 
that  these  substances  themselves,  when  taken 
alone,  were  also  insufficient.  Magendie  fed 
dogs  upon  pure  gelatine  and  pure  tibrine,  and 
found  at  the  end  of  some  days  that  the  animals 
lost  their  relish  for  the  food,  became  emaciated, 
and  died  with  symptoms  of  inanition.  To  be 
completely  nutritious,  therefore,  the  food  must 
contain  not  one  but  all  of  the  groups  of  ali 
mentary  substances,  and  these  substances  must 
be  present  in  their  true  proportion.  This  shows 
the  futility  of  the  attempts  which  have  some 
times  been  made  to  fix  the  nutritive  value  of 
different  kinds  of  food  by  ascertaining  their 
ultimate  chemical  composition,  and  particularly 
by  the  amount  of  nitrogen  which  they  contain. 
The  nutritious  qualities  of  an  article  of  food 
depend  upon  the  proportion  of  its  different  in 
gredients,  not  only  as  taken  alone,  but  also  as 
used  in  combination  with  other  substances. 


Its  digestibility  and  the  extent  to  which  it  con 
forms  to  the  appetite  and  natural  taste  are  also 
important  elements  in  the  question.  The  nu 
tritive  value  of  an  article  can  therefore  only  be 
determined  by  direct  experiment  and  observa 
tion  ;  that  is,  by  employing  it  as  food,  alone 
and  in  combination.  Thus  all  those  sub 
stances  which  are  found  by  universal  expe 
rience  to  be  the  most  useful  are  distinguished 
by  a  variety  of  composition.  Milk,  which  for 
the  young  infant  is  during  a  certain  period  the 
only  food  employed,  contains  water,  mineral 
salts,  caseine  or  an  albuminoid  ingredient,  but 
ter  or  fat,  and  a  peculiar  variety  of  sugar.  Eggs 
contain  albumen,  water,  fat,  and  salts.  Wheat 
fiour,  as  well  as  the  bread  which  is  made  of  it, 
contains  gluten,  water,  salts,  starch,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  sugar.  In  practice,  at  least 
for  adults,  a  judicious  variety  in  the  diet  is 
found  to  be  indispensable  for  the  maintenance 
of  health. — Of  all  articles  of  food,  bread  is  per 
haps  the  most  important.  The  best  and  most 
nutritious  bread  is  that  made  from  wheat  flour. 
The  Hour  contains,  in  100  parts,  on  the  average, 
72  parts  of  starch,  7T:V  parts  of  gluten,  5  r\  parts 
of  sugar,  and  12  parts  of  water,  together  with 
gum,  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  alkaline 
sulphates,  and  a  little  chloride  of  sodium.  It 
is  first  kneaded  into  a  paste  with  about  one 
half  its  weight  of  water,  a  little  yeast  added 
and  thoroughly  mingled  with  the  mass  by  con 
tinued  kneading,  and  the  dough  then  allowed 
to  remain  for  some  hours  at  a  moderately  warm 
temperature.  During  this  time  the  yeast  ex 
cites  in  the  sugar  of  the  flour  a  fermentation, 
by  which  it  is  converted,  as  in  ordinary  fer 
mentation,  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid.  The 
alcohol  penetrates  the  dough  and  escapes  by 
evaporation.  The  carbonic  acid,  however,  is 
developed  throughout  the  dough  in  the  form 
of  minute  gaseous  bubbles,  which  are  confined 
and  entangled  by  the  tenacious  gluten  of  the 
flour;  and  the  whole  mass  thus  becomes  in 
flated  or  puffed  up  by  the  gaseous  expansion. 
This  is  the  rising  or  fermentation  of  the  dough. 
It  is  then  transferred  to  an  oven  and  kept  there 
at  a  temperature  of  about  380°  E.  until  the 
baking  is  complete.  The  eftect  of  baking  at 
this  high  temperature  is  as  follows :  First,  the 
starch  upon  the  outside  of  the  loaf  is  converted 
into  dextrine  and  hardened  into  a  brownish, 
brittle  layer,  which  is  the  crust ;  secondly,  the 
gluten  throughout  is  also  solidified  and  at  the 
same  time  acquires  an  agreeable  and  whole 
some  flavor  ;  thirdly,  the  starch  grains  become 
swollen,  fused,  and  hydrated,  fixing  perma 
nently  in  their  substance  a  certain  proportion 
of  the  water  with  which  the  flour  was  mingled. 
Thus,  after  baking,  the  bread  always  weighs 
more  than  the  flour  of  which  it  was  made, 
owing  to  the  necessary  combination  of  water 
with  the  starch  in  the  baking  process.  Usually 
one  pound  of  flour  is  found  to  produce  in  this 
way  one  pound  and  a  quarter  of  bread.  When 
removed  from  the  oven  and  cut  open,  the  in 
terior  of  the  loaf  is  seen  to  present  a  spongy 


ALIMENTARY   CANAL 


SIT 


appearance,  owing  to  a  multitude  of  little  cavi 
ties  distributed  through  its  substance.  These 
are  the  cavities  originally  produced  by  the 
bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  developed  in  fermen 
tation,  and  which  retain  their  figure  in  con 
sequence  of  the  stiffening  and  coagulation  of 
the  gluten  by  the  baking  process.  This  is  one 
of  the  main  objects  of  fermentation ;  for  the 
spongy  texture  which  the  bread  thus  receives 
enables  it  to  be  more  easily  masticated  and 
mingled  with  the  saliva  and  gastric  fluids,  and 
thus  renders  it  more  healthy  and  digestible. 
— Cheese  is  made  by  coagulating  the  caseine 
of  milk  with  rennet,  after  which  the  coagulum 
is  compressed,  in  order  to  free  it  from  the 
watery,  oleaginous,  and  saline  ingredients  of 
the  milk ;  and  when  reduced  to  a  sufficiently 
solid  condition,  it  may  be  kept  for  an  indefinite 
time.  In  many  kinds  of  cheese,  however,  more 
or  less  of  the  oily  ingredients  of  the  milk  are 
retained  entangled  with  the  caseine,  by  which 
it  acquires  a  richer  and  stronger  flavor.  Butter, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  simply  the  oleaginous 
portion  of  the  milk,  separated  from  the  remain 
ing  constituents.  In  the  natural  condition  of 
the  milk  the  butter  is  in  the  form  of  microscopic 
globules,  or  spherical  masses,  of  a  semi-solid 
consistency,  suspended  in  a  state  of  minute 
subdivision  in  the  serous  liquid.  By  the  opera 
tion  of  churning,  these  little  globules  are  made 
to  cohere  mechanically  together,  and  gradually 
the  whole  of  the  oleaginous  substance  is  sepa 
rated  in  a  distinct  pasty  mass.  It  is  still  fur 
ther  freed  from  the  accompanying  ingredients 
of  the  milk  by  pressure  and  kneading  under 
water,  and  is  finally  obtained  as  butter  in  a 
nearly  pure  condition. — The  effect  of  cooking 
upon  food  is  twofold.  In  the  first  place,  it 
softens  and  disintegrates  the  substances  which 
are  naturally  too  hard  for  digestion,  and  thus 
renders  them  amenable  to  the  digestive  opera 
tions.  This  is  the  effect  produced  upon  many 
vegetable  substances,  such  as  starch  grains 
wherever  they  may  be  found,  and  all  substances 
having  a  resisting  envelope  or  a  tough  and  solid 
texture,  such  as  peas,  beans,  potatoes,  turnips, 
and  the  like.  In  animal  substances,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  most  useful  effect  of  cooking 
appears  to  be  the  partial  transformation  of  the 
albuminoid  matters,  as  in  roast  meat,  by  which 
they  acquire  a  peculiar  and  agreeable  flavor. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  this  flavor,  be 
sides  being  pleasant  to  the  palate,  is  also  the 
indication  of  a  chemical  change  in  the  albumi 
noid  matters,  by  which  they  are  prepared  for 
digestion  and  become  better  fitted  to  subserve 
the  nutrition  of  the  body. 

ALIMENTARY  €A\AL,  a  tubular  passage,  ex 
isting  in  man  and  all  the  higher  animals,  com 
posed  principally  of  a  muscular  layer  and  a  mu 
cous  membrane,  extending  from  the  mouth  to 
the  anus,  and  designed  for  the  reception,  trans 
mission,  and  digestion  of  the  food  or  aliment. 
The  cavity  of  the  alimentary  canal  is  continu 
ous,  anatomically,  from  its  commencement  to 
its  termination,  forming  a  hollow  passage 


through  which  the  food  is  carried  in  the  di 
gestive  process.  Its  different  parts  are,  how 
ever,  partly  separated  from  each  other  at  various 
points  by  constrictions  and  muscular  bands, 
which  are  alternately  closed  and  opened,  to 
allow  of  the  temporary  retention  or  onward 
movement  of  the  alimentary  materials.  The 
different  portions  of  the  canal  are  also  distin 
guished  from  each  other  by  varieties  of  form 
and  size,  the  development  of  their  muscular 
layers,  and  the  structure  of  their  mucous  or 
lining  membrane.  Owing  to  this  variety  of 
structure,  and  the  different  characters  of  the  se 
cretions  produced,  the  action  of  the  alimentary 
canal  upon  the  food  varies  in  its  different  parts  ; 
and  the  process  of  digestion  to  which  the  food 
is  subjected  consists  of  the  successive  or  com 
bined  operation  of  the  whole.  The  principal 
portions  into  which  the  canal  is  thus  divided,  in 
the  human  subject,  are  known  as  the  mouth, 
the  oesophagus,  the  stomach,  the  small  intes 
tine,  and  the  large  intestine. — The  mouth  is 
the  cavity  included  between  the  opening  of  the 
lips  in  front  and  the  fauces  behind.  In  it  are 
the  teeth,  intended  for  the  mastication  and  com 
minution  of  the  food ;  the  tongue,  a  muscular 
and  sensitive  organ,  which  subserves  both  the 
sense  of  taste  and  the  proper  movement  and  ad 
mixture  of  the  food  in  mastication ;  and  a  lining 
membrane  which  contains  mucous  glandules 
destined  to  supply  a  viscid  secretion  form 
ing  part  of  the  saliva.  There  are  also  the  pa 
rotid,  submaxillary,  and  sublingual  glands,  sit 
uated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  mouth., 
which  pour  their  secretions  into  its  cavity,  and 
thus  complete  the  formation  and  supply  of  sa 
liva,  which  is  mingled  with  the  food  in  mastica 
tion  and  reduces  it  to  the  condition  of  a  soft, 
pasty  mass. — Immediately  behind  the  fauces  is 
the  pharynx,  a  short  funnel-shaped  passage  lead 
ing  directly  to  the  oesophagus.  The  latter  is  a 
nearly  straight  tube  of  uniform  size,  about  nine 
inches  long  and  rather  less  than  one  inch  in  di 
ameter.  It  passes  through  the  neck  and  pos 
terior  region  of  the  chest  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  abdomen,  where  it  terminates  in  the  stom 
ach.  It  has  a  double  layer  of  transverse  and 
longitudinal  muscular  fibres,  by  whose  peristal 
tic  or  wave-like  contractions  the  masticated 
food  is  rapidly  carried  from  above  downward. 
Its  lining  membrane  is  of  a  simple  structure, 
and  produces  only  a  small  quantity  of  mucus, 
destined  by  its  lubricating  qualities  to  facilitate 
the  passage  of  the  food.  The  oesophagus,  in  fact, 
is  simply  an  organ  of  transmission,  by  which  the 
food  is  transferred  from  the  mouth  to  the  stom 
ach,  where  the  more  important  digestive  actions 
are  to  begin. — The  stomach  is  a  dilatation  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  lying  transversely  across 
the  upper  part  of  the  intestine.  Toward  the 
left  side  it  expands  into  a  wide  hemispherical 
sac  or  pouch  ;  toward  the  right  side  it  becomes 
narrowed  to  a  smaller  diameter,  where  it  unites 
with  the  upper  extremity  of  the  abdomen.  The 
orifice  by  which  the  stomach  communicates  with 
the  oesophagus  is  called  the  cardia  (Gr. 


318 


ALIMENTARY   CANAL 


the  tortuous  windings  of  its  internal  cavity. 
Its  mucous  membrane  is  provided,  first,  with 
a  great  number  of  glandular  follicles  which 
secrete  the  intestinal  juice,  one  of  the  active 
agents  in  digestion;  and  secondly,  with  mi 
nute  filamentous  vascular  prominences  or  villi, 


Abdominal  Portion  of  the  Alimentary  Canal. 

.A,  oesophagus;  B,  diaphragm;  C,  stomach;  D,  cardiac  ex 
tremity  of  the  stomach;  E,  great  pouch;  F,  pylorus;  G, 
duodenum,  H,  right  lobe  of  liver;  I,  left  lobe  of  liver;  K, 
gall  bladder ;  L,  bile  duct ;  M.  small  intestine ;  N,  entrance 
of  small  intestine  into  the  large  intestine ;  O,  caecum ;  P, 
appendix  vermiformis ;  Q.  ascending  colon;  R  S  T,  trans 
verse  colon;  U,  sigmoid  flexure;  V,  rectum;  W,  urinary 
bladder ;  X.  pancreas ;  Y,  spleen. 

the  heart),  because  it  is  situated  near  the  heart ; 
that  by  which  it  communicates  with  the  intes-  i 
tine  is  called  the  pylorus  (Or.  irvlupde,  a  gate-  | 
keeper).      Both  are   provided  with   a   special 
circular  bundle  of  muscular  fibres  by  which  the  j 
food,  once  in  the  stomach,  is  retained  there  for  j 
a  time,  to  allow  of  the  secretion  and  operation 
of  the  gastric  juice.     The  gastric  juice  is  se 
creted  by  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  j 
which  is  soft,  glandular,  and  vascular  in  texture,  I 
and,  when  stimulated  by  the  contact  of  the  food, 
pours  out  the  gastric  juice  in  considerable  abun-  j 
dance,   as  the  perspiration   is    exuded  by  the  j 
skin. — Next  the  stomach  follows  the  small  in-  | 
testine.     This  is  a  tubular  canal  about  25  feet  ! 
in  length  and  between  one  and  two  inches  in  | 
diameter.     It  is  thrown  into  numberless  folds  j 
and  convolutions,   by   which,  notwithstanding 
its  great  length,  it  occupies  a  comparatively  \ 
moderate  space  in  the  abdomen.     It  is  attached  I 
to  the  abdominal  portion  of  the  spinal  column  by  | 
a  thin,  flexible  membranous  sheet  termed  the  j 
mesentery,  which,  while  retaining  it  in  its  proper 
position,  allows  of  the  necessary  movement  of 
its  different  convolutions  upon  each  other.     Its 
muscular  layers  are  well  developed  and  active, 
^nd  by  their   contractions   continuously   urge 
$he  semi-iiuid  ingredients  of  the  food  through 


Two  Villi  of  the  Small  Intestines. 

A,  substance  of  the  villus ;  B,  its  epithelium,  of  which  some 
cells  are  seen  detached  at  B1 ;  C  I.),  the  artery  and  vein, 
with  their  connecting  capillary  network,  which  envelopes  a-nd 
hides  the  lacteal  radicle.  E,  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
villus  and  opens  into  a  network  of  lacteal  vessels  at  its  base. 

which  are  so  abundant  and  thickly  set  as  to 
give  its  internal  surface  a  velvety  texture,  and 
which  by  their  absorbent  action  take  up  from 
the  intestine  the  nutritious  elements  of  the 
digested  food.  Into  the  upper  part  of  the  small 
intestine,  a  few  inches  below  the  stomach, 
there  are  also  discharged  two  accessory  secre 
tions,  namely,  the  bile  from  the  liver,  and  the 
pancreatic  juice  from  the  pancreas.  The  small 
intestine  terminates,  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen  on  the  right  side,  by  a  junction  at 
right  angles  with  the  large  intestine. — The 
large  intestine,  so  called  from  its  greater  capa 
city  as  indicated  by  a  transverse  measurement, 
is  about  five  feet  long,  and  from  !-£•  to  2-t  inches 
in  diameter.  It  extends  from  its  commence 
ment  in  the  right  iliac  region  (see  ABDOMEN) 
upward  on  the  right  side  of  the  abdomen,  then 
transversely  across  to  the  left  side,  then  down 
ward  upon  the  left  side,  then  through  an  S-like 
convolution  to  the  top  of  the  pelvis,  and  finally 
through  the  cavity  of  the  pelvis  to  the  anus. 
At  the  point  of  junction  of  the  small  with  the 
large  intestine  there  are  two  parallel  folds  of 
mucous  membrane,  with  their  edges  turned 
toward  the  cavity  of  the  large  intestine,  which 
act  as  a  double  valve  (called  the  ileo-csccal 
valve),  allowing  the  passage  of  materials  in 
this  direction,  but  preventing  their  regurgita- 
tion  from  the  large  into  the  small  intestine. 
The  mucous  membrane  of  the  large  intestine 
has  no  villi,  but  is  provided  with  simple  glan 
dular  follicles,  which  secrete  various  excremen- 
titious  materials.  This  portion  of  the  alimen 
tary  canal  contains  also  the  refuse  portions  of 
the  food,  which,  together  with  the  excremen- 
titious  matters  supplied  by  its  lining  membrane, 
assume  a  faecal  consistency  and  appearance 
from  the  situation  of  the  ileo-ca3cal  valve  down 
ward,  and  are  finally  discharged  from  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  large  intestine. 

ALDIMTTS,  Lucius  Cincins,  a  Roman  historian 
and  jurist,  prrotor  in  Sicily  209  B.  C.     He  was 


ALIMONY 


119 


for  some  time  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  Han 
nibal,  who  appears  to  have  treated  him  with 
kindness,  giving  him  an  account  of  his  march 
through  Gaul  and  over  the  Alps.  Alimentus 
wrote  a  history  of  Home  which  is  quoted  by 
Livy.  Only  fragments  of  it  are  preserved. 
He  also  wrote  an  account  of  his  imprisonment 
among  the  Carthaginians.  He  is  highly  praised 
by  Niebuhr  as  an  accurate  investigator.  He 
wrote  also  on  law  and  antiquities.  The  frag 
ments  of  Alimentus  still  extant  are  appended 
to  Corte's  edition  of  Sallust. 

ALDIOXY  (Lat.  alimonium,  nourishment), 
in  lu\v,  the  allowance  which  a  husband,  by 
order  of  the  court,  makes  to  his  wife  for  her 
maintenance  during  her  separation  from  him. 
Of  alimony,  as  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
marriage  relation,  the  ecclesiastical  courts  in 
England  had  in  former  times  exclusive  cogni 
zance.  No  such  courts  were  ever  established 
here,  and  the  jurisdiction  in  respect  to  alimony 
is  exercised  in  our  states  either  under  express 
statutes,  or  as  being  included  in  the  character 
istic  powers  of  courts  of  chancery  or  equity. 
When  the  jurisdiction  is  assumed  on  the  latter 
ground,  the  court  grants  this  sort  of  relief  in 
that  class  of  cases  in  which  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  of  England  would  have  decreed  it.  Or 
dinarily  the  question  of  alimony  in  the  United 
States  arises  in  connection  with  cases  of  di 
vorce,  partial  or  absolute.  It  has  been  the 
rule  of  the  law  until  very  recent  legislation, 
especially  in  the  United  States,  modified  it, 
that  all  the  personal  property  of  the  wife  at 
her  marriage,  and  all  that  came  to  her  after 
ward,  and  the  substantial  benefit  of  her  real 
estate  too,  vested  absolutely  in  the  husband. 
The  law  therefore  put  upon  him  the  correlative 
duty  of  maintaining  the  wife  according  to  his 
condition  in  life  and  pecuniary  ability ;  and  it 
is  out  of  this  duty  that  the  wife's  right  to  ali 
mony  in  case  of  her  lawful  separation  from  her 
husband  also  arises.  Accordingly,  whenever  a 
court  adjudges  or  concedes  that  the  wife  may 
live  apart  from  her  husband  for  his  violation 
of  his  matrimonial  obligations  to  her,  it  will 
also  decree  that  he  make  her  a  proper  allowance 
for  her  sustenance.  Observing  the  conditions 
of  alimony  as  they  were  defined  by  the  practice 
of  the  English  ecclesiastical  courts,  some  of  our 
states,  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania  for  ex 
ample,  have  held  that,  in  the  absence  of  express 
statutes,  they  have  no  power  to  grant  alimony 
in  cases  of  absolute  divorce ;  for  as  in  the  Eng 
lish  law  that  kind  of  divorce  was  unknown  un 
til  recently,  the  spiritual  courts  gave  alimony 
of  course  only  upon  divorces  from  bed  and 
board,  or  as  we  call  them  partial  divorces. 
But  in  most  of  the  states  the  statutes  explicitly 
provide  for  alimony  in  all  divorces.  In  general, 
and  for  obvious  reasons,  our  courts  will  not 
grant  permanent  alimony  to  the  wife  when  she 
is  the  guilty  party,  though,  as  a  merciful  safe 
guard  against  her  further  debasement,  they  do 
sometimes  make  such  provision  for  her.  Nor 
on  other  grounds  will  the  courts  compel  the 


j  husband  to  pay  anything  when  the  wife  has  a 
separate  estate  which  is  withheld  by  settlement 
I  or  otherwise  from  her  husband's  control,  and, 
;  considering  his  means  and  condition,  it  yields  to 
!  the  wife  as  much  as  she  is  fairly  entitled  to. — 
;  The  provision  for  the  wife  may  either  be  made 
pending  a  suit  for  divorce,  whether  brought  by 
herself  or  by  her  husband,  in  which  case  it  is 
called  alimony  pendente  lite  or  pending  suit ;  or 
:  it  may  be  permanent,  that  is,  for  the  term  of 
|  her  separation  or  for  her  lifetime,  and  this  sort 
!  of  alimony  is  ordered  upon  the  passing  of  the 
!  decree  of  divorce,  whether  partial  or  absolute. 
;  As  to  the  alimony  pending  suit,  it  is  quite  a 
i  matter  of  course  to  give  it,   whichever  party 
!  brings  the  action ;    though  when  the  husband 
I  is  plaintiff,  the  court  ordinarily  requires  as  a 
i  condition  precedent  a  sworn  denial  of  her  guilt 
!  on  the  part  of  the  wife,  or  some  other  proof  of 
|  the  merits  of  her  case.     With  this  sort  of  ali- 
j  mony,  ordinarily,  the  court  gives  a  provision 
j  for  the  wife's  legal  expenses  in  prosecuting  or 
defending   the  action.     This  is  only  just,   for 
even  if  the  wife  is  the  defendant,  she  is  not  yet 
proved  guilty,  and  to  deny  her  the  means  of 
;  resisting  her  husband's  suit  might  be  to  deny 
;  her  the  means  of  vindicating  herself.     At  all 
I  events,  if  the  wife  has  no  means,  and  the  hus- 
:  band  has,  he  must  not  only  support  her  fairly 
|  during  the  legal  proceedings,  but  also  supply  her 
with  means  for  retaining  counsel  and  otherwise 
!  paying  the  legal  expenses  especially  pertaining 
|  to  the  action.     The  allowance  in  these  respects 
I  does  not  always  depend  on  the  fact  whether 
|  or  not  the  husband  has  an  accumulated  prop 
erty;  he  may  be  ordered  to  pay  it  out  of  his 
;  daily  earnings.     And  the  principle  is  so  reason- 
!  able  that  in  a  case  where  the  court  could  not 
compel  a  husband  who  was  plaintiff  to  pay 
alimony  pendente  lite  because  he  had  neither' 
property  nor  any  other  resources,  it  ordered 
him  to  suspend  his  action  till  he  could  furnish 
'.  his  wife  with  the  means  of  defending  it.    If  the 
husband  pay  the  temporary  alimony  ordered 
|  by  the  court,  he  is  discharged  of  all  liability 
i  for  even  the  wife's  necessaries ;  but  he  is  liable 
I  for  them  if  he  withholds  the  allowance,  as  he 
'<  is  in  fact,  on  general  principles,  if  no  alimony 
has   been  directed. — The  amount   of  alimony 
which  the  court  will  award  pendente  lite  de 
pends  on  the  circumstances  of  the  case  and  of 
the   parties.     It   is   larger   when   the    wife  is 
plaintiff  than  when  she  is  defendant,  but  even 
in  that  case  the  court  takes  into  consideration 
the  fact  that  she  has  not  yet  proved  her  allega- 
1  tions.     It  will  be  less  or  more  according  to  her 
\  condition  in  life  and  her  needs.     It  will  be  less 
if  she  has  a  separate  estate,  and  it  may  be  in 
creased  or  perhaps  reduced  from  the  amount 
first  fixed,  as  the  circumstances  of  the  parties 
•  may  change ;    and,  as  a  rule,  alimony  pending 
;  the  suit  is  always  much  smaller  than  the  perma- 
nent  provision  made  after  divorce.    In  England 
the  proportion  of  the  joint  income  allowed  as 
alimony  is  ordinarily,  and  apart  from  special 
reasons  either  wav,  about  one  fifth.     In  New 


320 


ALIMONY 


ALISON 


York  the  courts  have  been  disposed  to  allow  the 
woman  no  more  than  her  actual  wants  require 
until  the  final  adjudication  upon  the  merits, 
when  the  permanent  alimony  may  be  fixed 
from  the  beginning  of  the  case,  and  the  amount 
of  temporary  alimony  paid  meantime  is  deduct 
ed  from  it.  Nor  as  to  permanent  alimony  is 
there  any  fixed  rule  governing  the  amount 
of  it.  In  England  it  seems  to  be  the  common 
practice  to  award  one  third  of  the  husband's 
income.  American  courts  have  settled  upon 
no  customary  proportion,  though  there  are  nu 
merous  cases  reported  in  which  the  allowance 
has  been  fixed  at  rates  between  one  fourth  and 
one  half.  The  amount  is  discretionary,  and 
nothing  more  definite  can  be  said  than  that  it 
is  the  design  to  give  such  amount  as  the  wife 
ought  to  have,  regarding  all  the  circumstances, 
if  the  marital  relation  had  not  been  broken  up. 
By  the  statutes  of  most  of  the  states,  the  wife 
is  entitled,  especially  in  absolute  divorces,  to 
recover  whatever  property  she  brought  to  the 
husband  upon  the  marriage. — The  fund  out  of 
which  alimony  is  to  come  is  ordinarily  the  hus 
band's  income.  The  court  does  not,  except 
when  special  statutes  permit  the  return  of  the 
wife's  estate  to  her,  or  make  similar  provisions, 
turn  over  to  her  any  specific  property.  Upon 
the  principle  that  it  is  the  income  which  is  to 
respond,  it  cannot  on  the  one  hand  avail  the 
husband  that  he  has  no  invested  or  permanent 
property,  but  his  earnings  must  supply  the  al 
lowance  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  husband's 
mere  expectations  of  inheriting  property  are 
alike  immaterial.  The  husband's  indebtedness 
should  also  be  taken  into  account  in  ascertain 
ing  his  substantial  income  and  resources. — As 
the  demand  or  grant  of  alimony  is  properly  col 
lateral  to  the  principal  relief,  that  of  separation 
or  divorce,  sought  in  the  action,  and  as  the 
allowance  is  not  decreed — at  least  permanent 
alimony  is  not  —  unless  the  principal  relief 
sought  is  granted,  the  application  for  such 
maintenance  is  ordinarily  only  incidental  to 
the  principal  suit.  It  is  commonly  made  upon 
a  special  petition,  or  allegation  of  faculties,  as 
the  proceeding  is  termed  in  England,  in  which 
the  husband's  pecuniary  resources  are  alleged ; 
this  he  meets  with  an  answer  or  other  counter 
proof,  and  the  allegations  on  both  sides  may  be 
passed  upon  by  the  court,  or  referred  for  more 
careful  examination  to  one  of  its  officers,  as  a 
master  in  chancery  or  a  referee.— The  remedy 
for  enforcing  the  payment  of  alimony,  when 
the  order  of  the  court  regarding  it  is  disobeyed, 
may  be  by  proceedings  against  the  husband  for 
contempt,  or,  according  to  the  practice  in  dif 
ferent  states,  execution  may  issue  for  the 
amount  in  arrears,  or  an  action  of  debt  may  be 
brought ;  and  in  the  federal  courts  it  has  been 
held  that  a  bill  in  equity  will  lie.  In  some 
states,  again,  the  charge  of  alimony  becomes  a 
lien  on  the  husband's  real  estate,  or  the  court 
may  compel  him  to  give  security  for  its  prompt 
payment,  or  in  a  proper  case  the  husband  may 
even  be  restrained  by  injunction  from  so  dis 


posing  of  his  property  as  to  place  it  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  court. 

ALISON,  Archibald,  a  Scottish  clergyman  and 
author,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  13,  1757,  died 
there,  May  17,  1839.  lie  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Glasgow,  and  at  Balliol  college, 
Oxford,  took  orders  in  the  church  of  England, 
and  married  the  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Greg 
ory,  professor  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
In  1790  he  obtained  the  perpetual  curacy  of 
Kenley  in  Shropshire,  and  afterward  several 
other  preferments  in  the  same  county.  There 
he  lived  happily  and  tranquilly,  with  mingled 
literary  and  pastoral  labors,  till  1800,  when  he 
removed  to  Edinburgh  for  the  education  of 
his  children,  and  became  senior  minister  of  St. 
Paul's  chapel,  in  York  place,  where  his  elo 
quence  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  the  culti 
vated  society  of  the  metropolis.  In  1831  in 
creasing  years  and  failing  health  obliged  him 
to  withdraw  from  public  duties.  The  first 
edition  of  his  "Essays  on  the  Nature  and  Prin 
ciples  of  Taste,"  published  in  1790,  though 
highly  esteemed  within  a  limited  circle  of  men 
of  culture,  had  been  issued  in  too  expensive  a 
style  for  general  circulation.  A  second  edition, 
with  additions,  published  in  1811,  became  pop 
ular.  In  1814  Mr.  Alison  published  two  vol 
umes  of  sermons,  which  passed  rapidly  through 
five  editions,  and  were  republished  in  America. 

ALISOJV,  Sir  Archibald,  Bart.,  a  British  histo 
rian,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Ken- 
ley,  Shropshire,  Dec.  29,  1792,  died  near  Glas 
gow,  May  23,  1867.  He  was  educated  in  the 
schools  and  university  of  Edinburgh,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1814,  and  availed  himself 
of  the  first  income  from  his  practice  to  travel 
in  Europe.  In  1822  he  was  appointed  deputy 
advocate  general,  in  1828  member  of  the 
crown  council,  and  in  1834  sheriff  of  Lanark 
shire.  His  first  publication  was  a  work  on  the 
"Principles  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland  " 
(1832),  followed  the  next  year  by  the  "Prac 
tice  of  the  Criminal  Law."  These  books  be 
came  standard  authorities  with  the  Scottish 
bar.  The  first  volume  of  his  "History  of 
Europe,  from  the  Commencement  of  the  French 
Revolution  to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons, n 
appeared  in  1839,  and  the  work  was  completed 
in  10  volumes  in  1842.  It  ran  through  numer 
ous  editions  in  England,  in  12,  14,  and  20  vol 
umes,  was  reprinted  in  America,  and  trans 
lated  into  French  and  German,  and  even  into 
Arabic  (Malta,  1845)  and  Ilindostanee.  The 
author  is  said  to  have  conceived  the  plan  of 
this  history  in  his  youth,  and  to  have  cherished 
his  purpose  during  15  years  of  travel  and 
study,  and  15  more  of  composition.  The  au 
thor  was  a  stanch  tory,  and  his  work  is  consid 
ered  deficient  both  in  accuracy  and  impartiality 
by  the  English  liberals.  Mr.  Alison  for  many 
years  contributed  articles  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  a  selection  of  which  was  published 
under  the  title  of  "Essays,  Political,  Histori 
cal,  and  Miscellaneous"  (3  vols.,  1850).  He 
also  wrote  "Principles  of  Population"  (2  vols., 


ALIZARINE 


321 


184-0),  combating  the  theory  of  Maltlms; 
4k  England  in  1815  and  1845,  or  a  Sufficient  or 
Contracted  Currency  "  (1845) ;  and  a  "  Life  of 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough"  (2  vols.,  1847). 
lie  wrote  a  continuation  of  his  "History  of 
Europe  "  to  the  accession  of  Louis  Napoleon  in 
1852,  of  which  a  second  edition  was  published 
at  Edinburgh  in  8  vols.  (1863-'o).  Mr.  Alison 
was  elected  rector  of  Glasgow  university  in 
1851,  and  received  the  honorary  degree  of  D. 
C.  L.  from  the  university  of  Oxford ;  and  soon 
after  the  formation  of  the  Derby-Disraeli  min 
istry,  June  25,  1852,  he  was  created  a  baronet. 
ALIZAKLVE,  the  coloring  principle  of  madder, 
so  called  from  alizari,  the  name  by  which  that 
plant  is  known  in  the  Levant.  Madder  is  the 
root  of  several  species  of  rubia,  among  which 
the  rubia  tinctorum  is  the  most  valued  for  its 
dyeing  properties.  This  grows  in  Asia  Minor, 
Holland,  Alsace,  and  in  the  south  of  France 
and  of  Russia,  and  has  been  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  Delaware  and  Ohio.  A  species  native 
to  England  is  the  rubia  peregrina.  This  belongs 
to  the  order  rnbiacece,  the  native  members  of 
which,  as  the  galiums,  are  mostly  inconspicu 
ous  wild  plants.  Some  of  the  foreign  species 
are,  on  the  contrary,  important  plants,  such  as 
the  cinchona,  ipecacuanha,  and  coffee  plants, 
and  these  are  distinguished  for  the  number  and 
variety  of  the  peculiar  principles  which  they 
yield,  as  quinine,  cinchonin'e,  caffeine,  and  ali 
zarine. — In  spite  of  the  numerous  investiga 
tions  that  have  been  made  of  madder,  chemists 
are  still  in  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  many  of 
its  constituents.  Some  attribute  its  coloring 
powers  to  the  presence  of  at  least  two  sub 
stances,  alizarine  and  purpurine;  while  others 
say  that  only  one  of  these  produces  the  true 
madder  colors.  Alizarine  was  discovered  and 
obtained  from  madder,  as  a  crystalline  sub 
limate,  by  Robiquet  and  Colin,  in  1831 ;  but 
little  importance  was  attached  to  this  discov 
ery  until  Schunck  in  1848  showed  that  all  the 
finest  madder  colors  contain  only  alizarine  com 
bined  with  ba-es  and  fatty  acids.  The  second  col 
oring  matter,  termed  purpurine,  was  discovered 
by  Persoz.  It  contributes  to  the  full  and  fiery 
red  colors  in  ordinary  madder  dyeing,  but  dyes 
a  bad  purple,  alizarine  being  essential  to  the 
latter.  Purpurine  disappears  during  the  puri 
fying  processes  of  soaping,  &c.,  being  far  less 
stable  than  alizarine.  It  is  distinguished  from 
alizarine  by  its  solubility  in  boiling  alum  liquor. 
These  two  coloring  principles  may  likewise  be 
easily  distinguished  by  the  spectrum,  alizarine 
producing  a  set  of  dark  absorption  bands,  quite 
different  from  those  of  purpurine,  which  again 
vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  solvent. 
Alizarine  can  be  obtained  in  yellow  needle- 
shaped  crystals  by  simple  sublimation  from  the 
dried  madder;  but  this  coloring  matter  is,  sin 
gularly  enough,  not  contained  ready  formed  in 
the  fresh  madder  root,  but  is  the  product  of  a  pe 
culiar  decomposition.  A  crystalline  glncoside, 
termed  rubianic  acid  (Schunck),  is  contained 
in  the  root,  and  it  is  this  which  splits  up 
VOL.  i.— 21 


simply  into  alizarine  and  glucose.  This  acid 
crystallizes  in  line  yellowr  needles,  and  gives  a 
definite  and  crystalline  potash  salt,  from  which 
it  was  shown  to  contain  20  atoms  of  carbon  in 
the  molecule.  Hence,  as  no  other  product  but 
glucose  is  formed,  it  follows  that  alizarine  must 
contain  C^c  —  Ci2  =  Ci4.  The  formation  of 
alizarine  in  extracts  of  madder  root  is  effected 
by  fermentation  peculiar  to  the  plant,  and 
called  erythrozine.  It  is  sui  generis,  since  no 
other  ferment  produces  the  same  effect.  When 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  rubian  or  rubianio 
acid,  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  the  latter  is 
rapidly  decomposed  as  with  acids.  This  is 
what  takes  place  in  making  fleur  de  garance. 
Dyers  raise  the  temperature  of  their  madder 
baths  gradually  up  to  the  boiling  point,  be 
cause  the  application  of  a  high  temperature 
destroys  the  ferment.  When  the  temperature 
is  gradually  raised,  the  ferment  acts  upon  the 
glucoside,  and  produces  alizarine.  According 
to  Schunck,  the  origin  of  purpurine,  and  its 
relation  to  alizarine,  are  still  (1870)  involved 
in  obscurity.  The  formula  assigned  to  ali 
zarine  by  some  chemists  is  CioIIeOs  +  SIIsO ; 
while  Griibe  and  Liebermann  prefer  Ci  JI8O4 
+  II20. — Artificial  Alizarine.  In  studying  the 
transformations  of  alizarine  under  the  action 
of  chemical  reagents,  Messrs.  Grabe  and  Lio- 
bermann  in  1869  were  led  to  connect  it  with 
anthracene,  one  of  the  coal-tar  series  of  bo 
dies  (see  AXTHEACEXE),  and  to  devise  a  mode 
of  forming  it  artificially.  This  is  justly  re 
garded  as  one  of  the  most  important  as  well 
as  beneficent  discoveries  of  the  age :  important 
as  affording  a  new  source  for  a  valuable  dye, 
and  beneficent  as  restoring  to  agriculture  largo 
tracts  of  land  now  devoted  to  the  culture  of 
the  madder  root.  The  method  employed  by 
Griibe  and  Liebermann  in  the  artificial  pro 
duction  of  alizarine  is  as  follows:  One  part  of 
anthracene  is  heated  with  four  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid,  of  sp.  gr.  1*845,  for  three  or  four  hours,  to 
a  temperature  of  212°  C.,  and  then  for  about  an 
hour  at  300°  C.  The  mixture  is  allowed  to  cool, 
and  to  it  is  added  water  equal  to  three  times 
the  weight  of  the  anthracene  em  cloyed,  and 
manganese  equal  to  four  times  t  lat  weight. 
The  whole,  is  boiled  for  three  hours,  and  milk 
of  lime  added,  which  gives  rise  to  a  deposit 
consisting  of  the  excess  of  lime  and  man 
ganese  used,  and  protoxide  of  manganese, 
while  there  remains  in  solution  a  double  sul- 
j  phate  of  anthraquinone  and  lime.  The  solu 
tion  is  now  acted  upon  by  carbonate  of  soda 
*  in  excess;  carbonate  of  lime  separates,  and  the 
j  salt  of  soda  thus  produced  is  evaporated  to  dry- 
i  ness.  The  solid  mass  is  then  mixed  with  two 
|  or  three  parts  of  caustic  soda  and  a  little 
!  water,  and  heated  under  pressure  in  suitable 
|  vessels,  at  a  high  temperature,  whereby  the 
anthraquinone  is  further  oxidized  and  con 
verted  into  alizarine.  The  alkaline  mass,  on 
cooling,  is  dissolved  in  water  and  sulphuric  or 
acetic  acid  added  in  slight  excess,  when  an 
orange-yellow  flocculent  substance  precipitates, 


322 


ALKALI 


ALKMAAK 


which,  when  perfectly  washed  and  dried,  is 
artificial  alizarine.  The  artificial  product  ap 
pears  to  he  entirely  identical  with  the  coloring 
matter  obtained  from  the  madder  root.  Both 
the  natural  and  the  artificial  products  crystal 
lize  in  needles  and  dissolve  in  caustic  alkalies, 
forming  violet  solutions  of  the  same  tint  and 
possessing  precisely  the  same  tinctorial  value. 
Applied  to  mordanted  fabrics,  they  produce 
exactly  the  same  colors,  and  they  resist  equally 
well  the  action  of  light.  If  an  adequate  sup 
ply  of  anthracene  can  be  obtained,  the  artificial 
production  of  alizarine  bids  fair  to  become  an 
established  industry  of  great  importance. 

ALKALI  (Arabic,  al-qcdi,  the  ashes  of  the 
plant  glasswort,  yielding  soda),  the  general 
name  of  a  class  of  substances,  such  as  cassia, 
rubidia,  potash,  soda,  lithia,  and  ammonia, 
whose  distinguishing  peculiarities  are  solubility 
in  alcohol  and  water,  uniting  with  oils  and 
fats  to  form  soap,  neutralizing  and  forming 
salts  with  acids,  reddening  several  vegetable 
yellows,  and  changing  reddened  litmus  to  blue. 
These  properties  are  the  reverse  of  those  of 
acids,  and  the  two  classes  are  regarded  as  an 
tagonistic  to  each  other.  Some  other  sub 
stances,  as  lime,  baryta,  strontia,  and  magne 
sia,  possessing  some  of  the  qualities  of  the 
alkalies  as  neutralizing  acids,  and  changing  the 
vegetable  colors,  are  called  alkaline  earths. 
Pure  anhydrous  alkalies  are  exceedingly  caus 
tic,  destroying  vegetable  and  animal  tissues. 
They  abstract  moisture  rapidly  on  exposure  to 
the  air.  Combined  with  carbonic  acid  and 
water,  forming  carbonates,  they  are  used  in 
medicine  as  diuretics  and  for  correcting  acidity, 
as  well  as  for  other  effects.  The  alkalies  and 
the  earths  also  were  until  the  present  century 
regarded  as  simple  substances.  Lavoisier  first 
suggested  that  they  were  metallic  oxides.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  proved  this  in  1807,  by  sepa 
rating  the  metals,  to  which  he  gave  the  names 
potassium,  sodium,  barium,  strontium,  and  cal 
cium,  the  last  the  metallic  base  of  lime.  The 
discovery  of  these  metals  led  to  that  of  pure 
potash  and  soda.  The  alkalies  were  known 
before  only  in  the  state  of  hydrates,  though 
incorrectly  regarded  as  anhydrous. 

ALKALIMETRY,  the  process  employed  to  esti 
mate  the  quantity  of  alkali  present  in  any  mix 
ture.  Its  principle  consists  in  exactly  neutral 
izing  a  certain  weight  of  the  alkali,  and  know 
ing  the  quantity  of  acid  of  a  given  strength 
which  is  required  to  effect  this.  The  alkaline 
substance,  carefully  weighed,  is  dissolved  in 
warm  water,  placed  in  an  alkalimeter,  which 
is  usually  a  graduated  glass  tube,  and  diluted 
sulphuric  acid  cautiously  and  slowly  added 
till  the  solution  is  made  neutral.  This  is 
known  by  the  use  of  little  bits  of  test  paper 
in  the  liquid,  which,  by  their  change  of  color, 
indicate  the  slightest  acid  or  alkaline  reaction. 
The  process  may  be  reversed  to  test  the 
strength  of  acids,  and  is  then  called  acidimetry. 

ALKALOID,  vegetable  alkali,  a  name  given  to 
vegetable  extracts  possessing  the  property  of 


uniting  with  acids  to  form  salts  in  the  same 
manner  as  ammonia.  The  first  alkaloid  was 
discovered  by  Serturner  in  1804  in  opium ;  but 
little  importance  was  attached  to  the  announce 
ment,  and  it  was  not  till  1817  that  the  real 
value  of  morphine  was  demonstrated  and  the 
existence  of  vegetable  alkalies  fully  shown. 
Since  that  time  the  list  of  alkaloids  has  rapidly 
increased,  until  at  the  present  time  (1872)  they 
number  more  than  100.  There  are  two  classes, 
volatile  liquids  and  permanent  solids.  The 
former  contain  simply  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
nitrogen,  and  only  three  of  them  are  known, 
coniine,  nicotine,  and  sparteine.  The  solid 
and  most  numerous  alkaloids  contain  carbon, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen.  The  organic 
bases  are  colorless  and  generally  crystalline. 
They  are  insoluble  or  slightly  soluble  in  water, 
the  best  solvent  being  alcohol.  Ether  dissolves 
some  of  them ;  chloroform  and  the  hydrocar 
bons  are  also  good  solvents.  They  generally 

|  possess  powerful  medicinal  properties.  Nu 
merous  artificial  alkaloids  have  been  formed, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  aniline.  The 
natural  base  coniine  has  also  been  made  artifi 
cially.  Some  of  the  best  known  of  the  vegetable 
alkaloids  are  nicotine,  quinia,  morphia,  strych 
nia,  brucia,  aconitina,  atropia,  and  caffeine. 
ALKANA.  See  HEXXA. 

ALRAXET,  the  commercial  name  of  two  differ 
ent  plants.  True  alkanet  consists  of  the  roots 
and  leaves  of  the  Laicsonia  inermis,  which 
grows  wild  in  the  Levant.  The  leaves  pulverized 
and  made  into  a  paste  yield  a  yellow  dye.  The 
root,  which  contains  a  red  pigment,  is  used  as 
a  cosmetic.  False  alkanet  (orcanette,  radix 
alcanna  spv.rice)  is  the  root  of  anchusa  tincto* 
rw,  which  grows  in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Hun 
gary,  and  Greece.  It  is  inodorous,  has  a  faint, 
somewhat  astringent  taste,  and  colors  the 
saliva.  It  is  used  in  dyeing  goods  previously 
prepared  with  alum  mordants  for  violet,  and 
iron  mordants  for  gray.  The  mordanted  linen 
or  cotton  goods  are  dipped  in  an  alcoholic  ex 
tract  of  the  root.  It  is  also  used  for  dyeing 
silk,  but  not  wool.  The  coloring  matter  is  called 
anchusine.  The  violet  and  gray  colors  are 
brilliant. 

ALKI1VDI,  or  Alrliindns,  an  Arabian  physician 
and  philosopher,  born  in  Bassorah  at  the  end 
of  the  8th  century,  died  in  the  middle  of 
the  9th.  Some,  however,  place  his  life  two  or 
three  centuries  later.  He  wrote  more  than 
200  different  treatises  %on  logic,  music,  ge 
ometry,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  medicine,  &c. 
His  treatise  known  under  the  Latin  title  I)e 
TJicoria  Magicarum  Art'mm  has  secured  for 

!  him  the  fame  of  a  magician.     Various  other 

|  works  of  his  were  translated  into  Latin  during 
the  middle  ages,  and  published  at  Paris,  Stras- 
burg,  and  Venice.  His  theories  are  distin- 

!  guished  by  great  ingenuity,  so  much  so  that 

j  Cardan  ranked  him  among  the  twelve  subtle 

I  spirits  of  the  world. 

ALKMAAR,  a  well  built  and  strongly  fortified 

i  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  North  Holland,  on 


ALKMAAR 


ALLAN 


323 


the  Ilelder  ship  canal,  about  18  m.  N.  by  W. 
of  Amsterdam  ;  pop.  in  1867,  11,609.  Its  en 
virons  are  laid  out  in  beautiful  gardens  and  fine 
meadows,  and  broad  canals  intersect  its  streets, 
the  banks  of  which  are  planted  with  trees.  A 
court  of  first  resort  and  a  tribunal  of  commerce 
sit  in  Alkmaar,  and  the  town  is  well  supplied 
with  educational  and  scientific  institutions. 
There  is  a  large  export  trade  in  cheese  and 
butter,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle  and 
corn.  The  manufactures  consist  of  sail  cloth, 
parchment,  salt,  soap,  vinegar,  leather,  and 
earthenware.  Alkmaar  successfully  stood  a 
siege  of  ten  years  by  the  Spaniards,  from  1573  to 
1583 ;  and  in  the  expedition  of  1799  the  British 
and  Russians,  under  the  duke  of  York,  halted 
here,  before  the  conclusion  by  the  latter,  of  his 
inglorious  capitulation  with  the  French. 

ALKMAAR,  Hemrich  von,  a  poet  of  the  15th 
century,  a  native  of  Alkmaar,  celebrated  prin 
cipally  in  connection  with  his  supposed  author 
ship  of  the  famous  poem  Reinelce  Vos  or  Rei- 
neke  Fuchs ;  but,  from  Alkmaar's  own  state 
ments  in  his  preface,  it  seems  probable  that  he 
only  compiled  the  poem. 

ALKORAX.     See  KORAN. 

ALLAH  (Arab,  al,  the,  and  Illcih,  God),  the 
Mohammedan  name  of  the  Supreme  Being. 
The  unity  of  the  Deity  is  the  great  postulate 
of  the  Mohammedan  creed.  His  attributes  are 
thus  summed  up  by  the  Koran:  "There  is  no 
God  but  God.  This  only  true,  great,  and  most 
high  God  has  his  being  through  himself;  is 
everlasting ;  is  not  begotten  and  begetteth  not ; 
is  all-sufficient  in  himself;  fills  the  universe 
with  his  infinity;  is  the  centre  in  which  all 
things  unite,  as  well  the  hidden  as  the  mani 
fest  ;  is  Lord  of  the  world  of  bodies  and  spirits, 
creator  and  ruler,  almighty,  all- wise,  all-loving, 
merciful;  and  his  decrees  are  unchangeable." 
Mohammedans  repeat  a  rosary  of  the  99  epi 
thets  of  the  Supreme  Being,  closing  it  with  the 
great,  all-including  name  of  Allah.  Allali  ale- 
bar  (God  is  great)  is  a  battle  cry  of  the  Mos 
lem,  while  Bism-Illah  or  Bism- Allah  (in  the 
name  of  God)  is  the  grace  before  meat  of  the 
pious  and  the  invocation  at  the  commencement 
of  every  literary  performance. 

ALLAHABAD'.  I.  A  division  of  the  Northwest- 
em  Provinces  of  British  India,  bounded  N.  by 
Agra  and  Oude,  E.  by  Behar,  S.  by  Gund- 
wana,  and  W.  by  Malwah  ;  area,  11,826  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  3,800,000.  It  is  one  of  the  rich 
est  provinces  of  Ilindostan.  II.  A  district  of 
the  preceding  division,  between  lat.  24°  49' 
and  25°  44'  N.,  and  Ion.  81°  14'  and  82°  26'  E. ; 
area,  2,788  sq!  m. ;  pop.  about  1,400,000.  A 
part  of  the  district  is  included  in  the  great 
plain  of  the  Doab,  and  the  surface  generally  is 
nearly  level.  It  is  abundantly  watered  by  the 
Ganges,  the  Jumna,  and  some  artificial  water 
courses,  produces  timber,  maize,  cotton,  flax, 
indigo,  and  sugar,  and  exports  salt.-  III.  The 
chief  town  of  the  district  and  province,  and 
since  1862  capital  of  the  Northwestern  Prov 
inces,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges 


!  and  Jumna,  and  on  the  East  Indian  railway, 

!  lat.   25°  26'  ST.,  Ion.  81°  55'  E.,  75  m.  N.  W.  of 

Benares;    pop.    about   65,000,    including    sub- 

|  urbs.     The  Hindoos,  who  call  the  town  Praya- 

!  ga,  regard  it  as  the  holiest  of  all  places,  and 

:  immense  numbers  of  pilgrims  visit  it  annually 

i  to  bathe  at  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers.     It 

I  was  also  regarded   by  the  Mohammedans   as 

I  so  sacred  that,  on  coming  into  possession  of 

lit,    they   named    it    "God's    place"    (Allah 

|  abad).      It  contains  some  interesting  shrines 

and  ruins,  and   an   ancient  castle,  converted 

into  a  fort  and  great  military  depot  for  Upper 

j  India.     The  native  town  is  inconsiderable,  but 

!  the  European  quarter  is  well   built,  and  the 

:  British  government  since  the  sepoy  rebellion 

has   planned   extensive   improvements,  which 

i  will   render  Allahabad   a   great  military  and 

j  commercial  post.     Some  have  identified  the 

I  city  with  the  Palibothra  of  Greek  and  Roman 

|  geographers.     It  was  fortified  by  Akbar,  and 

I  on  the  dismemberment  of  the  empire  of  Delhi 

'  was  seized  in  1753  by  the  vizier  of  Oude,  from 

whom  it  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1765;  it 

was  afterward  transferred  to  the  nawaub  of 

Oude,  and  finally  ceded  to  the  East  India  com- 

j  pany  in  1801.     It  was  then  in  a  very  ruinous 

;  condition.     A  sepoy  regiment  mutinied  here 

i  June  6,  1857,  and  killed  several  of  their  offi- 

|  cers.      The  rest  of  the   Europeans   defended 

themselves  in  the  fort  until  relieved  by  Col. 

Neill,  but  the  town  was  nearly  destroyed. 

ALLAMAKEE,  a  county  forming  the  N.  E.  ex 
tremity  of  Iowa,  bordering  on  Minnesota,  and 
separated  from  Wisconsin  by  the  Mississippi 
river;   area,  667  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  17,868. 
It  is  intersected  in  the  ST.  by  the  Upper  Iowa, 
and  in  the  S.  by  the  Yellow  river.     The  soil  is 
I  productive,  and.  the  surface  undulating  wood- 
j  land   and  prairie.     The  productions  in   1870 
j  were   675,448   bushels   of  wheat,  331,035    of 
corn,  2,399  of  oats,  25,474  of  barley,  73,512  of 
!  potatoes,  and   18,873  tons   of  hay.      Capital, 
Lansing. 

ALLAMAND,  Jean  Nicolas  Sebastien,  a  natural 
ist,  born  in  Lausanne  in  1713,  died  in  Leyden, 
March  2,  1787.     He  was  professor  of  philoso- 
i  phy  and  natural  history  at  the  university  of 
j  Leyden,  member  of  the  London  royal  society, 
j  and  of  the  Haarlem  academy  of  sciences.     The 
j  Dutch  sailors  collected  for  him,  in  their  expe- 
j  ditions   into   distant   countries,   specimens   of 
plants,  animals,  and  fossils,  which  he  placed  in 
i  the  botanic  garden  and  museum  of  the  univer 
sity,  which  were  under  his  care.     He  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  electricity,  and  was 
the  first  to   explain  the    phenomena  of   the 
Leyden  jar.     The  shrub  Allamanda,  a  native 
of  South  America,  is  called   after  him.     He 
was  the  literary  executor  of  'sGravesande  and 
Prosper   Marchand,  and,  besides  editing  their 
unpublished  works,  translated  and  edited  many 
English  books. 

ALLAN,  David,  a  Scottish  painter  and  en 
graver,  born  at  Alloa,  in  Clackmannanshire, 
Feb.  13,  1744,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Aug.  6,  1796. 


324 


ALLAN 


ALLEGHANY 


In  1755  he  entered  as  an  apprentice  the  art 
academy  of  Robert  Foulis  in  Glasgow,  and  in 
1764  went  to  Rome,  where  in  1773  he  obtain 
ed  from  the  academy  of  St.  Luke  the  gold 
medal  for  the  best  historical  drawing.  His 
earliest  humorous  productions  were  four 
sketches  of  the  carnival  at  Rome.  He  settled 
in  Edinburgh;  and  in  1786,  after  the  death  of 
Runciman,  he  was  appointed  master  of  the 
academy  of  arts.  About  the  same  time  he 
commenced  12  illustrations  of  Allan  Ramsay's 
"Gentle  Shepherd,"  which  lie  subsequently 
engraved  in  aquatint.  He  also  made  some 
designs  from  the  lyrics  of  Burns. 

ALLAN,  Sir  William,  a  Scottish  historical 
painter,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1782,  died  Feb. 
22,  1850.  Failing  to  obtain  patronage  in  Lon 
don,  he  went  to  Russia,  where  he  spent  ten 
years,  and  made  visits  to  the  Crimea,  Circassia, 
and  Turkey.  In  1814  he  returned  to  Edin 
burgh,  where  he  became  intimate  with  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  through  whose  influence  his  pic 
ture  of  the  '•  Circassian  Captives  "  was  purchased 
by  subscription  for  1,000  guineas.  In  1841  he 
once  more  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he 
executed  for  the  emperor  a  painting  of  "  Peter 
the  Great  teaching  his  Subjects  the  Art  of  Ship 
building,"  now  in  the  winter  palace.  In  1826 
he  was  made  an  associate  of  the  royal  academy 
at  London,  and  in  1835  an  academician.  lie 
was  president  of  the  royal  Scottish  academy 
from  1838  till  his  death. 

ALLA\-KARDEC,  Hippclytc  Leon  Dcnizard,  a 
French  spiritualist,  born  in  Lyons,  Oct.  3,  1803, 
died  April  1,  1809.  He  established  in  1858  a 
periodical  review  on  spiritualism  (Revue  spi- 
rite),  and  the  societe  parisienne  des  etudes  spi 
rit  es.  His  principal  works  are:  Le  lixre  des 
esprits  (2  ed.,  I860);  Le  lixre  des  mediums; 
and  V imitation  de  VEvangile  selon  le  spiri- 
tualisme  (1864). 

ALLARD,  Jean  Francois,  a  French  soldier,  born 
at  St.  Tropez,  Provence,  in  1785,  died  in  Pesh- 
awer,  Jan.  23,  1839.  In  1815  he  served  on  the 
staff  of  Marshal  Brune,  after  whose  murder  he 
went  to  Egypt,  and  thence  to  Persia,  where  he 
entered  the  service  of  Abbas  Mirza.  In  1820 
he  went  to  Lahore,  and  took  service  under 
Runjeet  Singh,  by  whom  he  was  finally  made 
commander  -in-chief  of  his  army.  He  organized 
and  disciplined  the  troops  after  the  French 
model,  and  gained  many  victories.  In  1835  he 
revisited  France,  accompanied  by  his  family, 
and  was  received  with  distinguished  honors, 
Louis  Philippe  appointing  him  charge  d'affaires 
in  Lahore. 

ALLARDICE,  Robert  Barclay.     See  BARCLAY. 

ALLEGAN,  a  W.  S.  W.  county  of  Michigan,  on 
Lake  Michigan ;  area,  840  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
32,105.  The  Kalamazoo  river  (navigable  by 
small  steamboats)  intersects  it,  and  it  is  drained 
by  the  Black  and  Babbit  rivers.  The  soil  is  a 
deep  black  alluvium  on  the  river  margins,  and 
in  some  other  parts  sand  and  clay  predominate  ; 
the  surface  is  undulating  and  mostly  covered 
with  forests.  lu  the  S.  W.  part  is  »  quarry  of. 


good  limestone.  Several  lines  of  railroad  tra^ 
verse  the  county.  The  productions  in  1870 
were  338,243  bushels  of  wheat,  376,974  of  corn, 
205,219  of  oats,  20,973  of  barley,  267,795  of 
potatoes,  129,223  Ibs.  of  wool,  476,065  of  but 
ter,  127,336  of  maple  sugar,  and  27,453  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  167  school  houses.  The 
capital,  Allegan,  is  built  on  both  sides  of  Kala 
mazoo  river,  145  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Detroit,  and 
has  a  considerable  trade  in  lumber. 

ALLECAXY.  I.  A  W.  S.  W.  county  of  New 
York,  bordering  on  Pennsylvania;  area,  1,045 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  40,814.  The  Gene- 
see  river  and  its  tributaries  furnish  motive 
power  for  numerous  mills.  On  each  side  of 
the  Genesee  valley  the  country  rises  until  it 
becomes  table  land  in  the  E.  and  W.  parts. 
The  productions  in  1870  were  195,721  bushels 
of  wheat,  800,600  of  oats,  16,404  of  rye,  135,850 
of  corn,  96,554  of  buckwheat,  29,558  of  barley, 
384,687  of  potatoes,  492,568  Ibs.  of  maple  su 
gar,  410,168  of  wool,  1,908,721  of  butter,  220,- 
880  of  cheese,  and  134,797  tons  of  hay.  There 
are  numerous  saw  and  grist  mills,  tanneries, 
&c.  Bog  iron  ore  and  limestone  are  obtained. 
The  New  York  and  Erie  railroad  and  the  Gen 
esee  canal  pass  through  the  county.  Capital, 
Belmont.  II.  A  W.  county  of  Maryland,  border 
ing  on  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  bounded  by 
the  Potomac  and  its  north  branch ;  area,  800  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  38,536,  of  whom  1,166  were 
colored.  The  Youghiogheny  river  intersects 
its  W.  part,  and  it  is  drained  by  several  creeks. 
The  main  Alleghany  mountains  and  several 
smaller  ridges  traverse  it,  and  its  surface  is 
rocky  and  broken.  Limestone,  sandstone,  iron 
ore,  and  coal  abound,  the  last  being  extensively 
mined  at  Cumberland.  The  glades  or  valleys 
in  the  mountains  furnish  the  celebrated  glades 
butter  and  mutton.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
and  Pittsburgh  and  Connellsville  railroads  and 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  pass  through  the 
county.  The  productions  in  1870  were  70,404 
bushels  of  wheat,  45,090  of  rye,  116,062  of 
corn,  206,589  of  oats,  47,935  Ibs.  of  wool,  387,- 
639  of  butter,  and  70,454  of  maple  sugar. 
There  are  numerous  manufacturing  establish 
ments.  Capital,  Cumberland. 

ALLEGHANY.  I.  A  W.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordering  on  West  Virginia,  and  bounded  N. 
W.  by  the  main  chain  of  the  Alleghanies  and 
S.  E.  by  Middle  mountain;  area,  500  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,674,  of  whom  579  were  colored. 
Jackson's  river  unites  with  Cow  Pasture  river 
on  the  E.  border  to  form  the  James.  The  pas 
sage  of  Jackson's  river  through  one  of  the 
mountains  affords  fine  scenery.  Peters  and  the 
Warm  Spring  mountains  extend  through  the 
centre  of  the  county.  Iron  ore  is  found,  and 
the  Red  Sweet  Springs  have  some  celeb 
rity.  The  Virginia  Central  railroad  termi 
nates  at  Covington,  and  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  railroad  begins  there.  The  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  24,843  bushels  of  wheat, 
50,695  of  corn,  31,991  of  oats,  25,747  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  and  40,  COO  of  butter.  Capital,  Cov- 


ALLEGHANY   COLLEGE 


ALLEGIANCE 


525 


ington.  II.  A  N.  "W.  county  of  North  Caro 
lina,  bordering  on  Virginia,  bounded  W.  by 
New  river,  a  branch  of  the  Kanawha,  and  E. 
and  S.  by  the  Blue  Ridge  mountains;  area,  300 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,691.  There  are  mines 
of  copper.  The  productions  in  1870  were  7,988 
bushels  of  wheat,  43,369  of  corn,  and  21,496  of 
oats.  Capital,  Gap  Civil. 

ALLEGHAXY  COLLEGE.     See  MEADVILLE. 

ALLEGIIAXY  MOIMAIXS.  See  APPALACHIAN 
MOUNTAINS. 

ALLEGHAXY  RIVER  rises  in  Potter  county, 
N.  Pennsylvania,  flows  circuitously  westward 
through  New  York,  returns  to  Pennsylvania, 
and  after  a  southerly  course  unites  at  Pitts 
burgh  with  the  Monongahela  river  to  form  the 
Ohio.  It  flows  through  a  hilly  country,  abound 
ing  in  pine  forests  and  coal.  The  river  is  nav 
igable  for  small  steamboats  to  Olean,  N.  Y., 
240  in.  from  its  mouth  and  about  45  m.  from 
its  source,  and  to  Waterford,  Pa.,  on  French 
creek,  its  principal  tributary,  14  m.  from  Lake 
Erie.  Its  chief  tributary  from  the  east  is  the 
Conemaugh.  The  principal  towns  along  its 
course  are  Warren,  Kittanning,  Franklin,  and 
Oil  City.  The  Alleghany  separates  Pittsburgh 
from  Allegheny  City. 

ALLEGHENY,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Pennsylva 
nia;  area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  262,204. 
Near  the  centre  of  the  county  the  Ohio  is 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Alleghany  and 
Monongahela  rivers.  The  Youghiogheny  and 
several  creeks  also  drain  it.  Near  the  rivers 
the  surface  is  broken  into  ravines ;  most  of  the 
upland  is  hilly  and  very  picturesque.  Nearly 
all  of  the  county  is  arable.  The  productions  in 
1870  were  325,331  bushels  of  wheat,  674,916 
of  corn,  1,111,269  of  oats,  78,372  of  rye,  69,946 
of  barley,  769,144  of  potatoes,  308,475  Ibs.  of 
wool,  1,223,744  of  butter,  and  64,730  tons  of 
hay.  Bituminous  coal  is  found  in  the  county, 
and  iron,  glass,  wool,  &c.,  are  extensively  man 
ufactured.  The  valuation  of  personal  property 
in  1870  was  $12,367,611.  Allegheny  is  the  sec 
ond  county  in  importance  in  the  state.  Capi 
tal,  Pittsburgh. 

ALLEGHENY  CITY,  a  manufacturing  city  of 
Allegheny  county,  Pa.,  opposite  Pittsburgh,  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  Alleghany  river,  at  its  junc 
tion  with  the  Monongahela;  pop.  in  1860, 
28,702;  in  1870,  53,180.  The  city  contains 
many  elegant  residences  of  persons  doing  busi 
ness  in  Pittsburgh.  It  has  one  weekly  news 
paper,  and  one  semi-monthly  and  one  monthly 
periodical.  The  Western  theological  seminary 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  was  established 
here  in  1827.  Before  the  union  it  was  under 
the  control  of  the  Old  School  Presbyterians. 
In  1808  there  were  5  professors  and  70  students, 
935  graduates,  and  the  endowment  amounted 
to  $184,800.  The  theological  seminary  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  church,  established  in 
1826,  and  the  Allegheny  theological  institute, 
organized  in  1840  by  the' synod  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  church,  are  also  situated  here. 
In  1868  the  former  had  3  professors,  36  stu 


dents,  426  graduates,  and  2,000  volumes  in  the 
library.    The  western  penitentiary,  an  immense 
building  in  the  ancient  Norman  style,  situated 
|  on  the  >k  common  "  of  Allegheny  City,  was  com- 
!  pleted  in  1827  at  a  cost  of  $183,000.    In  1868  it 
I  had  463  inmates,  employed  in  weaving,  shoe- 
|  making,  and  the  manufacture  of  cigars;  earnings, 
$27,013.   The  city  contains  12  schools,  2  national 
banks,  10  savings  banks,  1  real  estate  bank,  and  1 
trust  company ;  4  rolling  mills,  employing  1,155 
hands  ;  5  cotton  mills,  with  1,050  hands;   li  ale 
and  beer  breweries,  averaging  20  men  each ;  6 
|  founderies  and  machine  shops,  averaging  30  men 
I  each ;  1  blast  furnace,  with  70  men  ;  and  1  steel 
j  factory,  with  250  hands.     The  Pittsburgh  loco- 
i  motive  works  employ  380  hands  and  complete 
'  one  locomotive  a  week.    There  are  45  churches, 
of  which  16    are  Presbyterian,  9   Catholic,  8 
Methodist,  3  Baptist,  3  Lutheran,  2  Episcopal, 
and  1  each  Congregational,  Disciples',  and  Ke- 
I  formed.     The   charitable   institutions   are   the 
home   for   the  friendless,    the   widows'    hcTne 
association,    the   house   of   industry,    and   the 
j  orphan  asylum.     There  is  a  soldiers'  monument 
I  which  cost  $37,000.     The  city  park  contains  an 
j  area  of  100  acres.     The  assessed  value  of  prop 
erty  in  1871  was  $8,434,636. 

ALLEGIANCE  (Lat.  alligare,  to  bind  to),  the 
subject's   duty  of  obedience  to  the  sovereign 
;  under  whose  protection  he  is.     Allegiance  is 
|  correlative  with  protection,  and  the  duty  of 
I  allegiance  is  in  return  for  and  in  consideration 
I  of  the  fact  of  protection.     Therefore,  when  the 
I  sovereign  can  no  longer  protect  the  subject, 
|  his  allegiance  ceases;  and  on  this  principle  the 
|  duty  is  discharged  by  conquest  or  by  cession 
I  of  the  sovereign's  territory  by  treaty.     Natural 
|  allegiance  arises  from  the  fact  of  birth  within 
the  territorial  domain  and  actual  protection  by 
I  the  sovereign.     But  actual  allegiance  is  due 
i  even  by  an  alien  to  the  sovereign  of  the  state 
l  in  which  he  is ;  though,  by  comity  of  nations, 
|  there  is  an  exception  to  this  rule  in  favor  of 
foreign  sovereigns  and  ambassadors  and  their 
suites,  and  of  the  officers  and  crews  of  foreign 
war  ships,  and  of  foreign  armies  when  they  are 
permitted  to  pass  through  the  state.     As  alle 
giance  is  the  highest  of  the  citizen's  obligations, 
so  the  violation  of  it  is  the  highest  of  crimes, 
or  treason.     The  principle  that  allegiance  is 
due  to  the  actual  sovereign  has  been  carried  so 
far  as  to  make  acts  treasons  though  they  were 
done  against  a  usurper ;  and  Blackstone  says 
that  on  this  ground,  after  Edward  IV.  recov 
ered  the  crown,   treasons  committed  against 
Henry  VI.    were   capitally   punished,   though 
Henry  had  been  declared  a  usurper  by  parlia 
ment.     On  the  other  hand,  but  on  the  same 
principle  at  common  law,  and  until  a  statute 
j  was  passed  for  their  naturalization,  the  chil- 
|  dren  of  English  subjects  born  abroad,  that  is, 
!  out  of  the  king's  domain  and  protection,  were 
j  aliens.      But  the  most  important  quality  at- 
j  tached  by  the  common  law  to  the  doctrine  of 
j  allegiance  was  that  it  was  indissoluble.     The 
I  principle  was  shortly  expressed  in  the  familiar 


326 


ALLEGIANCE 


Latin  maxim,  Nemo  potestexuerepatriam,  "No 
one  can  abjure  his  country,"  or  renounce  the 
fealty  which  he  owes  to  his  sovereign.     The 
maxim  is  as  old  as  English  jurisprudence,  and 
until  the  most  recent  period  the  rule  has  heen 
maintained  in  England  to  its  fullest  extent.     It 
has  nowhere   else   been   asserted,  in  modern 
times  at  least,  with  the  same  rigor  with  which 
it  was  enforced  there  ;  and  even  while  it  stood 
the  acknowledged  rule  of  the  law  of  England, 
it  was  condemned  by  many  of  its  soundest  ju 
rists.     One  of  them,  Twiss,  has  very  lately  said 
of  it  that  it  found  no  countenance  in  the  law 
of  nations,  but  was  on  the  contrary  in  direct 
conflict  with  incontestable  principles  of  that 
system.     Observing  the  more  liberal  tone  of 
modern  public  law  upon  this  subject,  it  is  worth 
notice  that  it  is  now  asserting  only  the  doctrine 
which  was  maintained  by  the  law  of  Rome  in 
its  best  period.     In  his  argument  for  Balbus 
Cicero  declared  it  to  be  even  the  firmest  foun 
dation  of  Roman  liberty  that  the  citizen  might 
retain  or  renounce  his  allegiance  at  his  pleas 
ure.     But  the  English  common  law  asserted 
that   allegiance   intrinsic    and   absolute   arose 
from  the  mere  fact  of  birth  within  the  sover 
eign's  dominion  and  protection;  that  it  could 
not  be  cancelled  or  forfeited  by  any  change  of 
time,  place,  or  circumstances ;  that  the  subject 
could  not  abjure  it  or  renounce  it  by  abandon 
ing  the  realm,  nor  by  swearing  loyalty  to  an 
other  state ;  nor  could  it  be  released  in  any 
way  without  the  concurrence  of  the  supreme 
legislative  power.    Coke  expressed  the  rigor  of 
the  rule  as  it  was  held  in  England  in  his  time, 
and  indeed  for  more  than  two  centuries  after 
ward,   when   he   said   that   "all   subjects  are 
equally  bound  to  their  allegiance  as  if  they  had 
taken  the  oath  of  it,  because  it  is  written  by 
the  finger  of  the  law  in  their  hearts."     As  has 
just  been  said,   however,   this  supreme  duty 
might  be  released  by  the  consent  of  the  sover 
eign.     Such  an  assent  was  given,  for  example, 
in  the  case  of  the  United  States,  when  by  treaty 
our  independence   was   recognized   by   Great 
Britain;   and  after  that  it  was  several  times 
decided  in  England  that  persons,  though  born 
here  British  subjects,  who  adhered  to  the  new  | 
state,  ceased  to  be  subjects  of  the  crown  and  j 
became  aliens.     But  though  steadily  asserting  ! 
the  rule  that  allegiance  was  indissoluble,  Eng-  j 
land    has    nevertheless    practically    conceded  ! 
its    invalidity   by  admitting   and   naturalizing  j 
foreigners  into  her  citizenship,  just  as  all  other  j 
countries  have  done. — In  modern  times  at  least,  i 
no  other  considerable  European  state  has  en-  j 
forced  the  theory  of  the  common  law,  or  at  j 
least  not  with  the  severity  with  which  it  was  ! 
enforced  in  England.     The  French  code  de-  | 
clares  expressly  that  the  quality  of  a  French-  | 
man  is  lost  by  naturalization  in  a  foreign  conn-  | 
try,  and  France,  Spain,  and  most  of  the  German 
states  have  enacted  laws  regulating  the  natu 
ralization  of  foreigners.     The  great  European  j 
authorities  in  public  law,   Grotius,  Pufendorf,  j 
Vattel,  and  others,  concede  in  general  terms  ! 


the  right  of  expatriation,  qualifying  it  only 
when  it  is  restrained  by  law,  or  when  the  citi 
zen  owes  to  his  native  state  some  already  as 
sumed  but  not  yet  discharged  obligation ;  if, 
for  example,  he  has  violated  the  law  and  owes 
the  penalty,,  or  is  invested  with  some  public 
trust,  or  war  threatens  and  his  sovereign  needs 
his  aid ;  and  these  have  been  the  chief  modifi 
cations  of  the  right  to  renounce  allegiance 
which  have  been  discussed  in  our  own  diplo 
matic  correspondence  upon  this  subject  with 
European  states.  When  once  naturalization 
is  admitted  to  be  competent  and .  right,  the 
right  of  expatriation  and  of  renunciation  of 
the  former  allegiance  should  seem  to  be  im 
plied  as  a  necessary  corollary.  Naturalization 
means  the  complete  adoption  of  a  foreigner 
and  the  investing  him  with  the  actual  citizen 
ship  of  his  adopted  country.  In  practice  it 
compels,  as  a  precedent  condition,  his  entire 
renunciation  of  his  former  allegiance,  and  the 
assumption  by  solemn  oath  of  an  exclusive 
fidelity  to  the  new  sovereign ;  and,  with  one  or 
two  modifications  only,  it  gives  him  the  same 
rights  which  he  would  have  had  if  he  had 
been  born  within  his  dominion  and  protection. 
The  status  which  he  thus  receives  is  clearly 
inconsistent  with  any  allegiance  to  the  country 
of  his  birth.  Allegiance  cannot  be  divided, 
and  if  his  original  allegiance  has  not  been 
utterly  cancelled,  then  the  naturalization  is  an 
empty  form,  and  the  adopted  citizen  has  not 
the  right  to  protection  and  citizenship  which 
the  new  sovereign  pretends  to  guarantee  jto 
him.  These  considerations  have  been  brought 
forward  in  most  of  the  cases  which  have  arisen 
from  time  to  time  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  earlier  cases,  however,  though  the  courts 
inclined  to  give  them  their  just  weight,  they 
repeatedly  evaded  direct  decision  of  the  ques 
tion.  From  an  historical  review  of  all  the  cases 
which  had  arisen  down  to  his  time,  Chancellor 
Kent  declared  the  prevailing  spirit  of  the  de 
cisions  to  be  that,  in  the  absence  of  any  legis 
lation  sanctioning  the  abjuration  of  allegiance, 
the  rule  of  the  common  law  remained-  un 
altered.  But  in  one  instance  at  least,  as  early 
as  1812,  our  government  assumed  a  position 
on  this  question  quite  as  advanced  as  it  has 
ever  taken  in  the  cases  which  have  arisen 
since  that  time.  During  the  war  with  England 
then  existing,  the  prince  regent  announced  that 
every  native-born  Briton,  taken  prisoner  while 
fighting  in  the  American  army,  should  be  ex 
ecuted  for  treason  to  his  lawful  sovereign. 
Mr.  Madison  announced  in  return,  that  if  any 
naturalized  citizen  of  this  country  were  put  to 
death  on  the  pretence  that  he  was  a  British 
subject,  the  United  States  would  put  to  death 
two  English  prisoners  in  retaliation.  There 
was  no  further  discussion  on  the  subject,  and 
no  occasion  for  any.  Still  later,  and  especially 
within  the  last  twenty  years,  cases  have  oc 
curred  in  which  foreigners  naturalized  here 
were  upon  their  return  to  their  native  states 
compelled  to  render  military  service  there,  or 


ALLEGIANCE 


ALLEINE 


327 


were  otherwise  forced  to  assume  the  duties  of 
subjects  of  their  states  of  birth,  and  they  in 
voked  the  protection  of  the  United  States  by 
virtue  of  their  status  as  American  citizens.  In 
1857,  in  the  case  of  Ernst,  a  subject  of  Hanover, 
naturalized  here,  who  on  his  return  was  forced 
into  the  Hanoverian  army,  Attorney  General 
Black  gave  to  the  president  a  very  clear  and 
convincing  opinion,  in  which  he  advised  him 
that  Ernst  was  an  American  citizen ;  that  by 
the  public  law  of  the  world  we  have  the  un 
doubted  right  to  naturalize  a  foreigner,  whether 
his  natural  sovereign  consents  to  his  emigra 
tion  or  not ;  and  that  Hanover  could  not  jus 
tify  Ernst's  arrest,  even  by  showing  that  he 
emigrated  contrary  to  the  laws  of  that  coun 
try,  unless  it  could  be  proved  that  the  original 
right  of  expatriation  depended  on  the  consent 
of  the  natural  sovereign;  and  as  to  the  last 
proposition,  he  added  that  he  was  sure  that  it 
could  not  be  established.  In  a  case  in  the  same 
year,  that  of  Amther,  Mr.  Black's  opinion  was 
to  the  same  effect  on  a  reversed  state  of  facts. 
Amther,  a  Bavarian  subject,  after  being  natu 
ralized  here,  returned  to  Bavaria  and  sought 
to  recover  his  original  status  as  a  citizen  of 
that  country.  The  authorities  there  doubted 
whether  he  could  throw  off  his  allegiance  to 
this  country,  but  the  attorney  general  of  the 
United  States  was  of  the  clear  opinion  that  he 
could ;  that  by  our  law  any  citizen,  native  or 
naturalized,  might  sever  his  political  connec 
tion  with  this  government  at  his  pleasure,  pro 
vided  it  was  for  a  purpose  and  at  a  time  which 
were  not  injurious  to  our  interests.  He  was  of 
the  opinion,  therefore,  that  Amther  might  be 
reinstated  as  a  citizen  of  Bavaria,  and  that,  as 
a  condition  to  such  restitution  of  his  citizen 
ship,  the  Bavarian  government  was  at  liberty 
to  compel  him  to  abjure  his  allegiance  to  the 
United  States  in  any  form  that  its  laws  re 
quired.  Doctrines  quite  as  emphatic  were 
pronounced  by  Mr.  Marcy,  secretary  of  state 
in  1853,  in  the  famous  case  of  Koszta.  In  a 
letter  to  the  American  minister  to  Prussia  in 
1859,  concerning  cases  then  in  hand,  Mr.  Cass 
declared  that  the  right  of  expatriation  could 
not  at  this  moment  be  doubted  or  denied  in 
this  country,  and  that  the  doctrine  of  per 
petual  allegiance  was  a  relic  of  barbarism 
which  was  fast  disappearing  from  Christen 
dom.  In  I860  Attorney  General  Stanbery  de 
clined  to  discuss  the  general  question  of  the 
right  of  expatriation  under  our  law,  on  the 
ground  that  the  practice  of  the  United  States 
had  long  since  rendered  that  question  a  mere 
abstraction.  It  should  be  observed,  however, 
•that  our  government,  in  its  dealings  with 
other  nations  on  this  subject,  has  not  claimed 
that  the  right  to  renounce  allegiance  is  ab 
solute  under  all  circumstances.  It  has  been 
willing  to  concede  that  our  naturalization  did 
not  give  full  rights  of  American  citizenship  to 
aliens  whose  removal  from  their  native  country 
bore  the  character  of  an  escape  or  night  from 
civil  or  political  obligations  already  fixed  upon 


them ;  so  that,  while  it  would  not  recognize 
any  validity  in  the  general  right  to  claim  mili 
tary  service,  for  example,  the  actual  perform 
ance  of  which  had  not  been  demanded  when 
!  the   foreign   subject   left    his   country,    yet  it 
i  would  concede  that  there  was  a  just  force  in 
the  claim  of  the  foreign  state,  when  the  subject 
had  been  already  conscripted  into  the  army, 
;  and  had  deserted  from  it,  or  had  otherwise  run 
|  away  from  actually  existing  obligations.  •  The 
!  whole  subject  has  been  finally  closed,  so  far  as 
j  the  law  of  the  United  States  about  it  is  con- 
i  cerned,  by  a  very  explicit  and  vigorous  statute 
i  passed  in  July,  1868.    Its  preamble  recites  that 
the  right  of  expatriation  is  a  natural  and  in- 
|  herent  right  of  all  people,  indispensable  to  the 
!  enjoyment  of  the  rights  of  life,  liberty,  and  the 
|  pursuit  of  happiness ;  that  in  the  recognition 
of  this  principle,  this  government   has  freely 
received  emigrants   from   all  nations  and  in 
vested  them  with  the  right  of  citizenship ;  that 
;  it  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  public 
i  peace  that  the  claim  of  foreign  allegiance  as  to 
i  such  adopted  citizens  should  be  promptly  and 
finally  disavowed;  and  it  is  therefore  enacted 
|  that  any  declaration,  opinion,  order,  or  deci- 
!  sion  of  any  officer  of  this  government  which 
i  denies,  impairs,  restricts,  or  questions  the  right 
i  of  expatriation,  is  inconsistent  with  the  funda- 
I  mental   principles    of    the    government.      The 
|  statute  further  enacts  that  all  naturalized  citi- 
j  zens  of  the    United   States,  while   in   foreign 
|  states,  are  entitled  to  and  shall  receive  from 
this  government  the  same  protection  of  person 
and  property  that  is  accorded  to  native-born 
citizens  in  like  circumstances.    At  last,  in  1870, 
I  Great  Britain  by  the  naturalization  act  of  that 
i  year  (May  12)  revised  all  her  own  laws  upon 
1  alienage,  expatriation,  and  naturalization,  and 
j  for  the  first  time  in  her  history  recognized  the 
I  right  of  her  subjects  to  renounce  their  allegi- 
|  ance  to  the  crown.     (See  NATURALIZATION.) 
ALLEGRI,  Antonio.     See  COEEEGGIO. 
ALLEGRI,  Gregorio,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and 
composer  of  church  music,  born  in  Rome  about 
'  1580,  died  there  in  February,  1652.    He  was  the 
<  pupil  of  Nanini,  and  on  terms  of  intimacy  with 
Palestrina.     His  voice  was  not  remarkable,  but 
|  he  was  a  perfect  master  of  harmony,  and  was 
i  made  one  of  the  singers  in  the  pope's  chapel  in 
!  1629.     The  famous  Miserere,  performed  yearly 
I  on  Wednesday  and  Friday  of  Passion  Week,  in 
!  the  papal  chapel,  is  his  composition. 

ALLKLVE,  or   Allein,      I.   Joseph,  an   English 
nonconformist,  minister   and   author,   born    at 
Devizes  in  1633,  died  in  166S.     lie  received  his 
education  at  Oxford,  and  was  a  man  of  extensive 
•  literary  acquirements.    Though  ejected  from  his 
curacy  and  imprisoned  for  nonconformity,  he 
j  yet  preserved  his  reverence  for  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities,  and  his  loyalty  to  the  king.     His 
principal  work,    "An  Alarm   to  LTnconverted 
Sinners,"  has  passed    through   numerous   edi 
tions.     II.  Richard,  an  English  nonconforming 
!  clergyman,  born  at  Ditchet,  Somersetshire,  in 
i  1611,  died  in  1 681 .    He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 


328 


ALLEMAND 


ALLEN 


and  became  rector  of  Batcorabe  in  Somerset 
shire,  lie  was  a  rigid  puritan,  and  assisted  the 
commissioners  appointed  by  parliament  to  purify 
the  church  of  "  scandalous  ministers."  lie  was 
deprived  of  his  rectory  after  the  restoration  as  a 
nonconformist,  but  continued  to  preach  in  a 
private  house.  Although  often  censured  for  so 
doing,  his  virtues  shielded  him  from  any  sever 
ity  on  the  part  of  the  authorities. 

ALLEMANI),  Zadmrie  Jacqnes  Theodore,  count, 
a  French  vice  admiral,  born  at  Port  Louis 
(island  of  Mauritius)  in  1702,  died  at  Toulon, 
March  2,  1826.  lie  entered  the  navy  at  the 
age  of  12,  was  one  of  the  first  chevaliers  of 
the  legion  of  honor,  and  was  soon  after  its 
formation  raised  to  the  rank  of  officer.  In 
various  cruises  he  inflicted  immense  losses  upon 
English  commerce.  In  1809  he  commanded 
the  squadrons  of  Brest,  Toulon,  and  Eochefort, 
in  the  capacity  of  vice  admiral.  The  fleet 
was  anchored  in  the  Basque  roads  (between 
the  islands  of  Aix  and  Oleron),  when  on  April 
11  Lord  Cochranc  attacked  it  with  50  fire 
ships  and  several  infernal  machines  invented 
by  Col.  Congreve.  Allemand  saved  all  but 
four  of  his  vessels,  and  the  success  of  the  Eng 
lish  was  very  slight,  compared  to  the  immense 
cost  of  the  expedition. 

ALLELV.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Kentucky,  bor 
dering  on  Tennessee,  bounded  N.  E.  by  Big 
Barren  river,  and  intersected  by  Trammers 
creek;  area,  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,296, 
of  whom  1,104  were  colored.  There  are  sev 
eral  caves  and  salt  springs  in  the  county.  The 
surface  is  level  and  the  soil  moderately  fertile. 
The  productions  in  1870  were  55,844  bushels  of 
wheat,  390,883  of  corn,  96,647  of  oats,  747,489 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  133,487  of  butter,  and  23,635 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  Capital,  Scotts- 
ville.  II.  A  W.  N.  W.  county  of  Ohio,  inter 
sected  by  the  Anglaize  and  Ottawa  rivers  and 
Riley  and  Sugar  creeks ;  area,  405  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  23,623.  It  has  a  fertile  soil,  with  a 
surface  generally  level  and  abounding  in  hard 
wood  timber.  The  productions  in  1870  were 
315,164  bushels  of  wheat,  21,671  of  rye,  209,- 
269  of  oats,  374,017  of  corn,  92,035  Ibs.  of  flax, 
125,897  of  wool,  466,482  of  butter,  and  21,173 
tons  of  hay.  Several  railroads  and  the  Miami 
canal  pass  through  it.  Capital,  Lima.  III. 
An  E.  N.  E.  county  of  Indiana,  on  the  Ohio 
line;  area,  638  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  43,494. 
It  is  nearly  level,  with  a  fruitful  soil,  and  well 
watered  by  the  St.  Joseph  and  St.  Mary  rivers, 
which  unite  at  Fort  Wayne  and  form  the  Mau- 
mee  river.  It  is  well  wooded  with  oak,  hick-  | 
ory,  beech,  maple,  and  other  trees.  The  Wa- 
bash  and  Erie  canal  passes  through  the  county, 
which  is  also  intersected  by  numerous  lines  of 
railroad.  The  productions  in  1870  were  432,- 
752  bushels  of  wheat,  273,344  of  corn,  212,944 
of  oats,  100,930  of  potatoes,  106,778  Ibs.  of 
wool,  543,322  of  butter,  and  28,377  tons  of 
hay.  Capital,  Fort  Wayne.  IV.  A  new  county 
in  S.  E.  Kansas;  area,  504  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in 
1870,  7,022.  The  Neosho  river  flows  through 


the  W.  portion  of  the  county.  Coal  is  found, 
and  stock-raising  is  extensively  pursued.  The 
county  has  railroad  communication  with  Junc 
tion  City  on  the  Kansas  Pacific  road,  and  also 
with  Lawrence.  The  productions  in  1870  were 
27,734  bushels  of  wheat,  187,225  of  corn,  115,- 
708  of  oats,  23,333  of  potatoes,  and  90,588  Ibs. 
of  butter.  There  were  29  schools,  3  news 
papers,  and  12  manufacturing  establishments. 
Capital,  lola. 

ALLEN,  Bog  of.     Sec  Boo. 

ALLEN,  Ethan,  an  American  revolutionary 
partisan,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1739,  died  in 
Burlington,  Vt,,  Feb.  13,  1789.  About  1763  he 
settled,  with  four  younger  brothers,  in  the 
township  of  Bennington,  Vt.  Previous  to  the 
revolution  there  existed  a  dispute  between  the 
colonies  of  New  York  and  New  Hampshire 
relative  to  their  boundaries,  and  the  debatable 
land  included  the  whole  of  the  present  state  of 
Vermont,  then  called  the  New  Hampshire 
grants.  Ethan  Allen  first  became  conspicuous 
in  the  controversy  which  grew  out  of  the  at 
tempt  to  enforce  New  York  law.  Actions  of 
ejectment  being  brought  against  those  who 
held  land  under  grants  from  New  Hampshire, 
Allen  was  selected  in  1770  as  agent  to  repre 
sent  the  settlers  in  the  litigation  at  Albany. 
The  decision  was  adverse  to  them,  and  they 
resolved  to  resist.  They  adopted  Allen's  own 
phrase,  "  The  gods  of  the  valleys  are  not  the 
gods  of  the  hills."  The  New  York  authorities 
were  everywhere  set  at  defiance.  Allen  was 
made  colonel  of  an  armed  force  which  not 
only  protected  the  New  Hampshire  grantees, 
but  removed  the  New  Y^ork  settlers.  Governor 
Tryon  of  New  York  proclaimed  a  reward  of 
£150  for  his  arrest.  This  state  of  affairs  re 
mained  unaltered  till  the  revolution,  New  York 
maintaining  her  hostile  attitude,  and  the  Ver- 
monters  the  possession  of  their  farms.  In 
1775,  when  war  with  the  mother  country  had 
become  inevitable,  the  occupation  of  Ticonde- 
roga  was  determined  on,  arid  the  task  was  con 
fided  to  Allen,  who  set  out  at  once  at  the  head 
of  his  "Green  Mountain  Boys,"  reaching  Cas- 
tleton  May  7,  1775.  A  party  was  also  detached 
under  Capt-  Herrick  toward  Skcncsborough, 
and  another  under  Capt.  Douglass  to  Pantori 
in  the  vicinity  of  Crown  Point.  On  the  morn 
ing  of  May  10  Allen,  who  had  previously  been 
joined  by  Arnold,  surprised  Ticonderoga,  sum 
moning  Capt.  Delaplacc,  who  commanded  the 
post,  to  surrender  kkin  the  name  of  the  great 
Jehovah  and  the  continental  congress."  By 
this  coup  de  main,  2  officers,  48  rank  and  file, 
120  pieces  of  artillery,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
small  arms,  were  captured,  and  the  command 
of  the  Green  mountains  was  wrested  from  the 
English.  Only  80  Americans  were  present  at 
the  capture.  The  other  enterprises  were 
equally  successful,  Skenesborough  and  Crown 
Point  being  also  captured.  A  dispute  ensued 
between  Arnold  and  Allen  relative  to  the  com 
mand,  which  the  latter  maintained  until  he  was 
relieved  by  the  arrival  of  the  Connecticut  regi- 


ALLEN 


829 


merit,  commanded  by  Col.  Hinman,  to  whom  he 
delivered  his  conquests.  Allen  immediately 
proposed  to  the  authorities  of  New  York  an 
invasion  of  Canada,  which  was  refused  ;  and 
he  then  pro-ceded  to  Philadelphia,  where  the 
continental  congress  officially  acknowledged 
his  services.  He  next  joined  Gen.  Schuyler's 
army  as  a  volunteer,  was  employed  in  secret 
missions  to  sound  the  views  of  the  Canadians, 
and  rendered  valuable  aid  in  Montgomery's 
expedition  to  Canada  ;  but  in  an  unfortunate 
demonstration  against  Montreal  with  a  small 
force  of  American  and  Canadian  recruits,  made 
on  the  persuasion  of  Major  Brown,  Sept.  25, 
1T75.  he  was  captured  and  sent  a  prisoner  to 
England.  A  few  months  later  he  was  sent 
back  to  America,  and  confined  in  prison  ships 
and  jails  at  Halifax  and  New  York  till  May  3, 
1778,  when  he  was  exchanged.  During  most 
of  his  captivity  he  was  treated  as  a  felon  and 
kept  heavily  ironed,  but  for  a  part  of  1776-'7 
was  allowed  restricted  liberty  on  parole.  Kindly 
received  by  congress  and  by  Washington,  he 
was  about  to  enter  the  military  service  again 
when  the  old  colonial  troubles  regarding  Ver 
mont  were  revived.  Allen  was  now  chosen 
general,  and  appointed  to  command  all  the 
militia  of  that  state.  In  the  mean  time  16  of 
the  western  townships  of  New  Hampshire 
sought  annexation  to  Vermont,  sending  a  peti 
tion  to  that  effect  to  the  legislature,  who  referred 
the  matter  to  the  people.  The  governor  of 
New  Hampshire  protested  against  this  course, 
writing  to  the  continental  congress  to  interpose 
its  authority.  Allen  was  sent  as  the  agent  of 
Vermont  to  explain  to  congress  the  course  of 
the  state.  About  this  time  the  English  com 
manders  in  America  began  to  meditate  the  res 
toration  of  royal  authority  in  Vermont,  and, 
while  the  Vermont  claim  to  self-government 
was  in  abeyance,  sought  to  take  advantage  of 
the  dispute.  A  tempting  offer  was  made  to 
Allen  through  Beverley  Robinson,  a  well  known 
tory  of  the  time,  without  any  result,  except 
that,  by  feigning  negotiations,'  Allen  was  able 
to  preserve  the  neutrality  of  the  English  au 
thorities  toward  his  mountaineers,  who  were 
consequently  unmolested  until  nearly  the  end 
of  the  war.  Before  that  time  he  removed  to 
Bennington,  thence  to  Arlington,  and  subse 
quently  to  the  vicinity  of  Onion  river,  where 
he  resided  till  his  death,  serving  for  some  time 
in  the  legislature.  He  was  twice  married,  and 
left  a  wife  and  several  children.  In  addition  to 
a  history  of  the  controversy  between  Vermont 
and  New  York,  a  narrative  of  his  captivity, 
and  various  political  pamphlets,  he  was  the 
author  of  a  work  entitled  "Reason  the  only 
Oracle  of  Man'1  (Svo,  Bennington,  1784),  in 
which  the  Bible  and  the  Christian  religion  are 
assailed  from  a  purely  deistic  standpoint. 

ALLSIA,  Ira,  brother  of  Ethan,  born  in  1752, 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  7,  1814.  He  served 
in  the  American  army  during  the  revolution, 
although  at  first  a  tory,  was  a  member  of  the 
constitutional  convention  of  Vermont,  and  was 


the  first  secretary  of  the  state,  afterward  treas 
urer,  surveyor  general,  &c.  In  1795  he  went 
to  France,  where  he  purchased  20,000  muskets 
and  24  cannon,  expecting  to  sell  them  to  the 
state;  but  while  returning  home  with  a  por 
tion  of  them,  he  was  captured  and  carried  to 
England,  under  the  accusation  of  furnishing 
arms  to  the  Irish  rebels.  A  lawsuit  of  eight 
years'  duration  followed,  in  which  he  was  suc 
cessful.  During  this  time  he  published  ''The 
Natural  'and  Political  History  of  Vermont " 
(Svo,  London,  1798). 

ALLEX,  Joseph  U.,  an  English  landscape 
painter,  born  in  Lambeth,  London,  in  1803, 
died  Aug.  2G,  1852.  lie  was  for  a  time  usher 
in  a  school,  but  soon  went  to  London  to  study 
art.  At  this  time  he  used  to  paint  signs  and 
transparencies  to  eke  out  a  subsistence,  and 
afterward  took  up  scene  painting,  finally  be 
coming  principal  scene  painter  at  the  Olympic 
theatre.  He  had  excelled  in  depicting  quiet 
rural  scenery ;  but  when  he  began  to  employ  the 
brilliant  effects  which  should  be  conlined  to 
the  stage,  the  results  which  he  obtained  were 
far  inferior  to  those  exhibited  in  his  earlier 
productions.  He  was  active  in  the  establish 
ment  of  the  "  Society  of  British  Artists." 

ALLEN,  Paul,  an  American  editor  and  author, 
born  in  Providence,  li.  L,  Eeb.  15,  1775,  died 
in  Baltimore  in  182(5.  After  graduating  at 
Brown  university,  he  went  to  Philadelphia,  and 
was  employed  to  write  for  the  "Port  Folio" 
and  the  "  United  States  Gazette."  In  1801  he 
published  a  small  volume  of  poems.  He  also, 
about  this  time,  superintended  the  publication 
of  "Lewis  and  Clarke's  Travels."  He  became 
successively  the  editor  of  the  "Federal  Pte- 
publican"  and  the  "Journal  of  the  Times," 
but  was  unsuccessful  in  both  enterprises,  sank 
into  extreme  poverty,  and  for  a  time  his  reason 
was  obscured.  He  finally  assumed  the  manage 
ment  of  the  "Morning  Chronicle"  at  Balti 
more,  and  conducted  that  journal  until  his 
death.  In  1821  the  "Life  of  Washington'' 
appeared,  published  in  his  name,  but  really 
written  by  John  Ncal  and  another  of  his 
friends,  named  AVatkins,  Allen  merely  con 
tributing  a  portion  of  the  preface.  His  poem 
of  "  Noah  "  was  published  in  1821,  in  5  cantos. 
It  had  originally  consisted  of  25 ;  but,  having 
been  placed  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Neal  for  re 
vision,  he  reduced  it  to  its  present  dimensions. 

ALLE\,  Samnel,  a  London  merchant  and  act 
ing  governor  of  New  Hampshire,  born  about 
1035,  died  May  5,  1705.  He  purchased  from 
Mason's  heirs  in  1691  a  large  tract  of  land  in 
New  Hampshire,  including  Portsmouth  and 
Dover,  and  extending  60  miles  inland.  He 
acted  as  governor  of  New  Hampshire  until  the 
arrival  of  Lord  Bellamont  in  1699.  His  pur 
chase  involved  him  in  a  protracted  lawsuit  with 
the  actual  settlers,  who  produced  an  Indian 
title,  subsequently  found  to  be  a  forgery,  but 
not  until  his  family  had  become  extinct. 

ALLE\,  Solomon,  an  American  revolutionary 
soldier,  born  in  Northampton,  Mass.,  Feb.  23, 


830 


ALLEN 


1751,  died  Jan.  20,  1821.  He  rose  to  the  rank 
of  major  during  the  revolution,  commanded 
the  guard  which  took  charge  of  Andre  on  his 
capture,  and  assisted  in  putting  down  Shays's 
rebellion  at  a  later  period.  At  the  age  of  50 
he  became  a  clergyman. 

ALLEN,  Thomas,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Northampton,  Mass.,  Jan.  17,  1743,  died  in 
Pittstield,  Feb.  11,  1810.  lie  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1702,  and  was  ordained  in 
1764  at  Pittsneld,  of  which  town  he  was  the 
first  minister.  Twice  during  the  war  of  the 
revolution  he  served  as  chaplain,  and  in  the 
battle  of  Bennington  he  took  an  active  part. 
He  was  minister  of  the  same  church  from  the 
time  of  his  ordination  till  his  death,  a  period 
of  nearly  46  years,  and  during  this  time 
preached  600  or  700  funeral  sermons. 

ALLEN,  William,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy 
man  and  author,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Pittsneld,  Mass.,  Jan.  2,  1784,  died  in  North 
ampton,  July  16,  1868.  lie  graduated  at  Har 
vard  college  in  1802,  and  studied  theology  with 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Pierce  of  Brookline.  After  being 
licensed  in  1804  by  the  Berkshire  association, 
he  preached  for  some  months  in  various  parts 
of  western  New  York.  Upon  his  return  he 
was  appointed  a  regent  of  Harvard  college,  and 
was  also  assistant  librarian  of  the  college. 
During  this  period  he  prepared  the  first  edition 
of  his  "American  Biographical  and  Historical 
Dictionary  "  (1809),  con  taming  notices  of  about 
700  Americans.  This  was  the  first  book 
of  general  biography  issued  in  the  United 
States.  In  1807  he  prepared  the  biographical 
sketches  of  American  ministers  for  the  Rev. 
David  Bogue's  and  Dr.  Bennett's  "  History  of 
Dissenters,"  published  in  London  in  4  vols. 
The  second  edition  of  his  "Dictionary"  ap 
peared  in  1832,  and  contained  more  than  1,800 
names.  The  third  edition,  published  in  Boston 
in  1857,  contains  biographies  and  notices  of 
nearly  7,000  Americans.  His  connection  with 
the  university  ceased  in  1810,  when  he  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church 
in  Pittsfield,  as  his  father's  successor.  The 
legislature  of  New  Hampshire  in  1816  altered 
the  charter  of  Dartmouth  college,  and  created 
in  its  stead  a  university,  of  which  Dr.  Allen 
was  made  president  in  1817.  Upon  an  appeal 
to  the  supreme  court  at  Washington,  the  rights 
of  the  college  against  the  state  were  maintained 
in  1819.  In  1820  Dr.  Allen  was  appointed 
president  of  Bowdoin  college,  Me.,  and  retained 
that  position  till  1839,  when  he  resigned  it,  and  ! 
retired  to  Northampton,  Mass.,  engaging  in 
various  literary  labors.  Among  these  is  a  col-  | 
lection  of  more  than  10,000  words  not  found  i 
in  dictionaries  of  the  English  language ;  nearly  j 
1,500  being  contributed  to  Worcester's  die-  , 
tionary  (1846),  more  than  4,000  to  Webster's 
(1854),  and  about  6,000  to  the  new  edition  of 
Webster.  His  other  chief  writings  are :  "  Junius 
Unmasked,"  to  prove  that  Lord  Sackville  was 
the  real  Junius;  "Accounts  of  Shipwrecks;" 
"Psalms  and  Hymns,"  with  many  original 


hymns  (1835) ;  memoirs  of  Dr.  Eleazar  Whee- 
lock,  and  of  Dr.  John  Codman  (1853) ;  "  Wun- 
nissoo,  or  the  Vale  of  Hoosatnnnuk,"  a  poem, 
with  learned  notes  (1856);  "Christian  Son 
nets"  (1860);  "Poems  of  Nazareth  and  the 
Cross"  (1866);  and  "Sacred  Songs"  (1867). 

ALLEN,  William,  an  English  chemist,  born 
Aug.  29,  1770,  died  near  Lindfield,  Sussex, 
Dec.  30,  1843.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Quaker 
silk  manufacturer  in  Spitalfields,  and  learned 
chemistry  in  the  pharmacy  of  Mr.  Bevan,  in 
London,  to  whose  business  he  eventually  suc 
ceeded.  He  was  for  many  years  lecturer  on 
chemistry  and  experimental  philosophy  at 
Guy's  hospital,  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society, 
and  president  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
pharmaceutical  society.  In  conjunction  with 
his  friend  Mr.  Pepys  he  established  the  pro 
portion  of  carbon  in  carbonic  acid,  and  demon 
strated  that  the  diamond  was  pure  carbon. 
Having  purchased  an  estate  in  Sussex,  he  de 
voted  himself  for  many  years  to  improving  the 
condition  of  his  tenantry  and  poor  neighbors, 
founding  schools,  building  model  cottages,  and 
laying  out  gardens  and  playgrounds. 

ALLEJV,  William  Henry,  an  officer  of  the  Ameri 
can  navy,  born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Oct.  21, 
1784,  died  in  Plymouth,  Eng.,  Aug.  15,  1813. 
He  was  a  son  of  Major  William  Allen,  entered 
the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1800,  and  in  1809 
was  appointed  first  lieutenant  of  the  frigate 
United  States.  Oct.  25,  1812,  he  distinguished 
himself  in  the  action  between  this  vessel  and 
the  British  frigate  Macedonian,  which  resulted 
in  the  capture  of  the  latter.  He  afterward 
received  the  command  of  the  brig  Argus  in 
1813,  with  which  he  cruised  in  the  neighbor 
hood  of  England,  capturing  property  to  the 
amount,  as  was  estimated,  of  $2,000,000.  On 
Aug.  14  he  fought  the  British  brig  Pelican, 
losing  the  Argus,  and  himself  dying  of  his 
wounds  the  next  day. 

ALLEN,  William  Henry,  LL.  D.,  an  American 
scholar  and  educator,  born  in  Readfield  (now 
Manchester),  Kennebec  county,  Me.,  March  27, 
1808.  After  preparatory  study  in  the  Maine 
conference  seminary,  he  entered  Bowdoin  col 
lege,  where  he  graduated  in  1833.  From  1833 
to  1836  he  was  teacher  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
Cazenovia  seminary,  N.  Y. ;  in  1836  principal 
of  a  high  school  at  Augusta,  Me.,  where  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church;  from  1836  to  1846  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  chemistry  in  Dickinson  college, 
Carlisle,  Pa.  ;  from  1846  to  1849  professor  of 
philosophy  and  English  literature  in  the  same 
institution,  and  in  1847-'8  its  acting  president ; 
from  1849  to  1862  president  of  Girard  college, 
Philadelphia,  and  for  one  year  president  of  the 
agricultural  college  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1867 
he  was  recalled  to  the  presidency  of  Girard 
college,  which  position  he  now  (1873)  occu 
pies.  In  March,  1872,  he  was  chosen  presi 
dent  of  the  American  Bible  society.  President 
Allen  has  contributed  to  the  reviews  and  mag 
azines  many  articles  on  philosophical,  literary, 


ALLENDE 


ALLIBONE 


331 


and  educational  questions.  He  is  also  the  au 
thor  of  numerous  addresses  and  several  valua 
ble  reports  on  education.  In  184(5  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  M.  D.  from  the  Phila 
delphia  college  of  medicine ;  and  in  1850  the 
degree  of  LL.  1).  from  both  Union  college, 
New  York,  and  Emory  and  Henry  college, 
Virginia. 

ALLEXDE,  Jose,  an  officer  in  the  Spanish  army, 
of  Mexican  birth,  to  whom  Hidalgo  first  in 
trusted  his  plan  of  revolt  in  September,  1810. 
Allende  was  at  that  time  a  captain  of  the  Mex 
ican  regiment  of  La  Reyna,  and  brought  to  the 
service  the  military  skill  of  which  Hidalgo  was 
so  much  in  need.  When  the  regiment  of  La 
Reyna  and  that  of  Celaya  joined  Hidalgo,  the 
native  levies  gained  some  consistency,  and  in 
the  same  month  achieved  the  famous  capture 
of  the  Alhondega  of  Guanajuato.  After  Nov. 
29,  1810,  Allende  joined  Hidalgo,  and  was  able 
to  replace  the  guns  which  had  previously  been 
lost  at  Aculco,  by  bringing  others  from  San 
Bias,  the  great  naval  station  of  Spain  on  the 
Pacific,  of  which  Morelos  had  obtained  posses 
sion.  Contrary  to  the  advice  of  Allende,  Hi 
dalgo  determined  to  fight  the  enemy,  and  was 
defeated.  Allende  brought  off  the  fragment  of 
the  army,  but  was  arrested  near  Saltillo  by  the 
treachery  of  an  old  comrade  named  Elizondo, 
and  shot  at  Chihuahua,  July  27,  1811. 

ALLE3TOW.V,  capital  of  Lehigh  county,  Pa., 
on  the  W.  bank  of  Lehigh  river,  18  m.  above 
its  junction  with  the  Delaware,  and  59  m.  by 
railroad  N.  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia;  pop.  in  1860, 
8,025  ;  in  1870,  13,884.  In  1762  the  town  was 
laid  out  and  called  Northampton,  the  name  of 
the  county  it  then  belonged  to.  It  contained 
13  families.  In  1776  there  were  54  houses,  of 
which  7  were  taverns.  In  1812  Lehigh  county 
was  established  and  Northampton  was  made 
the  county  town,  having  been  incorporated  as 
a  borough  the  year  previously.  In  1838  the 
name  was  changed  to  Allentown.  By  a- rail 
road  extending  up  and  down  the  valley  of  the 
Lehigh,  it  is  connected  in  one  direction  with 
the  anthracite  coal  region  at  the  head  waters 
of  this  stream,  and  in  the  other  with  New 
York  and  Philadelphia.  Another  railroad  36  m. 
long  connects  the  Lehigh  valley  with  that  of 
the  Schuylkill  above  Reading,  and  affords  the 
most  direct  line  of  communication  between 
New  York  city  and  the  southwest.  By  these 
railroads  and  the  Lehigh  canal,  Allentown  is 
made  a  very  important  central  point  for  sup 
plies  of  iron  ores  and  anthracite.  Several  large 
blast  furnaces,  extensive  iron  works,  and  rolling 
mills  are  in  operation.  The  population  of  Al 
lentown  are  mostly  of  German  descent,  and  the 
German  language  is  still  commonly  spoken.  It 
has  3  daily  newspapers,  6  weekly,  1  semi 
monthly,  and  2  monthly  periodicals.  Allentown 
contains  an  academy,  a  military  institute,  and  a 
theological  seminary.  Muhlenberg  college,  a 
Lutheran  institution,  was  established  here  in 
1867;  in  1868  it  had  10  instructors,  161  stu 
dents,  and  a  library  of  1,800  volumes. 


c 


ALLESTREE,  or  Allestrey,  Richard,  an  English 
divine,  born  in  Uppington,  Shropshire,  in 
March,  1619,  died  in  January,  1681.  During 
the  civil  war  he  left  his  studies  at  Oxford  to  serve 
as  a  soldier  in  the  king's  army.  Toward  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  he  took  orders,  and  was 
one  of  those  expelled  when  the  parliament  in 
1648  sent  visitors  to  Oxford  to  demand  the  sub 
mission  of  the  university.  He  found  an  asylum 
in  the  family  of  Lord  Newport  in  Shropshire, 
and  after  the  battle  of  Worcester  he  was  fixed 
upon  by  the  royalists  as  a  proper  person  to 
convey  despatches  and  have  a  conference  with 
the  king  at  Rouen;  and  he  was  afterward  the 
constant  medium  of  communication  with  him. 
Soon  after  the  return  of  Charles  II.'  he  was 
made  canon  of  Christ's  church,  king's  chap 
lain,  regius  professor  of  divinity,  and  in  1665 
provost  of  Eton.  Forty  of  his  sermons  were 
published  in  1684,  with  a  life  by  Bishop  Fell. 

ALLEYN,  Edward,  an  English  actor,  born  in  Lon 
don,  Sept.  1,  1566,  died  at  Dulwich  college,  of 
which  institution  he  was  the  founder,  Nov.  25, 
1626.  He  was  the  friend  of  Jonson  and  Shake 
speare,  and  partner  of  Henslowe  as  a  theatrical 
manager  and  proprietor  of  the  bear  gardens. 
Having  become  rich,  he  purchased  the  manor  of 
Dulwich  in  1606,  built  his  college  there,  and  en 
tered  the  institution  with  his  wife,  contenting 
himself  with  the  same  allowance  of  food  and 
clothing  as  each  of  his  pensioners.  At  his 
death  he  left  property  for  the  endowment  of 
20  almshouses,  besides  legacies  te  his  wife  and 
relatives.  (See  DULWICH.) 

ALL-FOURS,  a  game  played  by  two  or  four 
persons  with  an  entire  pack  of  cards.  It  de 
rives  its  name  from  the  four  chances  therein, 
for  each  of  which  a  point  is  scored ;  these  are : 
high,  the  best  trump  out;  low,  the  lowest 
trump  out ;  jack,  the  knave  of  trumps ;  and  the 
game,  the  majority  of  pips  reckoned  for  certain 
cards  held  by  the  respective  players,  every  ace 
being  counted  4,  king  3,  queen  2,  knave  1,  and 
ten  10. 

ALLGAIER,  Joliaim,  a  German  chess  player 
and  writer  on  the  game,  died  at  Prague  in  1826. 
For  some  years  he  was  a  captain  in  the  Austri 
an  service.  He  spent  most  of  his  life  in  Vien 
na.  His  work  Anweisung  zinn  Schachspiel, 
was  first  published  at  Vienna  in  1795,  and  has 
since  passed  through  numerous  editions.  A 
peculiar  method  of  opening  the  game  received 
from  him  the  name  of  the  Allgaier  gambit. 

ALL  HALLOWS.  See  ALL  SAINTS'  DAY. 
.  ALLIBONE,  Samuel  Austin,  LL.  D.,  an  Ameri 
can  author  and  bibliographer,  born  in  Philadel 
phia,  April  17,  1816.  After  some  years  spent 
in  collecting  materials  for  the  purpose,  he  began 
in  1853  the  composition  of  '•  A  Critical  Dic 
tionary  of  English  Literature  and  British  and 
American  Authors,  Living  and  Deceased,  from 
the  Earliest  Accounts  to  the  latter  half  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century."  This  work,  in  3  vols. 
royal  8vo  (1858,  1870,  and  1871),  contains  no 
tices  of  46,499  authors  and  40  classified  indexes 
of  subjects.  Dr.  Allibone  is  also  the  author  of 


332 


ALLIER 


ALLIGATOR 


some  religious  controversial  essays,  and  has 
contributed  articles  to  the  "North  American 
Review,11  the  "Evangelical  Quarterly  Review,11 
and  other  periodicals ;  and  he  has  privately 
printed  and  circulated  a  number  of  tracts. 

ALLIER,  a  central  department  of  France,  part 
of  the  old  province  of  Bourbonnais,  bounded  by 
Nievre,  Saone-et-Loire,  Puy-de-dome,  Creuse, 
and  Cher;  area,  2,822  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1872, 
390,812.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  river  Al- 
lier,  which  flows  through  its  centre  ;  the  Cher, 
like  the  Allicr  a  southern  affluent  of  the  Loire, 
flows  through  the  western  part  of  the  depart 
ment,  and  the  Loire  waters  its  eastern  border. 
The  surface  is  undulating,  and  the  soil  generally 
fertile,  yielding  much  grain  and  wine.  Coal 
and  minerals  of  various  kinds  abound;  and 
there  are  celebrated  mineral  springs.  The  de 
partment  is  divided  into  the  arrondissernents 
of  Moulins,  La  Palisse,  Gannat,  and  Montlucon. 
Capital,  Moulins. 

ALLIGATOR  (Fr.  alligator,  It.  alligatore, 
corrupted  from  the  Sp.  el  lagarto,  the  liz 
ard),  a  large  carnivorous,  amphibious  rep 
tile,  of  the  saurian  family,  peculiar  to  Amer 
ica.  The  name  was  first  given  to  this  ani 
mal  by  the  English  colonists  of  the  southern 


Alligator. 

portion  of  what  are  now  the  United  States, 
but  has  been  gradually  extended  to  all  the  va 
rieties  of  the  family,  called  caymans,  crocodiles, 
jacares,  <fcc.,  by  the  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  and 
Indians  of  the  southern  continent.  The  alliga 
tor  was  formerly  believed  to  be  identical  with 
the  crocodile  of  the  old  world  ;  but  there  have 
subsequently  been  found  to  exist  distinctions 
which  indicate  generic  differences.  The  ge 
neric  characteristics  of  the  family  are  long  flat 
heads,  thick  necks  and  bodies,  protected  by 
regular  transverse  rows  of  long  plates  or 
shields,  elevated  in  the  centre  into  keel-shaped 
ridges,  and  disposed  on  the  back  of  the  neck 
into  groups  of  different  forms  and  numbers, 
according  to  the  species.  The  mouth  is  ex 
tremely  large,  extending  considerably  behind 
the  eyes,  and  furnished  in  each  jaw  with  a  sin 
gle  row  of  conical  teeth,  all  of  different  sizes, 
and  standing  far  apart  from  one  another.  The 
eyes  are  placed  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
skull,  very  near  to  each  other,  and  provided 
with  three  eyelids.  The  feet  have  live  toes 
before,  long  and  separate;  four  behind,  more 


or  less  perfectly  connected  by  membranes ;  the 
interior  toes  only,  on  all  the  feet,  being  provid 
ed  with  claws.  The  tail  is  of  great  length, 
slender,  strongly  compressed  at  the  sides,  and 
surmounted  toward  its  origin  by  a  double  series 
of  keel-shaped  plates,  forming  two  upright  den 
ticulated  crests,  wrhich,'  gradually  converging 
toward  the  middle  of  the  tail,  there  unite  and 
form  a  single  row  to  the  extremity.  The  tail 
is  the  animal's  great  instrument  of  progression 
in  the  water,  and  its  great  weapon  of  defence 
when  surprised  on  land.  Both  genera,  alliga 
tors  and  crocodiles,  hibernate,  taking  no  food 
during  the  winter  months;  the  Nilotic  croco 
diles,  according  to  Pliny,  withdrawing  into 
caves  and  holes  in  the  banks,  while  the  alli 
gators  of  America  bury  themselves  in  the  mud 
of  stagnant  rivers.  The  principal  food  of 
both  alligators  and  crocodiles  is  fish,  but  they 
watch  for  and  devour  land  animals  and  even 
men.  It  is  alleged  that  the  musky  fluid  secreted 
from  the  glands  of  the  throat  acts  as  a  sort  of 
bait,  and  attracts  the  fish  on  which  they  prey. 
The  alligators,  according  to  Cuvier,  have  the 
head  less  oblong  than  the  crocodiles.  Its 
length  is  to  its  breadth,  measured  at  the  ar 
ticulation  of  the  jaws,  as  three  to  two;  the 
teeth  are  unequal  in  length  and  size ;  there  are 
at  least  19,  sometimes  even  as  many  as  22,  on 
each  side  in  the  lower,  and  19  or  20  in  the 
upper  jaw.  The  front  teeth  of  the  under  jaw 
pierce  through  the  upper  at  a  certain  age ;  and 
the  fourth  from  the  front,  which  are  the  largest 
of  all,  enter  into  corresponding  holes  of  the  up 
per  jaw,  in  which  they  are  concealed  when  the 
mouth  is  closed.  The  hind  legs  and  feet  are 
round,  and  neither  fringed  nor  pectinated  on 
the  sides  ;  the  toes  are  not  completely  webbed, 
the  connecting  membrane  only  extending  to 
their  middle ;  and  finally,  the  post-orbital  holes 
of  the  cranium,  so  conspicuous  in  the  croco 
diles,  are  very  minute  in  the  alligators,  or  even 
entirely  wanting.  Further  than  this,  it  is  ob 
servable  that  the  alligators,  unlike  the  croco 
diles,  are  rarely  if  ever  to  be  found  in  running 
streams,  preferring  stagnant  ponds  and  the 
creeks  of  large  rivers,  in  which,  particularly  in 
South  America,  they  may  be  seen  in  great 
numbers,  protruding  their  large  flat  heads 
through  the  leaves  of  the  nympha?a,  pontederia, 
and  other  aquatic  plants,  and  watching  for 
their  prey ;  or  sometimes  basking  in  the  sun, 
or  sleeping  on  the  banks.  They  rarely  come 
on  shore,  except  during  the  hottest  part  of  the 
day,  and  always  retire  to  the  water  on  the  ap 
proach  of  night,  during  which  they  are  ex 
tremely  active  in  search  of  their  food.  They 
generally  lay  from  50  to  60  eggs  in  one  place, 
of  about  the  same  size  as  those  of  the  goose, 
which  they  cover  up  with  sand,  and  leave  to 
be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  never,  how 
ever,  removing  to  any  great  distance.  When 
the  young  ones  come  forth,  they  are  five  or  six 
inches  long,  and  are  immediately  conducted  to 
the  water  by  the  female  alligator.  Seldom 
more  than  half  the  brood  long  survive,  the  re- 


ALLIGATOR 


ALLIX 


maimler  being  devoured  by  the  male  alligators, 
and  by  various  ravenous  fishes ;  while  multi 
tudes  are  destroyed  in  the  egg  by  the  vultures. 
The  alligators  never  leave  the  fresh  water, 
while  the  crocodiles  frequent  the  mouths  of  the 
large  rivers,  and  swirn  out  into  the  open  sea, 
passing  between  different  islands  at  consider 
able  distances.  So  perfect  a  characteristic  is 
this  of  the  two  genera,  that  the  animal  of  the 
West  India  islands,  which  swims  out  into  the 
salt  water,  is  distinctly  a  crocodile,  varying  from 
all  the  other  American  species,  and  exhibiting 
the  modifications  which  belong  only  by  right 
to  thosa  of  the  old  world. — The  principal  species 
are  :  1.  The  alligator,  properly  so  called,  cro- 
codilus  Indus  of  Cuvier,  alligator  Mississippien- 
sis  of  Gray,  inhabiting  the  waters  of  the  south 
ern  states.  It  grows  to  the  size  of  14  or  15 
feet ;  its  head  is  one  seventh  of  the  entire 
length,  and  half  as  broad  at  the  articulation  of 
the  jaws  as  it  is  long.  It  has  these  distinguish 
ing  modifications  from  the  crocodiles :  The 
snout  is  flattened  on  its  upper  surface,  and 
slightly  turned  upward  at  the  extremity ;  its 
sides  are  nearly  parallel,  and  the  nose  forms  a 
regular  parabolic  curve.  It  is  from  this  simi 
larity  to  the  head  of  a  pike  that  it  has  its  name 
lucius.  It  is  said  to  be  far  more  fierce  and 
voracious  than  the  South  American  species, 
often  seizing  and  destroying  men  and  large 
land  animals,  the  bodies  of  which  it  conceals 
under  the  banks  until  they  begin  to  putrefy, 
when  it  draws  them  ashore  and  devours  them  ; 
for  its  teeth,  unfitted  for  mastication,  cannot 
cut  the  Ik-sh  in  its  sound  state.  The  female  of 
this  species  is  remarkable  for  her  maternal  at 
tention  to  her  young,  never  losing  sight  of  her 
nest  until  the  little  alligators  are  released  from 
the  shell.  Bartram,  the  American  naturalist, 
found  great  numbers  of  these  reptiles  in  a 
mineral  spring  near  the  Mosquito  river,  Florida, 
though  the  water  at  its  exit  from  the  earth 
was  nearly  at  the  boiling  point,  and  strongly 
impregnated  with  copper  and  vitriol.  2.  The 
cayman,  alligator  palpebrosus.  This  species 
is  distinguished  by  its  bony  eyebrows,  which 
form  knobs  as  large  as  the  fists  of  a  man.  Its 
toes  are  almost  entirely  free  from  connecting 
membranes,  and  its  skull  lias  no  post-orbital 
apertures.  It  is  smaller  and  less  fierce  than 
the  others  of  its  genus ;  and  the  female  takes 
no  heed  to  her  eggs  when  they  are  once  de 
posited.  This  i.s  the  alligator  of  Guiana  and 
Surinam.  3.  The  alligator  of  Brazil,  alligator 
trigonatm,  a  variety  of  the  above  species,  dis 
tinguishable  from  it  by  a  long  ridge  between 
the  orbits  running  toward  the  snout,  a  notch  in 
the  posterior  margin  of  the  skull,  and  a  peculiar 
arrangement  of  the  cervical  plates.  4.  The 
jacare,  alligator  sclerops.  This  is  the  alligator 
of  all  tropical  America,  particularly  numerous 
in  Brazil.  Its  head  is  more  elongated  than 
that  of  the  North  American  alligator,  the  sides 
converging  toward  the  snout  so  as  to  form 
nearly  an  isosceles  triangle.  The  bones  of  the 
skull  have  a  rough  scabrous  appearance,  as  if 


diseased;  and  the  orbits  of  the  eye  are  sur 
rounded  by  prominent  rims  of  bone,  connected 
by  a  ridge  between  the  orbits,  constituting  to 
gether  the  resemblance  of  a  pair  of  spectacles, 
whence  its  name.  It  grows  to  a  very  large 
size,  attaining  even  to  18  feet,  its  length  being 
more  than  eight  times  that  of  the  head.  It 
never  attacks  men,  or  even  dogs,  whether  on 
land  or  in  passing  rivers,  unless  in  the  neighbor 
hood  of  its  nest ;  nor  does  it  then  prey  on  the 
carcasses,  feeding  only  on  fish  and  water  fowl. 
—The  bony  armor  of  all  the  species  is  their 
protection  against  all  enemies.  It  is  proof 
against  the  riiie  ball,  which  can  only  take  effect 
when  it  strikes  the  eye,  or  the  unarmed  skin 
on  the  belly  and  about  the  insertion  of  the  fore 
legs.  The  construction  of  this  armor,  how 
ever,  prevents  them  from  turning  rapidly  when 
on  dry  land,  so  that  their  pursuit  is  easily 
avoided.  Their  flesh,  and  even  their  eggs,  al 
though  both  have  a  strong  musky  flavor,  are 
said  to  be  both  wholesome  and  nutritious.  The 
American  alligators  have  neither  their  allied 
protector  bird,  the  spur-winged  dotterel,  nor 
their  characteristic  enemy,  the  ichneumon, 
which  protect  or  assail  the  crocodile  of  the 
Nile.  The  hideous  aspect,  disgusting  habits, 
abominable  smell,  and  odious  roar  of  these 
reptiles  have  rendered  them  objects  of  undue 
apprehension.  (See  CROCODILE.) 

ALLISGHAM,  William,  a  British  poet,  born  at 
Ballyshannon  in  Ireland  abort  1828.  His 
father,  a  banker  in  his  native  town,  gave  him 
a  good  education  in  Irish  schools  :  and  he  early 
showed  a  taste  for  literary  pursuits,  contribut 
ing  to  various  periodicals.  In  1 850  he  publish 
ed  a  volume  of  poems,  which  he  dedicated  to 
Leigh  Hunt,  who  had  long  appreciated  and 
encouraged  his  work.  In  1854  he  published 
"Day  and  Night  Songs,"  of  which  an  enlarged 
edition,  illustrated  by  artists  of  note,  appeared 
the  next  year.  In  1864  he  published  a  poem 
in  twelve  chapters,  entitled  u  Laurence  Bloom- 
field  in  Ireland;  "  but  it  is  by  his  short  lyrics 
that  he  is  best  known.  He  has  for  some  years 
held  a  government  appointment  in  the  English 
customs  service,  and  he  has  also  been  since 
18f>4  in  receipt  of  a  literary  pension.  He  has 
edited  "The  Ballad  Book.1'" 

ALLIX,  Pierre,  a  French  Protestant  divine, 
born  in  Alencon  in  1631,  died  in  London, 
March  3,  1717.  While  pastor  of  a  reformed 
congregation  at  Charenton  he  assisted  Claude 
in  preparing  a  new  French  version  of  the  Bible, 
and  acquired  some  celebrity  by  a  controversy 
with  Bossuet.  On  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes  he  took  refuge  in  England,  estab 
lished  a  French  congregation  in  conformity 
with  the  Anglican  church,  and  in  1090  was 
appointed  by  Bishop  Burnet  treasurer  of  Salis 
bury  cathedral.  He  made  several  attempts,  in 
Holland,  Switzerland,  and  Germany,  to  cement 
a  more  perfect  union  among  the  reformed 
churches.  Besides  a  number  of  theological 
and  critical  works  in  French  and  Latin,  he 
wrote  in  English  (of  which  he  was  an  excellent 


334 


ALLOA 


ALLOTROPISM 


master)  "  Reflections  upon  the  Books  of  Holy 
Scripture  "  (1688) ;  "  Remarks  on  the  Churches 
of  Piedmont"  (1690);  "Remarks  on  the  An 
cient  Churches  of  the  Albigenses"  (1692),  &c. 

ALLOA,  a  seaport  town  of  Clackmannanshire, 
Scotland,  30  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Edinburgh,  at  the 
head  of  the  frith  of  Forth;  pop.  about  7,000. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  a  dry  dock 
capable  of  containing  the  largest  ships ;  also  a 
spacious  wet  dock  opened  in  1863.  In  the 
town  and  its  vicinity  are  extensive  collieries, 
distilleries,  breweries,  and  iron,  glass,  brick,  and 
tile  works. 

ALLOBROGES,  a  people  of  Gaul,  whose  terri 
tory  comprehended  parts  of  what  is  now  called 
Dauphiny  and  Savoy,  chiefly  between  the  Isere 
and  the  Rhone.  Their  principal  town  was 
Vienna,  no\v  Vienne,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhone.  They  were  brought  under  the  domin 
ion  of  Rome  in  121  B.  C.,  by  Fabius  Maximus, 
and  ever  after  remained  faithful  to  their  con 
querors,  though  at  times  discontented.  Their 
name  signified  "dwellers  on  mountains." 

ALLODIUM,  in  law,  a  landed  possession  freed 
from  all  feudal  tenure  or  service.  Several  ex 
planations  have  been  given  of  the  etymology  of 
the  word,  but  they  are  all  only  more  or  less  in 
genious  conjectures.  In  early  ages  the  allodium 
was  the  most  desirable  property.  In  process 
of  time  the  anarchy  consequent  on  the  want 
of  a  supreme  power  made  the  mutual  protec 
tion  and  support  of  lord  and  vassal  more  ex 
pedient  ;  and  in  England  all  land  passed  into 
fee  land,  the  king  being  suzerain  of  the  whole 
country.  The  theory  still  remains  in  slight 
services,  or  in  small  fee  farm  rents,  and  in  the 
escheat  to  the  sovereign  for  want  of  heirs. 
In  France,  before  the  revolution  of  1789,  the 
actual  services  still  remained — not  nominal,  but 
real,  unequivocal,  and  in  some  cases  odious  bur 
dens  ;  serfdom,  indeed,  was  only  abolished  by 
an  express  decree  of  the  assembly.  Nulle  terre 
sans  seigneur  was  a  maxim  of  law,  and  the 
tyranny  and  monstrous  oppressions  of  the  local 
seigneur  proved  that  it  was  no  dead  letter.  In 
Germany  the  allodium  yet  remains  to  be  per 
fected.  The  system  of  man  service  is  not  yet 
exploded,  such  as  the  right  to  several  days' 
work  in  harvest  or  at  hunting  parties;  al 
though  this  is  much  modified,  particularly  in 
Prussia,  of  late  years.  The  conversion  of  the 
feudal  soil  into  allodial  land  is  effected  either 
by  means  of  an  annual  fee  rent,  or  of  a  fine 
payable  at  once,  in  lieu  of  all  customary  ser 
vices.  Even  in  1595  the  last  traces  of  bondage 
and  serfdom  in  England  were  not  obliterated. 
A  patent  to  Sir  Henry  Lea  was  issued  by  the 
crown,  giving  him  power  as  commissioner  to 
enfranchise  a  limited  number  of  crown  villeins, 
and  to  seize  all  the  rest  of  the  estates  acquired 
by  parties  in  villenage  to  his  own  use.  This 
monstrous  commission,  which  was,  like  many 
other  similar  enormities,  a  means  of  enrich 
ing  a  needy  or  profligate  courtier  at  the  ex 
pense  of  the  people,  could  not  have  operated 
except  in  the  case  of  crown  serfs ;  the  doctrine, 


Nullum  tcmpus  occurrit  regi,  coming  into  op 
eration  against  the  unfortunate  landholders 
whose  title  was  barred  by  the  impurity  of  their 
blood.  In  the  case  of  subjects,  villenage  had 
become  obsolete. 

ALLOM,  Thomas,  an  English  architect  and 
landscape  painter,  born  in  1804.  His  reputa 
tion  rests  chiefly  on  his  published  works  illus- 
i  trating  the  scenery,  architecture,  and  antiqui 
ties  of  England,  France,  and  the  East. 

ALLOMAKEE.     See  ALLAMAKEE. 

ALLOPATHY,  a  word  created  by  hornoeopa- 
thists  to  distinguish  other  systems  of  medical 
practice  from  their  own.  Having  adopted  the 
opinion  that  "like  cures  like"  (similia  simi- 
libus  curantur)  as  the  fundamental  princi 
ple  of  his  doctrine,  Halmemann  gave  to  his 
own  system  the  name  of  "homoeopathy,"  de 
rived  from  the  Greek  o/uoiov,  like,  or  similar,  and 
Trdflof,  disease,  and  to  other  systems  the  name 
of  "allopathy,"  from  aM.ov,  other,  or  different, 
and  Trdflof,  disease. 

ALLORI.  I.  Alessandro,  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  in  1535,  died  in  1607.  He  was  a  nephew 
and  pupil  of  Agnolo  Bronzino,  whose  name  is 
I  sometimes  given  to  him.  Michel  Angelo  was 
his  chief  model,  and  he  is  reputed  one  of  the 
best  artists  of  the  anatomical  school.  He  ex 
celled  also  as  a  portrait  painter.  II.  Cristofaco, 
also  called  Bronzino,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1577,  died  in  1621.  He  painted  several  im 
portant  works  for  the  Florentine  churches  and 
convents  and  the  palace  of  the  Medici,  and 
excelled  in  coloring  and  delicacy  of  execution. 
His  best  known  work  is  "Judith  with  the 
Head  of  Holofernes,"  in  the  Pitti  palace,  but 
his  St.  Julian  in  the  same  gallery  is  esteemed 
superior  to  it.  His  works  are  very  rare. 

ALLOTROPISM  (Gr.  ahUTponos,  in  another 
manner),  a  word  first  employed  by  Berzelius 
to  denote  the  property  in  virtue  of  which  the 
same  element  can  have  different  chemical  char 
acters.  There  exists  a  vast  series  of  phenom 
ena,  of  which  polymorphism  constitutes  the 
first  term,  allotropism  the  intermediate,  and 
isomerism  the  extreme  term.  Sulphur,  which 
crystallizes  from  its  solution  in  octahedra  of 
the  fourth  system,  when  crystallized  by  means 
of  fusion  forms  prisms  having  a  rhombic  base, 
of  the  fifth  system;  this  is  a  polymorphous 
body.  Phosphorus  being  heated  changes  its 
properties ;  if  we  heat  it  still  further,  it  regains 
its  original  condition.  It  can  therefore  exist 
in  two  different  states,  but  it  is  always  phos 
phorus.  This  is  a  phenomenon  of  allotropism. 
The  formiate  of  ethy],  C3H6O2,  and  the  acetate 
of  methyl,  C3H8O2,  are  two  perfectly  distinct 
bodies,  although  they  have  the  same  quanti 
tative  composition;  they  are  isomeric.  To 
take  an  illustration  from  natural  history,  allo 
tropism  only  makes  races,  isomerism  creates 
distinct  species.  Isomeric  bodies  receive  dis 
tinct  names;  but  sulphur,  phosphorus,  oxygen, 
carbon,  &c.,  in  their  modified  forms,  that  is,  in 
their  allotropic  conditions,  are  still  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  and  oxygen.  Originally  the  word 


ALLOUEZ 


ALLOY 


335 


allotropism  was  only  applied  to  elements  ;  later 
it  was  also  applied  to  compounds.  Tartaric 
acid  which  turns  the  plane  of  polarization  of 
light  to  the  right,  tartaric  acid  which  turns  it 
to  the  left,  and  that  which  does  not  deviate  it 
at  all,  are  considered  by  some  chemists  to  be 
the  same  compound  in  several  allotropic  states. 
(See  ISOMERISM.) 

ALLOIT/,  Claude  Jean,  one  of  the  earliest  Jes 
uit  explorers  of  the  northwest,  born  in  France 
in  1620,  died  in  1690.  He  went  to  Quebec  in 
1658,  and,  after  some  years1  training  in  the  Al 
gonquin  missions  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  founded 
the  mission  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Chegormegon 
on  Lake  Superior  in  1665,  collected  data  as  to 
the  Mississippi,  explored  Green  bay,  where  he 
founded  the  mission  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and 
labored  among  the  Foxes,  Mascoutins,  Miarnis, 
and  Illinois.  In  1676  he  permanently  estab 
lished  at  Kaskaskia  in  Illinois  the  mission  begun 
by  Marquette;  but  in  1679  he  retired  on  the 
approach  of  La  Salle,  who  was  bitterly  opposed 
to  the  Jesuits.  His  latest  field  of  labor  was 
among  the  Miamis  on  St.  Joseph's  river,  where 
he  died.  His  contributions  to  the  Jesuit  Rela 
tions  are  among  the  most  valuable  records  as 
to  the  ideas  and  manners  of  the  Indians  at  the 
time. 

ALLOY  (Fr.  aloi,  standard  of  coin,  from  d  la 
loi,  according  to  law),  a  compound  of  two  or 
more  metals  fused  together.  When  one  of  the 
metals  is  mercury,  the  compound  is  called1  an 
amalgam.  (See  AMALGAM.)  By  the  alchemists 
metals  were  called  "noble"'  and  "base,"  and 
when  one  of  the  latter  was  brought  into  com 
bination  with  one  of  the  former,  the  nobility 
of  this  was  said  to  be  "allayed"  or  "alloyed," 
and  assayers  at  the  present  day  still  use. the 
term  in  this  sense.  Most  alloys  are  mixtures 
of  no  exact  proportions ;  the  metals  dissolve  in 
one  another  indefinitely,  as  sulphuric  acid 
unites  with  water.  Some,  however,  appear  to 
be  combinations  in  equivalent  proportions,  and 
of  these  there  are  found  examples  in  nature,  as 
of  the  native  gold,  which  occurs  combined  with 
silver — 4,  5,  6,  or  12  atoms  of  gold  to  one  of 
silver,  but  never  a  fractional  part  of  an  atom  of 
gold.  The  tendency  of  some  aHoys  to  take 
crystalline  forms  also  indicates  definite  com 
binations.  This  is  verified  by  cooling  a  melted 
mixture  slowly,  and  when  partially  solidified 
pouring  off  the  liquid  remnant,  when  crystals 
are  left  which  are  always  combinations  in  the 
proportion  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  met 
als  ;  for  instance,  in  the  mixtures  of  copper  and 
tin  (bronze),  copper  and  zinc  (brass),  copper 
and  nickel  (German  silver),  or  copper  and  alu 
minum  (aluminum  bronze),  the  proportions  of 
the  crystals  are  found  to  be  either  in  the  ratio 
of  the  numbers  64,  113,  65,  59,  27,  which  are 
the  respective  atomic  weights  of  copper,  tin, 
zinc,  nickel,  and  aluminum,  or  of  a  multiple 
the  one  of  the  other.  The  metals  of  many 
alloys  are  with  difficulty  brought  into  com 
bination,  and  even  tend  to  separate  from 
each  other  while  in  the  melted  state,  and  in 


some  instances  form  layers  which  contain  dif 
ferent  proportions  of  the  metals. — The  changes 
in  the  physical  properties  of  metals  effected  by 
j  their   combinations  are  of  great  variety,  and 
j  cannot  before  experiment  be  at  all  anticipated. 
!  Even  slight   variations  in  the  proportions  of 
I  the  metals  involve  great  changes  in  the  prod- 
I  uct  of  their  union.     The  specific  gravity  of  the 
alloy  may  be  greater  or  less  than  the  mean  of 
that  of  the  component  parts.     In  the  alloy  of 
gold  and  tin  it  is  greater;  also  of  silver  with 
J  zinc,  lead,  tin,  bismuth,  or  antimony ;  copper 
j  with  zinc;  lead  with  palladium;  bismuth  with 
|  antimony ;  lead  with  bismuth ;  and  zinc  with 
antimony.     The  specific  gravity  is  less  in  the 
alloy  of  gold  with  silver,   lead,  iron,  copper, 
nickel,  or  iridium  ;  also  of  iron  with  bismuth, 
zinc,  antimony,  or  lead ;  tin  with  lead  ;  zinc 
|  with  palladium  or  antimony;  and   zinc  with 
|  antimony.     The  alloy  of  silver  and  copper  as 
used  in  coins  is  also  of  less   specific   gravity 
when  cast;    but  Karnmarsch   found   that  by 
rolling  and  coining  it  is  so  far  compressed  that 
I  the  specific  gravity  is  the  same  as  the  mean 
j  obtained  by  calculation.      Alloys    are  always 
I  more  fusible  than  the  metal  most  difficult  to 
melt  that  enters  into  their  combination,  and  gen 
erally  more  so  than  the  most  easily  melted  one. 
The  fusible  metal  discovered  by  Sir  Isaac  New 
ton  melts  at  different  temperatures  between  1 98° 
and  210°  F.     It  is  composed  of  bismuth  5  or  8 
parts,  lead  2  or  5  parts,  and  tin  3  parts.     These 
metals  melt,  the  first  at  a  temperature  of  476°, 
the  second  at  about  600°,  and  the  last  at  442°. 
The  addition  of  one  part  of  mercury  lowers 
the  melting  point  of  this  alloy  to  167°.    Wood's 
fusible  alloy,  discovered  in  more  recent  times, 
consists  of  2  parts  cadmium,  2  tin,  1  lead,  and 
|  3  bismuth  ;  it  melts  at  the  low  temperature  of 
|  150°  F.     The  alloy  fusible  at  the  lowest  tem- 
j  perature   is   that   of    sodium   and  potassium ; 
!  the  first  melts   at  194°,   the   second  at  128°, 
|  while  the  alloy  melts  at  80°,  and  is  thus  liquid 
at  the  common  summer  temperature.     Alloys 
conduct    heat    and    electricity  less  perfectly 
than    their  pure    metals;    they  are  also  gen 
erally    more    brittle.       But    their    power    of 
cohesion  is  usually  greater  than  that  of  either 
of  the  metals,  the  alloy  resisting  more  strongly 
j  the  force  applied  to  draw  a  bar  apart  than  does 
a  bar  of  either  one  of  the  metals  composing  it. 
I  The  color  which  the  alloy  will  take  is  as  uncer 
tain  as  any  of  its  other  properties.      A  large 
addition  of  zinc  will  not  make  its  alloy  with 
copper  whiter,  but  will  give  it  the  rich  pinch 
beck  hue.     Tin  makes  copper  more  pale,  but 
especially  nickel,  the   addition  of  one  eighth 
of    which    is    sufficient    to   make   it   almost 
white.       Aluminum    acts    in  a    similar    way, 
while  silver  possesses  the  power  of  destroying 
the  red  color  of  the  copper  in  so  high  a  degree, 
that  it  may  be  largely  alloyed  with  it  without 
materially   impairing    its   whiteness.      Alloys 
composed   of  metals   of  different    degrees   of 
fusibility   may   sometimes    be   separated   into 
their  distinct  rnetals  by  heating  to  the  melt- 


336 


ALLOY 


ing  temperature  of  one  of  them.  An  alloy  I 
of  tin  and  copper  may  be  thus  treated,  the  | 
tin  melting  at  442°,  and  the  copper  at  1,990°.  I 
This  ''sweating  process,"  called  liquation,  is 
used  to  separate  silver  from  copper.  Lead  is  I 
first  melted  in  with  the  other  metals,  and  when 
sweated  out  it  takes  the  silver  along  with  it. 
This  alloy  is  then  separated  by  another  process, 
depending  on  the  easy  oxidation  of  the  lead. 
An  interesting  property  of  the  metals,  which 
may  seem  somewhat  opposed  to  the  one  just  de 
scribed,  is  the  tendency  of  one,  when  melting, 
however  fusible  it  may  be,  to  cause  any  other  | 
in  contact  with  it,  however  infusible,  to  dis 
solve  in  the  melted  metal ;  its  surfaces  are 
washed  away,  till  nothing  solid  is  left.  Pla-  j 
tinum,  which  is  among  the  most  difficult  met 
als  to  melt,  is  very  susceptible  of  injury 
from  this  cause.  The  costly  crucible  and 
other  vessels  of  the  chemist  may  be  ruined  in 
an  unguarded  moment  by  contact  with  other 
metals  highly  heated.  On  this  property  is 
based  the  principle  of  soldering  two  pieces  of 
metal  by  means  of  a  third.  Their  surfaces 
are  fixed  together  by  interposing  an  alloy 
which  is  more  fusible  than  either  of  the  metals 
to  be  joined  ;  and  this  must  also  consist  of  metals 
which  are  disposed  to  unite  and  form  a  new 
alloy  with  them.  Pieces  of  gold  are  soldered 
together  with  an  alloy  of  gold  with  silver  or 
with  copper ;  articles  of  silver  with  an  alloy  of 
silver  and  copper ;  of  copper,  with  an  alloy  called 
hard  solder,  which  is  brass  containing  a  large 
proportion  of  zinc.  Another  interesting  prop 
erty  of  alloys  is  the  different  effects  produced 
by  the  order  in  which  their  component  parts 
have  been  mixed,  the  proportions  continuing 
the  same.  Ten  parts  of  antimony  added  to  90 
of  tin  and  10  of  copper,  make  a  compound  of 
very  different  physical  properties  from  that 
produced  by  adding  90  parts  of  tin  to  10  of 
copper  and  10  of  antimony.  This  appears  to 
be  analogous  to  what  we  witness  in  vegetable 
chemistry,  as  in  the  identity  of  composition  in 
starch  and  sugar. — The  alloys  already  in  use 
are  very  numerous,  and  new  valuable  combina 
tions  are  continually  discovered.  Those  alone 
of  copper  with  zinc  form  a  long  list,  in  which 
we  find  the  names  of  many  very  useful  com-  j 
pounds,  some  of  them  known  from  the  time  of  | 
Tubal  Cain.  Pewter  has  long  been  a  useful, 
though  a  very  homely  alloy.  It  is  made  of  dif 
ferent  combinations  of  lead  and  tin,  sometimes 
with  additions  of  antimony,  bismuth,  and  cop 
per,  and  in  this  case  is  known  in  trade  under 
different  fanciful  names,  as  britannia,  &c.  Ger 
man  silver,  composed  of  copper,  nickel,  and 
usually  zinc,  has  in  part  displaced  it,  and  is 
likely  to  be  itself  displaced  by  some  improved 
combinations.  Muntz's  yellow  metal  is  an  alloy 
of  60  parts  of  copper  to  40  of  zinc.  These  pro 
portions  may  be  slightly  varied,  but  they  arc 
the  ones  specially  recommended  in  the  patent, 
as  producing  a  composition  more  easily  rolled 
into  sheets  while  hot.  It  is  used  for  sheathing 
the  bottoms  of  ships.  In  importance,  no  alloys 


can  rank  higher  than  those  of  which  printers' 
types  are  made,  and  no  known  metal  possesses 
the  properties  essential  to  them.  They  consist 
of  lead  and  antimony,  in  proportions  varying 
with  the  kind  of  types.  For  very  tine  types 
tin  is  added,  to  increase  the  fusibility  and 
consequently  to  make  the  metal  flow  better,  so 
as  to  fill  the  finest  details  of  the  mould.  Many 
type  founders  introduce  also  some  copper,  by 
first  alloying  it  with  the  antimony;  this  in 
creases  the  durability  of  the  type  considerably. 
The  noble  metals,  gold  and  silver,  are  too  soft  to 
be  used  in  a  pure  state.  They  are  alloyed  with 
copper  to  give  them  hardness,' and  gold  also 
with  silver.  The  standard  silver  of  Great  Brit 
ain  consists  of  silver  11 -10,  and  copper  0'90. 
The  French  silver  plate  contains  9'5  parts  of 
silver  and  0'5  copper;  trinkets,  8  parts  of  sil 
ver  to  2  of  copper.  In  the  United  States  these 
alloys  are  made  as  rich  or  as  poor  as  the  indi 
vidual  manufacturer  judges  best  for  his  inter 
est.  His  reputation  is  the  only  guarantee  that 
his  work  is  what  it  is  sold  for.  There  is  no 
test  but  actual  analysis,  and  this  is  not  appli 
cable  to  the  articles  without  destroying  part 
of  them.  Specific  gravity  may  be  employed  to 
some  extent,  but  as  the  alloy  often  has  a  some 
what  different  density  from  that  of  the  mean 
of  its  metals,  the  calculation  gives  an  approxi 
mation  more  or  less  correct  according  to  cir 
cumstances.  The  following  rule  gjvcn  by  Dr. 
Yan  der  Weyde  may  be  used  to  find  the  spe 
cific  gravity  of  an  alloy  made  of  any  number 
of  metals,  mixed  in  whatever  proportion : 
"Find  the  relative  volume  of  each  metal  by 
dividing  its  weight  by  its  specific  gravity  ;  the 
sum  of  all  the  weights  divided  by  the  sum  of 
the  volumes  gives  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
alloy." — An  alloy  which  closely  resembles  gold 
in  color,  specific  gravity,  and  ductility,  is  made 
of  10  parts  of  platinum,  7  parts  of  copper,  and 
1  of  zinc.  These  are  put  into  a  crucible,  cov 
ered  with  charcoal  powder,  and  melted.  It? 
cost  is  scarcely  one  fourth  of  that  of  gold. 
The  so-called  oroide  gold  is  a  very  base  alloy, 
only  resembling  gold  in  color  if  kept  clean,  and 
is  easily  distinguished  from  it  by  having  scarce 
ly  half  its  specific  gravity.  It  is  said  to  be 
made  by  melting  copper  ICO  parts,  tin  IT, 
magnesia  0,  carbonate  of  potash  9  or  salt  of 
antimony  3'G,  and  quicklime  1  •(>.  The  latest  im 
provement  is  the  so-called  sterrometal,  invented 
by  Rosthorn  in  Vienna;  it  is  made  by  melting 
600  Ibs.  copper  with  2  Ibs.  cast  iron ;  when 
fluid  there  is  added  36  Ibs.  zinc  and  4  oz.  borax. 
It  is  asserted  that  it  is  8,000  Ibs.  stronger  per 
square  inch  than  the  best  wrought  iron.  Al 
exander  Birchholz  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  has  pat 
ented  the  same  alloy,  and  erected  a  factory 
in  Providence,  R.  I. — Among  interesting  ap 
plications  of  alloys  we  must  mention  the  plates 
of  easily  fusible  metals  with  which  steam 
boilers  are  sometimes  provided,  offering  an 
additional  safety  besides  the  safety  valve,  as 
they  will  melt  at  a  temperature  corresponding 
with  too  high  a  pressure.  Another  application 


ALL   SAINTS'   BAY 


ALLSTON 


337 


is  founded  on  the  fact  that  alloys  are  much 
more  imperfect  conductors  of  electricity  than 
the  separate  metals,  from  offering  more  re 
sistance.  Small  coils  of  wire  are  made  of  an 
alloy  similar  to  German  silver,  in  which  the 
resistance  is  equal  to  many  miles  of  telegraph 
wire;  they  are  used  in  connection  with  volta 
meters  to  measure  the  strength  'of  batteries, 
and  to  detect  imperfections  or  breaks  in  tele 
graph  wires. 

ALL  SAIXTS'  BAY,  or  Bahia  de  Todos  Santos,  in 
the  province  of  Bahia,  Brazil,  one  of  the  larg 
est  and  finest  natural  harbors  in  the  world.  It 
is  37  m.  long  and  27  wide,  and  its  surface  is 
dotted  with  islands.  The  town  of  Bahia  lies 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  bay. 

ALL  SAIXTS'  DAY,  a  festival  in  honor  of  all 
the  angels  and  saints  of  heaven,  observed  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  on  Nov.  1,  and 
also  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  and  Lutheran 
churches.  In  the  eastern  churches  the  same 
festival  has  been  observed  since  the  4th  cen 
tury.  In  the  West,  it  was  instituted  by  Pope 
Boniface  IV.  in  the  early  part  of  the  7th  cen 
tury,  on  the  .occasion  of  dedicating  the  Pan 
theon,  a  temple  built  by  Marcus  Agrippa,  25 
B.  G.,  in  honor  of  Jupiter  the  Avenger  and  all 
the  gods,  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  under 
the  invocation  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  all  the 
saints.  The  feast  became  general  in  the  9th 
centurv.  It  is  also  called  All  Hallows. 

ALL 'SOULS,  the  day  after  All  Saints,  set 
apart  by  the  Catholic  church  for  the  commem 
oration  of  all  the  faithful  departed,  for  whom 
the  mass  of  requiem  is  said,  and  the  office  of 
the  dead  recited.  In  Germany,  the  people, 
both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  visit  the  grave 
yards  on  this  day,  and  strew  flowers  on  the 
graves  of  their  friends. 

ALLSPICE,  or  Jamaica  Pepper,  the  immature 
berry  of  the  Eugenia  pimento.,  so  named  from 


its  being  supposed  to  combine  the  flavor  of  sev 
eral  other  spices,  such  as  cinnamon,  cloves,  and 
nutmeg.  The  allspice,  pimento,  or  bayberry 
tree  is  a  native  of  South  America  and  the 
VOL.  i. — 22 


'  "West  India  islands,  especially   Jamaica.     The 

'  tree  is  of  a  highly  ornamental  character,  often 

\  upward  of  25  or  30  feet  in  height;  the  leaves 

;  inclining     to     oval,    covering     the    numerous 

,  branches  with  a  luxuriant   evergreen  foliage ; 

:  the  flowers  small  and  without  show,  succeeded 

I  by  spherical  berries  with  a  persistent  calyx, 

j  and  a  fragrant  aromatic  odor.     When  they  are 

quite  ripe,  they  are  of  a  dark  purple  color,  and 

filled  with  a  sweet  pulp.     In  many  parts  of 

Jamaica  the  allspice  tree  grows  in  great  abun- 

j  dance  without  cultivation,  but  it  is  not  easily 

;  propagated  by  artificial  means.     The  commer- 

!  cial  value  of  the  fruit  makes  it  an  object   of 

'  great  interest  with  the  planters,  and  no  crop 

j  receives  a  larger  share  of  attention.     The  fa- 

!  vorite  situation  for  a  pimento  walk,  or  planta- 

;  tion,  is  among  the  hills  on  the  north  side  of  the 

island.     A  spot  is  selected  in  the  vicinity  of 

another  plantation,  or  in  a  locality  favorable 

I  to  the  spontaneous  growth  of  the  trees ;  this 

!  is  stripped  of  all  other  wood,  and  the^young 

i  pimento    plants    soon    make     their     appear- 

|  ance,  either  from  seeds  previously  existing  in 

the    soil,  or  which    have    been  deposited   by 

birds,  who  feed  upon  the  berries  with  great 

I  avidity.     It  is  said  that  a  single  tree  has  been 

'  known  to  produce  150  Ibs.  of  the  raw  fruit,  or 

j  100  Ibs.  of  the  dried  spice.    The  crop,  however, 

is  uncertain,  and  abundant  only  once  in  five 

|  years.     The  berries  require  care  in  gathering 

i  as  well  as  drying.     They  must  be  picked  when 

|  they  have  attained  full  growth,  but  before  they 

;  begin  to  ripen,  and  carefully  dried.     When  the 

I  seeds  are  allowed  to  ripen  fully,  they  lose  that 

:  aromatic  warmth  for  which  they  are  esteemed 

as  a  spice,  and  acquire  a  taste   almost  exactly 

|  like  that  of  jumper  berries,  which  renders  them 

|  agreeable  food  for  birds,  the  most  industrious 

planters  of  these  trees.     The  leaves  and  the 

|  bark  participate  in  the  warm  aromatic  proper- 

i  ties  of  the  berries. 

ALLSTOX,  Washington,  an  American  painter, 
born  at  Waccamaw,  S.  C.,  Nov.  5,  1770,  died 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  July  9,  1843.  From  con 
siderations  of  health  he  was  removed  in  his 
early  boyhood  to  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  com 
pleted  his  education  at  Harvard  college,  where 
he  graduated  in  1800.  Having  developed  a 
decided  inclination  for  painting,  he  went  in  1801 
to  London  and  became  a  student  of  the  royal 
academy,  than  under  the  presidency  of  his 
countryman  Benjamin  West,  to  whom  he  was 
indebted  for  many  useful  hints  in  the  prosecu 
tion  of  his  art.  A  three  years1  course  of  study 
in  London  was  succeeded  by  a  lengthened  so 
journ  in  Rome,  where  he  familiarized  himself 
with  the  works  of  the  old  masters,  and  gained 
a  reputation  as  a  colorist.  During  a  brief  visit 
to  America  in  1809  he  married  a  sister  of  Dr. 
WTilliam  Ellery  Channing,  and  returning  soon 
after  to  London  entered  upon  his  career  as  an 
artist.  Within  the  next  few  years  he  produced 
a  number  of  works  of  great  merit,  founded  for 
i  the  most  part  on  subjects  taken  from  sacred 
1  history.  Two  of  these,  "The  Dead  Man  Re- 


338 


ALLUVIUM 


vived  by  touching  the  Bones  of  Elijah,"  and  ! 
44  Uriel  in  the  Sun,"  displaying  high  imagimi-  I 
tive  power  and  a  rare  mastery  of  color  and  j 
chiaroscuro,  obtained  for  the  artist  valuable  I 
prizes  from  the  British  institution,  and  all  of  I 
them  found  ready  purchasers.  He  returned  to 
America  in  feeble  health  in  1818,  and  during 
the  remainder  of  his  life  resided  principally  in 
Boston  and  Cambridge.  His  subsequent  career 
was  without  the  incentive  to  exertion  which 
he  had  experienced  in  England.  His  country 
men  respected  him  for  the  reputation  he  had 
acquired  abroad,  but  were  scarcely  able  to  ap 
preciate  his  talents.  Removed  from  the  con 
genial  atmosphere  of  the  great  art  capitals  of 
the  old  world,  he  worked  listlessly  and  ir 
regularly,  and  produced  no  finished  perform 
ance  of  importance  comparable  in  merit  with 
his  earlier  pictures.  During  the  last  25  years 
of  his  life  he  occupied  himself  from  time  to 
time  on  a  composition  of  great  size  represent 
ing  "  Belshazzar's  Feast,"  which  he  intended 
should  be  his  masterpiece.  But  frequent  at 
tacks  of  illness,  an  over-fastidiousness  of  taste, 
and  an  ideal  which  became  more  exalted  and 
exacting  as  he  advanced  in  years,  seriously 
marred  the  progress  of  the  work,  and  it  re 
mained  at  the  close  of  his  life  an  unfinished 
but  splendid  specimen  of  his  genius.  It  is  now 
the  property  of  the  Boston  Athenaeum.  All- 
ston's  works  are  not  numerous,  considering  the 
extent  of  his  career,  but  bear  the  imprint  of 
an  original  and  artistic  mind.  The  best  are 
founded  on  Scriptural  subjects.  He  also  painted 
landscapes  and  sea  pieces  of  great  excellence, 
and  in  ideal  portraits  combined  an  almost  un 
rivalled  purity  of  flesh  tints  with  depth  and 
power  of  expression.  Had  he  possessed  the 
moral  courage  and  the  physical  ability  to  em 
body  on  the  canvas  his  own  conceptions,  he 
would  have  proved  one  of  the  most  prolific 
and  imaginative  artists  of  the  age.  No  Amer 
ican  painter  has  yet  approached  him  in  the  de 
lineation  of  sacred  history.  Allston  was  a  man 
of  fine  literary  tastes,  and  conversed  with  ease 
and  eloquence  on  art  and  metaphysics.  He 
published  a  volume  of  poems  and  a  novel, 
"Monaldi,"  illustrating  Italian  life. 

ALLUVIUM  (Lat.,  from  alluere,  to  wash  upon 
or  against),  the  deposits  of  sand,  gravel,  marl, 
&c.,  brought  down  by  running  streams  of  the 
present  geological  period.  Other  recent  ac 
cumulations  also,  as  those  of  peat  and  of  the 
hills  of  sand  blown  together  by  the  wind,  are 
often  called  alluvial.  They  all  belong  to  LyelFs 
uppermost  group,  the  post-tertiary,  and  are 
characterized  by  containing  human  relics  and 
remains.  The  same  group  comprises  the  cal 
careous  rocks  of  recent  origin  which  occur  on 
the  coast  of  Guadeloupe,  and  contain  human 
skeletons  imbedded  in  solid  limestone,  and 
also  the  coral  reefs  which  are  in  process  of 
formation  in  tropical  seas,  spreading  out  in  cal 
careous  strata  hundreds  of  miles  in  extent. 
These  are  not  usually  included  in  the  term 'al 
luvium  ;  and  yet  it  is  not  easy  to  draw  a  line 


that  shall  exclude  any  formations  of  recent 
origin ;  for  the  wash  of  rivers,  as  it  settles  in 
the  bays  at  their  mouths,  often  finds  some  ce 
menting  matter  that  soon  binds  it  into  solid 
rock,  and  in  this  hard  rock  are  entombed  as  fos 
sils  works  of  art  or  remains  of  man.  Thus 
the  term  alluvium  has  no  precise  signification. 
The  great  deposits  of  alluvium  accumulate  so 
slowly  and  silently,  that  we  little  appreciate 
the  immense  changes  made  by  running  water 
upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  yet  in  the  short 
period  from  the  time  to  which  our  records  ex 
tend  back,  we  find  that  the  sediments  of  a  few 
small  Italian  rivers  have  carried  out  the  coast 
line  into  the  gulf  of  Venice  from  2  to  20  miles ; 
and  that  the  ancient  port  of  Adria,  which  in 
the  time  of  Augustus  gave  its  name  to  the  gulf, 
is  now  an  inland  town,  L5  miles  from  the 
shore.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  ancient 
priests  of  Egypt  regarded  their  country  as  "  the 
gift  of  the  Kile."  From  the  great  pyramids 
down  to  the  sea  all  is  made  land.  The  great 
rivers  of  the  world,  as  the  Mississippi,  Amazon, 
Ganges,  and  Orinoco,  are  producing  effects  far 
greater  than  those  of  the  Nile  ;  but  our  obser 
vations  of  these  extend  but  a  few  generations 
back,  and  we  lack  sufficient  data  for  calculating 
very  exactly  the  rate  of  increase  of  their  deltas. 
With  the  Mississippi,  however,  this  has  been 
attempted  by  Mr.  Forshey,  an  eminent  engineer, 
from  observations  extending  through  30  years. 
Adopting  the  estimate  of  Dr.  Riddell  of  New 
Orleans,  that  the  weight  of  sediment  is  T^7  of 
that  of  the  water,  or  -5^-5  of  its  volume,  and 
allowing  the  quantity  of  water  brought  down 
per  second  to  be  447,199  cubic  feet,  the  whole 
amount  of  sedimentary  matter  annually  added 
to  the  delta  and  carried  into  the  gulf  is  equal 
to  4,083,333,338  cubic  feet,  enough  to  cover  144 
square  miles  one  foot  deep.  And  yet  at  this  rate, 
for  the  river  to  have  built  up  the  great  accu 
mulations  of  alluvium  which  make  its  delta, 
would  have  required  61,000  years;  and  higher 
up  there  are  the  accumulations  at  this  rate  of 
some  80,000  years  more.  Thus  long  at  least, 
it  is  probable,  the  great  rivers  have  flowed  as 
they  now  flow;  and  during  this  latest  epoch 
few  changes  have  occurred  in  the  lower  forms 
of  animal  life;  for  in  the  strata  next  older 
than  these  alluvial  deposits,  the  land  and  river 
shells  are  all  of  the  same  species  with  those 
now  living  in  the  same  region.  Subsequent 
investigations  by  Capt.  Humphreys  and  Lieut- 
Abbot  (1858)  have  given  results  Avhich  will  be 
described  under  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. — The  delta 
of  the  Ganges  and  Bramapootra  is  far  more 
extensive  than  that  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is 
a  wilderness  filled  with  a  labyrinth  of  rivers  and 
creeks,  infested  with  tigers  and  crocodiles,  and 
larger  than  the  principality  of  Wales.  The  riv 
ers  pour  down  their  turbid  waters  charged  with 
sediment,  and  abounding  with  the  ruins  of  ani 
mal  and  vegetable  life.  These  are  swept  into 
the  bay  of  Bengal,  the  waters  of  which  are 
discolored  by  the  fine  mud  nearly  100  miles 
from  its  mouth,  while  the  heavier  materials 


ALLUVIUM 


339 


subside  near  the  shores  and  build  up  the  allu 
vial  strata.  Near  Calcutta,  it  was  ascertained 
on  boring  for  water  that  these  strata  continue 
below  the  surface  to  the  depth  reached,  which 
was  481  feet.  They  were  alternations  of  beds 
of  clay  and  of  marl,  with  others  of  decayed 
vegetable  matter  like  peat,  which  last  no  doubt 
had  at  times  formed  the  surface,  until  submerged 
by  subsidence,  and  then  buried  beneath  the 
deposits  of  the  rivers.  In  these  strata  various 
fragments  of  fossil  bones  and  shells  were 
brought  up,  all  of  which  indicated  the  exist 
ence  of  the  same  animals  that  now  inhabit  the 
region. — What  the  rivers  are  accomplishing  in 
the  interior,  the  tidal  currents  are  effecting  along 
the  coasts.  They  wear  down  what  has  been 
built  up  in  former  times,  and  strew  the  mate 
rials  in  new  deposits  of  alluvium.  In  Ger 
many  these  accessions,  called  Anlandung,  are 
of  great  value  along  the  coast  of  the  North  sea. 
On  the  American  coasts  they  are  more  com 
monly  of  a  sandy  character,  stretching  out  in 
long  beaches,  the  material  of  which  is  blown 
inland  by  the  winds  and  piled  into  barren  hills. 
The  long  sandy  strip  of  land  called  the  Great 
South  Beach  on  the  S.  side  of  Long  Island, 
which  is  a  remarkable  example  of  these  sandy 
strips  or  "spits,"  is  more  than  100  miles  in 
length,  exceeding  any  such  accumulation  in 
Europe.  These  sands  are  now  formed  into 
alluvial  beds  by  the  action  of  the  winds  and  of 
the  ocean  currents ;  but  there  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  the  greater  proportion  of  the  super 
ficial  covering  of  the  rocks  of  Long  Island  is 
nothing  more  than  the  accumulations  of  sedi 
ment  discharged  by  the  Hudson,  Ilackensack, 
Passaic,  and  Karitan  rivers. — Alluvial  deposits 
are  frequently  found  in  positions  above  the 
level  of  present  running  waters.  Thus,  around 
the  shores  of  some  of  our  great  lakes  are  occa 
sionally  seen  in  the  banks  layers  of  sand  and 
clay  containing  the  same  species  of  shells  that 
are  now  common  in  their  waters,  but  several 
feet  above  their  reach.  It  was  during  this 
modern  period  of  the  formation  of  the  alluvium 
that  the  gigantic  mammoths  and  mastodons  be 
came  extinct.  Their  bones  are  found  in  the 
peat  bogs  and  marl  beds,  the  origin  of  which 
probably  does  not  extend  far  back  from  the 
introduction  of  man.  Indeed,  if  we  may  place 
confidence  in  the  traditions  of  the  American 
aborigines,  we  must  believe  that  these  animals 
were  contemporary  with  man.  Within  the 
ribs  of  a  mastodon  found  in  Warren  county, 
N.  J.,  in  1845,  were  seven  bushels  of  vegetable 
matter.  In  the  western  states  the  bones  of 
these  animals  are  generally  discovered  in  the 
low  places  around  salt  licks  which  are  still 
frequented  by  the  deer  and  other  wild  animals 
that  come  to  suck  up  the  s.iline  waters. — If  the 
alluvium  is  interesting  for  these  gigantic  fossils, 
it  is  no  less  so  for  the  microscopic  forms  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life,  which,  though  invis 
ible  to  the  eye,  yet  by  the  immensity  of  their 
numbers  exceed  in  aggregate  bulk  that  of  all 
the  mastodons  and  mammoths  that  have  ever 


lived.  The  silicious  deposit,  resembling  fine 
white  marl,  found  underlying  peat,  and  at  the 
bottoms  of  ponds  and  marshes,  especially  in  a 
region  of  primary  rocks — a  substance  often 
used  as  a  polishing  powder — is  found  on  exam 
ination  by  the  microscope  to  consist  of  the 
remains  of  diatoms  and  desmids. — As  these 
vegetables  secrete  from  the  primary  rock  its 
principal  ingredient,  so  testaceous  animals  so- 
crete  from  the  limestone  the  calcareous  matter 
for  their  shelly  coverings ;  and  of  their  remains 
are  made  up  the  marl  beds  and  other  beds  of 
I  alluvium  that  abound  in  shells,  as  the  oyster 
I  banks  and  muscle  beds  of  our  coast.  The  lima 
of  which  the  latter  is  composed  is  no  doubt 
mostly  abstracted  from  that  held  in  solution  in 
sea  water.  But  salt  water,  fresh  water,  and 
land  shells  all  flourish  best  where  limestone 
rocks  abound ;  and  where  this  source  of  lime 
is  deficient,  they  even  acquire  the  materials  of 
their  own  shells  from  the  remains  of  former 
individuals.  The  accumulations  of  this  nature 
going  on  in  our  ponds,  lakes,  and  harbors, 
|  though  now  little  apparent  to  observation,  are 
i  a  part  of  the  alluvial  formation  that  will  have 
I  an  important  bearing  in  the  future  economy 
of  our  globe,  as  the  similar  formations  of  pre- 
I  vious  epochs  have  in  the  present  period.  And 
the  same  remark  may  be  extended  to  peat, 
beds  of  which  are  found  rivalling,  in  the  quan 
tity  of  carbonaceous  matter  they  contain,  the 
beds  of  fossil  fuel,  into  which  they  too  will  in 
time  be  converted. — The  most  interesting  fea 
ture  of  the  alluvium,  which  has  been  already 
incidentally  alluded  to,  is  its  being  the  only 
geological  formation  which  contains  human 
relics  and  remains.  In  no  other  formations  are 
they  found,  or  ever  will  be ;  for  the  races  of 
animals  and  plants  that  have  lived  at  different 
periods  have  not  failed  to  leave  permanent  rec- 
j  ords  of  their  most  delicate  organizations,  and 
in  the  rocks  of  a  very  different  epoch  are  still  to 
be  seen  the  footmarks  Lft  by  strange  forms 
of  birds.  Thus  man  and  his  works  charac 
terize  the  rocks  of  this  period,  as  the  gigantic 
birds  characterize  the  new  red  sandstone,  and 
the  great  saurians  the  formations  from  the  lias 
to  the  chalk. — The  alluvial  deposits  produce 
our  most  fertile  lands.  The  clays  are  the  mate 
rials  of  our  houses  and  household  utensils.  The 
sands  are  used  for  many  purposes  in  the  me 
chanical  arts.  Bog  iron  ores  collect  in  low 
marshy  places  from  the  filtration  of  water 
through  older  formations,  in  which  ferruginous 
matters  of  various  forms  are  diffused.  The 
water  dissolves  the  oxide  of  iron  and  conveys 
it  away,  as  it  dissolves  the  potash  from  ashes 
,  through  which  it  leaches.  It  gathers  the  scat 
tered  materials  of  the  ore  together,  and  as  it 
evaporates  leaves  them  in  form  suitable  for  use. 
As  the  ores  are  removed,  more  collect  and  re 
new  the  supply;  so  that  they  are  believed  by 
|  many,  who  do  not  comprehend  the  manner  of 
i  their  silent  accumulation,  to  be  endowed  with 
J  a  principle  of  growth  analogous  to  that  pos 
sessed  by  organic  bodies:  a  belief  which,  after 


34.0 


ALMA 


ALMAGRO 


toward  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  the  play 
there  having  been  deeper  than  either  at  White's 
or  Brookes's.  Before  Brookes's  club  house  was 


all,  may  not  in  one  sense  be  so  very  extrava-  j 
gant ;  for  according  to  the  researches  of  i 
Ehrenberg,  the  ochreous  particles,  under  the  ! 
microscope,  prove  to  be  portions  of  an  organic  | 
body  of  extreme  minuteness,  which  is  now  be-  , 
lieved  to  be  a  plant. 

ALMA,  a  small  river  in  the  Crimea,  running  ! 
from  the  high  ground  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Bakhtchisarai  in  a  westerly  direction  to  Kala- 
mita  bay,  between  Eupatoria  (or  Kozlov)  and 
Sebastopol.  The  southern  bank  of  this  river 
was  selected  during  the  Crimean  war  by  Prince 
Mentchikoff,  the  Russian  commander,  as  a  de 
fensive  position  in  which  to  receive  the  onset 
of  the  allied  armies  just  landed  in  the  peninsu 
la.  The  battle  was  fought  Sept.  20,  1854,  and 
resulted  in  a  victory  of  the  allies  and  the  open 
ing  of  the  road  to  Sebastopol.  The  Russian 
force  numbered  35,000  men  with  96  guns;  the 
English,  under  Lord  Raglan,  28,000  men  with 
24  guns ;  the  French,  under  St.  Arnaud,  28,- 
000  men  and  72  guns ;  and  the  Turks,  6,000  men. 

ALMAC&'S,  a  suite  of  assembly  rooms  situated 
at  No.  20  King  street,  St.  James's,  London,  so 
called  after  Almack,  a  tavern-keeper,  whose 
original  name  was  M'Call,  and  who  founded  the 
establishment  in  1765.  They  are  now  called 
Willis's  rooms  after  Frederick  and  Charles  Wil 
lis.  Here  take  place  concerts,  charity  balls,  and 
select  public  meetings.  The  annual  balls,  how 
ever,  which  are  held  during  the  season,  consti 
tute  the  chief  claim  to  the  prominence  of  Al 
mack's.  They  are  managed  by  a  committee  of 
ladies,  and  the  only  mode  of  admission  is  by 
vouchers  or  personal  introduction.  The  exclu- 
siveness  of  the  lady  patronesses,  great  as  it  is 
now,  was  incomparably  greater  at  the  time  of 
the  opening  of  the  rooms.  Down  to  about 
1830  Almack's  retained  a  great  deal  of  its  an 
cient  prestige,  but  since  that  time  it  has  been 
gradually  declining. — The  name  of  Almack's  has 
been  given  to  similar  places  of  entertainment  in 
European  watering  places.  A  gambling  club 
of  the  same  name,  opened  under  the  auspices  of 
the  same  proprietor  in  Thatched  House  tavern, 
85  St.  James's  street,  was  rather  notorious 


built,  the  whig  party  used  to  meet  at  Almack's, 
where  a  regular  book  was  kept  of  the  wagers 
laid  by  the  different  members.  The  following 
are  specimens :  "March  11, 1775.  Lord  Boling- 
broke  gives  a  guinea  to  Mr.  Charles  Fox,  and 
is  to  receive  1,000  from  him  whenever  the  debt 
of  this  country  amounts  to  £171,000,000  ster 
ling.  Mr.  Fox  is  not  to  pay  the  £1,000  till  he 
is  one  of  his  majesty's  cabinet."  "Aug.  7, 
1792.  Mr.  Sheridan  bets  Lord  Lauderdale  and 
Lord  Thanet  25  guineas  each,  that  parliament 
will  not  consent  to  any  more  lotteries  after  the  j 
present  one,  to  be  drawn  in  February  next." 

ALMADEN,  or  Almaden  del  Azogne  (the  mine  I 
of  quicksilver),  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  prov 
ince    of    Ciudad    Real,    about    50   m.    N.    of 
Cordova ;  pop.  about  9,000.     It  is  simply  one  I 


long  street,  built  on  a  ridge  of  quartz  rock, 
which  is  rich  in  cinnabar.  The  quicksilver 
mines  here  are  perhaps  the  richest  and  most 
ancient  in  the  world.  They  were  wrought  by 
the  Romans,  who  had  a  town  here  called  Sisa- 
pona  Cetobrix.  In  the  16th  century  the  Fug- 
gers  of  Augsburg  rented  the  mines  and  worked 
them  for  some  years.  They  were  subsequently 
operated  by  the  Spanish  government,  and  until 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century  the  labor 
ers  were  all  convicts,  but  free  persons  are  now 
employed.  The  product  of  the  mines  is  deliv 
ered  at  Seville,  and  since  1836  has  been  by  con 
tract  monopolized  by  the  house  of  Rothschild. 
The  principal  mine  is  directly  under  the  town, 
and  the  great  adit  is  close  to  the  houses,  the 
ascent  and  descent  for  the  men  being  by  lad 
ders,  while  the  mineral  is  drawn  up  a  stone 
shaft  by  mules.  The  depth  of  the  workings  is 
about  1,000  feet,  and  the  cinnabar  is  found  in 
three  principal  veins  several  feet  thick.  The 
lowest  portions  of  the  mine  are  the  richest. 
Virgin  quicksilver  is  found  in  pyrites  and  horn- 
stein  and  in  a  grayish  conglomerate,  and  in 
some  places  may  be  seen  running  down  the 
face  of  the  rock.  The  galleries  and  permanent 
works  are  all  splendidly  built  of  stone,  and 
there  are  extensive  storehouses  and  manufacto 
ries  of  everything  needed  for  carrying  on  the 
operations  of  the  mine.  The  annual  yield  of 
quicksilver  is  from  15,000  to  25,000  quintals, 
though  the  proportion  of  mercury  to  the  ore  is 
only  about  10  per  cent. ;  and  the  mines  are 
apparently  inexhaustible.  There  is  a  smaller 
mine  near  the  principal  one,  and  another, 
called  Almadenejos,  or  Little  Almaden,  about 
five  miles  distant.  The  number  of  hands  em 
ployed  is  about  4,000.  They  work  day  and 
night  during  the  winter,  and  in  summer  the 
mines  are  closed,  the  heat  then  rendering  the 
mercurial  exhalations  too  dangerous.  The  mi 
ners  suffer  a  great  deal  from  salivation  and  par 
alytic  affections,  but  the  summer's  rest  generally 
restores  their  health.  The  government  derives 
an  annual  profit  of  about  $1,250,000  from  the 
mines.  A  practical  mining  school  has  been  es 
tablished  in  the  town. 

ALMAGEST  (Arab.  «?,  the,  and  Gr.  /uejiar?/, 
greatest),  a  name  given  by  the  Arabians  to 
Ptolemy's  compend  (cvvra^L^)  of  astronomy, 
written  at  Alexandria  in  the  2d  century,  trans 
lated  from  Greek  into  Arabic  in  the  9th,  and 
translated  from  Arabic  into  Latin  in  the  13th. 
A  better  Latin  translation  from  the  original 
Greek  was  published  at  Basel  in  1541.  The 
Greek  text  with  a  French  translation  was  pub 
lished  at  Paris  in  4  vols.  (1813-'28). 

ALMAGRO,  a  city  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
and  12  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Ciudad  Real;  pop.  about 
11,000.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  laces,  in  the 
manufacture  of  which  thousands  of  women 
are  engaged  in  the  town  and  its  vicinity.  Al- 
magro  was  founded  in  1214  by  Archbishop 
Rod  eric  of  Toledo. 

ALMAGRO,  Diego  de.  I.  One  of  the  associates 
of  Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  born  of  un- 


ALMALI 


ALMAXAC 


known  parents  about  1404,  and  picked  up  as  a 
foundling  near  the  Spanish  town  from  which  he 
derived  his  name,  died  in  15:38.  He  had  ac 
quired  both  wealth  and  fame  in  the  new  world, 
when  he  joined  Pizarro  at  Panama  in  the  at 
tempt  to' conquer  the  flourishing  kingdom  of 
the  incas.  In  the  division  of  offices  among 
the  leaders  of  the  enterprise,  Almagro  was  ap 
pointed  to  manage  the  forwarding  of  supplies 
of  men  and  provisions,  in  which  he  had  to  con 
tend  with  many  formidable  obstacles,  but  over 
came  them  all."  From  the  time  of  the  first  land 
ing  of  the  Spanish  forces  until  the  death  of  Ata- 
huallpa,  Almagro  was  engaged  in  repeated  quar 
rels  with  Pizarro,  whom  he  accused  of  treachery 
in  depriving  him  of  his  just  share  in  the  fruits  of 
their  conquests.  He  finally  attempted  to  seize 
Cuzco,  the  capital,  but  was  persuaded  by  Pizar 
ro  to  undertake  instead  the  reduction  of  Chili, 
of  which  kingdom  he  was  to  have  the  undivided 
control.  In  1535  he  set  forth  with  570  Eu 
ropean  followers,  and  underwent  great  hard 
ships  among  the  mountains.  The  natives  re 
sisted  him  bravely,  but  he  had  made  some  pro 
gress  when  a  rising  of*  the  Peruvians,  who  had 
attacked  Lima  and  Cuzco,  summoned  him  home. 
Returning  by  a  toilsome  march  along  the  coast, 
he  defeated  the  natives,  and  took  possession  of 
Cuzco,  which  he  resolved  to  hold.  A  civil  war 
ensued,  in  which  Almagro  neglected  to  avail 
himself  of  his  advantages  until  Pizarro,  having 
gained  time  to  recruit  his  forces  by  negotiation, 
marched  to  Cuzco  with  500  men,  and,  defeating 
him  in  a  bloody  engagement,  took  him  prisoner. 
After  several  months  of  confinement,  he  was 
tried,  condemned,  and  strangled.  He  was  a 
man  of  frank  and  winning  manners,  and  far 
more  popular  among  his  men  than  Pizarro. 
He  had  never  learned  to  read  and  write.  II. 
The  son  of  the  preceding  by  a  Peruvian  wo 
man,  was  a  brave,  generous,  and  accomplish 
ed  youth ;  his  father,  mindful  of  his  own 
deficiencies,  having  spared  no  pains  in  his 
education.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  party 
opposed  to  Pizarro  upon  the  death  of  the  elder 
Almagro,  and,  after  the  assassination  of  the  gov 
ernor,  was  proclaimed  his  father's  successor. 
He  enjoyed  authority  for  a  very  brief  season, 
however,  as  Vaca  de  Castro  soon  arrived, 
bearing  a  royal  commission  as  governor.  Al 
magro  attempted  to  resist  him,  and  on  Sept.  16, 
.1542,  a  sanguinary  engagement  took  place  be 
tween  the  forces  of  the  rival  leaders,  in  which 
the  victory  remained  with  his  opponent.  Al 
magro  escaped  after  the  battle,  but  was  given 
up  by  his  own  officers,  and  beheaded  at  Cuzco. 

ALMALI,  or  Elnialn,  a  city  of  Turkey,  in  Asia 
Minor,  40  in.  W.  S.  W.  of  Adalia ;  pop.  about 
12,000.  It  lies  in  a  beautiful  valley  among  the 
northern  offshoots  of  the  Lycian  range  of  the 
Taurus.  The  small  stream  on  which  the  town 
is  built  furnishes  motive  power  for  numerous 
mills,  and  is  also  used  in  several  tanneries,  dye 
works,  and  factories. 

AL-MAMOUN,  Abu  Abbas  Abdallah,  an  Abbasside 
caliph,  son  of  Haroun-al-Rashid,  reigned  from 


813  to  833.  After  the  death  of  his  father  in 
809  he  contested  the  throne  with  his  brother 
Al-Amin,  who  was  killed.  He  converted  his 
chief  towns  into  seats  of  learning.  Various 
works  were  translated  from  Greek  and  Sanskrit. 
Algebra  and  arithmetic  were  borrowed  from  the 
Hindoos,  astronomy  from  the  natives  of  the 
plains  of  Mesopotamia,  and  logic,  natural  histo 
ry,  and  the  Aristotelian  system  from  the  Greeks 
of  the  lower  empire.  In  his  wars  Al-Mamoun 
was  less  successful,  and  the  disintegration  of  the 
caliphate  by  the  establishment  of  independent 
states  in  parts  remote  from  the  centre,  which 
was  begun  in  the  preceding  reigns,  became  more 
disastrous  in  his.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Al-Motassern,  under  whose  reign  the 
Seljuks  first  became  body  guards  of  the  caliphs, 
whose  empire  they  were  in  time  to  usurp. 

ALMANAC  (probably  from  the  Arabic  al- 
manah,  the  reckoning),  a  publication  of  the 
calendar,  generally  containing  chronological 
records  of  religious  festivals  and  memorable 
events,  and  astronomical  data,  as  well  as  miscel 
laneous  information.  Tables  representing  al 
manacs  were  first  used  by  the  Arabs  mainly  as 
astronomical  guides,  and  from  them  became 
known  among  the  Alexandrian  Greeks  and  in 
Europe.  Manuscripts  of  some  of  those  of  the 
middle  ages  are  preserved  in  various  English  and 
continental  libraries.  An  almanac  for  1836  was 
printed  recently  from  a  manuscript  prepared  in 
1300  by  Petrus  of  Dacia,  containing  chaotic  as 
tronomical,  chronological,  and  medical  data. 
The  British  museum  and  Corpus  Christi  college, 
Cambridge,  preserve  manuscript  almanacs  of 
the  14th  century.  The  earliest  printed  almanac 
is  believed  to  have  been  that  of  the  German  as 
tronomer  Purbach  (Vienna,  1457).  His  pupil 
Regiomontanus  published  toward  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Hun 
garian  king  Matthias  Corvinus,  several  num 
bers  of  a  Kalendarium  Novum,  in  German  and 
Latin.  "The  Kalendayr  of  the  Shyppars,"  or 
"Shepherds'  Calendar,''  an  English  translation 
of  a  French  work,  was  published  in  Paris  in  1497. 
Every  month  is  introduced  with  a  fragment  of 
doggerel  verses.  The  following  is  a  specimen 
of  its  contents : 

"  Saturne  is  hyest  and  coldest,  being  full  old. 
And  Mars  with  his  bluddy  svverde  ever  ready  to  kyll. 
Sol  and  Luna  is  half  good  and  half  ill."1 

N"ew  editions  of  this  almanac  were  published 

in  the  early  part  of  the  1  (5th  century.    The  chief 

attractions  of  these  and  subsequent  annual  pub- 

|  lications  were  prognostications  of  the  weather 

\  and   fortune-telling,   and   they  became  highly 

I  popular.      Paynter's   burlesque,    "Four  Great 

!  Syers"  (about  1500),  was  followed  in  1009  by 

Thomas  Dekker's  "  Raven's  Almanacke,"  and  in 

i  1018  by  Laurence  Lisle's  "  Owle's  Almanack/' 

j  "Poor  Robin's  Almanack,"  the  most  famous  of 

|  them  all,  was  begun  in  1003.    Lender  James  I.  al- 

j  manacs  were  monopolized  by  the  universities  and 

I  the  stationers'  company,  astrolog}'  and  super- 

|  stition  being  their  principal  ingredients.     Fran- 

!  cis  Moore's  Vox  Stdlannn  led  the  way  in  ad- 


342 


ALMANAC 


AL-MANSOUR 


vertising  quack  medicine!?.  "Poor  Robin's 
Almanack  "  flourished  until  the  monopoly  of  the 
stationers'  company  was  broken  up  in  1775. 
An  attempt  for  its  renewal,  made  by  Lord 
North  in  parliament,  was  baffled  by  Erskine's 
argument  against  it  (1779),  but  the  company 
nevertheless  endeavored  to  retain  the  monopoly 
by  buying  up  rival  publications.  "  The  Ladies' 
Diary,"  established  in  1794,  was  of  a  better 
kind;  but  it  was  not  until  after  the  issue  of  the 
"British  Almanac  "  (1828)  that  the  stationers' 
company  purged  their  "New  Englishman's  Al 
manac"  of  obnoxious  matter.  —  In  France, 
Rabelais  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  destroy 
the  popular  faith  in  the  astrological  predictions 
of  almanacs.  Nostradamus  (1550-'G6)  made 
prophecies  popular  to  such  an  extent  that  po 
litical  predictions  in  almanacs  were  prohibited 
by  the  Erench  authorities  on  several  occasions. 
Matthicu  Laensbergh,  a  citizen  of  Liege  of  the 
17th  century,  was  the  founder  of  the  A  Imanack 
liegeois,  printed  under  the  name  of  Lansbert 
in  1025,  and  since  1047  under  that  of  Laens 
bergh.  It  contained  information  about  the 
planets,  absurd  medical  prescriptions,  and 
notices  of  religious  holidays  and  historical 
events,  and  attained  great  popularity  by  pre 
dictions  of  weather  and  occurrences.  An  oc 
casional  hit,  as  for  instance  that  of  the  pre 
dicted  downfall  of  Mine,  du  Barry  in  conse 
quence  of  the  death  of  Louis  XV.,  confirmed 
the  credulous  in  their  confidence  in  the  al 
manac.  At  first  it  was  also  made  convenient 
to  the  illiterate  by  the  adoption  of  signs  indi 
cative  of  dates  in  place  of  letters.  In  1823  the 
Netherlands  authorities  used  repressive  meas 
ures  against  the  almanac  on  account  of  the  ob 
jectionable  political  allusions,  and  its  circula 
tion  was  more  seriously  checked  in  1852  by  the 
Erench  government.  Since  the  year  1G25  a 
calendar  for  shepherds  (Calendricr  des  Mergers) 
has  been  included  in  each  annual  almanac. 
Various  spurious  Almanacks  liegeois  are  pub 
lished  in  France,  as  for  instance  the  Triple 
veritable  almanack  de  Liege.  Matthieu  Laens 
bergh,  the  original  founder,  is  still  so  popular  in 
Belgium  and  France  that  from  1824  to  1829  a 
daily  journal  of  Liege  bore  his  name  as  a  title, 
and  he  figures  as  the  hero  in  a  recent  French 
comedy.  Though  modern  works  have  in  a 
great  measure  superseded  these  almanacs,  the 
peasantry  all  over  Europe  still  retain  a  great 
partiality  for  them.  The  Almanack  imperial 
(since  1871  national)  and  Almanack  de  France, 
and  the  Annuaire- Almanack  du  commerce 
(published  by  Didot  Jan.  1,  1872),  are  the 
leading  French  almanacs.  Many  almanacs 
are  at  the  present  day  published  in  France 
under  the  title  of  Annuaires,  or  Annuaires- 
Almanacks.  On  the  other  hand,  literary 
annuals  and  albums  are  published  in  Franco, 
Germany,  and  other  countries  under  the 
title  of  almanacs,  as  for  instance  the  Ger 
man  Musenalmanack,  and  the  French  Al 
manack  des  muses.  Germany  originated  these 
annual  collections  about  1815,  and  they  circu 


late  there  more  extensively  than  the  ordinary 
almanacs  do  in  other  European  countries.  A 
little  Breton  Almanac  for  1872,  Almanak 
Breiz-Izel,  prepared  by  some  of  the  best 
Celtic  scholars  in  France,  contains,  beside} 
agricultural,  veterinary,  philological,  political, 
and  historical  lore,  some  popular  tales,  prov 
erbs,  patriotic  poems,  &c.  The  Almanack  de 
Gotka  is  published  both  in  French  and  German 
by  Justus  Perthes,  at  Gotha,  Germany,  and  is 
(1873)  in  its  110th  year.  It  is  a  high  authority 
on  the  genealogy  of  sovereign  and  princely 
families,  and  statistics  and  official  information 
respecting  the  different  countries  of  the  world. 
— Nautical  almanacs,  containing  astronomical 
information  designed  to  aid  in  the  determination 
of  latitude  and  longitude  at  sea,  &c.,  have  been 
published  in  France  since  1679,  and  in  Germa 
ny  since  1776,  under  the  respective  titles  of 
Annuaires  and  Jakrlmcker  or  Annalen,  and 
in  England  since  1707.  The  "American  Nau 
tical  Almanac "  was  founded  by  Admiral 
Charles  Henry  Davis,  U.  S.  N.,  who  was  ap 
pointed  its  first  superintendent  in  1849.  The 
first  volume,  for  1855,'  was  published  in 
1853.  —  The  first  ordinary  American  alma 
nac  is  believed  to  have  been  issued  from  the 
press  of  William  Bradford  in  Philadelphia 
in  1087.  Franklin's  celebrated  "Poor  Rich 
ard's  Almanac,"  first  published  by  him  in  1732, 
and  continued  about  25  years,  became  very 
popular  in  this  country  as  well  as  in  England 
arid  France,  where  its  proverbial  and  wise  ut 
terances  were  reprinted  and  translated.  The 
"American  Almanac  and  Repository  of  Useful 
Knowledge"  was  published  at  Boston  from 
1828  to  1861.  The  "National  Almanac,"  de 
signed  as  a  continuation  of  the  above,  was  pub 
lished  at  Philadelphia  for  1803  and  1864  only. 
There  are  now  upward  of  100  almanacs  pub 
lished  in  the  United  States,  a  number  of  them 
being  illustrated,  relating  to  almost  all  imagi 
nable  subjects  of  desirable  information  for  all 
classes  and  occupations,  and  also  including 
comic  almanacs  as  well  as  versions  in  foreign 
languages,  chiefly  in  German. 

AL-MANSOIR,  Abn  Jaffar  Abdallah,  the  second 
Abbasside  caliph,  born  about  712,  died  Oct.  18, 
775.  He  succeeded  his  brother  Abul  Abbas  in 
754.  On  his  accession  the  sovereignty  was 
claimed  by  Abdallah,  his  uncle.  Abdallah,  how 
ever,  Avas  completely  defeated  by  Al-Mansour's 
lieutenant,  Abu  Moslem,  who  was  soon  after  put 
to  death  for  declining  to  serve  as  governor  of 
Egypt.  Nor  was  this  the  only  instance  of  Al- 
Mansour's  cruelty.  In  758  Cufa,  then  the  resi 
dence  of  the  caliphs,  was  the  scene  of  a  riot 
got  up  by  the  Ravendites,  a  sect  who  believed 
in  metempsychosis.  This  so  displeased  Al- 
Mansour  that  he  founded  Bagdad,  to  which  city 
the  seat  of  government  was  removed.  His 
reign  wras  again  disturbed  by  a  revolt  of  the 
descendants  of  Ali  ben  Abu  Taleb,  which  was 
suppressed.  His  arms  were  victorious  in  Asia 
Minor,  Armenia,  and  further  east.  Spain,  how 
ever,  was  lost  to  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad  during 


ALMARIC 


ALMODOVAR 


343 


his  reign.  lie  was  the  first  of  the  caliphs  who 
introduced  the  taste  for  literature.  In  his 
reign  many  of  the  best  Greek  works  were  trans 
lated  into  Arabic. 

AL.MARIC  or  Amalrie  of  Bene,  or  Amanry  of 
Chartres,  a  French  theologian  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Bene  near  Chartres,  died  about  1209. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  teachers  of 
dialectics  and  the  arts  in  the  university  of  Paris, 
and  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  study  of 
Aristotle,  from  whose  writings  he  drew  the 
germ  of  his  own  philosophical  system.  lie 
taught  that  God  was  an  immaterial  substance, 
without  form  or  figure,  but  with  perpetual  and 
necessary  movement.  All  beings  were  derived 
from  this  primitive  substance  and  would  finally 
be  absorbed  in  it.  There  were  three  epochs  in 
the  religious  history  of  the  world:  the  Mosaic 
law  marked  the  epoch  of  God  the  Father ;  the 
gospel  period  was  the  epoch  of  God  the  Son,  in 
which  every  man  was  a  member  of  Jesus  Christ, 
whose  body  was  in  everything  as  well  as  in 
the  eucharist;  the  epoch  of  God  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  then  about  to  begin,  in  which  the 
sacraments  were  to  cease  and  men  to  be  saved 
by  the  interior  infusion  of  the  Spirit  without  the 
need  of  any  external  act.  The  work  entitled 
Physion  (now  lost),  in  which  Almaric  ex 
plained  this  theory,  was  condemned  by  Inno 
cent  III.,  and  the  author  was  obliged  to  recant 
in  1204.  His  disciples  exaggerated  his  errors, 
teaching  that  God  the  Father  was  incarnate  in 
Abraham.  They  denounced  the  pope  as  Anti 
christ,  and  are  accused  of  gross  immorality. 
One  of  them,  a  goldsmith  named  Guillaume, 
announced  himself  as  one  of  the  seven  person 
ages  in  whom  the  Holy  Ghost  was  to  become 
incarnate,  and  pretended  to  the  gift  of  proph 
ecy.  A  synod  held  at  Paris  in  1209  sentenced 
Guillaume  and  nine  others  to  the  flames,  and 
the  corpse  of  Almaric  was  exhumed  and  burnt 
with  his  books. 

ADIEU  (properly  alimeli,  pi.  avaliiri),  an  Ara 
bic  name  given  to  the  better  class  of  public 
singers  and  dancers  in  Egypt,  and  sometimes 
erroneously  applied  also  to  the  lower  prostitutes 
and  dancers,  the  ghawazi.  The  almehs  form  a 
separate  social  class,  live  together  in  compa 
nies,  and  often  earn  very  large  sums  by  their 
songs,  dances,  and  improvisations,  which  are 
almost  always  of  a  lascivious  character.  Their 
services  are  generally  called  into  requisition  at 
banquets,  marriages,  and  other  festivals. — The 
ghawazi  are  a  much  lower  class,  including  both 
male'and  female  dancers,  who  travel  from  place 
to  place,  and  exhibit  in  the  public  streets  their 
dances,  which,  like  those  of  the  almehs,  con 
sist  of  lascivious  movements  of  the  body.  The 
female  ghawazi  are  prostitutes  of  the  lowest 
class;  yet  a  respectable  Arab  may  without  dis 
grace  marry  one  of  them  who  has  abandoned 
her  profession.  Though  the  two  classes  are 
alike  in  the  licentiousness  of  their  lives  and 
occupations,  a  sharp  distinction  exists  between 
the  almehs  and  the  ghawazi,  the  former  pan 
dering  to  the  higher  orders  of  society,  w^hile 


the  latter  (considered  by  many  actually  a  dis 
tinct  race  of  gypsies)  address  themselves  to  the 
populace. 

ALMEIDA,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  Por 
tugal,    in    the    province    of    Beira,    near    the- 
i  Spanish    frontier,    20    m.   W.  of  Ciudad    Ro- 
drigo,    on    the    river    Coa;    pop.  about   8,000. 
I  One  of  the  foremost  strongholds  of  the  king- 
!  dom,  it  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1762, 
and    by    the    French    in    1810.       When    in 
1811  AVellington  compelled  the  retreat  of  the 
French  from  Portugal,  the  latter  destroyed  a 
large  part  of  the  fortifications,  but  these  were 
soon  restored  by  the  British.     In  1844  the  in 
surrectionists,  under  Bomfim,  held  Almeida  a 
few  weeks  against  the  troops  of  the  queen. 

ALMEIDA,  Francisco  de,  the  first  Portuguese 
viceroy  of  India,  born  about  the  middle  of  the 
loth  century,  died  March  1,  1510.  lie  distin 
guished  himself  in  the  peninsular  wars  with  the 
Moors,  and  on  his  appointment  to  the  govern- 
I  ment  of  the  newly  discovered  Indian  provinces, 
in  1505,  was  attended  by  a  large  number  of 
volunteers.  He  extended  the  Portuguese  power, 
but  was  unfortunate  in  an  expedition  against 
Calicut,  losing  his  son  Lorenzo  and  a  part  of 
his  fleet.  At  this  juncture  Albuquerque  came 
out  to  India,  but  Almeida  refused  to  recognize 
him,  and  cast  him  into  prison  until  he  had 
avenged  the  death  of  his  son,  ravaged  the  coast, 
and  destroyed  a  fleet  of  the  sultan  of  Egypt, 
who  was  the  ally  of  the  king  of  Calicut,  lie 
then  laid  down  his  government,  and  sailed  for 
I  home,  but  was  killed  by  the  natives  at  Saldanha 
!  bay,  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

ALMERIA.     I.  A  S.  E.  province  of  Spain,  in 
I  Andalusia,  on  the  Mediterranean;  area,  3,299 
|  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867  (estimated),  352,946.    The 
i  greater  part  of  the  province  is  broken  by  moun- 
'  tains  and  ravines,  with  small  valleys  and  pla- 
|  teaux,  nearly  denuded  of  wood  and  subject  to 
great  extremes  of  drought  and  flood.    There  are 
very  few  roads  and  no  public  improvements. 
But  it  is  one  of  the  richest  provinces  of  Spain 
in  mines  of  silver,  lead,  copper,  coal,  salt,  &c., 
which  are  worked  in  the  most  primitive  man 
ner,  mining  being  the  chief  industry.     There  is 
little  agriculture,  but  some  grain  and  silk  are 
produced,  and  cotton  is  raised  to  some  extent 
I  along  the   coast,   its   cultivation   having  been 
i  introduced   by  Mr.  Kirkpatrick,   U.  S.  consul 
|  at   Malaga,   many  years    ago.     The    principal 
i  towns,    besides    the    capital,    are   Vera,    Pur- 
I  chena,  Sorbas,  and  Berja.    II.  A  city  and  the 
|  capital  of  the  preceding  province,  situated  on 
the  Mediterranean,  104m.  E.  of  Malaga;  pop. 
about   30,000.     It  was   one   of  the   most   im 
portant  commercial  towns  of  Granada  in  the 
time  of  the  Moorish  kings,  is  still  surrounded 
by  the  old  Moorish  walls,  and  has  in  general 
an  African  aspect.     It  was  formerly  the  prin 
cipal  port  of  the  coast,  and  at  one  time  a  no 
torious  seat  of  pirates.     The  principal  building 
is  a  magnificent  cathedral. 

ALMODOVAR,  Hdefonso  Diaz  de  Ribera,  count  of, 
a  Spanish  statesman,  born  about  1777,  died  in 


ALMOIIADES 


ALMOND 


January,  1840.  On  the  fall  of  the  constitution 
in  1823  he  retired  into  France,  whence  he  re 
turned  on  the  invitation  of  the  regent  Christina, 
was  chosen  president  of  the  popular  branch  of 
the  cortes,  and  in  1835  was  appointed  captain 
general  of  Valencia,  where  he  ruled  with  great 
severity.  Under  Mendizabal  he  was  succes 
sively  minister  of  war  and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  the  latter  position  he  held  also 
under  Espartero  in  1842-'3.  In  1837  he  was 
appointed  senator. 

ALMOHADES,  a  Moslem  dynasty  of  northern 
Africa  and  Spain,  which  reigned  in  the  latter  I 
half  of  the  12th  century  and  in  the  earlier  half  | 
of  the  13th.  The  term  is  an  abbreviation  of 
Al-Mo \vahedun,  which  means  the  Unitarians. 
The  origin  of  their  power  is  traced  to  a  certain 
Mohammed,  or,  with  his  full  name,  Abu  Ab- 
dillah  Mohammed  ben  Yumert,  who  travelled 
to  Cordova  for  education,  and  thence  to  Cairo 
and  Bagdad  to  complete  his  studies.  On  his 
return  from  the  east,  Mohammed  became  con 
spicuous  by  the  austerity  of  his  life  and  the 
boldness  of  his  preaching,  lie  was  made  tutor 
of  Abd-el-Mumen,  a  youth  of  high  birth,  whose 
mind  he  filled  with  a  belief  that  he  was  re 
served  to  inaugurate  a  purified  Moslem  creed. 
At  Morocco  he  took  up  his  abode  in  a  burial 
ground,  where  he  preached  to  the  people  the 
coming  of  the  great  Mahdi  (director),  who  was 
to  establish  the  reign  of  universal  justice  and 
peace  upon  the  earth.  One  day  as  he  was  thus 
preaching,  Abd-el-Mumen  remarked,  "You  are 
yourself  the  great  Mahdi,"  and  immediately 
swore  allegiance  to  him,  in  which  he  was  fol 
lowed  by  50,  and  soon  after  by  70  others. 
They  retreated  to  the  mountains,  preaching 
the  unity  of  God,  and  soon  their  number  was 
swelled  to  20,000;  and  a  victory  over  the 
king's  brother  established  the  influence  of  the 
Almohades.  The  war  was  kept  up  against  them 
with  varying  success,  but  about  1130  they 
marched  against  Morocco,  and  obtained  a  com 
plete  victory.  The  Mahdi  now  summoned  his 
followers,  and,  announcing  his  approaching  de 
parture,  laid  down  his  power,  and  was  said  to 
have  been  translated.  Abd-el-Mumen  was  then 
elected  sovereign.  He  overran  Oran  and  Fez, 
and  about  1147  reduced  Morocco,  the  last  ref 
uge  of  the  Almoravides,  to  extremities.  After 
a  desperate  defence,  the  city  was  taken,  and 
Abd-el-Mumen  massacred  the  inhabitants  and 
razed  the  town.  In  Spain  the  Almohades  were 
equally  successful.  The  Almoravides  were  de 
feated  at  every  point.  Abd-el-Mumen  pro 
claimed  a  holy  war,  but  died  in  the  midst  of 
his  preparations,  in  1103.  His  son  Yiisuf  suc 
ceeded,  at  the  age  of  about  24,  and  reigned 
until  about  1184,  when  he  died,  while  besieg 
ing  Santarem  in  Portugal. — Yacub  ibn  Yusuf 
or  Al-Mansour,  his  successor,  carried  on  the  war 
against  the  Christians,  and  in  1195  defeated 
•Alfonso  VIII.  of  Castile  at  Alarcos.  He  died 
in  Africa  in  1199.  Mohammed  Abu-Abdallah, 
his  son,  succeeded  him.  He  levied  a  vast  army 
against  the  Christians.  Pope  Innocent  III. 


having  authorized  a  crusade,  the  clergy  ex 
erted  themselves  to  repel  the  invasion ;  and  on 
June  12,  1212,  the  battle  of  Navas  de  Tolosa 
was  fought,  in  which  Mohammed  barely  es 
caped  with  life,  leaving,  it  is  said,  170,000  dead 
on  the  field.  He  returned  to  Morocco,  and 
resigning  his  crown  to  his  son  Yusuf  Abu- 
Yacub,  who  was  only  11  years  old,  died  in 
1213.  With  the  latter  prince,  who  died  child 
less  in  1223,  the  direct  Almohade  line  ter 
minated.  Al-Adel  and  Al-Mamoun,  both  nearly 
related  to  Abu-Yacub,  held  for  a  time  the 
empire  of  the  Almohades,  but  it  was  soon  torn 
asunder  by  internal  divisions,  and  shortly  after 
the  middle  of  the  13th  century  disappeared. 

ALM01V,  John,  an  English  political  writer, 
born  in  Liverpool  in  1738,  died  Dec.  12,  1805. 
In  1759  he  established  himself  as  a  bookseller 
in  London.  On  the  death  of  George  II.  he 
published  a  review  of  his  reign,  after  which  he 
published  a  "Review  of  the  Administration  of 
Mr.  Pitt,"  besides  "Anecdotes  of  Lord  Chat 
ham"  (3  vols.  8vo),  "Biographical  Anecdotes 
of  Eminent  Persons  "  (3  vols.),  and  an  edition 
of  "Junius"  (2  vols.),  in  which  he  attempted 
to  prove  that  Hugh  Boyd  was  Junius.  He  put 
his  pen  and  press  at  the  disposal  of  John 
Wilkes,  and  published  a  pamphlet  on  "Jury 
men  and  Libellers,"  for  which  he  was  tried, 
but  acquitted.  He  was  slso  arraigned  for  sell 
ing  copies  of  Junius's  letter  to  the  king,  com 
pelled  to  pay  a  fine,  and  to  find  bail  to  keep 
the  peace  for  two  years.  He  was  the  publisher 
of  Wilkes's  "North  Briton,"  and  wrote  his 
life.  In  1774  he  established  the  "Parlia 
mentary  Register."  He  also  compiled  "The 
Remembrancer,  or  Impartial  Repository  of  Pub 
lic  Events  from  1775  to  1784"  (17  vols.  8vo, 
and  a  prior  volume  relating  to  American 
affairs).  In  his  latter  years  he  became  proprie 
tor  and  editor  of  the  "General  Advertiser.'1 

ALMOND  (amygdalus),  a  genus  of  plants,  the 
type  of  the  sub-order  amygdalece,  comprehend 
ing  the  almond,  plum,  peach,  cherry,  nectarine, 
and  a  few  unimportant  bushes  of  a  somewhat 


Almond— Fruit,  Flower,  Leaves,  and  Nut. 


ALMOXDE 


ALMQUIST 


345 


gay  appearance.  The  common  almond  (A. 
communi*)  is  a  native  of  Barbary,  but  lias  long 
been  cultivated  in  tbe  south  of  Europe  and 
the  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  The  fruit  is  pro 
duced  in  very  large  quantities,  and  exported 
into  northern  countries.  It  is  also  pressed  for 
oil,  and  used  for  various  domestic  purposes. 
There  are  numerous  varieties  of  this  species, 
but  the  t\vo  chief  kinds  are  the  bitter  almond 
and  the  sweet  almond.  The  sweet  almond  af 
fords  a  favorite  article  for  dessert,  but  it  con 
tains  little  nourishment,  and,  of  all  nuts,  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  of  digestion.  The  highly 
prized  Jordan  almonds  are  brought  from  Ma 
laga.  The  tree  has  been  cultivated  in  Eng 
land  for  about  three  centuries,  for  the  sake 
of  its  beautiful  foliage,  as  the  fruit  will  not 
rinen  without  a  greater  degree  of  heat  than  is 
found  in  that  climate.  The  bitter  almond  con 
tains  less  fixed  oil  than  the  sweet  almond.  It 
has  a  strong  narcotic  power,  derived  from  the 
presence  of  hydrocyanic  (prussic)  acid,  and  is 
said  to  act  as  a  poison  on  dogs  and  some  other 
of  the  smaller  animals.  The  distilled  water 
of  the  bitter  almond  is  highly  injurious  to  the 
human  species,  and  when  taken  in  a  large  dose 
produces  almost  instant  death.  The  leaves  of 
all  the  varieties  of  amyglalece  contain  hydro 
cyanic  acid,  and  are  often  dangerous,  while 
the  fruit  may  be  used  with  entire  impunity. 

ALMOXDE,  PhiUppus  yan,  a  Dutch  vice  admi 
ral,  born  at  Briel  in  1646,  died  near  Ley  den, 
Jan.  6,  1711.  He  served  under  Admiral  Ruy- 
ter  in  the  memorable  sea  fights  of  July,  1666  ; 
and  after  Ruyter's  death,  at  Syracuse,  Sicily, 
in  1676,  the  duty  of  taking  the  command  of 
the  Dutch  fleet  on  its  way  home  from  the  Med 
iterranean  devolved  upon  him.  He  covered 
himself  with  glory  at  the  battle  of  La  Hogue 
in  1692,  and  assisted  Cornelius  van  Tromp  in 
reducing  the  naval  power  of  Sweden. 

ALMOXER  (anciently  written  amner),  an  offi 
cer  appointed  to  distribute  alms  to  the  needy, 
generally  an  ecclesiastic.  Such  officers  were 
from  very  early  times  in  Europe  attached 
to  the  households  of  sovereigns,  nobles,  and 
prelates,  to  monastic,  educational,  and  chari 
table  institutions,  &c.  In  England  there  was  a 
lord  high  almoner  before  the  time  of  Edward 
L,  and  in  modern  times  the  tide  has  been  held 
by  the  archbishop  of  York.  There  is  also  a 
hereditary  grand  almoner  in  the  person  of  the 
marquis  of  Exeter ;  and  there  is  an  almonry 
in  Westminster.  In  France  the  grand  aumo- 
nie.r  was  the  chief  ecclesiastic  of  the  king's 
household,  generally  of'  high  birth,  and  had 
several  subordinates  with  great  power  and  pe 
culiar  privileges.  Since  1792  the  office  has 
been  several  times  abolished  and  restored ;  it 
existed  under  Xapoleon  I.  (Cardinal  Fesch)  and 
III.  There  are  also  almoners  of  the  army  and 
navy,  &c.  In  the  church,  deacons  have  some 
times  been  called  almoners  (eleemoxynarii}. 

ALMOVTE,  Juan  Nepomaceno,  a  Mexican  gen 
eral  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Valladolid  in  1804, 
died  in  Paris,  March  22,  1869.  He  was  of 


partly  Indian  origin  and  the  reputed  son  of 
Morelos.  He  held  diplomatic  posts  at  various 
times  in  Washington,  London,  Lima,  and  Paris. 
With  Santa  Anna,  on  whose  staff  he  was  then 
serving,  he  was  captured  by  Gen.  Houston  at 
the  battle  of  San  Jacinto  in  1836.  Released 
after  six  months,  he  became  minister  of  war 
under  Bustarnente.  During  the  war  with  the 
United  States  he  fought  under  Santa  Anna, 
with  whom  he  never  ceased  to  hold  friendly  re 
lations.  He  was  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1857- 
'60,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  instigators  of 
the  French  invasion  of  Mexico  and  the  election 
of  Maximilian.  With  the  assistance  of  the  im 
perial  forces,  he  was  appointed  dictator  of  Mex 
ico  in  1862  ;  but  all  parties  distrusted  him,  and 
the  French  themselves  removed  him  in  Septem 
ber  of  the  same  year.  In  June,  1863,  he  was 
president  of  a  junta  styled  the  regency  of  the 
Mexican  empire.  In  1864  Maximilian  con 
ferred  upon  him  the  titles  of  regent  and  grand 
marshal,  and  in  1868  sent  him  as  ambassador 
to  Paris,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 

ALMORA,  a  town  of  X.  India,  capital  of  the 
British  district  of  Kumaon,  Northwestern  Prov 
inces,  situated  among  the  Himalayas,  5,337  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  90  m.  X.  by  E.  of  Bareilly. 
It  is  built  along  a  mountain  ridge,  in  the  midst 
of  a  barren  and  desolate  region,  and  approached 
by  a  single  long,  zigzag  road.  It  was  captured 
by  the  Gorkhas  in  1790,  and  held  till  1815, 
when  the  town  was  attacked  and  stormed  on 
the  25th  of  April  by  the  British  forces  under 
Col.  Xicholls,  after  which  the  district  was  an 
nexed  to  the  British  territorv. 

ALMORAYIDES,  a  Moslem  dynasty  in  N".  Afri 
ca  and  Spain,  which  owes  its  orig'in  to  Abdallah 
ibn  Yasim,  who  preached  Islam  among  the 
Arabian  tribes  of  northern  Morocco,  became 
the  chieftain  of  the  Al-Murabathin  (the  devoted, 
hence  the  word  Marabout),  and  died  in  battle 
about  A.  D.  1058.  Abubekr  ibn  Omar  suc 
ceeded  him,  but  during  his  absence  on  a  war 
like  expedition,  his  lieutenant,  Yusuf  ibn  Tash- 
fyn,  seized  the  supreme  power.  Abubekr,  on 
his  return,  finding  his  rival  too  strong,  resigned 
the  crown,  and  Yusuf  acknowledged  his  for 
bearance  by  magnificent  presents,  which  he 
repeated  annually  during  Abubekr's  life.  Yu 
suf  now  founded  the  city  and  empire  of  Moroc 
co.  Invited  to  Spain  by  the  Moorish  prince  of 
Seville  to  aid  him  against  the  Christians,  he 
sent  an  embassy  to  Alfonso  of  Castile  announ 
cing  his  arrival  in  the  peninsula,  and  summon 
ing  that  monarch  to  an  unconditional  surrender, 
and  to  embrace  Mohammedanism.  A  desperate 
battle  was  fought  in  the  plains  of  Zalaca  in 
1086,  in  which  the  Christians  were  "worsted. 
Yusuf,  however,  retired,  but  the  following  year 
returned,  conquered  the  Moorish  kings  in  detail, 
and,  having  proclaimed  his  son  as  his  successor, 
retired  to  Morocco,  where  he  died  in  1106. 
About  40  years  later  the  dynasty  of  the  Almo- 
ravides  was  overthrown  by  the  Almohades. 

ALMQUST,  Karl  Jonas  Lndvijf,  a  Swedish  au 
thor,  born  in  1793,  died  in  Bremen,  Oct.  26, 


346 


ALMY 


ALOES 


1806.  He  studied  theology,  and  was  for  some 
time  a  teacher.  Besides  miscellaneous  works, 
lie  published  novels  and  poetry,  including  Torn- 
rosens  Bole  ("Book  of  the  Rose1').  Impli 
cated  in  a  case  of  poisoning  in  1851,  he  tied 
to  the  United  States,  but  went  to  Bremen  in 
1805.  His  works  are  very  popular  in  Germany, 
where  most  of  them  have  been  translated. 

ALMY,  William,  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  Feb.  IT,  1701,  died  Feb.  5,  1830.  He  be 
longed  to  the  society  of  Friends,  and  was  a 
public  teacher.  Having  made  a  fortune  in 
partnership  with  his  brother-in-law,  Obadiah 
Brown,  in  manufacturing  cotton  goods,  he  de 
voted  a  large  share  of  his  wealth  to  charitable 
works,  especially  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  where 
he  lived.  He  endowed  the  New  England  yearly 


meeting  boarding  school  at  Providence,  and 
paid  for  the  education  of  80  of  its  pupils. 

ALXWICK,  the  county  town  of  Northumber 
land,  England,  on  the  river  Alne,  80  m.  N. 
of  Newcastle ;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  is  well 
built,  chiefly  of  stone,  with  broad,  well  paved 
streets,  lighted  with  gas.  It  has  a  fine  town 
hall,  and  a  large  square  where  weekly  markets 
are  held.  The  ancient  castle  of  the  same  name, 
N.  W.  of  the  town,  the  residence  of  the  duke 
of  Northumberland,  covers  ti ve  acres  of  ground, 
and  was  restored  in  1830  at  an  outlay  of  £200,- 
000.  It  is  built  of  freestone,  in  the  Gothic 
style,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  old  baronial  resi 
dences  in  England.  Am  wick  castle  formed 
one  of  the  strongest  bulwarks  against  the  incur 
sions  of  the  Scots  in  ancient  times,  and  was  re- 


Alnwick  Castle. 


peatedly  besieged  by  them.  Near  its  walls 
Malcolm  III.  of  Scotland  was  slain  in  1093, 
and  his  army  routed  ;  and  in  1174  William  the 
Lion  was  defeated  here  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army,  and  taken  captive. 

ALOE,  a  genus  of  succulent  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  liliacea>,  and  tribe  asphode- 
lece,  with  long,  fleshy,  narrow,  toothed  leaves, 
growing  in  tropical  countries.  It  has  been  di 
vided  into  a  variety  of  species,  consisting  of 
trees,  shrubs,  and  evergreen  herbaceous  plants, 
which  differ  in  height  from  a  few  inches  to  up 
ward  of  30  feet,  and  no  less  widely  in  the  char 
acter  of  their  leaves  and  flowers.  A  large 
proportion  of  these  different  species  have  no 
medicinal  properties,  but  are  seen  as  objects  of 
curiosity,  in  collections  of  succulent  plants; 
while  a  few  species  are  highly  valued  for  the 
juice  of  their  leaves,  Avhich  forms  the  aloes  of 
commerce.  (See  ALOES.) 

ALOE,  American,     See  AGAVE. 


ALOES,  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  leaves  of 
different  species  of  aloe.  Several  varieties  are 

I  known  in  commerce,  some  much  superior  in 
quality  to  others.  Cape  aloes,  obtained  from 
the  aloe  spicata,  growing  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  occurs  in  masses  of  a  shining  dark  olive- 
green  color,  of  a  vitreous  fracture,  and  trans 
lucent  at  the  edges ;  the  powder  is  of  a  green 
ish  yellow  color,  with  a  very  disagreeable  odor 
and  intensely  bitter  taste.  Barbadoes  aloes  is 
prepared  in  the  West  Indies,  and  is  the  prod- 

I  uct  chiefly  of  the  A.  rulgaris.  The  color  is  a 
dark  brown,  not  shining,  and  the  odor  is  un 
pleasant.  Socotrine  aloes,  from  the  A.  Soco- 
trina,  occurs  in  pieces  of  a  yellowish  brown 
color,  less  shining  than  the  Cape  aloes ;  the 
fracture  is  conchoidal,  the  odor  aromatic,  and 

!  the  taste  very  bitter.  This  is  much  the  most 
valuable  variety,  and  the  name  is  applied  to 
parcels  of  aloes  of  good  quality  coming  from 
other  sources  than  the  island  of  Socotra. 


ALOID.E 


ALP   ARSLAN" 


Hepatic  aloes,  known  in  India  as  Bombay 
aloes,  lias  a  dark  liver  color,  and  is  probably 
an  interior  kind  of  drug,  manufactured  from 
the  dregs  of  other  sorts. — Aloes  contains  a  neu 
tral  bitter  principle  called  aloine,  which  acts  as 
a  cathartic  in  the  dose  of  from  one  half  to  one 
or  two  grains,  and  insoluble  matter  called  apo- 
theine.  It  yields  its  virtues  to  water  and  alco 
hol,  and  is  often  administered,  in  its  natural 
form  or  in  combination  with  other  substances, 
in  pills.  It  is  an  irritant  purgative,  slow  in 
operation,  and  acting  chiefly  on  the  lower  bow 
el  and  the  rectum.  A  peculiarity  of  its  action 
is  that  an  increase  of  the  quantity  administered, 
beyond  the  medium  dose,  is  not  attended  with 
a  corresponding  increase  of  effect.  When  used 
for  a  long  time,  the  dose  may  be  rather  dimin 
ished  than  increased.  It  is  rarely  used  alone, 
but  is  combined  with  soap,  rhubarb,  colocynth, 
and  iron  in  substance  and  in  tincture.  It  forms 
an  ingredient  of  a  great  number  of  empirical 
preparations.  From  2  to  5  grains  form  a  laxa 
tive  dose  ;  from  5  to  10  grains,  a  strong  purga 
tive.  It  is  supposed  to  produce  or  irritate 
piles.  Its  tendency  is  to  produce  congestion 
of  other  pelvic  organs,  and  it  is  therefore  some 
times  used  as  an  emmenagogue. — The  processes 
of  preparing  the  drug  are  various.  Sometimes 
the  leaves  are  cut  off  at  the  stem,  then  cut  in 
pieces,  and  the  juice  drained  off  in  iron  vessels. 
It  is  then  suffered  to  stand  for  48  hours,  during 
which  time  the  dr^gs  are  deposited,  and  the 
remaining  portion  is  poured  oft'  into  broad  flat 
vessels,  and  becomes  inspissated.  In  other 
places,  the  leaves  are  pulled,  and  after  being 
cut  in  pieces,  the  juice  is  extracted  by  pressure. 
— The  aloes  or  lign  aloes  (i.  e.,  wood  aloes,  Lat. 
lignum)  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  a  perfume 
was  an  entirely  different  substance.  It  was 
probably  the  product  of  the  aquilaria  agallo- 
chum  of  tropical  Asia,  which  yields  the  highly 
aromatic  aloe  wood  or  eagle  wood  of  commerce. 
There  are  many  other  species,  the  wood  of 
which,  like  that  of  the  preceding,  is  rendered  j 
more  or  less  resinous  and  odoriferous  by  decay, 
with  a  bitter  quality  which  gives  it  the  name  \ 
of  aloes; 

ALOID.E,  in  classical  mythology,  the  gigantic 
sons  of  Neptune  by  the  wife  of  Aloeus.  Their 
names  were  Otus  and  Ephialtes.  At  the  age 
of  9  their  bodies  measured  9  cubits  in  breadth 
and  27  in  height,  and  they  alarmed  the  gods  ; 
by  waging  war  on  Olyrnpus  and  piling  Pelion 
upon  Ossa.  They  put  Mars  in  chains  and  kept 
him  so  13  months.  Before  their  beards  be 
gan  to  grow  Apollo  destroyed  them. 

AL03IPKA,  the  founder  of  the  reigning  dynasty 
of  Burmah,  born  about  1710,  died  May  15,  1760.  j 
lie  was  originally  chief  of  a  small  village,  j 
The  king  of  Burmah  having  been  captured  i 
and  the  country  conquered  by  the  Peguans,  j 
Alompra  in  1753  headed  an  insurrection  which,  j 
after  a  series  of  brilliant  victories  on  his  part  j 
with  inferior  means,  ended  in  1757  with  the  j 
conquest  of  Pegu  and  the  establishment  of  his  i 
power  over  both  countries.  His  reign  was  ' 


short,  but  was  distinguished  by  great  improve 
ments  in  the  laws  and  administration  of  gov 
ernment,  lie  founded  the  city  and  port  of 
Rangoon. 

ALOST,  or  Aelst,  a  town  of  Belgium,  province  of 
East  Flanders,  about  half  way  between  Brussels 
and  Ghent;  pop.  in  18(50,  18,978.  The  Dender, 
an  affluent  of  the  Scheldt,  which  has  been 
made  into  a  canal  for  the  accommodation  of 
trade,  passes  through  the  town.  It  has  consid 
erable  trade  and  manufactures,  and  was  for 
merly  the  capital  of  Austrian  Flanders.  Cap 
tured  by  Turenne  in  1667,  the  town  was  for  a 
time  in  the  hands  of  Louis  XIV.  It  is  well 
built  and  clean.  In  the  church  of  St.  Martin 
is  a  picture  by  Rubens  representing  "  The 
Plague  of  Alost." 

ALPACA,  a  spe:-ies  of  the  genus  lama  of 
Fr.  Cuvier  (properly  llama),  and  uuchenia  of 
Illiger,  which  with  the  genus  camelus  consti 
tutes  the  family  of  camelida,  of  the  order  of 
Msulca  ruminant  ia.  The  alpaca  is  found  in 
the  mountainous  regions  of  Peru,  and  subsists 


on  the  coarse  and  scanty  forage  which  grows 
on  the  sterile  soil  of  that  quarter.  The  upper 
part  and  the  sides  of  the  body  of  this  animal 
are  covered  with  light  chestnut-brown  wool, 
which  hangs  down  in  slightly  curled  meshes 
nearly  a  foot  in  length,  and  is  very  soft  and 
elastic,  almost  as  tine  as  that  of  the  Cashmere 
goat ;  the  face  up  to  the  posterior  margin  of 
the  jaws,  and  also  the  legs,  have  short,  smooth 
hair ;  from  the  forehead  a  stiff  silky  hair  falls 
down  upon  the  face.  The  shearing  of  the  wool 
takes  place  at  irregular  times  annually  or  bien 
nially.  From  10  to  12  Ibs.  are  obtained  from 
one  animal. 

ALP  ARSLAN  (valiant  lion),  sultan  of  the  Sel- 
jukian  Turks,  born  in  Turkistan  about  1028, 
assassinated  in  1072.  He  was  descended  from 
Seljuk,  succeeded  his  uncle  Togrul  in  1063,  and 
was  also  appointed  by  the  caliph  as  emir-el- 
omra  or  commander-in-chief.  He  conquered  Ar 
menia  in  1065  and  Georgia  in  1068,  and  though 
repeatedly  repulsed  by  the  troops  of  the  Byzan 
tine  empress  Eudocia,  he  eventually  carried  his 
victorious  arms  from  Antioch  to  the  Black  sea. 
After  the  capture  and  death  of  Eudocia's  hus 
band  and  general,  the  emperor  Romanus  Di 
ogenes  (1071),  he  planned  an  expedition  against 
Turkistan,  the  cradle  of  his  dynasty,  and 


3iS 


ALPEtfA 


ALPHABET 


crossed  the  Oxus  with  an  immense  army  ;  but  ! 
he  was  stabbed  to  death  by  the  governor  of  | 
the  lirst  fortress  he  captured,  whom  he  had  or-  j 
dered  to  be  executed  in  revenge  for  his  obsti-  , 
nate  defence.  Alp  Arslan's  virtues  as  a  ruler  j 
are  no  less  extolled  than  his  courage  as  a  war 
rior. 

ALPEM,  a  county  of  E.  N.  E.  Michigan,  on  \ 
Lake  Huron  and  Thunder  bay,  drained  by  Thun-  • 
der  Bay  river;  area,  700  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870,  j 
2,756.  In  1870  there  were  only  319  acres  of  | 
improved  land.  Capital,  Alpena. 

1LPES,  Basses  and  Hautes.  See  B ASSES- ALPES,  | 
and  HAUTES-ALPES. 

ALPES-MARITIMES,  a   S.  E.    department   of  ; 
France,  formed  from  the  circle  of  Nice,  ceded  j 
to  France  by  Italy  in  1800,  and  the  arrondisse-  j 
inent  of  Grasse,  taken  from  the  department  of  i 
Var;  area  1,482  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  199,037. 
It  lies    between   the   Mediterranean    and   the 
mountains  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and  is 
watered  by  the  Var  and  several  smaller  streams.  } 
The  surface  is  mountainous  and  crossed  by  nu-  i 
merous  valleys.     The  climate  is  the  finest  in  j 
France.     The  country  near  the  coast  is  well  '• 
cultivated,  and  elsewhere  there  are   valuable 
forests  and  various  mineral  productions.     The 
department  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements 
of  Nice,    Grasse,    and    Puget-Theniers.      The 
coast  is  dotted  with  places  naturally  or  his 
torically  interesting,  such  as  Nice,  the  capital, 
Cannes,  Antibes,  and  Mentone. 

ALPHA  AND  OMEGA,  the  first  and  last  letters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet.  The  book  of  Revelation 
three  times  designates  Jesus  Christ  by  the  title 
Alpha  and  Omega,  perhaps  in  imitation  of 
Isaiah  (xliv.  0),  who  represents  God  as  saying, 
"I  am  the  first,  and  I  am  the  last." 

ALPHABET  (from  the  names  of  the  first  two 
Greek  letters,  alpha  and  beta,  and  therefore 
the  equivalent  of  our  A,  B,  C),  the  scheme  of 
signs  by  which  a  language  is  written ;  as  also, 
less  properly,  the  scheme  of  articulate  sounds 
expressed  by  those  signs,  and  constituting  by 
their  combinations  the  spoken  language.  It  is 
in  the  former  sense  only  that  the  word  will  be 
understood  here ;  the  scheme  of  articulations — 
the  spoken  alphabet,  as  it  may  be  termed — will 
be  treated,  in  its  character  and  relations,  under 
the  head  of  PHONETICS.  All  alphabets  are  not 
of  the  same  kind.  The  intent  of  such  a  one  as 
the  Greek,  the  Latin,  and  our  own,  is  to  furnish  | 
a  sign  for  every  articulate  sound  of  the  spoken 
language,  whether  vowel  or  consonant;  and  its 
ideal  is  realized  when  there  are  practically  just 
as  many  written  characters  as  sounds,  and  each 
has  its  own  unvarying  value,  so  that  the  writ 
ten  language  is  an  accurate  and  unambiguous 
reflection  of  the  spoken.  This  state  of  things 
is  not  wont  to  prevail  continuously  in  any 
given  language ;  for,  in  the  history  of  a  literary 
language,  the  words  change  their  mode  of  ut 
terance,  or  their  spoken  form,  while  their  mode  [ 
of  spelling,  or  their  written  form,  remains  un 
altered,  or  is  not  correspondingly  altered;  so 
that  the  spelling  comes  to  be  "  historical "  in 


stead  of  "phonetic,"  or  to  represent  former 
instead  of  present  pronunciation.  Such  is,  to 
a  certain  extent,  the  character  of  our  English 
spelling ;  but  very  incompletely  and  irregularly, 
and  with  intermixture  of  arbitrarinesses,  and 
even  blunders,  of  every  kind ;  it  is  an  evil  that 
is  tolerated,  and  by  many  even  clung  to  and 
extolled,  because  it  is  familiar,  and  a  reform 
would  be  attended  with  great  difficulties,  and 
productive  for  a  time  of  yet  greater  inconve 
nience. — Some  alphabets  are  syllabic ;  that  is  to 
say,  they  have  a  sign  for  every  syllable,  com 
posed  of  a  vowel  or  diphthong  and  one  or  more 
consonants,  that  enters  into  the  composition  of 
the  words  of  a  language :  examples  are  the 
Cherokee  syllabary,  invented  by  Sequoyah  or 
George  Guess,  containing  85  signs;  and  the 
Japanese  irofa,  containing  47  signs.  Others, 
again,  are  consonantal ;  that  is  to  say,  the  con 
sonants  are  either  written  alone,  the  vowels 
being  unexpressed,  or  only  the  consonant  has  a 
full  sign,  and  the  vowel  is  expressed  by  a  mod 
ification  of  it,  or  a  subsidiary  sign  attached  to 
it :  examples  are  the  Hebrew  and  Sanskrit  al 
phabets,  each  having  a  large  number  of  kindred 
systems.  Then  there  are  modes  of  writing 
which  are  not  entitled  to  be  called  alphabetic  : 
as  the  Egyptian  or  hieroglyphic,  in  which  simple 
phonetic  or  alphabetic  signs  are  mingled  with 
syllabic,  ideographic,  and  pictorial ;  or  as  the 
Chinese,  in  which  there  is  an  indivisible  sign 
for  each  whole  (monosyllabic)  word,  and  even 
to  a  great  extent  for  each  different  meaning  of 
a  word,  so  that  the  written  signs  are  many 
times  more  numerous  than  the  spoken  words. 
The  origin  and  historical  and  theoretic  rela 
tions  of  these  different  modes  of  representing  to 
the  eye  the  spoken  word  will  be  explained  in 
the  article  WKITIXG. — The  English  alphabet  is 
derived  from  the  Latin,  the  Latin  from  the 
Greek,  and  the  Greek  from  the  Phoenician. 
The  origin  of  the  Greek  alphabet  is  reported 
by  the  Greeks  themselves;  and  their  report 
is  confirmed  both  by  the  forms  of  their  charac 
ters,  and  by  the  names  given  them  :  alpha,  be 
ta,  gamma,  delta,  &c.,  are  the  Hebrew  aleph  ^ 
leth,  gimel,  do.leth,  &c. — appellations  which 
have  their  correspondents  also  in  the  other 
Semitic  alphabets,  as  the  Syriac  and  Arabic. 
The  Phoenician  alphabet,  in  fact,  is  the  old  Se 
mitic  alphabet,  used  by  many  of  the  Semitic 
peoples;  itself  of  unknown  origin,  it  has  become 
the  mother  of  nearly  all  the  prevailing  modes 
of  writing  in  the  world.  It  was  a  consonantal 
scheme,  composed  of  22  signs  (see  the  table 
on  p.  351),  representing  the  following  sounds: 
'  (aleph),  5,  g,  d,  h,  w,  z,  'h,  t,  y,  I;  7,  m,  n,  s, 
]  (airi),  p,  «,  q,  r,  «v7*,  t.  Of  these,  aleph  is 
rather  a  theoretical  device,  a  figment  to  attach 
the  utterance  of  any  desired  vowel  to;  'h  is  a 
stronger  and  deeper  h  ;  £  and  8  are  different 
from  our  ordinary  t  and  s,  as  being  spoken  with 
greater  effort,  and  with  a  peculiar  articulation 
(the  fiat  of  the  tongue,  it  is  said,  pressed  against 
the  roof  of  the  mouth) ;  am  is  a  very  peculiar 
guttural  utterance,  wholly  unlike  anything  in 


ALPHABET 


349 


onr  system  of  sounds.  The  Greeks  took  from 
this  scheme,  without  important  change  of  value, 
the  signs  for  ft,  </,  d,  w,  'h,  k,  I,  m,  n,  p,  q,  r,  t ; 
others  they  altered  in  sound,  converting  t  into 
the  sign  for  aspirated  t  (th,  or  theta),  z  and  s 
into  signs  for  double  consonants,  ds  (or  zeta) 
and  to  (or  .T/)  ;  while  they  used  s  and  sh  for  a 
time  interchangeably  as  signs  for  their  single 
sibilant,  until  thj  former  finally  went  out  of 
use.  But  the  most  important  modification 
carried  out  by  tli3  Greeks  was  that  by  which 
they  obtained  signs  for  vowels  also:  alcph,  h, 
and  a  in,  as  being  useless  to  them,  they  made 
into  a,  e  (epnilon),  and  o  (omicron);  y  (yod)  was 
turned  into  i  (iota);  and  for  u  was  invented  a 
new  sign,  upsilon,  shaped  like  our  V  or  Y  (the 
two  forms  being  used  at  first  indifferently).  This 
modification  converted  the  alphabet  from  a  con 
sonantal  into  one  purely  and  completely  pho 
netic,  a  perfect  instrument  of  the  expression  of 
spoken  language.  Other  additions  were  of 
somewhat  later  date:  signs  for  the  aspirate 
labial  (ph,  or  phi)  and  guttural  (M,  or  chi)  as 
parallel  with  the  th  or  theta,  and  for  the  assib- 
ilated  labial  Q)s,  or  psi)  as  parallel  with  the  ds 
or  zeta  and  ks  or  xi,  were  invented  and  ap 
pended  at  the  end  of  the  scheme ;  a  sign  for 
long  o  (omega)  was  further  added,  and  H, 
which  had  signified  the  rough  breathing  or  as 
piration,  was  altered  in  value  to  a  long  e  (eta). 
Moreover,  the  w  or  "digamma"  went  by  de 
grees  entirely  out  of  use,  as  did  also  the  q  or 
ukoppa,"  and  the  two  were  retained  only  as 
numeral  signs.  Thus  the  constitution  of  the 
Greek  alphabet,  as  we  know  it,  is  in  all  its 
parts  accounted  for.  The  additions  and  changes 
went  on  by  degrees,  and  differently  in  different 
parts  and  colonies  of  Greece  ;  the  final  form  is 
that  given  by  the  lonians  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
adopted  throughout  the  whole  of  Greece 
about  400  B.  C.  The  Semitic  original  was 
always  written  from  right  to  left;  the 
earliest  Greek  was  written  either  way,  or 
in  different  directions  in  alternate  lines  (the 
characters  being  made  to  face  the  other  way 
when  written  from  left  to  right) ;  finally,  the 
present  method  became  established  in  universal 
use. — The  form  of  Greek  alphabet  from  which 
is  derived  the  Latin  was  not  that  one  which,  as 
above  described,  was  finally  adopted  through 
out  Greece,  but  differed  from  it  in  sundry  par 
ticulars:  the  H  still  had  its  A  value;  the  Q  was 
still  used,  and  was  retained  by.  the  Latins  for 
writing  the  fc  sound  followed  by  u  before  an 
other  vowel ;  the  character  for  w,  or  the  di 
gamma,  was  also  in  use,  and  was  applied  to 
represent  the  (as  labial,  somewhat  kindred) 
sound/,  for  which  the  Greek  had  no  sign;  and 
X  (as  generally  on  the  mainland  of  Greece  and 
in  her  western  colonies)  had  the  value  of  ks, 
not  of  eh.  The  earliest  Latin  alphabet,  then, 
was  A,  B,  C  (pronounced  as  g),  D,  E,  F,  Z,  H,  I, 
K,  L,  M,  N,  0,  P,  Q,  R,  S,  T,  V,  X,  21  letters.  A 
Z  is  found  in  the  earliest  monuments,  but  speed 
ily  went  out  of  use,  and  was  about  the  time  of 
Cicero  reintroduced  as  a  foreigner,  along  with 


Y  (originally  the  same  sign  with  V,  but  having 
now  become  fixed  in  Greek  usage  in  this  form, 
and   having   taken   a  new  value,  that   of  the 
French  u  or  German  u),  in  order  to  write  in 
Greek   words  the   peculiar   Greek  sounds   of 
those  letters.     A  very  peculiar  change  in  the 
constitution  of  the  Latin  alphabet  was  made  in 
connection   with  C,  K,  and  G.      The  K  passed 
out  of  customary  use  about  the  time  of  the 
decemvirs,  and  was  employed  only  in  a  small 
number  of  words  (with  occasional  occurrence 
in   others),    while   C,   the    equivalent    of    the 
Greek  gamma,  and  originally  having  the  same 
value,  was  employed  to  write  both  the  g  and  k 
sounds — doubtless   because   these  two  sounds 
were  in  the  popular  utterance  only  imperfectly 
distinguished   from  one   another.     And   when 
later  (about  300  B.  C.),  under  Greek  influence, 
the  careful  distinction  of  the  two  sounds  in 
writing  was  resumed,  instead  of  giving  C  its 
old  value  and  restoring  K  to  common  use,  the 
Romans  very  strangely  continued  to  the  former 
its  k  value,  and  made  from  it  by  a  slight  alter 
ation  a  new  sign,  G,  for  the  g  value.     The  final 
Latin  scheme,  after  the   addition  of  Y  and  Z, 
thus  consisted  of  23  signs.     In  it  1  and  J  were 
not  distinguished,  nor  U  and  V;  J  and  U  are 
merely  graphic  variations  of  I  and  V,  and  of 
the  same  value  with  the  latter ;   the  Romans 
did  not  regard  the  vowel  and  semivowel  values 
of  these  two  sounds — i  (that  is,  i  in  pique,  or 
"long  e,"  as  we  call  it)  and  y  on  the  one  side, 
u  (that  is,  u  in  rule,  or  the  long  sound  of  double 
o  in  fool)  and  w  on  the  other — as  being  suffi 
ciently  diverse  to  need  a  double  designation. — 
The  chief  alteration,  now,  that  the  Latin  alpha 
bet  has  undergone  in  being  adapted  to  English 
use  is  the  establishment  of  J  and  U  as  inde- 
1  pendent  letters  with  distinct  values,  by  the  side 
|  of  I  and  V ;  J  having  for  us  the  peculiar  sound 
I  (nearly  a  compound  of  d  with  zli,  or  with  the 
|  z  sound  of  azure)  into  which  the  Latin  J  or  y 
I  sound  has  been  usually  converted,  and  V  being 
|  applied    to   represent   the    sound   into  which, 
I  in  most  of  the  literary  languages  of  modern 
|  Europe  (as  in  the  later  Latin  also),  the  original 
I  w  sound  has  passed.     And  then,  as  final  exten 
sion,   we  have,  in   common  with  some  other 
European  languages,  added   a  "  double  U  "- 
|  i.  e.,  VV  or  W — to  represent  the  u  semivowel, 
|  or  w  sound :    this  character  is  of  a  date  no 
more  ancient  than  the  middle   ages.     By  all 
these   various    reductions   and    additions,  our 
i  alphabet  has  grown  from  the  original  22  signs 
i  of  the  Phoenician  to  the  present  scheme  of  26 
!  signs ;  which,  by  way  of  summary,  we  may  dis- 
!  tribute  into  eight  classes,  as  follows:  1,  letters 
i  inherited  from  the  Phoenicians,  and  still  bear- 
1  ing  nearly  their  Phoenician  value,  are  twelve, 
1  namely,  B,  D,  H,  K,  L,  M,  N,  P,  Q,  R,   S,  T;    2, 
I  letters  originally  Phoenician,  but  having  their 
value  changed   by  the  Greeks  (in  every  case 
but  one   from   consonant  to  vowel),  are  five, 
namely,  A,  E,  I,  0,  Z;  3,  additional  letters  in 
vented  by  the  Greeks  are  two,  namely,   U  (=V 
or  Y),  X ;   4,  Phoenician   letters    entering  into 


350 


ALPHABET 


the  Latin  alphabet  with  changed  value  are  two, 
namely,  C,  F ;  5,  of  Latin  invention  is  a  single 
letter,  G ;  0,  imported  from  Greek  into  Latin 
in  differentiated  form  and  with  later  Greek 
value  is  one,  Y  ;  7,  varying  graphic  forms  of  j 
Latin  letters,  raised  in  modern  times  to  inde 
pendent  value,  are  two,  J,  V;  8,  recent  addi 
tion,  made  by  doubling  an  old  sign,  is  one 
letter,  W.  If  we  had  shown,  in  the  handling  of 
the  system  of  signs  received  from  abroad,  the 
same  freedom  and  independence  as  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  we  should  have  an  alphabet  of  at 
least  32  letters,  instead  of  20 ;  for  we  require 
separate  representatives  for  the  vowel  sound 
in  cat  and  care,  for  that  in  what  and  all,  and 
for  that  in  but  and  burn;  and  for  the  sibilants 
in  shun  and  azure,  the  initial  spirants  of  thin 
and  this,  and  the  nasal  m  sing  ing  ;  while  tliQch 
sound  in  church  is  also,  though  strictly  of  com 
pound  nature,  well  entitled  to  a  separate  char 
acter:  the  C,  Q,  and  X,  on  the  other  hand, 
having  no  valuo  which  should  render  their 
retention  necessary. — The  ground  of  the  ar 
rangement  of  our  alphabet  is  in  the  main  infer 
rible  from  the  account  of  its  history  given  above, 
being,  when  once  started  from  the  Phoenician 
basis,  strictly  a  historical  one :  A  to  F  follow 
the  Phoenician  order ;  G  was  put  by  the  Ro 
mans  in  the  place  of  the  consciously  omitted  Z  ; 
H  and  I,  again,  have  their  Phoenician  posi 
tions;  J  follows  tlio  letter  of  which  it  is,  as  it 
were,  the  recently  separated  shadow ;  K  to  T, 
again,  are  in  their  Phoenician  places ;  U  comes 
next,  as  being  the  first  addition  made  by  the 
Greeks,  and  it  is  succeeded  by  V  and  W,  as  I 
by  J  ;  X  is  another  Greek  addition,  adopted 
into  the  earliest  Roman  alphabet ;  Y  and  Z  are 
the  later  additions  made  to  the  Latin  from 
the  Greek.  When,  however,  we  come  to  in 
quire  into  the  reason  for  the  Phoenician  order 
itself,  we  are  baffled,  and  unable  to  arrive 
at  any  satisfactory  results ;  the  arrangement 
seems  to  be  almost  altogether  fortuitous.  Prob 
ably  it  is  not  by  accident  that  the  three  sonant 
mutes,  l>,  g,  d,  come  together,  next  after  the 
aleph  ;  nor  that  the  three  liquids,  I,  m,  n,  are 
also  found  side  by  side  later;  but  all  attempts 
at  explanation  beyond  this  are  little  better 
than  mere  guesses,  and  involve  theories  re 
specting  the  origin  of  the  alphabet  which  reach 
far  beyond  our  actual  knowledge.  For  we  really 
are  wholly  in  the  dark  as  to  the  antecedents  of 
the  old  Semitic  mode  of  writing;  neither  tra 
dition  and  history,  nor  the  traced  relation  of  its 
characters  to  those  of  other  modes  of  writing, 
nor  their  own  shapes  and  names,  afford  ground 
for  any  thing  more  than  unrestrained  conjecture. 
The  names  of  the  characters  are  each  the  name 
of  some  sensible  and  depictable  object,  which 
has  for  its  initial  the  letter  named :  thus, 
alcph,  ox;  l)cth,  house;  gimel,  camel;  dalcth, 
door ;  and  so  on.  Considering  that  many 
Egyptian  phonetic  hieroglyphs  are  Avell  known 
to  have  gained  the  office  of  representing  cer 
tain  sounds  because  those  sounds  were  the  in 
itials  of  the  objects  depicted  (thus,  the  eagle, 


ahem,  becoming  a  sign  for  a;  the  lion,  labo, 
for  I),  the  supposition  has  seemed  a  highly 
plausible  one  that  the  Phoenician  letters  also 
were  originally  rude  pictures  of  the  objects  in 
dicated  by  their  names.  And  this  supposition 
receives  a  degree  of  confirmation  from  a  certain 
resemblance  traceable  in  a  few  cases  between 
the  letter  and  the  object :  thus,  the  sign  for 
alcph  is  not  unlike  the  front  of  an  ox's  head ; 
mem,  water,  is  like  one  of  the  common  con 
ventional  signs  of  water,  a  waving  or  indented 
surface;  and  ain,  eye  (our  O),  is  a  tolerable  eye 
in  outline.  Yet  the  evidence  of  such  a  kind  is 
too  scanty  to  be  much  relied  on,  and  it  is  quite 
as  plausible  a  theory  that  names  should  have 
been  chosen  on  acrophonic  grounds  for  a  set 
of  signs  otherwise  originated ;  and  that  a  few 
among  them  should  happen  to  be,  or  should 
have  been,  chosen  because  they  were  sug 
gestive  of  an  object  resembling  the  sign  itself. 
—The  Phoenician  alphabet,  as  completed  in 
system  and  worked  over  in  shape  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  has  become  the  most  convenient 
and  useful  of  all  the  modes  of  writing  invented 
by  men ;  and  it  has  gone  with  European  civ 
ilization  over  a  great  part  of  the  globe.  Efforts 
arc  making  to  introduce  it  among  various 
eastern  nations  in  substitution  for  their  own 
more  cumbrous  and  incomplete  alphabets ;  but 
with  little  success  hitherto,  since  national  pre 
possession  clings  with  especial  tenacity  to  an 
institution  so  inwoven  by  tradition  and  custom 
with  a  nation's  feeling  as  is  its  national  mode 
of  writing.  Efforts,  again,  have  been  made  to 
expand  this  alphabet,  by  diacritical  marks  and 
added  signs,  into  a  system  capable  of  accurately 
representing  all  the  various  sounds  (some  scores 
in  number)  which  are  made  by  human  organs 
in  the  utterance  of  language ;  the  most  con 
spicuous  of  these  efforts  is  that  of  Prof.  Lepsius 
of  Berlin  ("Standard  Alphabet,"  &c.,  2d  edi- 
j  tion,  London  and  Berlin,  1863).  Others,  yet 
again,  have  devised  alphabets  founded  on  an 
analysis  of  the  physical  processes  of  production 
of  each  sound,  and  representing  those  processes 
by  suggestive  signs,  so  as  to  make  each  letter 
by  its  shape  define  the  precise  mode  of  its  own 
utterance  :  for  example,  Dr.  Brlicke  of  Vienna 
("Proceedings  of  the  Vienna  Academy,"  vol. 
xli.,  1863),  and  Mr.  A.  M.  Bell  of  'London 
("Visible  Speech,"  &c.,  London,  1867).  Into 
an  account  of  these  attempts  we  cannot  here 
enter.  Nor  can  we  speak  in  detail  of  the 
other  alphabets  invented  and  in  use  among 
other  parts  of  the  human  race.  Respecting 
I  some  of  them,  the  articles  on  special  languages, 
I  and  that  on  WRITING,  will  give  information. — 
|  In  order  to  make  clearer  the  relations  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  to  the  Phoenician  or  ancient 
Semitic  alphabet,  as  they  have  been  described 
above,  the  following  comparative  table  is  given. 
The  first  or  left-hand  column  presents  the 
Phoenician  letters  :  their  forms  (which  vary 
more  or  less  considerably  in  records  of  differ 
ent  age  and  locality)  are  in  part  those  of  the 
I  great  Sidoniai*  monument  of  King  Eshmunezer 


ALPHEUS 


ALPS 


(probably  500  B.  C.),  in  part  those  of  the  re 
cently  discovered  Moabite  inscription  of  King 
Mesha  (earlier  than  800  B.  C.) ;  the  prefixed 
names  have  their  Hebrew  version,  and  their 
correspondence  with  the  Greek  is  apparent  at 
a  glance.  The  second  column  gives  the  forms 
of  the  letters  as  first  employed  by  the  Greeks, 
when  writing  from  right  to  left.  In  the  third 
are  seen  the  GrceK  letters  as  finally  adopted, 
being  made  to  face  in  the  other  direction  and 
somewhat  further  modified  in  form.  The  fourth 
column  is  that  of  the  Latin  letters ;  here  some 
of  the  earlier  forms  are  added  to  those  with 
which  we  are  familiar,  for  the  purpose  of  illus 
trating  the  transition  more  fully. 

§ 

•q       -£.M 


1.  aleph  .......... 

2.  both  ........... 

3.  gimcl  ......... 

4.  daleth  ......... 

5.  he  ........    '•' 

6.  vav  ........... 


8, 
9. 

K>. 
1  !. 
1-2. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 

2o. 
21. 

22. 


zaym 

cheth 

tcth 

yod 

kaph 

lamed 

mem 

nan 

samech 

ain 

pe    

tsade 

qoph 

resh 

shin 

tav . . 


11 

A 

3 
-^ 

"Z 

B 

0       0 


A 


O 

n 


K 
A 
M 


o 
n 


(p       Q 


w 


fT 


^  ALPHEUS,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Ruphia,  a 
river  of  Peloponnesus,  which  rises  in  southern 
Arcadia,  and,  flowing  through  Ells  and  the 
Olympian  plain,  discharges  itself  into  the  Ionian 
soa.  The  Alpheus,  at  a  little  distance  from  its 
source,  twice  disappears  under  ground,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  myth  of  the  god  of  the  river,  and 
the  nymph  Arethusa,  whom  Diana  essayed  to 
save  from  his  embraces  by  transforming  her  into 
a  fountain,  and  placing  her  in  the  Ortygian  isle, 
near  Sicily.  The  god  made  a  passage  for  his 


«"y 

.3 

$3 

3 

A 

A  A 

B 

B  B 

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A 

t>  D 

E 

E 

F 

F 

Z 

Z 

H 

H 

K 

UL 
/vVM 

v\N 


river  beneath  the  intervening  sea,  and  com 
mingled  its  waters  with  those  of  the  fountain 
in  Ortygia. 

ALPINE,  an  E.  county  of  California,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  Nevada;  area,  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  685.  The  western  portion  is  occupied  by 
the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  including  Carson's 
pass  and  Pyramid  peak.  It  is  rich  in  silver. 
In  1870  there  were  57,165  sheep,  producing 
281,700  Ibs.  of  wool.  The  other  productions 
were  small.  There  were  3  quartz  mills,  8  saw 
mills,  and  2  newspapers.  Capital,  Silver 
Mountain. 

ALPS,  the  highest  and  most  remarkable  chain 
of  mountains  in  Europe,  forming  the  watershed 
between  the  rivers  which  discharge  their  waters 
into  the  Mediterranean,  and  those  which  run 
to  the  Atlantic  ocean,  the  North  sea,  and  the 
Black  sea.  The  Alps  have  a  general  crescent-like 
form,  and  extend  through  fourteen  degrees  of 
longitude  and  five  of  latitude.  From  the  prin 
cipal  chains  spurs  extend  to  the  Apennines,  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Vosges,  the  Ilartz,  the  Sudetes, 
the  Carpathians,  and  the  Balkan.  The  average 
height  of  the  different  ranges  is  about  7,700  ft., 
from  which  altitude  more  than  400  peaks  rise 
in!:o  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  The  prin 
cipal  subdivisions  of  the  Alps  are  the  following : 

I.  The  Maritime  Alps,  consisting  of  two  por 
tions,  of  which  the  first,  distinguished  as  Ligu- 
rian  Alps,  extends  in  a  semicircle  from  the  S. 
W.  extremity  of  the  Alpine  chain  to  the  Col 
de  Liuzania  in  Piedmont,  and  forms  the  line 
of  separation  between  that  province  and  the 
French    department    of   Alpes-Maritimes  (the 
former  circle  of  Nice) ;  the  second,  distinguish 
ed  as  the  Upper  Maritime  Alps,  terminates  on 
the  W.  frontier  of  Piedmont  in  the  lofty  peak  of 
Monte  Viso.  The  principal  altitudes  of  the  Mari 
time  Alps  are  :  peak  to  the  W.  of  the  village  of 
Mauricio,  13,107  ft;    Monte  Viso,  12,582  ft.; 
Monte  Pclvo,  9,958  ft. ;  Col  de  Maurin,  9,784  ft. 

II.  The  CottianAlps,  extending,  in  a  triangular 
form,  from  Monte  Viso  to  Mont  Cenis,  having 
Piedmont  on  one  side,  Savoy  on  another,  and 
the  department  of  Ilautes-Alpes  in  France  on 
the  third.     They  give  rise  to  the  Durance,  the 
Po,  and  several  smaller  streams.    The  principal 
summits  are:  Mont  Olan,  13,831  ft. ;  Mont  Pel- 
voux,   13,440;     Mont    Galeon,    12,467;     Mont 
Genevre,  11,785.     III.    The  Graian  Alps,  the 
Gray  Alps  of  the  German  geographers,  extend 
ing  from  Mont  Cenis  to  the  Col  du  Bonhomme, 
between  Savoy  on  the  AV.  and  Piedmont  on  the 
E.,  giving  rise  to  several  tributaries  of  the  Po 
and  the  Rhone.      The  most  elevated  summits 
in  this  chain  are:  Mont  Iseran,  13,274  ft. ;  Ai 
guille  de  la  Sassiere,    12,346;    Rocca  Melone, 
11,569  ;  Mont  Cenis,  11,457.     IV.  The  Pennine 
Alps,  extending  from  the  Col  du  Bonhomme  to 
Monte  Rosa,  between    upper    Savoy  and  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Valais  on  one  side,  and  Pied 
mont  on  the  other.      This  chain  includes  the 
three   loftiest    mountains    in  Europe,  as  well 
as  several  other  peaks  of  considerable  eleva 
tion,  namely:  Mont  Blanc,  15,732  ft;  Mcntj 


ALPS 


Rosa,  15,150;  Mont  Cervin,  14,835;  Le  Geant, 
13,800;  Aiguille  du  Midi,  12,743;  MontVelan, 
11,003;  Pic  Blanc,  E.  of  Monte  Rosa,  11,190. 
V.  The  Lepontine  or  Helvetian  Alps,  includ 
ing  the  divergent  chain  known  as  the  Bernese 
Alps.  This  division  covers  western  Switzer 
land,  extending  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhone,  di 
viding  Lombardy  from  Switzerland,  and  one 
branch  terminating  at  Monte  Bernardino,  while 
the  other  extends  to  and  unites  with  the  Jura 
mountains  X.  of  Lake  Geneva.  This  portion 
of  the  Alps  is  more  visited  than  any  other,  and 
comprises  the  finest  mountain  scenery  in  Eu 
rope.  Its  most  elevated  peaks  are :  the  Finster- 
aarhorn,  14,106ft.;  the  Furca,  14,037;  the 
Jungfrau,  13,718;  the  Monch,  13,498;  the 
Schreckhorn,  13,386;  the  Eiger,  13,075;  the 
Bliimlis  Alp,  12,140;  Monte  Leone,  on  the 
Simplon,  11,541 ;  the  Galenstock,  the  highest 
of  the  St.  Gothard  group,  12,481  ;  the 
Moschelhorn,  in  the  Rheinwald,  10,870; 
the  Grimsel,  9,704.  VI.  The  Rhcetian  Alps, 
commencing  at  Monte  Bernardino,  extend 
ing  along  the  frontiers  of  Switzerland,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  and  terminating  at  the  N.  E. 
extremity  of  the  Tyrol.  The  principal  sum 
mits  are:  Mount  Julier,  13,855  ft. ;  the  Ortler- 
spitze,  12,852;  Monte  della  Disgrazia,  12,000; 
the  Wetterhorn,  12,176;  Monte  Gavis,  11,754; 
the  Dodi,  11,735;  and  several  other  peaks  of 
nearly  the  same  altitude.  VII.  The  Noric  Alps, 
commencing  at  Dreiherrenspitze,  wrhere  the 
preceding  division  terminates,  extend  through 
Salzburg,  northern  Carinthia,  Styria,  and  Upper 
and  Lower  Austria,  forming  the  dividing  line 
of  the  basins  of  the  Salza  and  the  Drave.  Their 
highest  peaks  are  :  the  Gross-Glockner,  on  the 
confines  of  Tyrol  and  Salzburg,  12,776  ft. ;  the 
Wisbachhorn,  in  Carinthia,  11,518;  the  Ilohen- 
wart,  in  Carinthia,  11,075;  together  with  sev 
eral  other  summits  nearly  10,000  feet  high. 
VIII.  The  Carnic  Alps,  extending,  on  the  con 
fines  of  Venetia  and  Carinthia,  from  Pellegrino 
to  Terglou,  separating  the  waters  of  the  Gail 
from  those  that  flow  into  the  gulf  of  Venice, 
and  sending  out  a  spur  to  divide  the  waters  of 
the  Save  and  the  Drave.  Its  highest  peak  is 
La  Marmoluta,  11,508  ft.  IX.  From  Terglou 
this  chain  is  prolonged  through  Gorz  and  Car- 
niola  to  Mount  Kleck  under  the  name  of  the 
Julian  or  Pannonian  Alps.  Its  loftiest  summit 
is  the  Terglou,  10,860  ft.  X.  A  southern  con 
tinuation,  called  the  Dinaric  Alps,  extends  from 
Mount  Kleck  through  Croatia,  Dalinatia,  and 
Herzegovina,  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  Bal 
kan.  The  St.  Gothard  range  is  the  culminat 
ing  point  of  all  these  chains  of  the  Alps,  and  is 
distant  in  a  direct  line  from  the  Mediterranean 
about  150  miles,  225  from  the  Adriatic,  525 
from  the  Atlantic,  500  from  the  North  sea,  and 
550  from  the  Baltic.  It  will  be  evident  from 
thjBse  distances  that  the  southern  slope  is  far 
more  rapid  and  precipitous  than  the  northern. 
— The  line  of  permanent  snow  for  the  whole 
Alps  averages  about  8,000  to  9,000  feet  of  alti 
tude.  On  the  northern  slope  it  is  usually  600 


or  700  feet  lower  than  on  the  southern.  The 
glaciers  of  the  Alps  (German,  Gletscher)  form 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  features.  From 
the  peaks,  more  than  400  in  number,  which 
rise  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  there 
descends  into  the  valleys  below  a  mass  of  par 
tially  melted  snow  and  comminuted  ice,  often 
of  very  great  extent.  Constantly  pressed  for 
ward  by  the  accumulation  of  ice  and  snow  be 
hind  it,  nothing  can  resist  its  onward  progress; 
trees,  rocks,  houses,  all  are  borne  forward  on 
its  slow-moving  surface,  till  it  reaches  the  point 
where  the  sun's  rays  are  sufficiently  fervid  to 
melt  the  mass,  when  it  forms  the  source  of 
some  mighty  river.  Often  these  glaciers  pre 
sent  a  comparatively  smooth  surface,  the  pieces 
of  ice  of  which  they  are  composed  varying  in 
size  from  a  pea  to  a  walnut,  but  not  unseldom 
they  are  rent  by  huge  fissures,  which  are 
impassable  by  travellers.  The  most  remark 
able  of  these  Alpine  reservoirs  are  the  glaciers 
of  Mont  Blanc,  which  cover  an  area  of  from 
90  to  100  square  miles.  The  Mer  de  Glace, 
the  largest  of  these,  on  the  northern  declivity 
of  the  mountain,  is  15  miles  long,  from  3  to 
6  miles  wide,  and  from  80  to  120  feet  thick. 
(See  GLACIER.)  The  whirlwinds  of  the  Alps 
are  worthy  of  notice,  not  only  from  their  ter 
rific  violence,  often  overwhelming  the  hap 
less  traveller  with  the  blinding  snow,  but 
from  their  frequently  setting  in  motion  the 
dreaded  avalanche.  So  precipitous  are  many 
of  the  slopes  of  the  Alpine  peaks,  that  the 
giving  way  of  a  slight  barrier,  a  tree  or  bowl 
der,  perhaps,  is  sufficient  to  detach  from  its 
original  position  a  vast  mass  of  snow  and  ice ; 
this,  gathering  force  from  its  fall,  brings  sud 
den  and  inevitable  destruction  on  whatever 
may  be  on  its  track,  burying  at  times  whole 
villages,  crushing  extensive  forests,  and  fill 
ing  up  the  beds  of  rivers.  In  some  parts  of 
the  Alps,  these  masses  are  so  delicately  poised 
that  the  jar  of  a  footstep,  the  ringing  of 
a  small  bell,  the  breaking  of  a  stick  even,  is 
sufficient  to  cause  their  precipitation.  The 
optical  illusions  of  the  Alps,  resulting  from  a 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  analogous  to  that 
of  the  mirage,  have  been  the  subject  of  much 
comment.  The  spectre  of  the  Brocken  is  the 
most  remarkable  of  these.  It  is  observed  on 
one  of  the  summits  of  the  Noric  Alps.  Mont 
Blanc,  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe,  was  first 
ascended  in  1786  by  Jacques  Balmat,  and  soon 
afterward  by  Dr.  Paccard  and  De  Saussure. 
Its  ascent  is  now  a  common  though  dangerous 
feat  of  adventurous  travellers. — The  geological 
structure  of  the  Alps  has  long  puzzled  geologists 
and  given  rise  to  most  various  and  ably  sup 
ported  views.  By  some,  the  whole  mass  com 
posing  Mont  Blanc  and  surrounding  mountains 
was  considered  metamorphic  and  of  compara 
tively  recent  date ;  others  regarded  the  nucleus 
as  primitive  and  of  great  antiquity,  while  the 
stratified  rocks  on  the  lower  Alps  were  referred 
to  different  ages  from  carboniferous  to  miocene. 
The  presence  of  carboniferous  plants  in  forma- 


ALPS 


tions  containing  nummulitic  limestone  was 
interpreted  by  some  to  indicate  that  the  car 
boniferous  flora  survived  longer  in  this  region 
than  elsewhere ;  while  others  explained  the 
apparent  anomaly  by  an  inversion  of  strata. 
True  granite  is  rare  in  the  vicinity  of  Mont  Blanc, 
but  occurs  in  several  localities,  of  which  Val- 
orsine  is  best  known.  Both  here  and  at  the 
Col  tie  Bahne  and  the  Aiguilles  Rouges  a  por- 
phyroid  granite  sends  veins  into  the  adjacent 
gneiss,  and  appears  to  be  true  eruptive  granite. 
Many  of  the  apparently  eruptive  granites,  how 
ever,  are  claimed  by  5l.  Alphonse  Faure,  who 
has  recently  (1807)  published  a  valuable  work 
on  Alpine  geology,  as  the  results  of  aqueous 
infiltration.  The  protogine  of  the  Alps  seems 
to  differ  from  ordinary  granite  in  composition, 
according  to  Delesse,  in  the  presence  of  one  or 
two  hundredths  of  oxide  of  iron  and  magnesia. 
The  crystalline  protogine  forms  the  centre  of 
Mont  Blanc  and  other  peaks,  and  appears  in  a 
curious  fan-like  form  extruded  through  the 
secondary  strata  by  breaks  which  £lie  de  Beau 
mont  compares  to  gigantic  buttonholes.  The 
flanks  are  formed  by  crystalline  schists.  Both 
the  protogine  and  the  schists  have  been  con 
sidered  by  all  who  have  studied  them  stratified 
rocks,  gneissic  in  structure,  passing  in  places 
into  more  schistose  varieties,  and  by  no  means 
well  separated  from  each  other  or  the  chloritic, 
talcose,  or  mica  schists  of  the  flanks.  The  un- 
crystalline  strata  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mont 
Blanc  includes  representatives  of  the  carbonif 
erous,  triassic,  Jurassic,  neocomian,  cretaceous, 
and  tertiary.  The  anthracite  system,  as  held 
by  Scipion  Gras,  was  estimated  to  have  a  thick 
ness  of  25,000  to  30,000  feet,  and  included, 
besides  dolomites  and  gypsum,  now  referred  by 
Faure  to  the  triassic,  layers  of  anthracite,  coal 
plants,  limestones  containing  belemnites  of  Ju 
rassic  age,  gneissic,  micaceous,  and  talcose 
rooks  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  local  alteration 
of  members  of  the  anthracite  system.  To  this 
miscellaneous  collection  Fillet  "added  in  1860 
nummulitic  beds.  The  many  recognized  dis 
turbances  of  the  strata  were  made  to  explain 
all  anomalies  of  grouping  to  the  satisfaction  of 
some,  but  Sismonda  and  £lie  de  Beaumont,  in 
a  memoir  presented  to  the  academy  of  sciences 
at  Paris  describing  the  sections  exposed  by  the 
Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  hold  that  there  is  no  evidence 
of  inversion,  dislocation,  or  repetition  in  the 
series  of  7,000  metres  of  strata.  Faure  indicates 
the  geological  history  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  of  the 
principal  portions  of  the  Alps,  as  follows :  In 
a  shallow  ocean  covering  gneiss  and  crystalline 
schists,  the  carboniferous  beds  were  deposited ; 
some  disturbance  occurred,  as  secondary  depos 
its  are  laid  down  unconformably  over  all  the  old 
er  formations,  gneissic  as  well  as  carboniferous ; 
then  came  the  nummulitic  limestones  and  their 
overlying  sandstones,  thus  embracing  a  bed 
from  the  trias  up  of  a  thickness  of  about  3,800 
feet;  then  came  the  great  upheaval  folding 
these  strata,  enclosing  numrnulites  and  coal 
plants  in  crystalline  schists ;  then  the  work  of 
VOL.  i.— 23 


denudation  removed  the  secondary  strata,  leav 
ing  a  few  evidences  of  their  former  existence, 
as  in  the  beds  more  than  K)0  feet  thick  of 
Jurassic  and  infra-Jurassic  age  which  cap  the 
Aiguilles  Rouges.  The  glacier  action  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Alps  has  been  studied  by  De  Saus- 
sure,  Agassiz,  Forbes,  Tyndall,  and  others,  and, 
from  its  extent  and  the  comparative  accessibil 
ity  of  the  Alpine  glaciers,  has  furnished  ground 
for  almost  all  the  present  knowledge  of  the 
geological  work  of  snow  and  ice  on  mountain 
slopes.  The  formation  of  the  Alps  can  no  longer 
be  considered  an  event  of  recent  geological 
periods,  at  least  so  far  as  the  crystalline  rocks  are 
concerned,  although  perhaps  the  extension  and 
exposure  of  these  ancient  crystalline  rocks  may 
be  recent  geologically  considered.  The  phe 
nomenon  of  transportation  of  vast  blocks  of 
rock  across  Alpine  valleys  will  be  treated  of  in 
the  article  DEIFT.  Many  metals  are  abundantly 
distributed  through  the  Alpine  strata,  which  will 
be  more  particularly  described  under  the  head  of 
the  different  countries  in  which  they  occur. — 
The  great  height  of  many  of  the  Alpine  sum 
mits  gives  an  extraordinary  variety  to  their 
vegetation.  At  the  base  of  the  mountains  it 
is  very  rich  and  beautiful,  commingling  the 
productions  of  a  temperate  clime  with  those 
of  a  more  elevated  region,  the  result  of  the 
seeds  brought  down  by  the  mountain  torrents. 
At  the  height  of  1,600  or  1,700  feet  we  find  a 
change ;  the  flora  is  less  beautiful,  though  still 
rich  and  abundant;  the  primula  auricula  or 
bear's  ear,  the  gentiana  acaulis,  the  aconituin 
napellus  or  wolf's  bane,  the  trollius  Europeans, 
and  the  ranunculus  aconitifolius,  are  the  most 
characteristic  plants.  At  3,300  feet  the  sol- 
danella  alpina,  the  crocus  vernus,  and  two  spe 
cies  of  rhododendrons,  adorn  the  declivities. 
At  the  height  of  6,500  feet  all  the  vegetation 
of  the  plains,  including  maize  and  the  cereal 
grains,  has  disappeared ;  the  common  fruit 
and  forest  trees  have  ceased,  and  dwarfish 
larch,  alder,  and  birch  trees  have  taken  their 
places,  soon  to  be  succeeded  by  the  stunted 
pine,  pitius  mugho,  and  cembra,  above  which, 
from  the  line  of  7,450  to  about  8,500  feet,  ex 
tends  pasturage  of  a  very  rich  and  nourishing 
character,  and  a  flora  which  from  its  peculiar 
character  is  distinguished  by  botanists  as  al 
pine.  Its  principal  genera  are  andi-osace,  sile- 
ne,  saxifraga,  ranunculus,  gentiana,  and  pyre- 
thrum.  Of  most  of  these,  several  species  are 
found.  Even  amid  the  eternal  snows,  Agassiz 
distinguished  several  varieties  of  lichen. — Ani 
mal  life  is  abundant  throughout  the  Alpine 
chains.  Herds  of  cattle  find  pasturage  on 
their  slopes ;  the  wolf,  fox,  lynx,  and  wildcat 
abound  in  their  forests;  the  bear  hibernates 
in  their  caves  ;  the  marmot  and  the  mole  bur 
row  in  their  pasture  grounds.  Several  animals 
are  peculiar  to  the  regions;  among  these  are 
the  chamois,  which  inhabits  the  upper  limit  of 
the  forest  region,  the  mountain  goat,  and  a 
species  of  white  hare.  Among  the  birds  of 
prey,  the  lammergeier,  a  gigantic  vulture,, is 


354 


ALPS 


peculiar  to  the  Alps,  and,  with  the  eagle,  com 
mits  serious  ravages  on  the  sheepfolds  of  the 
loftier  pasturage  grounds.  Nearly  one  half  of 
all  the  known  birds,  resident  or  of  passage,  in 
central  Europe,  inhabit  the  Alps.  The  number 
of  reptiles  is  not  large,  but  four  or  live  species 
of  them  are  not  found  elsewhere.  In  the  valleys 
of  the  Ilautes-Alpes,  the  Basses-Alpes,  Isere, 
Aosta,  and  the  Orisons,  as  well  as  some  other 
of  the  narrow  and  ill-ventilated  ravines  of  the 
Alps,  a  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are 
affected  with  goitre  and  cretinism. — The  Alps 
were  formerly  deemed  almost  impassable. 
Large  bodies  of  men,  hemmed  in  by  the  deep 
snows,  perished  miserably  in  attempting  to  cross 
them,  and  Hannibal's  bold  passage  over  them 
.was  considered  for  ages  a  more  daring  feat  of 
military  prowess  than  his  subsequent  victories. 
Now.  however,  nearly  every  portion  is  crossed 
by  good  roads.  The  principal  roads  crossing 
the  Alps  are  over  the  following  passes,  of 
which  the  chief  connect  Switzerland  with 
Italy:  1.  The  Mont  Cenis,  0,773"  feet  high, 
built  under  Napoleon  I.  in  ISOS-'IO,  was 
crossed  by  diligences  in  eight  hours,  from  St. 
Michel  to  Susa,  connecting  with  the  Chambery 
and  Turin  railway.  The  temporary  Fell  rail 
way,  opened  in  1868,  has  been  superseded  by 
the  celebrated  tunnel,  which  lies  about  16  m. 
from  the  Mont  Oenis  pass.  It  was  begun  in 
1857,  and  inaugurated  at  Bardonneche,  Sept. 
17,  1871.  On  the  Mont  Cenis  pass  there  is  a 
hospice  with  40  rooms.  2.  The  Little  St.  Ber 
nard  (hospice  7,076  feet  high),  one  of  the  old 
est  and  easiest  passages,  supposed  to  have  been 
crossed  by  Hannibal,  was  designed  by  Napo 
leon  I.  as  a  military  road  connecting  Grenoble 
with  Aosta  and  thence  with  Turin.  There 
is  a  carriage  road  from  Courmayeur  to  La 
Thuile,  and  a  new  road  was  opened  in  1863 
from  the  hospice  to  Bourg  St.  Maurice.  The 
latter  place  is  reached  from  Courmayeur  in 
about  9-|  hours.  The  boundary  line  of  France 
and  Italy  passes  along  the  crest  of  the  road. 

3.  The  Col  de  Balme   pass,  7,218  feet,  from 
Martigny  to   Chamouni,  is  celebrated   for   its 
view  of  Mont  Blanc,  though  inferior  in  variety 
to  the  Tete  Noire  pass  (23  m.),  which  leads 
over  the  same  ground  and  is  much  frequented. 

4.  The  Great   St.   Bernard,    6,770   feet,   from 
Martigny   to  Aosta,   47  in.,    connecting  with 
Turin,  and  celebrated  for  its  hospice  and  $ogs. 
This  pass  was  crossed  by  Napoleon  I.   with 
30,000  men  in  1800.     5.   The  Simplon,  6,628 
feet  high,  a  colossal   work   of  Napoleon   L, 
built  in  1800-'6,  extending  from  Brieg  to  Do- 
mo  d'Ossola,  46Jf  m.,  connecting  Geneva  with 
Milan.     The  carriage  road  formerly  began  at 
Sierre,  but  the  distance   between   that   place 
and  Brieg,  23-^  m.,  is  now  passed  by  railway. 
6.  The  new  carriage  road  over  the  Furca  pass, 
8,150  feet,  completed  in  1867,  and  connecting 
the  St.  Gothard  directly  with  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone,  has  considerably  increased  the  traffic 
across  the  Upper  Valais,  the  Bernese  Alps,  and 
the  .Simplon.     It  runs  closer  to  the  glaciers 


1  than  any  other  road  excepting  the  Stelvio. 
The  Schreckhorn,  the  Finsteraarhorn,  and  the 
range  from  Monte  Leone  to  the  AVeisshorn, 
are  seen  from  this  road.  7.  The  St.  Gothard. 
A  railroad  over  the  St.  Gothard  pass  (6,936 
feet)  is  in  course  of  construction,  Italy  contrib 
uting  45,000,000  francs,  Switzerland  20,000,- 
000,  the  North  German  Confederation  10,000,- 
000,  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden  3,000,000,  and 
the  other  German  states  the  additional  cost. 
Until  the  completion  of  this  railway,  the  road 
over  the  St.  Gothard  (built  in  1820-'80)  con 
tinues  to  be  crossed  by  the  diligence  from  Fliie- 
len  to  Bellinzona  in  about  15  hours,  connecting 
Lucerne  with  Milan.  The  passage  was  known 
to  the  Romans.  Avalanches  caused  great  loss 
of  life  in  1478,  1624,  and  1814,  the  road  being- 
unprotected  against  precipices.  Suvaroff's  suc 
cesses  over  the  French  in  1799  are  recorded 
in  an  inscription  on  the  top  of  the  mountain. 
8.  Bernardino,  6,770  feet,  built  in  1822,  ex 
tending  from  Coire  to  Bellinzona,  distance  by 
diligence  16  hours,  and  thence  connecting  with 
Milan.  A  bridge  over  the  Rhine,  below  the 
village  of  Hinterrhein,  the  Marscholhorn,  and 
the  Schwarzhorn,  are  the  principal  sights. 
The  road  was  known  to  the  Romans.  9. 
The  Spliigen,  6,495  feet,  built  in  1818-'22, 
crossed  in  about  fourteen  hours  from  Coire  to 
Chiavenna,  connecting  with  Milan.  Macdon- 
ald's  troops,  while  crossing  the  Spliigen,  Nov. 
27  to  Dec.  4,  1800,  were  almost  buried  by 
avalanches,  nearly  100  men  and  as  many 
horses  being  lost.  10.  The  Bernina,  7,672 
feet,  connecting  the  Engadine  by  Avay  of  Sa- 
maden  and  Tirano,  39  m.,  with  the  Yaltellina. 
A  footpath  of  10  hours,  up  the  Val  de  Fani  to 
the  Col  of  La  Strella,  leads  to  the  baths  of 
Bormio  (Worms).  The  old  path  over  the  Ber 
nina  is  so  dangerous  that  horsemen  prefer  the 
huge  circuit  by  Pisciadella.  11.  The  Julier 
pass,  7,558  feet,  from  Coire  to  the  Engadine. 
The  road  begins  at  Churwalden  and  ends  at 
Samaden.  That  by  the  Valbella  pass  meets 
the  Julier  road  at  Tiefenkasten,  whence  there 
are  three  passages,  through  the  Julier,  Val 
bella,  and  Albula  passes,  to  the  celebrated  val 
ley  of  the  Inn.  12.  The  Stelvio  pass,  9,100 
feet,  connecting  Milan  with  Innspruck.  It  is 
the  highest  Alpine  road  practicable  for  car 
riages.  It  was  built  in  1820-'25  from  Stelvio 
(Stilfs),  a  village  of  Tyrol,  to  Bormio,  in  the 
Yaltellina,  and  extended  in  1825-'34  to  Lecco 
on  the  lake  of  Como.  This  pass  is  remarkable 
for  glaciers,  especially  of  the  Ortles  range,  for 
the  gorge  of  Spondalunga,  and  above  all  for 
the  scenery  of  the  lake  of  Como.  The  damage 
done  to  the  road  in  the  Austro-Italian  war  of 
1859  has  been  repaired.  13.  The  principal  road 
connecting  Tyrol  with  Lombardy  is  the  railway 
over  the  Brenner,  from  Innspruck  to  Botzen, 
opened  in  August,  1867.  The  old  road,  known 
to  the  Romans  as  Mons  Brennius,  has  been  ac 
cessible  to  carriages  since  1772,  and  is  crossed 
in  four  hours.  This  pass  was  one  of  the  scenes 
of  the  Tyrolese  rebellion  of  1809.  14.  The 


ALPUJ ARRAS 


ALSACE 


Semmering  railway,  from  Gloggnitz  to  Miirz- 
zuschlag,  completing  the  connection  between 
Trieste  and  Vienna,  opened  in  July,  1854,  and 
remarkable  ibr  its  numerous  tunnels  and  colos 
sal  viaducts,  passes  over  the  Semmering  pass, 
which  is  situated  on  the  boundary  of  Lower 
Austria  and  Styria.  A  hospice  was  built  by  a 
Styrian  duke  in  the  wilderness  of  the  mountain 
in  the  14th  century.  A  carriage  road  com 
pleted  in  1728  was  superseded  in  1840  by  a 
ne\v  road.  Besides  these  there  are  many  pass 
es  of  minor  importance,  though  some  of  them 
remarkable  for  beautiful  views  and  scenery. 
— The  "Alpine  Club,"  established  in  London  in 
1858,  gave  new  impulse  to  explorations  among 
these  summits.  The  president  of  the  club,  Mr. 
J.  Ball,  has  published  "The  Alpine  Guide  "  (3 
voK,  186o-'T);  and  the  "Alpine  Journal,"  re 
cording  Alpine  phenomena  and  ascents,  has  been 
published  since  1863.  Alpine  clubs  have  since 
been  established  in  Vienna  (1862),  Turin  (1863), 
Bern  (1863),  Aosta  (1868),  and  Munich  (1869). 
The  proceedings  and  explorations  of  these  as 
sociations  are  recorded  in  various  periodical 
publications,  as  the  Giornale  delle  Alpi,  degli 
Apennini,  e  dei  Vulcani,  published  at  Turin 
since  1864;  the  JaUr'bv.ch  dcs  osterreicMschen 
Alpenvereins,  at  Vienna  since  1865;  JaJirbucJi 
dcs  schiceizer  Alpenclubs,  at  Bern  since  1864; 
'Zeitschrift  des  deutschen  Alpenvereins,  at  Mu 
nich  since^  1869 ;  Alpenfreund,  at  Gera  since 
1870;  UEcho  des  Alpes,  at  Geneva  since  1870. 
The  explorations  in  Switzerland  are  conduct 
ed  systematically  according  to  Dufour's  topo- 
graphical  map,  the  Alpine  club  of  Bern  being 
divided  into  committees  for  expeditions  to  the 
different  mountainous  regions.  The  committee 
relating  to  the  Glarus  (Todi)  district  caused  a 
panorama  of  the  Ruchen  Glarnisch  to  be  pub 
lished  by  A.  Hein  (Glarus,  1870),  with  the 
statistics  of  about  350  mountains,  peaks,  passes, 
and  lakes. — Among  the  principal  recent  works 
on  the  Alps  are  the  brothers  Schlagintweit's 
Untersuchungen  uherdic  physiTcalische  Geogra 
phic  derAlpen  (Leipsic,  1850),  and  Neue  Unter- 
mchunr/en  uber  die  phyxikaluche  GeograpMe 
und  Geoloffie  der  Alpen  (1854)  ;  Prof.  Tyndall's 
"Peaks,  Passes,  and  Glaciers"  (London,  1860- 
'62),  and  "Mountaineering  in  1861"  (1862); 
Schaubaclvs  "German Alps"  (5th ed.,  1864-'7); 
Tschudi's  Thierleben  der  Alpenwelt  (8th  ed.. 
Jena.  1868) ;  Edward  Whymper's  "  Scrambles 
on  the  Alps,  1860-^69,  including  the  First  As 
cent  of  the  Matterhorn  and  the  Attempts  which 
preceded  it"  (London,  1871);  Berlepsch's  Al 
pen  (4th  ed.,  1871);  and  "The  Switzers," 
by  William  Hepworth  Dixon  (London,  1872). 
Geological  descriptions  of  the  Alps  are  con 
tained  in  Prof.  Sedgwick's  and  Sir  Roderick 
Murcliison's  contributions  to  the  London  geo 
logical  society. 

ALPl'J ARRAS,  or  Alpuxarras  (Ar.  Al-Busha- 
rat,  Pasture  Mountains),  a  mountainous  region 
in  the  old  province  of  Granada,  Spain,  lying 
between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the.  Medi 
terranean,  and  including  part  of  the  modern 


provinces  of  Granada  and  Almeria.  After  the 
taking  of  Granada  by  Ferdinand,  the  Moors 
remaining  in  the  country  were  driven  to  this 
district,  whence,  after  long  struggles  and  des 
perate  resistance,  they  were  finally  expelled  by 
Philip  III.,  in  1610.  The  Sierra  de  Gador,  the 
highest  summit,  rises  6,550  feet  above  the  sea 
level. 

ALSACE  (Ger.  Elsass),  formerly  a  province  of 
France,  bounded  by  Lorraine,  the  Palatinate, 
Baden,  Switzerland,  and  Franche-Comte,  and 
constituting  the  departments  of  Ilaut-Rhin  and 
Bas-Rhin;  since  the  treaty  of  May  10,  1871, 
the  main  part  of  the  German  Reichsland  (im 
perial  territory)  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  It  is  now 
divided  into  the  departments  of  Lower  Alsace 
and  Upper  Alsace,  and  embraces  an  area  of 
3,175  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  1,083,886, 
exclusive  of  Belfort,  formerly  in  Haut-Rhin, 
and  some  other  portions  of  territory,  which 
have  been  restored  to  France,  and  inclusive  of 
some  minor  portions  annexed  from  Lorraine. 
The  Vosges  mountains  extend  along  its  west 
ern  side,  and  the  northeastern  offshoots  of  the 
Jura  cross  its  southern  limits ;  but  the  central 
and  eastern  part  consists  of  a  fertile  plain  lying 
along  the  western  side  of  the  Rhine,  which 
here  forms  the  boundary  between  it  and  Ba 
den.  The  111  and  its  tributaries  are  the  other 
principal  streams.  There  are  several  canals, 
of  which  the  Rhone  canal  is  the  largest.  The 
manufactures  are  important,  comprising  cloth 
of  various  kinds,  cotton  yarn,  paper,  beet-root 
sugar,  beer,  brandy,  and  oil.  The  principal 
cities  are  Strasburg,  Mtihlhausen,  and  Colmar. 
—  As  attested  by  monuments  still  extant, 
Alsace  had  a  dense  population  of  Celts  sev 
eral  years  before  the  Christian  era.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  Rauraci,  the  Tribocci,  and  the 
Neinetes  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  ; 
was  the  theatre  of  the  defeat  of  Ariovistus 
by  Julius  Ca3sar,  58  B.  C.,  and  formed  part  of 
Celtic  Gaul,  as  the  Roman  province  of  Ger- 
mania  Superior,  called  afterward  Germania 
Prima.  The  Alemanni  first  invaded  Alsace  in 
the  3d  century,  and  after  the  close  of  their  long 
struggle  with  the  Romans,  the  population,  de 
cimated  by  war,  was  rapidly  filled  up  in  the  5th 
century  by  Germanic  settlers,  who  were  called 
Ill-Sassen,  i.  e.,  dwellers  on  the  111,  the  main  Al 
satian  affluent  of  the  Rhine.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Alemanni  near  Ziilpich  in  496,  Alsace  be 
came  known  under  Frankish  rulers  as  the  duchy 
of  Alsatia.  In  the  7th  century,  under  the  Frank 
ish  duke  Adalric  (Etticho)  and  his  daughter 
Odilia,  who  became  the  patron  saint  of  Alsace, 
great  progress  was  made  in  Christianizing  the 
country.  In  the  9th  century  it  was  part  of 
Lothaire's  empire.  In  924  it  was  annexed  to 
Germany  by  Henry  the  Fowler,  but  it  was 
continually  claimed  as  a  Frankish  possession 
until  the  extinction  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty 
in  987.  It  then  remained  for  several  centuries 
in  the  undisputed  possession  of  Germany  as  an 
Alemannian  or  Swabian  duchy,  under  various 
rulers  and  subjected  to  many  vicissitudes.  The 


356 


ALSACE 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


revolt  of  the  Alsatian  peasantry,  the  most  vio-  : 
lent  outbreak  during  the  religious  conflicts  of  , 
the  16th  century,  was  quelled  May  17,  1525,  by  j 
the  bloody  victory  achieved  by  Duke  Anthony  ; 
III.  over  the  peasants.  Part  of  Alsace  was  j 
allotted  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia 
(1048).  Strasburg  was  seized  by  Louis  XIV.  j 
in  1(581,  and  the  whole  country  came  under  ! 
French  authority  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  in  | 
1697,  with  the  exception  of  Montbeliard  and  j 
Mtihlhausen,  which  were  acquired  by  France  1 


subsequently.  In  1814  Saarlouis  and  Saar- 
briick  were  ceded  to  Prussia,  and  Landau 
and  the  adjoining  localities  to  Bavaria.  The 
French  made  strenuous  efforts  to  Gallicize 
their  Alsatian  possessions,  but  German  con 
tinued  to  be  the  language  of  the  masses,  ex 
cept  in  the  large  cities,  where  the  speech  and 
modes  of  life  of  the  upper  classes  were  gene 
rally  French.  According  to  Bockh,  in  his 
work  on  the  German-speaking  nationalities  in 
Europe  (Berlin,  1870),  there  are  hardly  100,000 


out  of  the  whole  population  who  do  not  speak 
German.  In  the  Franco- German  war  the  re 
covery  of  the  old  German  possessions  of  Al 
sace  and  Lorraine  became  a  strong  national 
aspiration.  On  July  22,  1870,  the  Rhine  bridge 
at  Kehl,  opposite  Strasburg,  was  blown  up  by 
the  Germans.  Weissenburg  was  stormed  by 
them  Aug.  4,  and  the  battle  of  Worth  was  fought 
Aug.  6.  Strasburg  surrendered  Sept.  27,  1870 ; 
Schlettstadt,  Oct.  24;  Xeu  Breisach,  Nov.  10; 
and  Belfort,  Feb.  16,  1871.  Alsace  was  for- 


!  mally  ceded  to  the  German  empire  by  the  treaty 

;  of  peace  of  Frankfort,  concluded  May  10,  1871. 

W.  Menzel,  A.  Schmidt,  and  Wagner  wrote  in 

1870  on  Alsace  and  Lorraine.     Among  recent 

!  French  historians  of  Alsace  are  Boyer  (Paris, 

I  1862)  and  Baquol  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1866). 

ALSACE-LORRAINE  (Ger.  Elsass-Lothringen), 

!  a   division  of  the    German   empire,    officially 

designated  as  the  German  Reichsland  (imperial 

territory),  and  composed  of  Alsace  and  those 

portions  of  Lorraine  conquered  from  France  in 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


ALSTROMER 


357 


tlie  war  of  1870,  and  formally  ceded  to  Ger-  I 
many  by  the  treaty  of  Frankfort,  May  10,  1871. 
It  passed  by  the  terms  of  its  cession  into  the 
possession  of  the  whole  empire,  and  not  of  any  j 
one  division  of  Germany,  and  it  is  under  the 
immediate  control  of  the  imperial  government. 
The  territory  originally  occupied  by  the  Ger 
mans  in  1870,  and  formed  in  August  of  that 
year  into  a  district  under  the  temporary  gov-  i 
ernment  of  a  governor  general,  included  the  | 
French  province  of  Alsace  with  its  two  depart 
ments  Haut-Rhin  and  Bas-Rhin,  two  arrondis- 
sements  (Kaufmanns-Saarbruck  and  Salzburg)  i 
of  the  department  of  Meurthe,  and  three  arron-  j 
dissements    (Saargemtind,   Metz,   and  Dieden-  | 
hofen,  Fr.   Thionmlle)  of  the  department  of  ' 
the  Moselle.     The  canton  of  Schirmeck  and  a 
part  of  the  canton  of  Saales,  both  from  the  de-  j 
partment  of  Vosges,  were  added  in  December,  j 
The  treaty  of  peace  made  important  changes  j 
in  the  extent  of  these  districts.     The  Germans  • 
restored   to  France  the  following  portions  of 
the  conquered  territory:   1.  From  the  depart 
ment  of  Kaut-Rhin.     Arrondissement  of  Bel- 
fort:    the  cantons  Belfort,  Delle,  Giromagny,  i 
and  21  out  of  the  29  communes  composing  the 
canton  of  Fontaine.     Arrondissement  of  Alt-  : 
kirch :  three  communes  of  the  canton  of  Alt- 
kirch.     Arrondissement  of  Colmar:  four  com-  ' 
munes  of  the  canton  Masmtinster.      2.  From  j 
the  department  of  Meurthe.     Arrondissement  ; 
of  Saarburg :  eight  communes  of  the  canton  of  ; 
Saarburg,  and  nine  of  the  canton  of  Vic.     Ar-  ; 
rondissement  of  Salzburg :  three  communes  of  ' 
the  canton  of  Salzburg.     3.  From  the  depart-  ! 
ment   of  Moselle.      Arrondissement  of  Metz: 
11  communes  of  the  canton  of  Gorze.     By  an  ; 
additional  article,  ratified  in  Berlin,  Oct.  20,  j 
the  comparatively  unimportant  communes  of  j 
Raon-les-Leaux,  Raon-sur-Plaine,    and  Igney,  I 
with  a  part  of  Avricourt,  were  also  restored  to  j 
France.     By  the  treaty,  however,  there  were 
ceded  to  Germany  12  communes  of  the  cantons  ; 
of  Audun    and    Longwy,    arrondissement    of  j 
Briey,    department   of    Moselle.      The    entire  : 
Reichsland,  as  permanently  organized  by  Ger-  i 
many  after  these  complicated  changes,  is  bound-  j 
ed  by  Luxemburg,  Rhenish  Prussia,  Rhenish  | 
Bavaria,  Baden  (from  which  it  is  separated  by  i 
the  Rhine),  Switzerland,  and  the  French  de-  | 
partments  of  Haute-Saone,  Vosges,  and  what  I 
remains   of    those   of  Meurthe   and   Moselle ;  j 
.  area,  5,594  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  1,549,459.    The 
natural  features  of  the  country,  and  its  history  < 
to  1870,  are  described  in  the  articles  ALSACE  and  i 
LORRAINE. — The  government,  as  organized  by  i 
the   Germans,  centres   in  the  provincial  diet  i 
(Landtag).     The  Reichsland  is  divided  into  23  i 
circles  (Kreise),  each  having  a  Kreisdirector  at  ' 
the  head  of  its  local  government — an  officer  i 
nearly  corresponding  to  the  sub-prefect  of  a  j 
French  arrondissement.     The  old   French  di-  ! 
vision    into   communes  (Ger.  Gerneinden)  and  ! 
cantons  (Ger.  Cantone)  is  retained  with  some 
unimportant  changes.     Before  its   cession   to  | 
Germany,  the  territory  belonged  to  five  French  I 


departments,  namely,  ITaut-Rhin,  Bas-Rhin, 
Vosges,  Meurthe,  and  Moselle ;  it  is  now  divided 
into  three  Bezirke  (districts),  called  Ober-Elsass 
(generally  corresponding  to  the  former  Haut- 
Rhin),  Nieder-Elsass  (Bas-Rhin),  and  Deutsch- 
Lothringen  (German  Lorraine). — The  educa 
tional  establishments  have  been  reestablished 
on  the  plan  of  similar  German  institutions,  and 
education  has  been  made  by  law  independent 
of  all  sectarian  influence.  The  language  of  the 
common  people  is  generally  German  in  Alsace  ; 
in  Lorraine  more  French  is  spoken.  Both  lan 
guages  are  commonly  understood,  and  near  the 
former  frontier  both  are  used. 

ALSEN,  a  Baltic  island  in  the  Little  Belt,  in 
lat.  55°  X.,  Ion.  10°  E.  It  was  taken  from  the 
Danes  by  the  Prussians,  June  29,  1864,  and 
now  constitutes,  together  with  a  portion  of 
the  opposite  mainland  (joined  by  a  draw 
bridge),  the  district  of  Sonderb'urg,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-Holstein;  area, 
about  125  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1868,  34,551.  The 
island  is  fertile,  and  contains  fine  woods  and 
fresh-water  lakes,  which  abound  with  fish. 

ALSTEI),  Johann  Heinrich,  a  German  Protest 
ant  divine  and  author,  born  in  1588,  died  in 
1638.  He  was  for  some  time  professor  of  phi 
losophy  and  divinity  at  Herborn  in  Nassau, 
and  afterward  at  Carlsburg  in  Transylvania. 
Among  his  writings  are  an  Encyclopedia,  in 
two  large  folios  (Herborn,  1630),  the  most 
complete  work  of  the  kind  that  had  then  ap 
peared ;  Thesaurus  Chronologic;  and  Tri- 
umphus  Bibliorum  Sacrorum,  intended  to 
prove  that  the  principles  of  all  arts  and  sci 
ences  are  contained  in  the  Scriptures.  His 
Tractatm  de  Mille  Annis  (1627)  maintains 
that  the  millennium  was  to  commence  in  1694. 

ALSTOX,  John,  a  merchant  of  Glasgow,  and 
director  of  the  asylum  for  the  blind  in  that 
city,  died  in  1846.  In  1832  the  society  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  useful  arts  in  Scotland 
offered  a  gold  medal  for  the  best  form  of  letter 
adapted  to  relief  printing  for  the  blind.  Mr. 
Alston  and  Mr.  Taylor  of  Norwich  were  consti 
tuted  referees.  An  alphabet  in  Roman  capitals 
was,  after  some  modification  by  Mr.  Alston, 
adopted  by  the  society.  From  this  time  Mr. 
Alston  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  supply 
ing  the  blind  with  books.  The  cost  of  preparing 
these  is  very  great,  yet  Mr.  Alston,  aided  by  con 
tributions,  succeeded  in  publishing  the  Scrip 
tures  in  19  volumes,  and  23  volumes  of  miscel 
laneous  works,  besides  maps  and  cards. 

ALSTROMER.  I.  Jonas,  a  public-spirited 
Swede,  born  of  poor  parents  at  Alingsas  in 
West  Gothland,  Jan.  7,  1685,  died  June  2,1761. 
He  made  a  fortune  in  England  by  commercial 
speculations,  and  introduced  into  Sweden  im 
proved  breeds  of  sheep,  the  culture  of  potatoes 
and  of  dye  plants,  established  woollen  and  other 
manufactories  at  Alingsas,  and  contributed  to 
the  formation  of  the  Levant  and  East  India 
companies.  He  was  ennobled  and  had  a  statue 
erected  to  him  on  the  Stockholm  exchange. 
II.  Klas,  a  botanist,  son  of  the  preceding,  borr 


ALTAI 


at  Alingsas,  Aug.  0,  1730,  died  March  5,  1796.  | 
A  devoted  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  lie  collected  for  j 
him  in  his  rambles  over  Europe,  particularly 
Spain,  various  specimens  of  flowers,  the  most  j 
remarkable  of  which  was  that  of  a  Peruvian  j 
plant,  afterward  extensively  cultivated  under  j 
the  name  of  Alstromer  lilies  or  incas. 

ALTAI,  a  mountain  range  on  the  boundary  j 
between  Russia  and  China,  divided  into  various  j 
groups.     The  mountains  were  long  designated  I 
as  the  Great  and  the  Little  Altai,  and  the  name  , 
Altai  is  still  occasionally  applied  to  the  vast 
network  of  ranges,  chiefly  in  Chinese  and  part-  I 
ly  in  Russian  territory,   and  extending,   with  , 
irregular  branches,  from  Siberia  and  China  to 
the  N.   Pacific,  diverging  in  many  directions,  | 
intersected  by  numerous  lakes  and  rivers,  and 
including   the    Aldan    and    other    mountains. 
The  Altai  range  in  a  narrower  sense  extends 
from  the  vicinity  of  Tomsk,  lat.  50°  X.,  to  the 
junction  of  the  Bukhtarma  and  the  Irtish  near 
Bukhtarminsk,  lat.  50°  X.,  and  from  the  Koly- 
van  mountain  on  the  west,  Ion.  82°  E.,  to  the 
Sayan  chain  on  the  east.    The  region  embraced 
within  these  limits  includes  an  area  of  about 
40,000  sq.  m.,   comprised  in  the  Russian  gov 
ernments  of  Tomsk  and  Yeniseisk,  principally 
in  the  former.    The  Altai  system  proper,  some 
times  called  the  Ore  Altai  on  account  of  its 
mineral  wealth,  consists  of  several  ridges  ex 
tending  from  the  banks  of  the  Irtish  in  a  direc 
tion  generally  E.  N.  E.     At  their  western  ex 
tremity  they  rise  above  the  valley  of  the  Irtish 
in  hills  about  500  or  600  ft.  high,  and  within  a 
distance  of  15  or  20  m.  attain  a  height  of  3,000 
or  5,000  ft. ;  this  may  be  considered  the  aver 
age  elevation  of  the  greater  part  of  the  ranges, 
until   they   approach   Lake    Teletzkoi.      Here 
they  rise  above  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow, 
many  of  the  peaks  reaching  an  elevation  of 
10,000  ft.,  and  are  known  as  the  Altai  Bieli. 
Beyond  Lake  Teletzkoi  there  are  two  well  de 
fined  ranges,  the  principal  of  which,  called  the  I 
Tangnu  Oola,  is  within  the  Chinese  boundary,  ! 
and  is  imperfectly  known.    The  other  is  pierced 
by  the  river  Yenisei,  which  divides  it  into  the 
Sayariian  range  and  the  Ergik  Targak  Taiga. 
Eastward  of  this  point  the  mountains  stretch 
away  into  the  independent  chains  running  E. 
and  X.  E.  as  far  as  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  and 
formerly  included   in   the  general  appellation 
of  the  Altai  system.     Geologically  the  moun-  I 
tains  have  been  described  as  a  rocky  promon-  j 
tory  jutting  out  from  the  mainland  of  primitive  t 
rocks  which  forms  the  table  land  of  Chinese  j 
Tartary  on  the  S.  into  the  ocean  of  diluvial  de 
posits  which  forms  the  great  Siberian  plain. 
The  geological  formations,  however,  have  not  i 
been   carefully   studied.     Stratified   rocks  not 
yet  classified  form  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Altai  range.     Clay   slate,  chlorite   slate,  and  j 
mic»a  slate  abound  in  the  upper  districts ;  and  j 
through    these    granite,    gneiss,    syenite,    por-  j 
phyry,  and  greenstone  have  forced  their  way. 
Limestone,  carboniferous  limestone,  and  sand 
stones  especially  rich  in  fossil  remains,  are  also 


found.  The  metals  are  gold,  silver,  copper, 
and  lead,  mines  of  which  at  some  unknown  re 
mote  period  were  worked  to  a  great  extent  by 
some  unknown  people.  They  were  reopened 
by  the  Russians  in  the  last  century  at  the  "W. 
end  of  the  range  ;  but  of  late  attention  has 
been  given  almost  wholly  to  the  washing  of 
detritus  brought  down  by  the  Irtish,  Obi,  Yeni 
sei,  and  other  rivers,  whose  sands  are  rich  in 
gold.  The  product  of  the  other  ores  is  not  im 
portant.  The  diminished  production  of  silver 
being  ascribed  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  mines, 
investigations  were  instituted  by  Professor  B. 
von  Cotta  at  the  instance  of  the  czar  (1858), 
and  resulted  in  the  publication  of  his  geologi 
cal  and  mineralogical  work  on  the  Altai  (Leipsic, 
1871).  The  scenery  is  grand,  especially  among 
the  stupendous  rocks  and  glaciers  in  the  heart 
of  the  mountains,  on  the  banks  of  the  Katun- 
ya.  The  two  pillars  of  the  Katunya  are  the 
highest  peaks  of  the  Altai,  rising  to  nearly 
13,000  ft.  The  short  summer  is  excessively 
hot.  The  extreme  cold  of  the  winter  is  made 
salutary  by  the  clearness  of  the  atmosphere. 
In  the  forests  are  birch,  alder,  aspen,  acacia, 
willow,  larch,  fir,  and  Siberian  stone  pine  trees. 
The  dried  leaves  of  the  saxifraga  crassifolia, 
used  as  a  substitute  for  tea,  are  gathered  in  the 
Tchernaya  mountain.  The  animals  of  the  Al 
tai  region  are  bears,  wolves,  foxes,  lynxes, 
mountain  hares,  wild  sheep  and  boars,  wild 
goats,  musimons,  and  occasionally  tigers.  Ven 
omous  serpents  are  found  in  the  valleys.  The 
best  furs  are  obtained  from  black-skinned 
sables,  as  well  as  from  martens  and  from  the 
kulonok  (mustela  Sib ir led).  A  marmot  pecu 
liar  to  the  Altai  haunts  the  snow.  There  are 
otters,  beavers,  musk  deer,  numerous  elks,  large 
stags,  and  red  deer.  The  most  remarkable 
bird  is  the  mountain  swallow  (Idrundo  alpcstris 
or  Daurictf).  Among  the  fishes  are  red  and 
other  salmon,  eel  pouts,  pike,  sterlet,  and 
sturgeons;  great  numbers  of  the  last  are  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  isinglass  and  caviare. 
There  are  excellent  horses,  fat-tailed  sheep,  and 
a  few  camels.  Game,  poultry,  and  bees  abound. 
Mosquitoes  are  numerous  in  summer,  especially 
in  the  lowlands.  Most  of  the  cereals  are  suc 
cessfully  cultivated,  and  even  melons  in  the 
W.  part. — The  inhabitants  of  the  Altai  consist 
chiefly  of  white  Kalmucks  or  Teleuts  in  the  east, 
near  Lake  Teletzkoi,  and  the  nomadic  moun 
taineer  Kalmucks  in  the  southeast.  They  are 
governed  by  native  chiefs,  the  Russian  govern 
ment  interfering  little  with  them  excepting  for 
the  collection  of  the  tribute  of  furs,  to  which 
even  some  of  the  tribes  living  beyond  Rus 
sian  jurisdiction  are  made  amenable.  Except 
ing  the  peasantry  on  the  north  and  northwest, 
chiefly  descendants  of  fugitive  Russian  serfs, 
who  belong  to  the  orthodox  church,  and  a  few 
tribes  of  Mohammedan  descent,  the  great 
bulk  of  the  Altai  population  are  pagans  wor 
shipping  in  temples.  Carsten's  "  Ethnological 
Lectures  on  the  Altai "  (St.  Petersburg,  1851) 
divides  the  Altai  nationalities  and  languages 


ALT  AM  All  A 


ALTAR 


into  Tungusian,  Mongolian,  Tartar,  Finnish, 
and  Samoyed  groups,  subdivided  into  various 
branches,  with  different  vernaculars.  Ped 
dlers  from  the  provinces  of  Moscow  and 
Vladimir  periodically  visit  the  Altai,  and 
the  great  route  of  travel  between  St.  Peters 
burg  and  Peking  crosses  the  range  near  Lake 
Baikal,  Kiakhta  being  the  Russian  frontier 
town  and  Maimatchin  the  Chinese.  The  Chinese 
Altai  territory,  which  is  little  known,  is  chiefly 
situated  east  of  the  upper  Bukhtarme  and  Lake 
Dzaizang.  The  settled  Russian  Altai  region  is 
mainly  comprised  in  the  district  of  Kolyvan 
Voskresenski,  the  Russian  designation  of  the 
mining  region  of  the  province  of  Tomsk,  west 
ern  Siberia,  and  which  includes,  besides  the  S. 
part  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  the  dis 
tricts  of  Kolyvan,  Barnaul,  Kuznetzk,  and  Biisk ; 
area,  over  13,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  350,000. 

ALTAMAHA,  a  river  of  Georgia,  about  140  m. 
long,  which  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Oconee  and  the  Ocmulgee,  in  the  S.  E.  central 
part  of  the  state.  Its  course  is  S.  E.  through 
sandy  plains  and  pine  barrens  to  the  Atlantic, 
about  12  m.  below  Darien,  and  about  60  m.  S. 
W.  of  Savannah.  For  vessels  of  30  tons  it  is 
navigable  through  its  entire  extent. 

ALTA3IIRA,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  of 
Terra  di  Bari,  28  m.  S.  W.  of  Bari ;  pop.  about 
18,000.  It  is  walled  and  beautifully  situated 
in  a  fertile  pastoral  country.  Neighboring  re 
mains  are  supposed  to  mark  the  site  of  Lu- 
patia,  a  town  of  Apulia  on  the  Appian  way. 
The  modern  town  was  settled  in  the  13th 
century  by  colonists  from  Greece,  and  many  of 
the  present  inhabitants  are  of  Albanian  origin 
and  still  wear  the  Albanian  costume.  The  em 
peror  Frederick  II.  endowed  the  town  witli  a 
magnificent  cathedral,  and  it  also  contains  a 
college,  a  hospital,  an  episcopal  palace,  and 
other  fine  buildings.  There  are  two  annual 
fairs,  and  the  principal  products  of  the  vicinity 
are  wine  and  olives. 

ALTAR  (Lat.  alt  us,  high),  a  place  or  struc 
ture,  usually  elevated,  on  which  to  perform 
certain  religious  services.  The  use  of  altars  in 
religious  worship  reaches  back  beyond  the 
historical  era.  The  earliest  account  we  have 
of  an  altar  (Gen.  viii.  20)  shows  that  it  was 
used  for  the  offering  of  sacrifices.  Later  in 
Biblical  history,  we  find  altars  sometimes  built 
apparently  as  memorials  of  some  religious 
event,  and  sometimes  with  a  further  idea  of  a 
distinct  act  of  worship,  as  where  Jacob  built 
an  altar  and  poured  a  drink  offering  thereon. 
Generally,  however,  the  idea  of  sacrifice  at 
tended  the  altar.  In  the  Jewish  system  there 
were  two  altars,  viz.,  of  incense  and  of  burnt 
offering,  besides  the  table  for  the  shew-bread. 
Among  the  surrounding  heathen  nations, 
the  same  custom  of  erecting  altars  for  pur 
poses  of  worship  may  be  traced  to  the  earli 
est  antiquity.  The  altars  of  Baal,  that  god  of 
the  oldest  pagan  cultus,  are  frequently  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 


1  altars  were   erected  to  the  various  gods,  and 
;  the  services  varied  according  to  the   character 
'  and  functions  of  the  divinities  to  which  they 
|  were  dedicated.    The  materials  used  in  thecon- 
;  struction  of  the  ancient  altars  at  first  were  prob- 
.  ably  rude  stones.     In  Egypt  they  were  highly 
;  wrought  with  sculptured  representations  of  the 
j  gods.      The    Israelites   at   their   exodus    were 
,  therefore  commanded  to  make  their  altars  of 
earth,  so  that  they  could  not  violate  the  second 
commandment.      Afterward  they  were  made 
I  of  shittim  (acacia)  wood  and   cedar,   overlaid 
I  with   precious   metals.     The  Greeks  and  Ro- 
i  mans  made  them  of  earth  and  rude  stones  at 
first,  then  of  highly  sculptured  stone.     There 
are  to  this  day  many  cairns  of  stones  in  the 
northern  part  of  Britain,  which  were  probably 
ancient  altars.      Similar  structures  are   found 
on  the  high  tops  of  the  Anti-Libanus  range,  and 
1  some  of  the  structures  found  in  Mexico  and  the 
!  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  South  America, 
may  have  been  erected  for  the  same  purpose. 
;  The  form  of  altars  has  varied  among  various 
nations  and  at  different  times,  as  also  their  ele 
vation.     The  Jews  were  forbidden  to  go  up  to 
their  altars  by  steps.     In  the  Latin  and  orien- 
i  tal  churches,  the  altar  is  an  elevated  structure, 
1  on  which  the  priest  offers  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass.     In  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  per- 
,  manent    altar  is  a  solid    structure,  the   top  of 
1  which  must  be  a  slab  of   stone.     Within  the 
',  altar  is  a  hollow  receptacle  for  the  relics  of 
martyrs  or  other  saints,  called  the  sepulchre. 
i  The   altar  is  consecrated   by   a   bishop    with 

•  chrism.     A   portable   altar  is  a  small   slab  of 

'.  stone,    usually  marble,   consecrated   and   con- 

;  taining  relics,  which  is  placed  on  temporary 

or  ordinary  wooden  and  unconsecrated  altars, 

in   such  a  position  that  the   oblation   can   be 

•  placed  on  it.     Where  there  is  sufficient  wealth 
to  permit  it,  the  most  costly  marbles  are  used 
in  the    construction  of   altars,   and   the  most 

,  sumptuous  decorations  are  employed  in  their 

!  adornment.  Altars  on  which  the  sacrament 
is  reserved  have  a  tabernacle,  made  in  the 
shape  of  a  small  temple.  In  the  East  the 
altars  have,  instead  of  a  tabernacle,  an  urn 
or  casket  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  in 

,  which  the  consecrated  hosts  are  kept.  In 
some  Lutheran  churches  the  altar  has  been  re 
tained.  Some  of  the  ancient  altars  remain  also 
in  the  English  churches,  though  they  have  been 
covered  in  some  way,  or  at  least  disused.  Gen 
erally  speaking,  altars  have  been  abolished  in 
the  Protestant  churches,  and  the  existence  of 
any  such  thing  as  an  altar  in  pure  Christian 
worship  is  denied.  In  the  church  of  England 
and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  of  the 
United  States  there  are,  and  always  have  been, 
many  who  advocate  the  use  of  an  altar  in  place 
of  a  common  table,  and  solid  altars  are  to  be 
seen  in  some  churches ;  occasionally  even  very 
beautiful  altars  of  marble,  with  emblematic  de 
vices,  rich  altar  cloths,  altar  pieces,  and  con 
spicuous  crosses.  The  liturgy,  however,  sub- 

,  stitutes  the  word  "table'1  in  place  of  " altar," 


360 


ALTDORF 


ALTENSTEIN 


which  occurs  only  in  one  or  two  occasional 
offices.  In  the  early  church  the  tombs  of  the 
martyrs,  especially  in  the  catacombs,  were  fre 
quently  used  as  altars,  whence  the  present  form 
is  evidently  derived.  The  earliest  Christian 
writers  use  the  words  men  set,  sacra,  mensa 
Domini,  dvaiaorf/fnov,  and  altare,  indiscrimi 
nately  as  convertible  terms.  In  the  small  early 
churches  the  altar  stood  on  the  floor  of  the 
sanctuary;  in  the  churches  of  the  4th  century, 
which  were  larger,  it  was  elevated  on  a  plat 
form ;  and  it  was  subsequently  elevated  still  j 
more,  so  as  to  be  reached  by  an  ascent  of  sev 
eral  steps.  Until  the  13th  century  it  stood  in 
the  middle  of  the  sanctuary,  and  the  priest 
stood  behind  it,  facing  the  people,  as  is  still  the 
case  in  the  Lateran  basilica.  Afterward  the 
altar  was  placed  against  the  wall,  or  a  screen, 
which  occasioned  the  change  in  the  posture  of 
the  priest.  This  seems  to  have  been  peculiar 
to  Rome,  however,  as  elsewhere  there  is  no 
record  of  a  change  in  this  respect. 

ALTDORF,  or  Altorf,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the 
circle  of  Middle  Franconia,  13  m.  S.  E.  of  Nu 
remberg,  on  the  Schwarzach  ;  pop.  about  3,000. 
It  contains  an  old  palace,  and  manufactories  of 
wooden  toys  and  breweries.  The  principal 
trade  is  in  hops.  It  was  an  imperial  city  be 
fore  the  13th  century,  and  again  rose  to  impor 
tance  in  the  17th,  through  its  university,  wliich 
in  1806  was  merged  in  that  of  Erlangen.  The 
university  buildings  have  since  been  occupied 
by  a  normal  school  for  Protestant  teachers. 

"  ALTDORFER,  Albreoht,  a  German  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Altdorf,  Bavaria,  in  1488, 
died  at  Ratisbon  in  1538.  lie  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  pupil  of  Albert  Diirer,  and  is  dis 
tinguished  in  Germany  for  the  romantic  charac 
ter  of  his  conceptions.  His  principal  painting, 
"The  Victory  of  Alexander  over  Darius,''  is 
in  the  gallery  of  Schleissheim,  near  Munich, 
and  his  u  Birth  of  our  Saviour"  in  the  imperial 
gallery  of  Vienna.  His  engravings  are  on  both 
copper  and  wood. 

ALTE\A,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  Prussia,  on 
the  Ruhr  and  Sieg  railroad,  in  the  district  and 
17m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Arnsberg;  pop.  in  1871,  7,122. 
It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  high  mountains.  The  town  has 
for  centuries  been  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  in 
dustry,  comprising  numerous  manufactories  of 
iron  and  steel  wares.  Near  by,  on  a  high  cliff, 
is  the  castle  of  the  old  counts  of  Altena  (later 
counts  of  the  Mark),  which  now  belongs  to  the 
order  of  St.  John. 

ALTENBIRG.  I.  Or  Saxe-AItenbimr,  a  sovereign 
duchy  of  the  German  empire,  bounded  by  Prus 
sia,  Saxony,  Weimar,  Meiningen,  Rudolstadt, 
and  Reuss-Gera,  the  last  of  which  divides  it  into 
two  parts,  the  E.  division  constituting  Alten- 
burg  proper  and  the  W.  Saal-Eisenberg;  area, 
510  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1871,  142,122.  It  is  trav 
ersed  by  spurs  of  the  Erzgebirge,  and  in  the 
west  by  ridges  of  the  Thuringian  Forest.  The 
rivers  are  the  Pleisse  and  the  Saale. 


he   duchy  contains   several  large   lakes   and 


mineral  springs,  extensive  forests  in  the  west, 
and  coal  mines  in  the  east.  It  is  among  the 
richest  in  Germany  in  agricultural  products, 
especially  in  rye  and  wheat ;  a  great  many  cattle 
are  raised,  and  the  horse  and  sheep  are  of  supe 
rior  breed.  Wild  boars  and  deer  abound.  The 
manufactures  are  leather,  woollen  cloths,  ho 
siery,  linen  goods,  wooden  wares,  and  brandy. 
The  duchy  joined  the  North  German  confed 
eration  in  1866,  where  it  had  one  vote,  which 
it  also  has  in  the  empire.  The  local  legisla 
ture  or  diet  consists  of  one  chamber  with  30 
members.  The  present  duke,  Ernest,  who 
succeeded  his  father  in  1853,  is  a  general  in  the 
Prussian  and  a  major  general  in  the  Saxon 
army.  In  former  times  the  duchy  belonged  to 
the  Osterland,  and  was  ruled  by  the  margraves 
of  Pleissen.  In  1803  it  was  divided  into  two 
principalities.  In  1826  it  assumed  its  present 
territorial  form.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
Wends  by  descent,  and  many  in  the  rural  dis 
tricts  retain  the  antique  costumes.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  preceding  duchy,  situated  on  the 
Pleisse,  24  m.  by  railway  S.  of  Leipsic ;  pop. 
in  1871,  19,966.  It  is  well  built,  and  contains 
many  churches,  a  museum  of  painting  and 
statuary,  a  gymnasium,  and  a  great  number  of 
educational  and  literary  institutions.  The  most 
celebrated  public  building  is  the  palace,  situated 
on  an  escarped  rock.  Altenburg  has  manufac 
tories  of  cigars,  gloves,  brushes,  and  haber 
dashery,  and  an  important  book  trade.  It  was 
for  some  time  an  imperial  city.  In  1430  it  was 
almost  destroyed  by  the  Hussites. 

ALTFJY-OETTING,  or  Alt-Oettinjr  (the  Aulinga 
Villa  of  the  middle  ages),  a  small  town  in  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys  of  Upper 
Bavaria,  50  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Munich,  and  2 
m.  S.  of  Neu-Oetting  on  the  Inn ;  pop.  about 
2,500.  It  is  annually  frequented,  on  account 
of  its  famed  picture  of  the  Virgin,  by  many 
thousand  pilgrims  from  Austria,  Bavaria,  and 
Swabia.  The  Jesuits  had  a  college  here, 
which  was  suppressed  in  1773.  In  its  place  the 
Redemptorists  founded  a  college  in  1841,  which 
is  the  principal  house  of  the  order  in  Germany. 
Alten-Oetting  was  in  the  9th  century  long  the 
residence  of  Carloman,  the  eldest  son  of  Louis 
the  German.  Several  German  emperors, 
among  whom  are  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV., 
held  their  court  here.  Tilly  is  here  buried  with 
other  members  of  his  family,  and  the  chapel 
which  contains  his  tomb  bears  his  name.  Since 
Maximilian  I.  many  princes  and  princesses  of 
the  Bavarian  house  have  been  entombed  here. 

ALTEXSTEIX,  a  mountain  castle  in  Saxe- 
Meiningen,  not  far  from  Eisenach,  on  the  S.  W. 
slope  of  the  Thuringian  Forest.  It  was  the 
residence  of  Boniface,  the  apostle  to  the  Ger 
mans,  in  the  8th  century,  and  just  behind  it  is 
the  place  where  Luther  was  secreted  by  the 
i  elector  Frederick  the  Wise  in  1521.  The  names 
of  "Luther's  beech"  and  "Luther's  spring  " 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  reformer's  re 
tirement  in  this  place.  The  tree  stood  till 
1841,  when  it  was  shattered  by  a  tempest,  and 


ALTEXSTEIX 


ALTIIEX 


361 


a  part  of  its  fragments  are  preserved  in  the  ' 
church  of  Steinbach  ;  a  small  monument  marks 
the  place  where  it  stood.     Since  1798  Alten- 
stein  has   been  the  summer  residence  of  the  • 
court,  and  has  been  surrounded   by  a  splendid 
park.     In  1709  a  grotto  was  here  discovered,  i 
which  is  among  the  most  remarkable  natural 
curiosities  of  Germany.     It  is  of  vast  propor-  ; 
tions,   and  through  its   whole  extent  flows  a 
rapid  stream  of  water  sufficiently  deep  to  bear 
barges,  and  turning  a  mill  at  the  place  where 
it  issues  from  the  earth.     The  entrance  to  the 
cavern  is  through  a  subterranean  gallery. 

ALTENSTEIN,  Karl,  baron  von  Stein  zum  Al- 
tenstein,  a  Prussian  minister  of  state,  born  in 
Anspach,  Oct.  7,  1770,  died  in  Berlin,  May  14,  ' 
1840.     He  was  called  by  Hardenberg  into  the  | 
ministry  at  Berlin  in  1799.     During  the  war 
of  1806  he  fled  with  the  court  from  Berlin  to  j 
Konigsberg,   and  after  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  be-  | 
came  the  head  of  the  department  of  finance,  j 
He  took  a  principal  part  in  the   foundation  of  j 
the  university  of  Berlin  in  1809.     In  1815  he  | 
was   sent   with    "Wilhelm   von    Humboldt    to 
Paris,  to  present  the  claims  of  Prussia  for  the  i 
restoration  of  the  treasures  of  art  and  litera-  ! 
ture  carried  from  the  country  by  the  French 
armies ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  made  a  ', 
member  of  the  commission  for  determining  the 
boundaries  of  the  Prussian  possessions  in  West 
phalia  and  in  the  province  of  the  Rhine.    After 
his  return  to  Berlin  he  was  made  minister  of  j 
public  worship  and  education,  and  in  this  posi-  ! 
tion  he  rendered  lasting  service  to  the  univer-  ' 
sities,   gymnasiums,   and   schools.     Under   his 
direction  the  university  of  Bonn  was  founded, 
and  reforms  were  introduced  into  the  several 
branches  of  popular   instruction.     He  was  a 
zealous  partisan  of  the  philosopher  Fichte. 

ALTERATIVES,  a   term   applied   by  modern 
writers  on  medical  science  in  a  somewhat  ob 
scure  manner.     A  certain  class  of  substances  '. 
are  denominated  "  alteratives  ''  in  manuals  of  \ 
therapeutics.     The  effects  produced  by  these  ! 
substances,     administered     in     comparatively 
small     and     frequent    doses,    are    practically 
known,  but  the  modus  operandi  is  a  mystery. 
As  the  same  substances  in  large  doses  act  as 
emetics,  purgatives,  or  poisons,  a  name  was  re 
quired  to  designate  the  peculiar  effects  of  these 
substances  administered  in  minute  doses ;  and 
the  most  appropriate  word  that  could  be  found, 
apparently,    was  the  word  '•  alterative."     As 
the  manner  of  action  of  drugs  in  health  and  ! 
disease  becomes  more  accurately  known,  the  ' 
medicines  thus  designated  will  undoubtedly  be 
removed  to  other  classes,  or  this  name  will  be 
replaced  by  something  more  rational  and  defi-  \ 
nite.     It  is  probable  that  some  alteratives  act  I 
either  by  modifying  the  character  of  the  nutri-  ! 
tive  material  carried  by  the  blood  to  the  tissues,  j 
or    by    promoting   the   destructive   metamor 
phosis  of  tissue  outside  the  blood  vessels.     In 
these   processes,    diseased   tissues,    being    the 
more  weakly  organized,  experience  the  earliest  ; 
effects,  and  in  this   way  the  good  may  be  ob-  ' 


tained  without  the  evil.  The  principal  sub 
stances  used  as  alteratives  are  iodine  and  mer 
cury,  and  their  respective  combinations  with 
potassium  and  other  substances.  Arsenical 
preparations  are  also  used  as  alteratives  in  small 
doses.  They  are  mostly  employed  in  chronic 
diseases  and  cutaneous,  scrofulous,  and  syphi 
litic  affections.  Many  other  substances  are  now 
used  as  alteratives  in  small  doses,  the  effects 
being  more  or  less  immediate  and  temporary, 
or  slow  and  lasting,  according  to  the  dose  ad 
ministered.  Any  powerful  medicine  given  in 
frequent  small  doses  may  be  called  ah  alter 
ative,  therefore,  as  it  acts  continuously,  gently, 
slowly,  and,  when  well  selected,  often  most 
efficiently.  Each  medicinal  substance  acts  in 
proportion  to  the  frequency  and  potency  of 
the  dose  administered,  when  given  alone,  or 
with  a  neutral  menstruum,  such  as  mucilage  or 
water.  Ten  grains  of  ipecacuanha,  taken  alone 
or  in  water,  act  as  an  emetic ;  but  combined 
with  a  strong  dose  of  opium  (two  grains  of 
good  quality,  or  three  of  an  inferior  kind),  the 
ipecacuanha  will  not  produce  an  obvious  effect 
upon  the  stomach,  but  be  absorbed  into  the 
blood  and  cause  a  profuse  flow  of  perspiration, 
if  the  patient  be  kept  warm  in  bed.  Arsenic 
is  a  violent  poison  in  large  doses ;  in  minute 
doses,  frequently  repeated,  it  is  a  cure  for  ague 
and  fever.  Many  of  the  most  active  and 
poisonous  preparations  of  mercury  are  highly 
beneficial  in  small  doses,  although  dangerous 
in  large  ones. 

ALTERNATE  GENERATION.     See  JELLY  FISH. 

ALTHEA  (Gr.  a/titiv,  to  cure),  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  mahacece. 
They  have  a  double  calyx,  the  outer  whorl  with 
from  6  to  9  sepals,  and  the  inner  with  5.  A. 
officin alls  is  the  marsh  mallow,  the  knowledge 
of  which  in  medical  botany  is  of  great  antiqui 
ty.  The  mucilaginous  roots  and  leaves  of  this 
plant  are  used  in  all  cases  in  which  emollient 
or  demulcent  substances  are  required.  It  is  a 
perennial  plant,  with  a  white,  fleshy  root,  12  or 
15  inches  long.  The  stems  are  2  or  3  feet 
high,  and  covered  all  over  with  a  soft  down. 
The  leaves  are  also  covered  with  down, 
which  gives  the  whole  plant  a  hoary  aspect. 
The  leaves  are  soft  and  stalked,  the  flowers 
of  a  pale  rose  color,  appearing  in  very  short 
clusters  from  the  axil  of  the  leaves.  The 
corolla  is  like  that  of  the  common  mallow. 
The  demulcent  lozenges  sold  under  the  name 
of  pate  degmmauve  are  made  of  A.  officinalis ; 
they  are  made  in  large  quantities  in  the  south 
of  France,  particularly  at  Marseilles.  The 
hollyhock,  A.  rowa,  grows  wild  in  China.  (See 
HOLLYHOCK.) — Althaea  is  a  common  name  of 
the  ornamental  shrub  hibiscus  Syriacm,  also 
called  rose  of  Sharon.  (See  HIBISCUS.) 

ALTHE.V,  Ehan,  a  Persian  who  introduced 
madder  into  France,  born  in  1711,  died  in  1774. 
He  was  sold  to  an  Anatolian  planter,  who  for 
14  years  kept  him  working  on  cotton  and  mad 
der.  On  effecting  his  escape  from  slavery,  he 
found  his  way  from  Smyrna  to  Marseilles  and 


362 


ALTIIORP 


ALTON 


Avignon,  where  the  soil  seemed  to  him  favor 
able  to  the  growth  of  madder.  lie  failed  to 
interest  the  public  mind  in  favor  of  his  plan, 
but  a  French  lady,  Mine,  de  Clausenette,  con 
sented  to  plant  the  seeds  which  he  had  brought 
with  him  from  Smyrna.  The  experiment  was 
successful  and  extensively  imitated,  but  Althen, 
who  had  thus  conferred  a  great  benefit  upon 
France,  was  left  to  die  in  the  greatest  penury ; 
and  on  the  same  day  that  the  honor  of  a  mon 
ument  in  the  Calvet  museum  at  Avignon  was 
paid  to  him  by  the  French  authorities,  his  only 
daughter  died  in  despair  at  the  hospital. 

ALTIIORP,  Viscount.     See  SPEXCKK. 

ALTITIDE,  the  scientific  or  technical  word 
for  height.  The  altitude  of  a  triangle  is  the 
distance  from  either  corner  of  the  triangle  to 
the  opposite  side,  when  that  side  is  considered 
as  the  base  of  the  triangle.  The  altitude  of  a 
cone  or  a  pyramid  is  the  height  of  its  vertex 
above  the  plane  on  which  it  stands.  The  altitude 
of  a  star  is  its  height  above  the  horizon.  This  alti 
tude  is  measured  in  degrees,  a  star  in  the  zenith 
having  the  greatest  possible  altitude  of  90  de 
grees.  Apparent  altitude  is  that  which  the  star 
or  other  heavenly  body  appears  to  have,  from 
which  the  true  altitude  is  obtained  by  mak 
ing  allowance  for  the  various  errors  arising 
from  the  refraction  of  the  air,  the  height  of 
the  observer,  the  distance  of  the  body  from  the 
earth,  etc. 

ALTKIR€H,  a  town  of  the  new  German  de 
partment  of  Upper  Alsace,  on  the  111,  16  m.  E. 
of  Belfort,  France,  and  70  m.  S.  of  Strasburg ; 
pop.  about  3,200.  It  is  a  manufacturing  town 
of  some  importance,  and  contains  a  fine  modern 
church  and  a  ruined  castle,  which  in  former 
times  was  occupied  by  the  Austrian  archdukes 
in  their  visits  to  Alsace.  It  was  founded  in  the 
12th  century,  and  belonged  to  the  counts  of 
Pfirt  (Ferrette).  The  German  authorities  have 
selected  Altkirch  as  the  town  to  be  fortified  as 
a  counter-fortress  to  Belfort. 

ALTMHIL,  a  river  of  Bavaria,  150  m.  long, 
rising  7  m.  X.  E.  of  Rothenburg  in  Middle 
Franconia,  and  emptying  into  the  Danube  at 
Kelheirn,  S.  W.  of  Ratisbon.  The  Ludwig's 
canal  connects  it  with  the  Regnitz,  an  affluent 
of  the  Main,  thus  uniting  the  North  and  Black 
seas  through  the  Rhine  and  Danube. 

ALT-OETTING.     See  ALTEX-OETTIXG. 

ALTON,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Madison 
county,  111.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  3  m.  above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri, 
about  20  m.  below  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois, 
and  25  m.  N.  of  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  pop.  in  1800, 
6,332;  in  1870,  8,865.  Its  length  along  the 
river  is  about  2f  m. ;  its  average  breadth  about 
1-^  m.  A  little  W.  of  the  centre  it  is  divided 
by  a  small  stream  called  Piasa  creek,  which 
has  its  sources  in  springs  within  and  near  the 
city  limits,  and  is  arched  over  and  used  as  a 
main  sewer.  The  valley  of  this  stream  and  the 
bottom  land  W.  of  its  mouth  along  the  Missis 
sippi  are  the  chief  seats  of  business.  Each  side 
of  this  valley  and  up  and  down  the  river  from  it 


i  the  ground  rises  rapidly  and  in  some  parts  ab- 
i  ruptly  into   irregular  and   broken    bluffs,   the 
highest  being  224^  feet  above  the  river.     The 
|  whole  city  is  underlaid  with  limestone  rock, 
i  which  is  full  of  fissures  and  caves,  crops  out  in 
I  many  places,  and  in  the  western  part  along  the 
river  forms  perpendicular  bluffs.     Alton  is  the 
|  centre  of  a  rich  farming  country.     Besides  the 
river   navigation,    three   railroads    connect   it 
with  all  parts  of  the   country.      The   princi- 
i  pal  manufacturing  establishments  (1872)  are  two 
i  large  fiouring  mills,    two  iron  founderies,   an 
!  extensive  woollen  mill,  glass  Avorks,  a  castor  oil 
!  mill,  a  large  tobacco  manufactory,  a  manufac- 
|  tory  of  agricultural  implements,  a  planing  mill, 
!  and  several  lumber  yards  and  steam  saw  mills. 
The  packing  business  is  carried  on,  but  less  ex 
tensively  than  formerly.       Lime  of  excellent 
quality  is  made,  and,  with  building  stone,  is  ex 
ported  largely.     There  are  two  banking  houses, 
gas  works,  and  a  steam  ferry  to  the  opposite 
shore.    There  is  a  large  Roman  Catholic  cathe 
dral,  Alton  having    been  made  a  bishopric  in 
1868.      The  other  churches'are :    one  Baptist, 
one  orthodox    Congregational,   one  Unitarian, 
two  Protestant  German,  one  Presbyterian,  one 
Cumberland  Presbyterian,  one  Methodist,  one 
Catholic,  and  one  colored  Baptist.      Alton  has 
a  daily  and  weekly  newspaper,  a  weekly  paper 
in  German,  and  a  weekly  religious  journal,  the 
"  Cumberland  Presbyterian,"  the  organ  of  that 
denomination  in  the  West.      There  are  several 
|  benevolent  societies  and  a  library  association. 
!  The    state    penitentiary,    established    here  in 
j  1827,  was  removed  several  years  since  to  Joliet. 
!  The  buildings  are  yet  standing,  and  were  used 
|  during  the  civil  war  as  a  government  prison. 
!  LTpper  Alton,  about  1^  m.  E.,  is  the  seat  of 
|  Shurtleff  college,  a  Baptist  institution.      (See 
|  SITUETLEFF  COLLEGE.)     In  1807  there  was  one 
i  small  building  where  Alton  now  stands,  used 
j  by  the  French  of  Cahokia  and  St.  Louis  as  a 
I  trading  house  with  the  Indians.      The  town 
was  laid  out  in  1817. 

ALTON,  an  Austrian  noble  family,   of  Irish 
!  descent.     I.  Rirluird,  count  d',  a  general,  born 
j  in  Ireland  in  1732,  died  in  Treves,  Feb.  19, 1790. 
I  He  entered  the  Austrian  service  very  young, 
|  rapidly   rose   to   high    rank,  and  in  1788  be 
came  Feldzeugmeister.      In  November,   1787, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Aus 
trian  Netherlands,  then  in  insurrectionary  fer- 
i  ment.     His  harsh  measures  provoked  the  first 
|  bloodshed  at  Brussels,  June  22,   1788.     After 
I  the  victory  of  the  patriots  at  Turnhout,  Oct. 
27,  1789,  he  gave  the  order  to  destroy  all  re- 
|  bellious   places ;    but   in   December,  after   the 
|  outbreak  in  Brussels,  he  retreated  to  Luxem- 
I  burg,  and  was  recalled  to  Vienna,  but  died  on 
I  the  way  thither.     II.  Edward,  count  d\  brother 
!  of  the  preceding,  also  a  general,  born  in  Ire 
land  in  1737,  died  Aug.  24,  1793.     He  distin- 
i  guished  himself  in  the  seven  years'  and  Turk 
ish    wars.      In    1792   he   was  imprisoned   for 
',  writing  in  defence  of  his  brother's  conduct,  but 
i  afterward  commanded  a  division  at  the  siege 


ALTOXA 


ALUM 


303 


of  Valenciennes  and  a  corps  at  that  of  Dun 
kirk,  where  lie  was  killed.  III.  Joiiami  Willielm 
Kdnard  d',  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  Aqui- 
leia  in  1772,  died  in  Bonn,  May  11,  1840.  lie 
was  educated  at  Vienna,  visited  Italy,  and 
lived  for  a  long  time  in  the  grand  ducal  park 
at  Tieffurt,  near  Weirnar,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  tine  arts  and  natu 
ral  history,  especially  of  the  horse.  In  1817 
and  1818,  in  company  with  his  friend  Pander, 
he  explored  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Great 
Britain,  for  scientific  purposes.  On  his  return 
he  became  professor  of  archaeology  and  fine 
arts  at  the  university  of  Bonn,  lie  left  a  fine 
collection  of  paintings  and  engravings,  part  of 
which  were  purchased  by  the  university  and 
part  by  Prince  Albert,  who  was  one  of  his 
Bonn  pupils.  D'Alton  is  the  author  of  works 
on  the  '"Natural  History  of  the  Horse1'  and 
"Comparative  Osteology,''  accompanied  with  f 
many  superb  plates,  engraved  by  himself.  He  ' 
took  an  active  part  in  Dollinger's  and  Pander's  , 
investigations  on  the  development  of  chickens 
in  the  egg.  IV.  Johann  Samuel  Eduard,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  St.  Goar,  July  17,  1803,  i 
died  in  Halle,  July  25,  1854.  In  1834  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology 
at  Halle.  He  continued  the  "Comparative 
Osteology"  of  his  father,  and  published  be 
tween  1827  and  1838  two  volumes  on  the  os 
trich  and  birds  of  prey.  In  1850  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  his  manual  of  the  "  Com 
parative  Anatomy  of  Man."  In  1853  he  pub 
lished  De  Homtris,  quibus  Extremitates  Super- 
fline  suspense  siint,  and  in  1854,  in  concert 
with  Burmeister,  Der  fossile  Gavial  von  Boll 
in  Wurternberg. 

ALTONA,  the  most  important  city  of  the 
duchy  of  Ilolstein,  North  Germany,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  below  and  im 
mediately  adjoining  Hamburg,  and  for  commer 
cial  purposes  forming  with  it  a  single  town ; 
pop.  in  1871,  74,131.  It  is  well  built,  is  a  free 
port,  and  enjoys  privileges  favorable  to  its  trade 
and  prosperity.  It  was  set  up  by  Denmark  as 
a  rival  to  Hamburg,  and  passed  with  Holstein 
into  the  possession  of  Prussia  in  1867.  It  has 
six  churches,  a  gymnasium  with  a  library  of  up 
ward  of  20,000  volumes,  an  orphan  hospital, 
an  infirmary,  a  college,  an  observatory,  and  a 
mint.  It  has  an  extensive  trade,  and  very 
considerable  manufactories.  The  chief  manu 
facture  is  tobacco.  There  are  also  soap  and 
oil  works,  sugar  houses,  distilleries,  chemical 
works,  rope  walks,  tanneries,  and  divers  manu 
factories  of  cotton,  silk,  and  leather.  Its  ex 
tensive  railway  and  steamboat  connections 
add  materially  to  its  importance.  Altona  was 
burned  by  the  Swedes,  under  General  Steen- 
bock,  in  January,  1713,  with  circumstances  of 
great  barbarity. 

ALTOO\A,  a  city  of  Blair  co.,  Penn.,  244m.  by 
railroad  W.  X.  W.  of  Philadelphia,  and  115 
m.  E.  of  Pittsburgh;  pop.  in  1860,  3,595  ;  in 
1870.  10,610.  It  was  laid  out  in  1849,  and  is 
situated  at  the  head  of  Tuckahoe  valley  and  at 


•  the  foot  of  the  Alleghanies.     It  is  on  the  line  of 
the  Pennsylvania  central  railroad,  to  which  it 
owes  most  of  its  prosperity  ;  the  workshops  of 
the  company  situated  here  are  the  most  exten- 
i  sive  in  the  state.    The  city  contains  11  churches, 
;  a  high   school,  2  banks,  0  hotels,  and  3  daily 
:  newspapers.     At   Altoona  the  western-bound 
:  traveller  begins  the  ascent  of  the  Alleghanies. 
i  In  the  course  of  the  next  11  m.  some  of  the 
j  finest  views  and  the  greatest  achievements  of 
I  engineering  skill  on  the  entire  line  are  to  be 
j  seen.     Within  this  distance  the  road  reaches 
!  the  summit  by  so  steep  a  grade  that,  while  in 
j  the  ascent  double  power  is  required  to  move 
I  the  train,  the  entire  1 1  m.  of  descent  are  run 
I  without  steam,   the  speed  of  the  train  being 
j  regulated  by  the  brakes.     The  summit  of  the 
mountain  is  pierced  by  a  tunnel  3,  (5  70  feet  long. 
On  the  eastern  slope  is  the  famous  "horse-shoe 
bend,"  formed  by  a  very  short   curve   in  the 
road  around  the  brink  of  a  precipitous  descent. 
ALTORF,    or.  Altdorf,    capital   of  the  canton 
of  Uri,  Switzerland,  in  a  deep,  narrow  valley 
on   the   lleuss,    near   the   S.  E.    extremity   of 
Lake  Lucerne,   at  the  X.  E.  terminus  of  the 
St.    Gothard    road;    pop.  in    1870,   2,724.     It 
is    neatly   built,    and    has    a    Capuchin    con 
vent  and  an  old  tower  covered  with   paint 
ings  in  honor  of  William  Tell,  which  is  pop 
ularly  believed  to  occupy  the  spot  where  he 
shot   the  apple   from  his   son's   head,   though 
recent  research  has  proved  it  to  be  of  a  date 
anterior  to  the  time  in  which  that  hero  of  the 
Swiss  legends  figures. 

ALTO-RILIEVO,  a  term  designating  that  species 
of  sculpture  in  which  the  figure  stands  complete 
ly  out  from  the  ground,  being  attached  to  it 
only  in  some  places,  and  in  others  worked  en 
tirely  round  like  single  statues ;  such  are  the 
metopse  of  the  Elgin  marbles  in  the  British 
museum.  Donatellrs  alti-rilievi  at  Florence 
are  among  the  most  perfect  examples  of  this 
sort  of  art.  The  largest  work  ever  executed 
in  alto-rilievo  is  that  by  Algardi  in  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome,  representing  the  repulse  of  Attila  by 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 

ALTIRAS,  a  S.  county  of  Idaho,  bordering  on 
Montana,  and  bounded  S.  and  S.  E.  by  Snake 
river ;  pop.  in  1870,  689,  of  whom  314  were 
Chinese.  The  Salmon  river,  a  branch  of  the 
Columbia,  is  the  principal  stream.  The  X. 
part  of  tl'.e  county  is  occupied  by  the  Rocky 
mountains.  There  are  9  quartz  mills. 

ALOI,  a  name  given  to  a  remarkable  series 
of  double  salts,  of  which  potash  alum  may  be 
taken  as  the  type.  The  alums  are  more  or 
less  soluble  in  water,  crystallize  in  regular  oc- 
tahedra,  and  differ  from  the  normal  compound 
in  the  fact  that  the  alumina  and  potash  are  re 
placed  in  whole  or  in  part  by  their  isomorphs. 
We  can  replace  the  alumina  by  the  sesquioxide 
of  iron,  of  manganese,  or  of  chromium,  and  the 
potash  by  soda,  the  oxide  of  ammonium,  the 
oxides  of  ammonium  compounds,  the  oxides  of 
rubidium,  caesium,  and  thallium.  Lithia  is  the 
onlv  one  of  the  alkalies  that  does  not  form 


304 


ALUM 


an  alum.  Selenic  acid,  isomorphous  with  sul 
phuric  acid,  and  (it  is  believed)  telluric  acid, 
can  be  substituted  for  sulphuric  acid  in  the 
composition  of  alums.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  alums  actually  known  to  chemists,  toge 
ther  with  their  chemical  formulas:  1.  Ordina 
ry  potash  alum,  (SO4)3A12  +  S04K2  +  24IL>O. 

2.  Soda   alum,.  (SO4)3A12  +  SO4Na2  +  24H2O. 

3.  Ammonia  alum,  (SO4)3A12  +  SO4(NH4)2  + 
24H20.      4.  Rubidium  alum,  (SO4)3A12  +  SO4 
Rb2  +  24H20.    5.  Caesium  alum,  (SO4)3A12  + 
SO4Cs2  +  24H,O.      C.  Thallium   alum,  (SO4)3 
A12  +  SO4T12  +  24H20.     7.  Manganese  alum, 
(SO4)3Mn2+ SO4K2+24H2O.  8.  Chrome  alum, 
(SO4)3Cr2  +  SO4K2   +  2411 2O.      9.    Chrome- 
ammonium    alum,    (SO4)3Cr2  -f  SO4  (NH4)3  + 
24H,O.     10.  Iron  alum,  (S04)3Fe2  +  SO4K2  + 
24II-jO.     11.    Iron-ammonium  alum,  (S04)3Fe2 
+  SO4  (XH4)a  +  24H2O.       12.    Thallium-iron 
alum,   (SO4)3Fe2  +  S04T12  +  24H2O.      13.  Se 
lenic    alum,    (SeO4)3Ala  +  SeO4K2  +  24II20. 
To  this  list  may  be  added  alum  of  trimethy- 
lamine,  alum  of  ethylamine,  alum  of  methy- 
lamine,  and  alum  of  amylamine. — The  history 
of  alum   dates  back  to   a  remote   antiquity. 
Pliny  in  his  Historia  Naturalis  mentions  sev 
eral  kinds  of  alumen,  and  says  that  a  black 
and  a  white  occur  in  Cyprus,  the  former  being 
used  for  dyeing  dark  wool  and  the  latter  for 
light  fabrics.    As  he  afterward  says  that  (tinmen 
liquidum  is   colored  black   by  nut   galls,  lie 
either  refers  to  an  impure  alum  or  confounds 
the  substance  with  sulphate  of  iron  or  green 
vitriol.     It  is,  however,  safe   to  assume  that 
the  cTVTTTrjpia  of  the  Greeks  and  the  alumen  of 
Pliny  have   reference  to  impure  varieties  of 
what  is  now  called  alum.     It  was  manufactured 
some  centuries  since  at  Racca  in  Mesopotamia, 
whence  Leibnitz  traced  the  name  alumen  roccce, 
or  rock  alum.     In  the  13th  century  the  business 
was  established  near  Smyrna,  and  in  1248  ex 
tended  to  Italy,  where  it  was  protected  against 
foreign  importations  by  the  pope.    From  thence 
it  spread  over  Germany,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  was  undertaken  in  England  by 
Thomas  Chaloner,  and  successfully  prosecuted 
notwithstanding  the  anathemas  of  the  pope. 
At  first  only  potash  alum  was  manufactured, 
but  since  the  introduction  of  ammonia  as  a  refuse 
product  in  the  production  of  illuminating  gas 
large  quantities  of  ammonia  alum  have  been 
made.     The  more  recent  development  of  the 
potash    deposits  of   the   Stassfurt  mines  has 
again  brought  back  the  production  of  potash 
alum  to  the  first  rank,  and  its  manufacture  is 
now  conducted  on  an  immense  scale. — Potash 
alum  occurs  ready  formed  in  nature,  especially 
among  volcanic   rocks  near   Xaples,    on    the 
Rhine,  on  the  island   of  New  York,  and  in 
numerous  other  localities.    Where  the  quantity 
is  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  trouble,  the  decom 
posed  rock  is  leached  and  the  resulting  liquor 
left  to  crystallize  ;  but  only  a  very  small  pro 
portion  of  the  alum  of  commerce  is  obtained  in 
this  way.     There  are  three  classes  of  raw  ma 
terial  from  which  potash  alum  is  manufactured: 


•1.  Such  as  contain  the  constituents  of  alum 
in  the  native  state;  e.  </.,  native  alum,  alum 
I  stone,  alum  slates.  2.  Such  as  only  contain 
sulphate  of  alumina,  and  require  the  addition 
of  an  alkali ;  e.  g.,  a  majority  of  the  alum  slates, 
alum  earths,  clay,  and  pyritous  bituminous 
shales.  3.  Such  as  only  contain  the  alumina 
and  require  the  addition  of  both  the  sulphuric 
acid  and  the  alkali  ;  e.  g.,  clay,  cryolite,  baux 
ite,  and  feldspar.  By  far  the  greater  propor 
tion  of  alum  is  made  from  alum  earths  and 
shales,  although  the  employment  of  clay,  cryo 
lite,  and  feldspar  is  on  the  increase.  The  min 
eral  alum  stone  or  alunite  forms  seams  in 
trachytic  and  allied  rocks,  where  it  has  been 
formed  as  a  result  of  the  alteration  of  the  rock 
by  means  of  sulphurous  vapors.  It  is  met 
with  at  Tolfa  near  Civita  Vecchia,  at  Monti- 
oni  in  Tuscany,  in  Hungary,  and  in  other  local 
ities.  The  compact  varieties  of  Hungary  are 
so  hard  as  to  admit  of  being  used  for  millstones. 
It  was  first  observed  at  Tolfa  in  the  loth  cen 
tury,  by  J.  de  Castro,  a  Genoese,  who  had  been 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  alum  from  an 
alum  stone  or  "  rock  alum  "  found  near  the  Eu 
phrates.  The  composition  of  alunite  is  very 
variable.  One  specimen  from  Tolfa  was  found 
to  contain  sulphuric  acid  35'50,  alumina  39'65, 
potash  10'02,  and  water  14'83.  It  is  only 
when  the  alunite  has  been  heated  to  450°  C. 
that  the  alum  can  be  extracted  from  it  by  water. 
The  stone  is  roasted  in  heaps  on  calcining 
kilns  until  it  begins  to  give  oft*  sulphurous  acid 
fumes,  when  the  operation  is  suspended.  The 
calcined  material  is  then  placed  in  troughs  of 
masonry  and  sprinkled  with  water  until  it 
forms  a  slimy  paste  ;  this  is  leached  in  shallow 
pans  with  hot  water,  the  lye  concentrated  and 
crystallized.  Roman  alum  has  a  reddish  hue, 
and  has  long  been  preferred  on  account  of  its 
freedom  from  soluble  foreign  substances.  Much 
of  what  is  now  called  Roman  alum  is  colored 
red  by  the  addition  of  brick  dust.  Most  of  the 
alum  of  commerce  is  made  by  the  calcination  of 
aluminous  schists,  which  are  argillaceous  rocks, 
containing  considerable  quantities  of  sulphide 
of  iron.  This  is  converted  by  exposure  to  the 
air  into  ferrous  sulphate  and  free  sulphuric 
acid,  FeS2  +  OT  +  1I2O  =  FeSO4  +  IJ2S04; 
and  the  sulphuric  acid,  acting  on  the  alumina 
contained  in  the  clay,  forms  sulphate  of  alu 
minum.  These  aluminous  schists  are  found  in 
two  different  geological  positions,  viz. :  in  the 
transition  strata  (alum  slate),  in  which  position 
j  they  are  largely  impregnated  with  bitumen ; 
and"  in  the  lower  tertiary  strata,  just  above  the 
chalk  (alum  earth).  Tf>e  latter  are  much  less 
compact  than  the  former;  consequently  their 
i  oxidation  is  easier,  and  sometimes  takes  place 
!  spontaneously. — The  most  extensive  alum  man- 
i  ufactory  in  Great  Britain  (1871)  is  at  Ilurlett, 
!  near  Paisley.  The  next  in  magnitude  is  at 
Whitby,  of  whose  state  and  processes  an  in 
structive  account  was  published  by  Mr.  Winter 
in  the  25th  volume  of  "Nicholson's  Journal." 
1  The  stratum  of  aluminous  schist  is  about  29 


ALUM 


3G5 


miles  in  width,  and  is  covered  by  strata  of  allu 
vial  soil,  sandstone,  ironstone,  shell,  and  clay. 
The  alum  schUt  is  generally  found  disposed  in 
horizontal    lamime.       The    upper    part  of  the 
rock  is  the  most  abundant  in  sulphur,  so  that  a 
cubic  yard  taken  from  the  top  of  the  stratum  is 
five  times  more  valuable  than  the  same  bulk 
100  feet  belo\v.     If  a  quantity  of  the  schist  be 
laid  in  a  heap  and  moistened  with  sea  water, 
it  will  take  tire  spontaneously,  and  continue  to 
burn  till  the  whole  inflammable  matter  is  con 
sumed.     Its  color  is  bluish  gray;  sp.  gr.  2*48. 
It  imparts  a  bituminous  principle  to  alcohol. 
The  rock,  broken  into  small  pieces,  is  laid  on 
a  horizontal  bed  of  fuel,  composed  of  brush 
wood,  etc.     "When  about  four  feet  in  height  of 
the  rock  is  piled  on,  fire  is  set  to  the  bottom, 
and  fresh  rock  continually   poured  upon  the 
pile,  until  the  calcined  heap  is  raised  to  the 
height  of  90  or  100  feet.     Its  horizontal  area  is  • 
at  the  same  time  progressively  extended,  till 
it  forms  a  great  bed  nearly  200  feet  square,  hav 
ing  about  100,000  yards  of  solid  measurement. 
The  rapidity  of  the  combustion  is  allayed  by 
plastering  up  the  crevices  with  small   schist 
moistened;     but    notwithstanding    this     pre 
caution,    a   great   deal    of    sulphuric    or    sul-  ; 
phurous  acid  is  dissipated.     One  ton  of  alum  \ 
is  produced  from  130  tons  of  calcined  schist;  •, 
this  result  has  been  deduced  from  an  average  j 
of  150,000  tons.     The  calcined  mineral  is  di 
gested  with  water  in  pits  usually  containing 
about  00  cubic  yards.     The  liquid  is  drawn  off  ' 
into  cisterns,  and  afterward  pumped  up  again 
upon  fresh  calcined  "mine."     This  is  repeated 
until  the  specific  gravity  becomes  1*15.     The 
half  exhausted  schist  is  then  covered  with  wa 
ter  to  take  up  the  whole  soluble  matter.     The  , 
strong  liquor  is  drawn  oft'  into  settling  cisterns,  : 
where  the  sulphate  of  lime,  iron,  and  earth  are  j 
deposited.     At  some  works  the  liquid  is  boiled,  j 
which  aids  its  purification.     It  is  then  run  into  ; 
leaden  pans  10  feet  long,  4  feet  9  inches  wide, 
2  feet  2  inches  deep  at  one  end,  and  2  feet  8 
inches  at  the  other.     This  slope  facilitates  the  i 
emptying  of  the  pans.     Here  the  liquor  is  con-  ' 
centrated  at  the  boiling  heat.     Every  morning  ! 
the  pans  are  emptied  into  a  settling  cistern,  ! 
and  a  solution  of  chloride  of  potassium  (either 
pretty   pure   from   the   manufacturer,    or   the  ' 
crude  compound  from  the  soap  boiler)  is  added.  ' 
The  quantity  of  chloride  necessary  is  deter-  ! 
mined  by  a  previous  experiment  in  a  basin,  and  i 
is  regulated  for  the  workmen  by  the  hydrome 
ter.     By  this  addition,  the  pan  liquor,  which 
had  acquired  a  specific  gravity  of  T4  or  1*5,  is 
reduced  to  1'35.     After  being  allowed  to  settle 
for  two  hours,  it  is  run  off  into  the  coolers  to  [ 
be  crystallized.     At  a  greater  specific  gravity  ' 
than  1-35,  the  liquor,  instead  of  crystallizing, 
would  on  cooling  solidify  in  a  magma  resem 
bling  grease.     After  standing   four  days,   the  ! 
mother  waters  are  drained  off,  to  be  pumped 
into  the   pans  on  the   succeeding  day.     The 
crystals   of  alum   are   washed   in   a   tub   and 
drained.     They  are  then  put  into  a  lead  pan, 


with  as  much  water  as  will  make  a  saturated 
solution  at  the  boiling  point.  Whenever  tlf.s 
is  effected,  the  solution  is  run  off  into  casks. 
At  the  end  of  Id  or  10  days  the  casks  are  un- 
hooped  and  taken  asunder,  when  the  alum  is 
found  exteriorly  in  a  solid  cake,  but  in  the  in 
terior  cavity  in  large  pyramidal  crystals,  con 
sisting  of  octahedrons,  inserted  successively 
into  one  another.  This  last  process  is  called 
"rocking."1  Mr.  Winter  says  that  22  tons  of 
chloride  of  potassium,  or  an  equivalent  of  31 
tons  of  the  black  ashes  of  the  soap  boiler  or  73 
of  kelp,  will  produce  100  tons  of  alum.  Where 
much  iron  exists  in  the  alum  ore,  the  alkaline 
chloride,  by  its  decomposition,  gives  rise  to  an 
uncrystallizable  chloride  of  iron.  For  this  rea 
son  it  is  preferable  to  the  sulphate  of  potassium. 
— Alum  may  also  be  obtained  from  cryolite  by 
heating  the  mineral  with  three  times  its  weight 
of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  whereby  anhydrous 
neutral  sulphate  of  aluminum  and  acid  sulphate 
of  sodium  are  obtained  ;  treating  the  resulting 
mass  with  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water  to  re 
move  the  acid  sodium  salt ;  then  digesting  the 
anhydrous  sulphate  of  aluminum  with  warm 
water,  to  convert  it  into  the  hydrated  salt,  and 
adding  the  proper  quantity  of  sulphate  of  po 
tassium.  As  the  alum  from  cryolite  is  remark 
ably  free  of  iron,  it  is  highly  prized  by  many 
manufacturers. — The  discovery  of  an  aluminous 
earth  in  the  neighborhood  of  Baux,  France,  and 
hence  called  bauxite,  has  added  to  the  class  of 
materials  for  the  manufacture  of  alum.  To 
this  the  addition  both  of  sulphuric  acid  and  of 
a  salt  of  potash  is  necessary.  Bauxite  is  exten 
sively  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  sul 
phate  of  alumina  (alum  cake)  and  of  the  metal 
aluminum. — At  the  chemical  works  of  Harri 
son  Brothers,  Philadelphia,  ammonia  alum 
is  manufactured  from  a  pure  clay  mostly  ob 
tained  from  Xew  Jersey.  The  clay  is  dried 
and  then  ground  and  calcined  in  a  reverberatory 
furnace.  When  thoroughly  calcined  and  puri 
fied,  it  is  while  hot  digested  for  some  hours  in 
sulphuric  acid  contained  in  large  vats.  The 
product  is  washed  with  water  and  concentrated, 
sulphate  of  ammonia  having  been  previously 
introduced,  and  it  is  further  purified  by  re- 
dissolving,  then  boiled  by  steam,  and  finally 
transferred  to  the  crystallizing  tubs.  These 
are  about  eight  feet  high,  and  made  of  strong 
staves.  At  the  end  of  eight  or  ten  days,  the 
staves  of  the  tub  being  removed,  a  cylindri 
cal  mass  of  apparently  solid  alum  is  revealed. 
This  being  pierced  near  the  bottom,  the  mother 
water  at  the  centre  flows  off  along  the  sloping 
floor  into  leaden  subterranean  cisterns,  whence 
it  is  subsequently  pumped  and  variously  util 
ized.  Each  crystallizing  vat  yields  about  21 
barrels  of  alum  ready  for  market. — The  com 
position  of  pure  potash  alum  is  : 


Potash 

Alumina 

Sulphuric  acid . 
Water... 


.per  cent. 


10-04 


100-00 


3G6 


ALUM 


ALUMINA 


or, 


Sulphate  of  potash. . . 
Sulphate  of  alumina. 
Water. . . 


percent.  18-31 

"         36-21 

45-46 


1 00-00 

Its  specific  gravity  is  1'724.  It  is  soluble  in 
18  parts  cold  water  and  in  equal  weight  of 
boiling  water.  It  consequently  rapidly  crystal 
lizes  out  of  a  hot  saturated  solution.  Alum 
has  a  sweet  astringent  taste,  an  acid  reaction, 
and,  like  sulphuric  acid,  dissolves  many  metals, 
for  example  iron  and  zinc,  with  evolution  of 
hydrogen  gas. — Burnt  alum,  or  dried  alum,  is 
made  by  gently  heating  alum  till  the  water  is 
driven  off.  Ammonia  alum  readily  loses  all  its 
ammonia  when  heated,  and  the  sulphuric  acid 
may  be  driven  off  the  remaining  sulphate,  so 
that  the  pure  earth  alumina  will  remain. — The 
employment  of  alum  in  medicine  and  the  arts 
is  very  extensive.  It  precipitates  albuminous 
liquids  and  combines  with  gelatine.  It  causes 
dryness  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  and  checks 
the  secretions  of  the  alimentary  canal,  produc 
ing  constipation,  and  in  large  quantities  nausea, 
vomiting,  and  purging.  Its  principal  use  is  in 
dyeing.  The  goods  are  mordanted  with  it  and 
put  in  the  dye,  when  the  colors  are  precipitated 
and  fixed  in  the  texture  of  the  cloth  by  the 
alumina.  Alum  is  added  to  the  size  in  the 
manufacture  of  paper  to  prevent  decomposition, 
and  also  to  bookbinders1  paste  for  a  similar  pur 
pose.  Baths  of  alum  are  used  in  the  tanning 
of  leather,  and  it  is  applied  in  the  printing 
baths  of  photographers.  It  has  also  been  em 
ployed  in  refining  sugar  and  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  pigments  called  lakes.  The  leather  of 
Hungary  is  made  by  impregnating  strong  hides 
with  alum,  common  salt,  and  suet ;  and  in  the 
coloring  of  morocco  the  puce  tint  is  communi 
cated-  -by  logwood  with  a  little  alum.  When 
alum  is  added  to  tallow,  it  makes  it  harder. 
Printers'  cushions  and  the  blocks  used  in  the 
calico  manufactory  are  rubbed  with  burnt  alum 
to  remove  any  greasiness  which  might  prevent 
the  ink  or  color  from  adhering.  Water  can  be 
purified  by  means  of  alum ;  the  mud  tha-t  water 
holds  in  suspension  collects  on  the  addition  of 
0*001  part  of  alum  (this  is  equal  to  seven  grains 
per  gallon)  in  long  thick  streaks,  coagulates  as 
it  were,  and  is  immediately  precipitated.  This 
process,  the  principle  of  which  is  inexplicable, 
was  first  introduced  by  the  Chinese,  and  has 
been  imitated  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
The  operation  was  well  known  from  a  very 
early  period  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  ac 
cording  to  Dr.  Clark,  where  it  is  practised  with 
peat  water.  The  Parisian  laundresses  use  it, 
but  it  has  not  been  introduced  into  any  of  the 
establishments  for  the  purification  of  drinking 
water,  partly  because  alum  is  a  substance  never 
naturally  combined  in  water,  and  may  be  re 
ceived  as  a  real  impurity,  and  partly  on  ac 
count  of  public  prejudice.  In  bottling  fruits 
for  preservation,  alum  water  is  used.  A 
novel  application  of  alum  is  seen  in  the  lining 
of  some  iron  safes  with  a  mixture  of  alum  and 


!  sulphate  of  lime;  as  the  alum  contains  24 
equivalents  of  water,  when  the  safe  is  heated 
it  keeps  the  sides  cool  from  the  evaporation  of 
the  water,  the  contents  of  the  safe  remaining 

j  uninjured.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
bread  to  increase  the  whiteness  of  the  flour. 
According  to  Liebig,  this  is  very  injurious,  as 

|  he  supposes  the  soluble  phosphates  to  combine 
with  the  alumina,  forming  insoluble  salts,  and 
the  beneficial  action  of  the  phosphorus  is  lost 
to  the  system.  In  the  manufacture  of  lard 
alum  is  used  as  an  adulterant.  Dr.  Hassall 
says  that  alum  is  generally  put  into  the  vat  in 
breweries  to  give  the  beer  a  smack  of  age  ;  it 
also  imparts  a  heading  to  porter,  which  land 
lords  are  so  anxious  to  raise  to  gratify  their 
customers.  Alum  dissolved  in  water  is  used  in 
the  adulteration  of  gin;  and  it  is  added  to 
artificial  port  wine,  to  increase  the  brilliancy 
of  the  color. 

ALOILXA,  the  only  known  oxide  of  aluminum. 
It  occurs  colorless  as  corundum,  and  colored  by 
traces  of  oxide  of  chromium  and  cobalt  in  the 
ruby  and  sapphire.  It  is  found  in  a  few  places 
in  larger  quantities  in  the  form  of  emery,  which 
is  nearly  pure  alumina.  It  is  very  widely 
disseminated  in  nature  in  combination  with 
other  bases  in  the  form  of  double  silicates, 
constituting  feldspars,  micas,  and  a  large  scries 
of  important  minerals,  from  the  decomposition 
and  disintegration  of  which  clays  are  composed. 
It  forms  the  greater  portion  of  the  crust  of  the 
earth,  and,  in  the  form  of  clay,  affects  the 
fertility  of  every  soil.  It  is  not  taken  up  by 
plants,  except  in  rare  cases,  nor  is  it  found  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  There  has  recently  been 
discovered  a  mineral  in  the  vicinity  of  Baux, 
France,  to  which  is  applied  the  name  bauxite. 
It  differs  materially  from  clay  in  being  simply  a 
hydrated  oxide  of  alumina  and  iron  without 
any  silica.  It  is  entirely  infusible,  and  crucibles 
and  fire  brick  made  of  it  remain  unchanged 
when  ordinary  fire-clay  material  loses  shape 
and  partially  fuses.  It  is  extensively  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  sulphate  and  other  salts 
of  alumina,  and  of  the  metal  aluminum.  When 
perfectly  pure,  bauxite  is  composed  of  sesqui- 
oxide  of  alumina  52 '00,  sesquioxide  of  iron 
27'60,  and  water  20'40;  but  its  composition 
varies  considerably,  and  some  varieties  contain 
small  quantities  of  silica  and  lime.  It  differs 
especially  from  kaolin  in  not  being  a  silicate  but 
an  oxide  of  alumina.  Well  known  minerals 
analogous  to  it  are  gibbsite  and  diaspore. — Alu 
mina  may  be  prepared  by  adding  ammonia  to 
any  of  its  soluble  salts  (alum  for  instance),  when 
a  gelatinous  precipitate  of  the  hydrate  of  alu 
mina  is  thrown  down,  having  the  formula, 
according  to  the  present  chemical  theories,  of 
A12H6O6=A1203,  3H2O,  after  being  dried  in 
the  air.  To  obtain  it  more  dense  and  free  of 
iron,  it  is  now  customary  to  pass  carbonic  acid 
gas  through  a  dilute  and  cold  solution  of  alumi- 
nate  of  soda,  prepared  in  the  LTnited  States  from 
the  mineral  cryolite,  which  is  brought  from 
Greenland  to  be  us-xl  in  the  manufacture  of 


ALUMINUM 


307 


glass  and  soap.  The  pure  anhydrous  alumina 
is  prepared  by  the  calcination  of  the  hydrated 
oxide  obtained  as  above  described,  or  by  expos 
ing  ammonia  alum  to  a  lively  red  heat.  A 
peculiar  modification  of  alumina  is  obtained, 
according  to  Walter  ('rum.  by  long-continued 
boiling  of  acetate  of  alumina;  the  acetic  acid 
is  liberated,  and  there  remains  a  hydrated  oxide 
soluble  in  water.  A  second  modification  of 
soluble  alumina  was  discovered  by  Professor 
Graham,  which  can  be  obtained  by  the  dialytic 
decomposition  of  a  solution  of  hydrate  of  alu 
mina  in  chloride  of  aluminum :  it  has  proper 
ties  differing  from  either  of  the  other  forms. — 
Properties  of  alum  ina.  When  pure  it  is  a  white, 
liirht  powder,  devoid  of  taste  and  odor,  infusi 
ble  excepting  before  the  oxyhydrogen  blow 
pipe,  when  it  constitutes  a  viscous  fluid  that 
can  be  drawn  in  strings  like  melted  quartz,  and 
on  cooling  yields  a  crystalline  mass  sufficiently 
hard  to  scratch  and  cut  glass.  Calcined  alumi 
na  is  absolutely  insoluble  in  water,  but  if  it  has 
not  been  heated  to  redness  it  combines  with  a 
certain  portion  of  water  with  disengagement 
of  heat.  Hydrated  alumina  is  white  when 
moist,  but  becomes  translucent  by  desiccation, 
and  sometimes  yellow  if  it  has  been  precipitated 
in  the  presence  of  organic  matter.  Its  affinity 
for  coloring  matter  is  so  great  that  it  readily 
absorbs  the  organic  dyes  from  solutions,  and 
has  extensive  application  as  a  mordant,  as  a 
clarifying  agent,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
lakes,  the  hydrate  of  alumina  after  calcina 
tion  is  soluble  only  with  difficulty  in  acids,  but 
readily  soluble  when  freshly  precipitated.  The 
hydrates,  prepared  according  to  the  methods  of 
Crum  and  Graham,  are  soluble  in  water  and 
possess  characteristic  properties.  Several  of 
the  metallic  oxides,  as  soda  and  potash,  if  fused 
in  a  silver  crucible  with  alumina,  combine  with 
it  arid  form  aluininates.  The  minerals  corun 
dum,  sapphire,  and  ruby  have  been  made  arti 
ficially  by  Deville  and  Caron,  by  heating  the 
fluoride  of  aluminum  in  a  carbon  crucible, 
underneath  which  is  suspended  a  platinum 
capsule  containing  boracic  acid ;  at  an  elevated 
temperature  the  fluorine  reacts  on  the  boracic 
acid  and  yields  a  fluoride  of  boron  and  a 
crystalline  metallic  oxide.  By  adding  variable 
quantities  of  sesquioxide  of  chromium,  good 
imitations  of  the  ruby,  sapphire,  and  corundum 
can  be  obtained ;  and  it  is  said  that  Bonsdorf 
has  made  the  mineral  gibbsite  by  exposing  a 
solution  of  aluminate  of  potash  to  the  action 
of  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid.  When 
metallic  aluminum  is  heated  to  redness  in  the 
air  or  in  oxygen  gas,  it  burns  brightly  and  is 
converted  into  alumina,  53 -3  parts  of  the  metal 
taking  up  46 -69  parts  of  oxygen  to  form  the 
pure  earth.  The  compound  thus  produced  is 
inferred  to  be  sesquioxide  because  it  is  isonior- 
phous  with  the  sesquioxides  of  iron  and  chro 
mium,  and  is  capable  of  replacing  these  oxides 
in  combination  in  any  proportion. 

ALUMINUM,  or  Aluminium,    one  of  the  metals 
of  the  earths  never  found  native,  but  occurring 


in  combination  with  other  elements  in  105  dif 
ferent   species   of  minerals,  and   consequently 
i  constituting  a  large  part  of  the  solid  crust  of 
:  the   earth.     Among    the   minerals   and   rocks 
containing  this  metal  may  be  mentioned   the 
following:    ruby,  sapphire,  corundum,  emery, 
:  gibbsite,  bauxite,  turquoise,  lapis  lazuli,  topaz, 
!  cryolite,  feldspar,  clay,  and   slates.      Although 
|  so  abundant,  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  that 
the  metal  has  been  prepared  in  a  free  state, 
!  and  even  at  the  present  time  the  manufacture 
j  is  too  expensive  to  admit  of  its  common  use  in 
the   arts.      Davy,  Berzelius,  and    Oersted   at- 
i  tempted  to  decompose  the  oxide  by  means  of 
|  the  electric  current,  but  without  success.    Oer- 
:  sted,  who  discovered  the  chloride,  failed  in  his 
j  efforts  to  decompose  this  salt  by  metallic  alka 
lies.     It  was  first  prepared  in  1827  by  Wrohler, 
who  obtained  a  gray  metallic   powder  on  de- 
!  composing  the  chloride  with  potassium  under 
|  a  gentle  heat.     In  1845  Wohler  obtained  it  in 
I  the  form  of  a  metallic  button  by  passing  vapor- 
i  ized  chloride  of  aluminum  over  heated  potassi 
um.    Its  chemical  and  physical  properties  were 
|  then  determined,  and  the  subject  allowed  to  rest 
!  till  1854,  when  it  was  a  second  time  discovered 
i  by  Deviile.   He  heated  the  crude  chloride  of  alu- 
!  minum  in  an  upright  iron  cylinder,  connected 
!  by  a  pipe  with  a  smaller  horizontal  cylinder  con 
taining  iron  nails,  which  reduced  any  perchlo- 
I  ride  of  iron  present  to  the  less  volatile  proto- 
chloride,  and  also  detained   any  hydrochloric 
i  acid  or  chloride  of  sulphur  present.    The  vapor 
i  of  aluminum  chloride  passed  next  through  a 
I  long  wrought-iron   cylinder   containing   three 
dishes   holding  a  pound  of  sodium  each,  and 
I  heated    on    the   lower    side  to   dull    redness. 
The  reaction  is  sometimes  so  violent  as  to  re 
quire  a  careful  regulation  of  the  heat.    Metallic 
;  aluminum   is   formed   along   with   the   double 
chloride  of  sodium  and  aluminum.     This  mass 
;  is  then  heated  in  an  iron  vessel  or  clay  crucible 
!  until  it  is  entirely  melted  and  the  double  salt 
|  begins  to  evaporate.     When  cold  the  chloride 
of  sodium  found  on  top  is  removed,  the  buttons 
of  aluminum   are   washed  with   water,  dried, 
and   heated   to   redness,    when   they  may   be 
pressed   together.     The   loss  of  aluminum  by 
this  process  is  very  considerable.     The  method 
was  afterward  abandoned,  and  the  following 
mixture  employed :  chloride  of  aluminum  and 
sodium,    400   grammes ;     common    salt,    200 ; 
fluor  spar,  200 ;  sodium.  To  to  80.     The  double 
salt  is  previously  fused  and  heated  almost  to 
redness,  the   common   salt   fused   or   strongly 
ignited,  the  fluor  spar  powdered  and  well  dried. 
The  double  salt  and  common  salt  are  broken 
up  into  a  coarse  powder,  mixed  with  the  fluor 
spar,  and  placed  in  a  crucible  with  alternate 
layers   of    sodium,    the   whole    being   covered 
with   a   layer   of  common  salt.     It  is  heated 
gently  at  first,  then  more  strongly,  until  the 
melting  point  of  silver  is  nearly  but  not  quite 
reached.     The  mass  is  stirred  with  a  clay  pipe 
stem,  and  poured  out  on  a  dry  slab  of  lime 
stone.      The    aluminum    is   readily   separated 


368 


ALUMINUM 


from  the  slag,  find  should  yield  25  grammes 
from  75  grammes  of  sodium.  In  this  experi 
ment  the  liuor  spar  should  be  free  from  silica, 
and  the  sides  of  the  crucible  be  protected  by  a 
layer  of  alumina  prepared  from  a  paste  of  4 
parts  ignited  aluminum  and  1  part  aluminate 
of  lime.  The  process  requires  some  experience 
in  order  to  succeed.  It  is  much  easier  and 
simpler  to  employ  cryolite  instead  of  fluor  spar. 
In  1855  II.  Hose  in  Berlin,  and  Dr.  Percy  in 
England,  prepared  aluminum  from  cryolite. 
The  pulverized  mineral  was  mixed  with  half 
its  weight  of  common  salt,  and  the  mixture 
arranged  in  alternate  layers  with  sodium  (2 
parts  sodium  to  5  parts  cryolite),  in  an  earth 
en  or  iron  crucible  covered  with  a  layer  of 
pure  cryolite,  and  the  whole  covered  with 
common  salt.  The  crucible,  well  covered,  is 
heated  to  a  bright  red  heat  by  means  of  a  blast 
lamp  for  half  an  hour,  then  allowed  to  cool, 
and  the  contents  removed  with  a  chisel,  at  the 
same  time  tapping  the  crucible  with  a  hammer. 
In  1858  Gerhard  invented  and  patented  an 
improvement,  consisting  in  the  use  of  a  re- 
verberatory  furnace  with  two  hearths,  one 
above  the  other,  communicating  by  an  iron 
pipe.  In  the  lower  is  placed  the  mixture  of 
sodium  with  the  aluminum  compound,  and  in 
the  upper  a  stratum  of  common  salt,  or  of  a 
mixture  of  sodium  and  cryolite,  or  of  the  slag 
from  a  former  operation.  This  layer  when 
melted  is  made  to  run  into  the  lower  furnace 
in  quantity  sufficient  to  cover  completely  the 
mixture  contained  therein,  so  as  to  protect  it 
from  the  air. — Several  attempts  have  been 
made,  but  with  doubtful  success,  to  separate 
aluminum  from  its  compounds  by  means  of  the 
ordinary  reducing  agents,  hydrogen  and  carbon. 
Johnson  has  patented  the  following  process: 
Mix  together  sulphide  of  aluminum  and  anhy 
drous  sulphate  of  aluminum,  in  such  propor 
tions  that  the  oxygen  present  is  just  sufficient 
to  convert  all  the  sulphur  into  sulphurous 
acid  (A19  S3  +  A12  (S04)3  =  4A1  +  6SO2).  The 
mixture  is  heated  in  a  non-oxidizing  atmos 
phere  to  a  red  heat.  Corbelli  of  Florence 
mixes  the  impure  sulphate  with  2  parts 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  and  1|-  of  com 
mon  salt,  heating  the  whole  to  redness. 
Knowles  decomposes  the  chloride  by  means  of 
cyanide  of  potassium.  Bunsen  in  1 854  obtained 
aluminum  by  electrolysis  of  the  fused  chloride 
of  aluminum  and  sodium  in  a  red-hot  crucible, 
ten  elements  of  a  Bunsen  battery  being  required. 
Messrs.  Bell  Brothers  of  England  commenced 
producing  aluminum  a  few  years  since  from  the 
ammonia  alum  of  commerce,  but  afterward 
employed  a  native  hydrated  oxide  known  as  the 
mineral  bauxite.  (See  ALUMINA.)  The  baux 
ite,  having  first  been  reduced  to  fine  powder 
by  grinding  under  an  edge-stone,  is  mixed  with 
a  quantity  of  soda  slightly  more  than  is  neces 
sary  to  form  aluminate  of  soda  with  the  alumi 
na  of  the  mineral,  and  heated  in  a  reverberato- 
ry  furnace.  The  aluminate  of  soda  thus  pro 
duced  is  afterward  decomposed,  and  furnishes 


the  alumina  for  further  decomposition  by 
means  of  chlorine  and  sodium  as  above  de 
scribed.  The  electro-galvanic  deposition  of 
aluminum,  although  frequently  attempted,  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  successfully  accomplish 
ed. — Properties  of  aluminum.  Aluminum  is  a 
bluish  white  metal,  without  odor  or  taste, 
nearly  as  malleable  as  gold  and  silver;  density 
of  the  fused  metal  2 '50,  of  the  hammered  2 '67 ; 
melting  point  between  that  of  silver  and  zinc ; 
nearly  as  good  a  conductor  of  electricity  a$ 
silver ;  does  not  oxidize  in  the  air,  even  at  a 
strong  red  heat ;  does  not  decompose  water  ex 
cepting  at  a  white  heat ;  is  not  blackened  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen.  It  is  not  attacked  by 
nitric  acid,  either  dilute  or  concentrated,  at  or 
dinary  temperatures,  and  very  slowly  even  at 
the  boiling  heat ;  neither  is  it  acted  upon  by 
sulphuric  acid  diluted  to  the  degree  at  which 
that  acid  dissolves  zinc  ;  but  hydrochloric  acid, 
either  dilute  or  concentrated,  dissolves  it  easi 
ly  even  at  low  temperatures,  with  evolution  of 
hydrogen.  Caustic  soda  and  potash  readily 
dissolve  it,  forming  aluminates  of  those  bases. 
Ammonia  acts  but  slightly  on  it.  Professor 
Wtirtz  of  New  York  prepares  an  amalgam  of 
aluminum  by  heating  thin  foil  on  mercury  in  a 
glass  tube  so  drawn  out  that  the  foil  cannot 
swim  on  the  mercury.  This  amalgam  is  more 
readily  decomposed  in  the  air  and  in  water 
than  sodium  amalgam.  Aluminum  is  a  power 
ful  reducing  agent  for  solutions  of  chlorides, 
and  in  the  preparation  of  the  rare  elements* 
boron  and  silicon.  An  alloy  of  aluminum  with 
silver,  called  third  silver  (tiers-argent),  com 
posed  of  one  third  silver  and  two  thirds 
aluminum,  is  chiefly  employed  for  forks,  spoons, 
and  tea  service,  and  is  harder  than  silver  and 
more  easily  engraved.  Another  alloy,  called 
minargent,  is  composed  of  100  parts  copper,  70 
parts  nickel,  5  parts  antimony,  and  2  parts 
aluminum.  The  beautiful  tone  of  the  metal 
has  suggested  its  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
bells,  and  a  successful  application  of  it  for  this 
purpose  has  been  made.  Mixed  with  copper 
in  the  proportion  of  10  parts  of  aluminum  and 
90  of  copper,  it  forms  a  beautiful  alloy  known 
as  aluminum  bronze,  now  frequently  employ 
ed  for  the  manufacture  of  watch  cases,  watch 
chains,  imitation  jewelry,  sheathing  for  stairs, 
and  bearings  of  machinery.  The  alloy  of 
aluminum  with  iron  is  crystalline  and  of  no 
value  in  the  arts.  Experiments  made  in  1805 
at  the  United  States  mint  on  alloys  of  alumi 
num  for  coins  were  not  sufficiently  successful 
to  induce  the  government  to  adopt  them.  The 
difficulty  encountered  in  soldering  and  welding 
aluminum,  and  the  high  cost  of  its  production, 
have  seriously  interfered  with  its  extensive  ap 
plication  in  the  arts.  It  can  hardly  be  said  to 
have  fulfilled  all  the  expectations  that  were 
raised  at  the  time  of  the  revival  in  its  manu 
facture  introduced  in  1855  by  Deville. — Salts  of 
aluminum.  These  are  very  numerous,  many 
of  them  extensively  employed  in  the  arts. 
Alum  and  the  oxide  alumina  are  separately  de- 


ALVA 


3G9 


scribed.     The  chloride,  Al2Cle,  can  be  prepared 
by  passing  dry  chlorine  gas  through  a  heated 
mixture  of  alumina  and  charcoal.     It  is  a  vol 
atile  compound,  and  is  used  as  above  described 
in  the   manufacture  of   the  metal  aluminum. 
The    hydrated    chloride  of   alumina   is  easily 
prepared    by  dissolving    aluminum  in  hydro 
chloric  acid.     It  is  sold  in  commerce,  under  the 
name  of  chloralum,  as  a  disinfectant  and  anti-  ! 
septic,    and  is  also  recommended    for   salting 
paper  in  photography.     Sulphate  of  aluminum  | 
is  known  in  a  crude  state  as  alum  cake,  and  is 
prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  roasting  aluminous  ; 
shales  as  described  under  ALUM.      It  can  be  ! 
prepared   in   a   small   way   by  dissolving   the  j 
hydrate  of  alumina  in  sulphuric  acid.      Acetate  i 
of  aluminum  is  prepared  by  precipitating  ace-  I 
tade  of  lead  with  sulphate  of  aluminum  or  with  | 
a  solution  of  alum.     It  is  extensively  used  as  a  j 
mordant  in  calico  printing,  especially  in  pro 
ducing  madder  reds,  whence  it  is  called  "red 
liquor.1' 

ALUMNUS  (Lat.,  from  alere),  to  nourish,  origi 
nally  the  designation  of  a  student  who  was 
supported  and  educated  at  the  expense  of  the 
alumnat,  an  institution  which,  especially  after 
the  reformation,  was  endowed  for  the  particu 
lar  purpose  of  extending  hospitality  and  educa 
tion  to  youths  who  could  not  afford  to  pay  for 
their  living  and  tuition.  Maurice  of  Saxony 
endowed  three  such  institutions  in  Pforte, 
Meissen,  and  Grimma,  which  are  to  this  day  in 
active  operation.  The  alumni  have  to  adhere 
to  the  rules  of  the  establishment  and  to  perform 
various  services  for  the  school  and  the  church, 
such  as  singing  in  the  choir  and  the  like,  while 
the  extraneers,  the  name  given  to  students  who 
pay  for  their  board  and  tuition,  are  not  bound 
to  perform  such  services.  In  ordinary  par 
lance,  every  graduate  of  a  university  or  college 
is  now  an  alumnus. — In  jurisprudence,  the  term 
aluranat  is  the  generic  expression  for  the  gen 
eral  responsibilities  attached  in  the  eyes  of  the 
law  to  the  relationship  of  the  foster-father 
(nutritor)  toward  the  child  whom  he  has  un 
dertaken  to  support  and  educate. 

ALUNNO,  Nieolo,  of  Foligno,  an  Italian  painter  j 
of  the  15th  century,  one  of  the  masters  of  the  • 
Umbrian  school,  which  was  the  forerunner  of  1 
the  Roman.     His  earliest  known  work  bears 
the  date  of  1458,  and  his  latest  that  of  1499.  ; 
His  Pietd  in  the  cathedral  of  Assisi,  of  which 
only  a  portion  remains,  was  regarded  by  Vasari  ' 
aa   his   master  work.      His   other   works    are  : 
chiefly  found  in  Perugia  and  Foligno. 

ALIIRED,  Aired,  or  Alfred  of  Beverley,  an  Eng 
lish  historian,  died  probably  in  1129.     He  is  ' 
said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Yorkshire  and  ' 
one  of  the  canons  and  treasurer  of  the  church  j 
of  St.  John  in  Beverley.     He  left  an  "Epitome  : 
of  British  History"  from  the  time  of  the  fabu-  ! 
lous  Brutus  to  the  29th  year  of  Henry  I.,  writ-  ; 
ten  in  good  Latin,  and  compiled  with  a  care 
unusual  for  that  day.      It  was  published  by  ; 
Hearne  at  Oxford  in  1716.     The  work  bears  a 
strong  resemblance  to  that  of  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
VOL.  i.— 24 


i  mouth,  both  having  probably  been  drawn  from 

!  the  same  sources. 

ALITA,  Alt,  or  Olt,  a  northern  affluent  of  the 
Danube,  which  rises  in  the  Carpathians  of  east- 

;  ern  Transylvania,  and,  after  flowing  S.  and  then 
W.,  crosses  the  Carpathians  S.  of  Hcrmann- 

j  stadt,  traverses  "Wallachia,    and  empties  near 

"••  Turna,  opposite  Xicopolis.     Its  entire  course  is 

I  about   330  m.      Its  principal  tributary  is  the 

'  Oltetz,  in  Wallachia. 

ALVA,  or  Alba,  Fernando  Alvarez  de  Toledo, 
duke  of,  a  Spanish  general  and  statesman, 
born  in  1508,  died  Jan.  12,  1582.  He  was 
descended  from  a  family  which  boasted  its  ex 
traction  from  Byzantine  emperors  ;  aud  one  of 
his  ancestors,  a  Palycologus,  conquered  Toledo, 
and  transmitted  its  appellation  as  a  family 
name.  From  his  earliest  years  he  was  trained 
to  arras,  and  imbibed  a  hatred  of  infidels,  which 
was  afterward  naturally  transferred  to  those  at 
enmity  with  the  church  of  Rome.  At  16  years 
of  age  he  fought  at  Fontarabia,  and  in  1530  he 
accompanied  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  his 
campaign  against  the  Turks.  At  this  period 
he  seemed  like  one  of  the  romantic  heroes  of 
chivalry.  On  one  occasion  he  rode  as  fast  as 
his  steed  could  bear  him  from  Hungary  to 
Spain  and  back  again,  merely  for  a  hurried  visit 
to  his  young  bride.  In  1535  he  took  part  in 
Charles's  expedition  to  Tunis.  In  1546-'7  he 
was  generalissimo  in  the  war  against  the  Smal- 
caldian  league,  winning  his  greatest  honors  at 
the  battle  of  Mtihlberg,  in  which  he  totally 
routed  the  Protestant  forces.  In  1554  he  went 
with  the  Spanish  crown  prince  to  England,  and 
shortly  before  that  prince's  accession  to  the 
throne  as  Philip  II.  on  the  abdication  of  Charles 
V.  was  made  generalissimo  of  the  army  in 
Italy,  engaged  in  a  war  with  Pope  Paul  IV. 
Although  he  reverenced  the  successor  of  St. 
Peter,  he  was  greatly  displeased  with  Philip  for 
obliging  him  to  make  peace  with  the  pontiff, 
whose  capital  he  had  seized.  To  patience  and 
cunning  he  united  ferocity  and  a  thirst  for  blood 
scarcely  human ;  he  hardly  knew  the  meaning 
of  pity,  though  frequently  alluding  to  his  clem 
ency  in  his  letters  to  Philip.  The  personal  ap 
pearance  of  this  extraordinary  man  well  merits 
description.  He  was  tall,  thin,  erect,  with  a 
small  head,  dark  sparkling  eyes,  cavernous 
cheeks,  and  a  stern  expression,  rendered  more 
striking  by  a  long,  thin,  waving,  and  silvered 
beard.  In  manners  he  was  cold  and  haughty, 
and  was  even  more  inaccessible  than  his  royal 
master.  The  spoliation  of  the  churches  in  the 
Netherlands  by  the  iconoclasts  had  enraged 
Philip  more  than  any  of  the  other  troubles  in 
his  Flemish  provinces ;  and  their  armed  invasion 
having  been  determined  on,  10,000  picked  vet 
erans  were  placed  under  the  command  of 
the  duke  of  Alva.  Refused  a  passage  through 
the  French  dominions,  the  force  embarked  at 
Cartagena,  May  10,  1567,  and  landed  at  Ge 
noa.  The  whole  army  was  under  the  most  per 
fect  discipline,  and  attached  to  it  was  a  force 
of  2,000  prostitutes,  enrolled  and  distributed, 


370 


ALVA 


doubtless  to  prevent  the  troops  from  any  out 
rages  in  lands  through  which  lay  their  march. 
In  three  divisions  they  made  their  way  over 
Mont  Cenis,  and  through  Savoy,  Burgundy, 
and  Lorraine,  and  without  the  least  opposition 
entered  the 'territory  of  the  Netherlands.  Great 
was  the  alarm  in  the  disaffected  provinces  when 
it  was  learned  that  Alva  was  on  his  march. 
William  of  Orange,  who  was  not  to  be  deceived 
by  any  sho\v  of  clemency,  had  retired  into 
Germany.  The  duke's  interviews  with  the 
duchess  of  Parma,  then  regent  of  the  Nether 
lands,  were  brief  and  formal ;  but  in  spite  of 
courtly  etiquette,  neither  could  well  conceal 
dislike  of  the  other.  Margaret,  enraged  at 
being  superseded,  soon  took  her  departure,  and 
Alva  was  left  alone  to  fulfil  his  mission.  Es 
tablishing  his  headquarters  at  Brussels,  he  at 
once  proceeded  in  his  work  of  vengeance.  The 
"  Council  of  Troubles  "  was  set  up,  to  inquire 
into  and  punish  all  past  offences ;  and  so  merci 
less  were  its  labors,  that  it  was  styled  by  the 
populace  the  council  of  blood.  Counts  Egmont 
and  Horn,  the  two  idols  of  the  people,  who 
had  been  foremost  in  asserting  the  religious 
liberties  of  the  Netherlands,  but  who  were 
guilty  of  no  treason,  were  beheaded  in  the 
great  square  of  Brussels,  June  5,  1508.  The 
execution  of  other  popular  leaders  imme 
diately  followed;  burnings  at  the  stake  and 
decapitation  thenceforth  were  decreed  by 
wholesale,  and  during  the  whole  period  of 
Alva's  six  years'  administration  in  the  Neth 
erlands  blood  flowed  like  water.  Through 
out  the  land  his  name,  and  those  of  his  terrible 
subordinates  in  the  blood  council,  Hessels  and 
Vargas,  came  to  be  feared  and  hated.  The 
least  suspicion  of  any  person,  however  inno 
cent,  especially  if  he  was  rich,  drew  down  the 
vengeance  of  the  council ;  for  Alva  had  prom 
ised  before  he  left  Spain  to  enrich  the  treasury 
of  Philip  by  a  golden  river  a  yard  deep,  drawn 
from  the  confiscated  wealth  of  heretics;  he 
even  named  500,000  ducats  per  annum  as  the 
sum.  Military  operations  had  begun  before  the 
fatal  5th  of  June.  Count  Louis  of  Nassau 
having  invaded  Friesland,  Alva  took  measures 
to  oppose  him  vigorously.  At  first  the  count 
met  with  some  success,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Heiligerlee  defeated  the  Spaniards  under  the 
duke  of  Aremberg,  who  was  killed.  Alva  was 
roused  to  fury  at  the  news,  and  to  expiate  the 
loss  of  the  duke  beheaded  18  nobles  besides 
hastening  the  execution  of  Egmont  and  Horn, 
and  then  left  Brussels  to  meet  the  count  in  the 
field.  An  attempt  to  destroy  the  dikes  and  in 
undate  the  country  was  frustrated  by  the  ar 
rival  of  Alva's  forces,  and  at  the  battle  of  Jem- 
rningen  he  utterly  routed  Louis  and  destroyed 
his  army.  "William  of  Orange  persevered,  and, 
mustering  another  army,  sought  in  vain  to 
bring  Alva  to  an  engagement.  Twenty-nine 
times  did  the  prince  change  his  encampment, 
and  as  often  did  the  Spanish  forces  hover  in 
his  rear.  The  duke's  skill  in  the  campaign  of 
1568  was  a  masterpiece  of  tactics ;  he  had  no- 


!  thing  to  gain,  the  prince  everything  to  hope 
I  for,  by  a  battle.   The  country  people  of  Brabant, 
|  the  scene  of  this  masterly  inactivity,  refused 
j  the  prince  supplies ;  and  Alva  had  caused  the 
j  irons  to  be  taken  out  of  every  mill,  so  that  not 
;  a  bushel  of  corn  could  be  ground  in  the  prov- 
I  ince.     Frustrated  in  his  hopes  of  a  battle,  Wil- 
I  liam  was  further  dejected  by  the  supineness  of 
j  the  country.     Not  a  single  city  opened  its  gates 
i  to  him ;  he  was  forced  to  quit  the  Netherlands 
|  and  disband  his  army  soon  after,  while  Alva 
erected  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  himself  in 
the  citadel  of  Antwerp,  and  ordered  a  series 
of  magnificent  fetes  to  be  celebrated  at  Brussels. 
He  was  soon  engaged  in  a  quarrel  with  Eliza 
beth  of  England,  who  had  seized  in  her  ports 
$800,000  of  Spanish  funds.     Alva  retaliated  by 
ordering  the  arrest  of  every  Englishman  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  the  seizure  of  all  their  prop 
erty  ;    and    between   the    two  angry   spirits, 
Flemish  prosperity  was  well  nigh  annihilated. 
But  the  duke  was  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of 
forcing  a  golden  stream  to  flow  into  the  king's 
coffers;  with  all  his  abilities  as  a  soldier,  he 
was  a  wretched  financier;  and  so  far  from  sup- 
|  porting  his  army  on  the  confiscations  of  the 
people,  and  supplying  Philip  with  gold  besides, 
as  he  boasted  he  would,  during  the  six  years 
of  his  rule  twenty-five  millions  of  money  were 
sent  to  him  from  Spain,  yet  he  left  the  Nether 
lands  without  a  dollar  in  the  treasury.   Among 
his  odious  schemes  were  a  tax  of  the  hundredth 
penny,  or  one  per  cent.,  on  all  property,  real 
and  personal,  to  be  paid  instantly  and  collected 
once ;  a  perpetual  tax  of  the  twentieth  penny, 
or  5  per  cent.,  on  every  transfer  of  real  estate ; 
and  a  tax  of  the  tenth  penny,  or  10  per  cent., 
assessed  upon  every  article  of  merchandise  or 
personal  property,  to  be  paid  as   often  as  it 
should  be  sold.     No  sooner  was  this  monstrous 
imposition  declared  than  every  one  in  the  land 
excepting  the  duke  himself  perceived  how  ut 
terly  abortive  and  ridiculous  a  scheme  it  would 
prove.     The  towns  rebelled,  and  examples  by 
dozens  were  made  of  refractory  citizens  to  no 
purpose.    The  king  was  petitioned,  and  finally, 
after  all  the  severity  of  Alva,  a  temporary  com 
promise  was  effected,  by  which  the  towns  were 
to  pay  $2,000,000  yearly  for  the  two  follow 
ing  years,  that  is,  until  the  month  of  August, 
1571.     At  length  universal  revolt  was  man 
ifested.      The  shops  were   all   closed ;    "  the 
brewers    refused     to    brew,    the    bakers    to 
bake,  the  tapsters  to  tap."      Alva  thereupon 
resolved  to  hang  18  of  the  tradesmen  of  Brus 
sels  at  the  doors  of  their  own  shops,  without 
j  trial.      This   summary   work   was   prevented, 
i  however,  by  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Brief 
i  by  the  "Water  Beggars,"    adherents  of  the 
I  prince  of  Orange.     The  revolution  and  capture 
I  of  Flushing  soon  followed,  and  the  first  half  of 
|  the  year  1572  was  distinguished  by  a  series  of 
triumphs  for  the   patriot   party.     The   nation 
I  shook  off  its  fetters  in  one  sudden  bound  of  en- 
|  thusias'm,  and  Oudewater,  Dort,  Leyden,  Gor- 
!  kum,  Gouda,  Horn,  Alkmaar,  Edam,  and  many 


ALVAR 


ALVARADO 


371 


other  towns,  ranged  themselves  under  the 
standard  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  His  triumph, 
however,  was  short,  for  the  news  of  the  mas 
sacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  August,  fell  with 
frightful  effect  upon  his  followers,  utterly  par 
alysing  their  hopes  and  efforts;  his  armies 
melted  away,  the  towns  forswore  their  alle 
giance  to  him,  and  almost  in  solitude  he  re 
tired  to  Holland,  the  province  which  best  pre 
served  its  fidelity.  He  had  but  a  few  days  be 
fore  considered  Charles  IX.  of  France  as  his 
ally,  and  was  expecting  an  army  of  assistance 
led  by  Admiral  Coligni,  when  he  heard  the 
news  of  his  murder.  On  many  of  the  offending 
cities,  even  those  which  returned  to  obedi 
ence,  Spanish  vengeance  fell  with  terrible  ret 
ribution.  At  length,  at  the  siege  of  Alkmaar, 
after  investing  the  city  for  seven  weeks,  the 
Spaniards  were  obliged  to  retreat ;  and  from 
that  moment  a  brighter  day  dawned  on  the 
Netherlands.  Finally,  disgusted  with  the 
hopelessness  of  his  cause,  and  furious  at  the 
intrigues  of  those  in  power  about  him,  Alva 
obtained  his  recall,  received  his  successor,  Don 
Luis  de  Requesens  y  Zuniga,  Nov.  17,  1573, 
and  on  the  18th  of  the  next  month  left  the 
provinces  for  ever.  His  parting  advice  was, 
that  every  city  in  the  Netherlands  should  be 
burned  to  the  ground,  except  a  few  to  be  per 
manently  garrisoned ;  and  he  boasted  that 
during  his  six  years'  rule  he  had  caused  18,000 
persons  to  be  executed.  But  to  this  immense 
number  must  be  added  those  who  perished  by 
siege,  battle,  and  merciless  slaughter ;  and  the 
list  defies  all  computation.  Every  conceivable 
mode  of  death  and  torture  was  wreaked  upon 
the  victims  of  his  royal  master's  vengeance. 
At  the  sack  of  Haarlem  300  citizens,  tied  two 
and  two  and  back  to  back,  were  thrown  into  the 
lake ;  and  at  Zutphen  500  more,  in  the  same 
inanner,  were  drowned  in  the  river  Yssel. 
Thousands  of  women  were  publicly  violated, 
and  unborn  infants  ripped  from  the  wombs  of 
their  mothers.  Yet  Alva  was  always  com 
plaining  to  Philip  II.  of  the  unjust  hatred 
shown  toward  him,  and  the  "ingratitude1'  of 
the  Netherlander  in  return  for  his  "  clemency." 
He  was  well  received  by  Philip  II.,  but  some 
time  afterward  fell  into  disgrace  with  the  mon 
arch,  from  espousing  the  cause  of  his  own  son, 
who  had  debauched  a  maid  of  honor.  He  was 
imprisoned  and  banished  until  required  for  the 
conquest  of  Portugal.  This  he  accomplished 
in  1580,  and  died  at  the  age  of  74  years. 

ALVAR,  Alwur,  or  Maehery,  a  native  state  of 
Hindostan,  in  Rajpootana,  between  lat.  27°  4' 
and  28°  13'  N.,  and  Ion.  7fi°  7'  and  77°  14'  E. ; 
area,  3,573  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  280,000.  It  is 
a  hilly  district,  inhabited  by  a  savage,  predatory 
people  known  as  Mewattis,  and  long  famous 
for  their  hostility  to  Europeans.  Under  Brit 
ish  influence,  however,  their  rude  character 
has  been  greatly  modified.  The  state  is  gov 
erned  by  a  rajah  who  is  under  the  control  of 
the  governor  general's  agent  for  the  Rajpoot 
states. — Alvar,  the  capital,  is  situated  at  the 


]  base  of  a  rocky  range,  110  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Delhi 

!  and  900  m.  N.  "W.  of  Calcutta.     It  is  a  small, 

ill-built  town,  surrounded  by  a  wretched  mud 

wall,  and  overlooked  by  a  fort   on  the   hill. 

1   The  rajah's  palace  and  some  Hindoo  temples 

are  the  principal  buildings. 

ALVARADO,  a  river  and  town  in  Mexico,  in 
the  state  of  Vera  Cruz.  The  town  is  situ 
ated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  about  3  rn. 
from  its  mouth,  and  35  m.  S.  E.  of  Vera  Cruz; 
pop.  about  2,000.  It  consists  mostly  of  cane 
cottages  roofed  with  palm  leaves.  The  coun 
try  south  of  the  river  has  numerous  planta 
tions  of  cacao,  and  produces  much  rice,  both  of 
which  articles  are  sent  to  the  other  states  of 
Mexico.  There  is  a  dockyard  at  Alvarado, 
and  a  port  capable  of  admitting  vessels  not  ex 
ceeding  13  feet  draught;  and  it  has  consider 
able  commerce  with  Vera  Cruz.  The  climate 
is  very  unhealthy. 

ALVARADO,  Pedro  de,  one  of  the  conquerors  of 
Spanish  America,  born  at  Badajoz  toward  the 
I  end  of  the  15th  century,  died  in  1541.  In 
!  1518  he  sailed  with  his  four  brothers  for  Cuba, 
|  whence  he  accompanied  Grijalva  in  his  explor- 
'  ing  expedition  along  the  coast  of  the  American 
;  continent.  Grijalva  was  so  delighted  with  the 
!  aspect  of  the  country  that  he  called  it  New 
!  Spain,  and  sent  Alvarado  back  to  Cuba  to  re- 
|  port  to  Governor  Velasquez  what  they  had 
!  seen  and  what  they  had  heard,  for  the  first 
!  time,  about  the  immense  empire  of  Montezu- 
!  ma.  In  February,  1519,  he  accompanied 
!  Cortes  in  his  expedition,  and  took  an  active 
i  and  remarkable  part  in  all  the  incidents  of  the 
I  conquest  of  Mexico.  Cortes,  while  engaged  in 
j  the  battle  against  Narvaez,  left  the  city  of  Mex- 
;  ico  under  charge  of  Alvarado,  but  by  his  cruel- 
I  ty  and  rapacity  the  latter  caused  an  insurrec- 
I  tion,  and  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  In 
i  the  famous  retreat  offthe  night  of  July  1,  1520 
'  (la  noche  triste\  Alvarado  distinguished  hiin- 
|  self  by  his  gallant  exploits,  and  to  commemo- 
i  rate  his  bravery  an  enormous  ditch  over  which 
i  he  leaped  to  escape  from  the  hands  of  the  ene- 
|  my  is  called  to  this  day  "el  salto  de  Alvarado." 
!  On  his  return  to  Spain  he  was  received  with 
I  great  honor  by  Charles  V.,  and  appointed  gov- 
i  ernor  of  Guatemala,  which  he  had  conquered 
!  in  1523.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  iiius- 
j  trious  house  of  Cueva,  from  which  the  dukes  of 
!  Albuquerque  are  descended,  and  returned  to 
'  America,  accompanied  by  a  host  of  adven- 
i  turers.  Guatemala  became  highly  prosperous 
under  his  government.  Having  authority  to 
|  extend  his  conquests,  he  embarked  on  the  Pa- 
j  cific  an  expedition  of  500  men  to  effect  the 
!  capture  of  Quito,  and  landed  near  Cape  San 
j  Francisco,  whence  he  marched  into  the  interi- 
i  or;  but  among  the  Andes  he  met  the  forces  of 
i  Pizarro,  prepared  to  resist  his  advance.  Dis 
claiming  any  intention  to  interfere  with  his 
!  countryman's  rights,  he  received  120.000 
i  pieces  of  eight  as  an  indemnification  for  his 
j  outlay  and  losses,  and,  after  a  friendly  meeting 
I  with  the  conquerors  of  Peru,  returned  to  Gua- 


372 


ALVAREZ 


ALZEY 


temala.  Visiting  Spain  soon  afterward,  he  ap-  | 
peased  the  emperor's  displeasure  at  this  affair, 
obtained  in  addition  to  his  former  command 
the  governorship  of  Honduras,  and  then  fitted 
out  from  Guatemala  a  new  expedition  of  dis 
covery,  consisting  of  12  large  ships,  two  galleys, 
800  soldiers,  150  horses,  and  a  large  retinue 
of  Indians.  Sailing  W.  and  N.  "W.  along  the 
Mexican  coast,  he  was  driven  by  stress  of 
weather  into  the  port  of  Los  Pueblos  de  Avalos, 
in  Michoacan.  Here  a  messenger  from  the 
Spaniards  of  the  interior  asked  his  assistance  in 
putting  down  a  revolt  of  the  Chichimecas  of 
New  Galicia.  He  landed  with  a  part  of  his 
force,  made  a  rapid  march  to  the  encampment 
of  his  countrymen,  and  with  them  attacked 
the  Indians,  who  were  strongly  posted  among 
the  mountains.  The  Spaniards  were  defeated 
and  put  to  flight,  and  Alvarado  was  killed  by 
his  horse  falling  upon  him  at  the  crossing  of  a 
river.  The  expedition  was  then  abandoned. 

ALVAREZ,  Francisco,  a  Portuguese  traveller, 
born  in  Coimbra,  died  after  1540.  He  was 
chaplain  of  King  Emanuel,  and  in  1515  ac 
companied  his  embassy  to  the  negus  or  empe 
ror  of  Abyssinia,  then  known  to  the  Portu 
guese  as  Prester  John.  Going  first  to  India, 
they  were  delayed  by  various  causes,  among 
which  was  the  death  of  the  original  ambassa 
dor,  Duarte  Galvam,  and  the  substitution  of 
Don  Rodrigo  de  Lima,  a  soldier  quite  unfit  for 
the  charge.  Landing  at  Massowah  April  6, 
1520,  their  journey  through  the  interior  was 
beset  with  man}r  difficulties  and  dangers ;  but 
at  last,  on  Oct.  20,  they  were  received  at  the 
temporary  court  of  the  negus,  an  encampment 
in  Shoa.  Alvarez  made  himself  acceptable  to 
all  parties,  especially  to  the  Abyssinian  priest 
hood,  who  respected  his  religious  character, 
and  to  the  negus,  who  conceived  such  an  admi 
ration  for  him  that  he  appointed  him  ambassa 
dor  to  the  Vatican — a  mission  which  Alvarez 
could  only  discharge  many  years  afterward,  in 
1533.  The  embassy  left  the  Abyssinian  court 
at  the  beginning  of  1521,  with  a  view  of  re 
turning  to  Portugal ;  but  a  quarrel  which  broke 
out  among  the  company,  and  which  called  for 
the  interference  of  the  negus,  led  to  their  re 
maining  in  Abyssinia  till  1526,  when  Alvarez 
returned  to  Lisbon,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  distinction  by  John  III.,  King 
Emanuel  having  died  in  1521.  The  king 
prompted  him  to  compile  an  account  of  his  ob 
servations  during  his  six  years'  stay  in  Abyssin 
ia  ;  and  he  accordingly  prepared  an  itinerary  in 
five  books,  which  was  published  in  Lisbon  in 
1540,  under  the  title  Verdadeira  Tnformacao  do 
Preste  Joao  das  Indicts.  Only  a  few  copies 
were  printed,  and  it  soon  became  very  rare.  A 
mutilated  copy  was  obtained  by  Ramusio,  in 
whose  collection  will  be  found  "The  Journey 
in  Ethiopia  of  Francisco  Alvarez.1' 

ALVAREZ,  Jnan,  a  Mexican  general,  leader  of 
the  revolution  which  in  1855  drove  Santa  Anna 
from  power,  born  about  1790,  died  in  1870.  He 
was  of  Indian  blood,  and  always  exercised  an 


extraordinary  influence  over  tho  people  of 
southern  Mexico.  Being  governor  of  Guerrero 
in  1853,  he  had  little  difficulty  in  rousing  his 
mountaineers  to  insurrection.  The  outbreak 
took  place  at  Acapulco,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
following  year.  In  the  decree  promulgated  by 
Alvarez,  in  March,  1854,  which  became  noted 
as  the  plan  of  Ayutla,  Santa  Anna's  depo 
sition  was  officially  announced,  and  repub 
lican  institutions  were  proposed  to  the  people. 
After  Santa  Anna's  downfall,  Gen.  Carrera  was 
intrusted  for  six  months  with  the  charge  of  the 
government,  which,  however,  he  relinquished 
in  September  in  favor  of  Alvarez,  whose  nom 
ination  as  president  of  Mexico  was  ratified  by 
the  assembly  of  Cuernavaca,  which  for  that 
purpose  he  had  convoked  himself  on  Oct.  4, 
1855.  On  Nov.  15  he  made  his  entry  into 
Mexico,  escorted  by  a  body  guard  of  Indians. 
His  abolition  of  the  privileges  of  the  clergy 
and  the  army  met  with  such  opposition  that 
he  tendered  his  resignation,  substituting  in  his 
place  his  former  minister  Comonfort,  Dec.  11  ; 
and  after  procuring  $200,000  from  the  national 
exchequer,  and  what  arms  and  munitions  he 
could  get,  he  returned  to  southern  Mexico. 

ALVINCZY,  Joseph,  baron,  an  Austrian  field 
marshal,  born  in  Transylvania,  Feb.  1,  1735, 
died  in  Buda,  Sept.  25,  1810.  He  distin 
guished  himself  during  the  seven  years'  war 
at  Torgau,  at  the  capture  of  Schweidnitz,  and 
in  the  engagement  at  Toplitz.  During  the 
peace  he  introduced  many  reforms  in  the  tactics 
of  the  Austrian  troops.  In  1789  he  took  part, 
under  Field  Marshal  London,  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Turks,  and,  although  he  did  not 
succeed  in  reducing  Belgrade,  the  emperor 
Joseph  II.  conferred  upon  him  the  dignity  of 
lieutenant  field  marshal.  Subsequently  he  was 
sent  to  Liege  to  quell  an  insurrection.  He  was 
not  successful,  but  the  confidence  in  his  ability  as 
a  tactician  remained  the  same,  and  in  1790,  after 
the  defeats  of  Bcaulieu  and  Wurmser,  he  was 
put  at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  army  against 
Bonaparte.  He  obtained  some  small  advan 
tages  over  the  French  at  the  Scalda,  at  Bassano, 
and  at  Vicenza,  but  he  lost  the  two  great 
battles  of  A  r cole  (Nov.  17,  1790)  and  Ilivoli 
(Jan.  14,  1797),  and  was  recalled,  and  even 
accused  of  treachery.  The  emperor  Francis, 
who  had  been  one  of  his  military  pupils,  did 
not  notice  these  imputations,  and  appointed  him 
in  1798  superior  commander  of  Hungary, 
where  he  reorganized  the  army,  and  10  years 
later  made  him  field  marshal. 

ALXOGER,  Joliann  Baptist  von,  a  German  poet, 
born  in  Vienna,  Jan.  24, 1755,  died  May  1, 1797. 
Though  he  was  a  lawyer,  and  held  the  title  of 
court  advocate,  he  availed  himself  of  his  legal 
}  station  only  to  arrange  disputes  or  plead  for  the 
|  poor.     His  principal  productions  are  two  chiv- 
j  alresque  epics  in  "Wieland's  style,  Doolin  von 
Mainz  and  Bliomberis.     His  works  were  pub 
lished  in  Vienna  in  1812  in  10  vols. 

ALZEY,  a  town  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse, 
province  of  Rhenish  Hesse,  situated  on  the 


AMADEUS 


AMALASOSTIIA 


373 


Selz,  18  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Mcntz;  pop.  in  1867, 
5,358.  Tho  chief  industries  are  tanning  and 
the  manufacture  of  tobacco.  It  was  founded 
in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  had  for  some 
time  in  the  middle  ages  its  own  lords,  ruins 
of  whose  castle  are  still  extant. 

AMADEUS,  a  name  very  common  in  the  ruling 
family  of  Savoy,  and  first  borne  by  the  eldest 
son  of  Count  Humbert,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
llth  century.  The  most  noteworthy  rulers  of 
this  name  are :  I.  Amadens  Vt,  count  of  Savoy, 
the  son  of  Thomas  II.,  born  in  1249,  succeeded 
his  uncle  Philip  in  1285,  and  died  at  Avignon 
in  1323.  lie  obtained  the  surname  of  Great. 
He  largely  increased  his  dominions  by  marriage, 
purchase,  'and  donations.  Among  his  exploits 
is  mentioned  a  repulse  of  the  Turks  from  i 
Rhodes,  then  in  the  possession  of  the  knights  of 
St.  John,  a  triumph  which  was  believed  to  have 
led  to  the  adoption  of  the  "cross  of  Savoy," 
arid  the  device  F.  E.  R.  T.,  or  F  E  R  T,  gener 
ally  explained  by  Fortitudo  cjns  Rliodum 
tcnuit ;  but  both  the  exploit  and  the  explana 
tion  are  now  considered  unauthentic.  His 
daughter  was  married  to  Andronicus  III., 
emperor  of  Constantinople.  In  order  to  induce 
Pope  John  XXII.  to  preach  a  crusade  in  favor 
of  his  son-in-law,  he  undertook  a  journey  to 
Avignon,  where  he  died.  II.  Amadens  VIII., 
count  of  Savoy,  and  for  some  time  pope  or  | 
anti-pope,  succeeded  his  father  Amadeus  VII. 
in  1391.  He  purchased  the  country  of  Gene- 
vois  for  45,000  florins,  and  thus  the  house  of 
Savoy  became  so  powerful  that  the  emperor 
Sigismund  in  1416  erected  Savoy  into  a  duchy. 
John  Paloeologus,  duke  of  Montferrat,  agreed 
to  hold  the  marquisate  of  Montferrat  as  a  fief 
of  the  house  of  Savoy.  By  marriage  and  dona 
tion  Amadeus  made  yet  further  acquisitions. 
In  1434,  however,  he  abandoned  his  duchy  to 
his  son  and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Ripaillc, 
where  he  lived  so  luxuriously  ihatfaire  Ripaille 
became  a  saying  in  the  French  language,  signi 
fying  to  make  good  cheer.  He  had  never 
received  holy  orders,  but  was  elected  pope  and 
crowned  at  Basel  by  the  cardinal  of  Aries, 
under  the  title  of  Felix  V.  The  papal  dignity  ! 
was  contested  by  Eugenius  IV.,  who  was  sup-  | 
ported  by  France,  England,  Italy,  Spain,  and  I 
Hungary.  Eugenius  died,  and  the  cardinals  at  j 
Rome  elected  Thomas  de  Sarzana  (Nicholas  V.). 
Amadeus  resigned  the  papal  crown  in  his 
favor  in  1449,  stipulating,  however,  that  he  I 
should  be  perpetual  apostolical  legate  in  his 
late  temporal  dominions,  that  he  should  con 
tinue  to  wear  the  pontifical  dress  except  in  a 
few  particulars,  that  he  need  not  go  to  Rome  to 
attend  any  general  council,  and  that  the  pope 
should  rise  to  receive  him,  and  permit  him  to  j 
kiss  his  check  instead  of  his  foot. 

AMADEUS  I.  (Amadeo  Ferdinando  Maria),  king  | 
of    Spain,    duke    of    Aosta,    second    son    of 
King  Victor  Emanuel  of  Italy,  born  May  30, 
1845.      He  early  held  the  rank  of  lieutenant  j 
general  in  the  Italian  army  and  that  of  rear  | 
admiral  in  the  navy,  and  showed  much  interest  i 


in  naval  affairs.  lie  married,  May  30,  1867,  the 
wealthy  Italian  princess  Maria  del  Pozzo  della 
Cisterna,  whose  mother  was  a  countess  de  Me- 
rode.  His  nomination  as  king  of  Spain,  proposed 
by  Gen.  Prim,  was  sanctioned  by  Victor  Ernan- 
uel,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  European 
powers,  which  was  given  in  October,  1870,  and 
to  the  ratification  by  a  majority  of  the  cortes, 
which  took  place  on  Nov.  16.  He  reached 
Madrid  Jan.  2,  1871,  Gen.  Prim  having  been 
assassinated  four  days  previously.  lie  was  him 
self  beset  by  assassins  (July,  1872),  by  Carlist 
risings,  and  by  other  dangers  and  administrative 
difficulties.  Becoming  discouraged,  he  abdica 
ted  the  throne  for  himself  and  his  heirs,  Feb. 
11, 1873,  and  returned  to  Italy,  the  cortes  imme 
diately  proclaiming  and  organizing  a  republic. 

AMADIS  OF  GAUL,  the  mythical  hero  of  one 
of  the  early  romances  of  chivalry,  written 
by  Vasco  de  Lobeira,  a  gentleman  of  the  Por 
tuguese  court,  who  died  in  1403.  The  Portu 
guese  original  is  lost,  and  the  earliest  known 
version  is  the  Spanish  one  of  Montalvo,  made  be 
tween  1492  and  1504.  It  has  been  translated 
into  various  languages,  and  extended  to  five 
times  its  original  length,  and  was  the  most 
popular  as  it  is  the  best  of  all  the  fictions  of  its 
class.  Amadis,  the  pattern  of  a  perfect  knight, 
is  supposed  to  have  flourished  soon  after  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  to  have 
gone  through  a  variety  of  adventures  in  Eng 
land,  France,  Germany,  Turkey,  and  more  or 
less  imaginary  countries.  He  is  the  son  of  an 
imaginary  king  of  Gaul  (perhaps  Wales),  and 
crowns  his  adventures  by  marrying  Oriana, 
daughter  of  Lisuarte,  king  of  England. 

AMADOR,  an  E.  county  of  California,  bordering 
on  the  Sierra  Nevada,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the 
Amador  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Sacramento, 
and  drained  by  the  branches  of  the  San  Joa- 
quin;  pop.  in  1870,  9,582,  of  whom  1,627  were 
Chinese.  Gold,  copper,  marble,  and  quartz 
abound.  The  productions  in  1870  were  16,678 
bushels  of  wheat,  51,815  of  barley,  36,760  of 
corn,  73,010  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  54,165  gallons  of 
wine.  There  were  36  quartz  mills  for  the  pro 
duction  of  gold,  9  saw  mills,  and  2  newspapers. 
Capital,  Jackson. 

A3IALARIC,  the  son  of  Alaric  II.,  and  last 
Visigothic  king  of  Spain,  born  in  501,  died 
in  531.  He  was  not  yet  six  years  old  at  his 
father's  death,  and  his  bastard  brother  would 
have  supplanted  him  had  not  his  grandfather 
Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  seized  the 
throne  and  preserved  it  for  his  grandson  until 
he  reached  manhood.  He  married  Clotilda, 
daughter  of  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  in  527, 
and  having  treated  her  with  great  cruelty  to 
induce  her  to  embrace  Arianism,  her  brother 
Childebert  marched  against  him,  and  defeated 
him  in  battle.  He  was  killed  in  the  flight. 

AMALASOXTHA,  or  Amalasuintha,  daughter  of 
Theodoric  the  Great,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
born  in  498,  died  in  535.  Her  husband  Eutha- 
ric  having  died,  her  intellect  and  learning  de 
cided  Theodoric  to  make  her  regent  of  Itaty 


374: 


AMALEKITES 


AMALGAM 


during  the  minority  of  her  son  Athalaric,  to 
whom  lie  bequeathed  that  kingdom.  Assum 
ing  power  in  520,  and  availing  herself  of  the 
aid  of  Cassiodorus,  she  showed  great  adminis 
trative  talent;  but  her  efforts  to  educate  her 
son  were  thwarted  by  the  Gothic  nobles  and 
by  his  own  intractable  disposition,  and  his  de 
baucheries  destroyed  him  in  hi$  youth.  She 
still  endeavored  to  retain  power,  but  through 
the  influence  of  Justinian  was  imprisoned  and 
strangled  by  her  cousin  Theodatus,  whom  she 
had  married  and  made  co-regent. 

AMALEKITES,  a  Bedouin  tribe,  who,  accord 
ing  to  Arabian  traditions,  lived  in  very  early 
times  near  the  Persian  gulf,  but  were  gradually 
driven  westward  by  the  Assyrians.  When  they 
were  first  known  by  the  Israelites,  they  inhab 
ited  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and  its  neighbor 
hood  to  the  north,  thus  controlling  the  routes 
across  the  isthmus  of  Suez.  They  are  men 
tioned  as  defeated  by  the  four  kings,  and  again 
as  harassing  the  march  of  the  Israelites  out 
of  Egypt.  They  were  afterward  defeated  at 
Rephidim,  but  in  turn  vanquished  the  Israelites 
near  Hormah,  where  they  had  the  Canaanites 
as  allies.  They  are  mentioned  several  times 
after  this,  but  no  longer  as  powerful ;  and  they 
seem  to  have  been  almost  exterminated  by  Saul 
and  David. 

AMALFI,  a  city  and  seaport  of  S.  Italy,  in  Prin- 
cipato  Citra,  on  the  gulf  of  Salerno,  24  m.  S.  E. 
of  Naples ;  pop.  about  5,000,  and  with  several 


industries.  The  macaroni  of  Amalfi  is  famous, 
and  is  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  — 
Amalfi  is  believed  to  have  been  founded  in  the 
4th  century,  but  is  not  mentioned  in  history 
till  the  6th.  It  early  became  an  independent  re 
public,  governed  by  doges,  and  the  principal 
centre  of  eastern  trade,  with  a  population  of 
50,000,  the  dependent  territory  comprising  500,- 
000.  It  originated  a  new  maritime  code  (Tabula 
Amalphitana),  introduced  into  Europe  an  im 
proved  knowledge  of  the  mariner's  compass, 
and  preserved  the  earliest  known  MS.  of  the 
Pandects.  The  inhabitants  also  acquired  dis 
tinction  in  the  crusades  as  the  founders  of  the 
hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  from  which 
the  knights  of  Malta  derived  their  name.  In 
1075  Robert  Guiscard  was  called  to  the  aid  of 
the  republic  against  the  duke  of  Salerno,  and 
afterward  annexed  it  to  his  dukedom  of  Apulia  ; 
but  it  maintained  a  partial  independence  til] 
1131,  when  it  capitulated  to  King  Roger  of 
Sicily,  retaining  the  right  of  municipal  self- 
government.  Its  decline  in  commercial  impor 
tance  was  hastened  by  wars  with  the  Pisans, 
by  the  encroachments  of  the  sea  upon  its  har 
bor  from  the  12th  century,  and  the  destruction 
of  its  quays  and  public  works  by  a  great  storm 
in  1343.  In  later  times  the  titles  of  duke  and 
prince  of  Amalfi  were  held  by  various  families, 
AMALGAM  (Gr.  C//G,  together,  and  ya/utiv,  to 
marr  or  accordin  to  some,  //d/,ay//a,  an 


emo 


llient,  from 


Amalfi. 

independent  villages  about  7,000.  It  is  encir 
cled  by  mountains  and  precipices,  at  the  mouth 
of  a  gorge,  from  which  a  little  torrent  dashes 
into  the  gulf,  furnishing  power  for  numerous 
mills  and  manufactories.  It  has  been  an  arch 
bishop's  see  since  987,  and  besides  the  ancient 
cathedral,  in  the  Romanesque  style,  there  are 
several  fine  churches  and  a  Capuchin  convent. 
The  coasting  trade,  fisheries,  and  manufactures 
of  paper,  soap,  and  macaroni  are  the  principal 


,  to  soften),  an  alloy  of 
two  or  more  metals,  one 
of  which  must  be  mercu 
ry.     This  metal  has  a  re 
markable    power    of    dis 
solving  most  of  the  other 
metals  and  forming  com 
binations  that  ma}r  be  ap 
plied   directly   to   various 
uses  ;    and,   moreover,    as 
the  mercury  is  easily  ex 
pelled  from  them  by  heat, 
these     combinations     are 
used  as  a  means  of  bring 
ing    other   metals   into   a 
condition    of    convenient 
application  to  many  pur 
poses.      Thus,    gilding    is 
sometimes      effected      by 
washing  other  metals  with 
a  solution  of  gold  in  mer 
cury.       The    mercury    is 
driven  off  by  heat,  and  the 
gold  remains  coating  the 
surface.     A  process  is  pat 
ented  in  England  for  covering  iron  with  zinc, 
which  is  based  on  this  principle.    A  considerable 
I  degree  of  cold  is  produced  in  forming  some  amal- 
I  gams.     Thus,  in  mixing  at  a  temperature  of  05° 
I  F.  118  parts  of  tin  and  201  of  lead,  both  in  filings, 
|  284  of  bismuth  in  fine  powder,  and  1,616  of 
!  mercury,  the  temperature  falls  to  18°.     Many 
'  of  the  amalgams  are  definite  compounds,  from 
which  the  mercury  in  excess  may  be  squeezed 
,  out  ;  but  sometimes  the  liquid  that  thus  escapes 


AMALGAMATION 


AMALIE 


is  found  to  be  itself  an  amalgam,  containing  a 
smaller  proportion  of  the  harder  metals,  seem 
ing  to  indicate  two  delinite  compounds  of  dif 
ferent  proportions.     This  is  observed  with  the 
amalgam  of  mercury  with  silver,  and  also  with 
tin.     In  tinning  mirrors,  the  glass  plates  are 
laid  upon  smooth  stone   tables   covered  with 
the  amalgam.     The  solid  portions  adhere  in  a 
thin  film  to  the  glass ;  and  this  is  a  compound 
of  atomic  proportions.    The  liquid  squeezed  out 
by  the  weight  placed  upon  the  glass  proves 
also  to  be  an  amalgam  containing  but  a  small 
proportion  of  tin. — Amalgams  are  prepared  by  ' 
putting  the  harder   metals,  reduced   to  small 
size,  in  mercury,  and  dissolving  them  with  or 
without  heat,  as  may  be  required.     When  the  , 
metals  are  not  easily  dissolved,  they  may  be  ' 
rubbed  together  or  triturated  in  a  mortar,  or  : 
melted,  and  the  mercury  heated  and  poured  j 
into  the  fused  metal.     This  is  the  process  for  ; 
preparing  an  amalgam  of  4  parts  mercury,  2  • 
zinc,  and  1  part  tin,  for  the  electrical  machine.  ' 
The   zinc  is  first  melted,  the  tin  added,  and 
then  the   hot   mercury   stirred   in.      It   is   to 
be  shaken  till  cold,  then  triturated  and  sifted 
in   a  fine   sieve.      An   amalgam  of   mercury  i 
with  iron  is  prepared  by  rubbing  together  in  I 
a  mortar  clean  iron  filings  and  zinc  amalgam,  | 
and  adding  a  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron,  i 
By  rubbing  and  heating  this  mixture  a  bright 
amalgam  of  iron   and  mercury   is   produced,  j 
Some  amalgams  take  a  crystalline  form,  thus  j 
indicating  combination  in  definite  proportions  ;  i 
and    there  is  also  a  native  amalgam   of  this  '• 
character   of  mercury   with   silver.       This  is  \ 
found  in  dodecahedral  crystals,  consisting  of  1  ! 
atom  of  silver  and  2  of  mercury =36  per  cent,  j 
of  the  one  and  64  of  the  other.     One  part  of  j 
gold  heated  with  6  parts  of  mercury  crystal 
lizes   on   cooling  in   four-sided    prisms.      Tin 
amalgam  made  of  3  parts  of  mercury  and  1  of 
tin  forms  cubic  crystals.    Amalgams  freed  from 
their  excess  of  mercury  are,  when  freshly  made, 
dry  pasty  substances,  which  soon  become  hard 
like  stone.     This  property  makes  some  of  them 
convenient  for  filling  cavities  of  teeth,  but  the 
injury  the  mercury  may  effect  upon  the  system 
renders  their  use  highly  objectionable. 

AMALGAMATION,  the"  process  of  extracting 
gold  and  silver  from  the  gangues  in  which  they  j 
occur  in  nature  by  combining  them  with  mer-  ' 
riiry.  The  ores  are  crushed  and  then  washed  j 
through  different  machines  in  which  mercury  \ 
is^placed.  This  seizes  upon  the  little  particles  j 
of  the  metals  that  come  in  contact  with  it,  and  j 
brings  them  together  into  one  mass,  from  ! 
which  the  earthy  matters  are  all  washed  away.  | 
Any  greasy  substance  present  almost  wholly  \ 
prevents  this  effect,  the  grease  adhering  in  a  i 
film  upon  the  surface  of  the  mercury,  and  thus  ! 
rendering  impracticable  the  close  contact  ne-  ! 
cessary  for  their  union.  The'  amalgam  is  from  j 
time  to  time  taken  out  of  the  washing  machines,  ; 
squeezed  through  cloth  or  dressed  deerskin,  the 
liquid  portion  replaced,  and  the  solid  distilled 
in  an  apparatus  suitable  for  saving  the  mer-  i 


;  cury,  which  is  then  ready  for  use  upon  another 
!  lot  of  ore.  The  silver  residue  from  distillation 
needs  refining  to  render  it  perfectly  pure. 
j  There  are  two  processes  for  separating  silver 
:  from  its  .ores  by  amalgamation — the  European 

Process  in  barrels,  and  the  American  in  heaps, 
'he  ore  is  treated  in  the  European  process  by 

j  pulverizing  the  ore  and  roasting  it  with  an  ad 
mixture  of  common  salt ;  by  this  means  all  the 
silver,  which  was  originally  a  sulphide,  is  con 
verted  into  the  chloride.  The  roasted  ore  is 
then  placed  in  barrels  which  can  be  revolved 

1  upon  a  vertical  axis,  and  is  thoroughly  loosened 
and  stirred  up  with  water.  Iron  in  the  form 
of  nails  or  scrap  is  then  added,  which  takes  the 

,  chlorine  from  the  silver  and  yields  the  latter  in 

I  the  metallic  state.  Mercury  is  then  added  in 
larger  quantity  than  is  sufficient  to  amalgamate 
all  the  silver.  After  the  barrel  has  revolved 
for  an  hour  or  more  the  mercury  will  have  ta 
ken  up  the  silver,  and  is  then  drawn  off.  This 
mercury  is  filtered  and  distilled  as  above  de 
scribed.  The  American  process  of  amalgama 
tion  in  heaps  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity, 
and  although  not  so  perfect  in  its  extraction 
of  silver,  it  does  not  require  fuel  and  expensive 
apparatus.  The  ore  is  first  broken  up  to  the 
size  of  a  pea  by  means  of  rude  stamps,  and  then 
ground  to  fine  powder  in  round  cylindrical 
tubs  with  bottoms  of  stone.  Each  tub  has  a 
horizontal  arm  revolving  with  its  centre  upon 
the  vertical  axis  of  the  tub,  and  having  at  each 
end  a  chain  attached  to  a  stone  weighing  from 
50  to  100  pounds.  When  the  arm  is  revolved, 
these  stones  are  dragged  round  and  pulverize 
the  ore.  The  ore  is  then  placed  on  an  amalga 
mating  floor  built  of  stone,  and  is  mixed  with  a 
little  salt  and  mercury.  After  some  days  the 
mercury  is  collected,  filtered,  and  distilled  as 
above  described,  to  save  the  silver. 

AMALIA,  Anna,  duchess  of  Saxe- Weimar,  sec 
ond  daughter  of  Duke  Charles  of  Brunswick  - 
Wolfenbilttel,  born  Oct.  24,  1739,  died  April  10, 
1807.  She  was  married  to  Duke  Ernest  of 
Weimar  in  1756.  After  her  husband's  death 
in  1758  she  took  the  reins  of  government,  and 
held  them  so  well  that  Saxe- Weimar  was  able 
speedily  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  seven 
years'  war,  and  escaped  the  famine  of  1773. 
In  1775  she  resigned  the  administration  to  her 
son,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  cultivation  of 
literature.  For  30  years  she  lived  in  the,  soci 
ety  of  Wieland,  Goethe,  Herder,  Schiller,  and 
other  men  of  eminence. 

AMALIE,  Marie  Friederiko,  queen  of  Greece, 
born  Dec.  21,  1818.  She  is  a  daughter  of  the 
late  grand  duke  Paul,  and  half  sister  of  the 
reigning  grand  duke  Xicholas  of  Oldenburg, 
and  was  married  to  King  Otho  of  Greece  Xov. 
22,  1836.  She  imparted  a  high  tone  to  the 
court  circles  of  Athens,  and  was  much  respected 
in  Greece  on  account  of  her  firmness,  her  be 
nevolence,  and  her  varied  accomplishments. 
In  1856  she  acted  as  regent  during  the  foreign 
occupation  of  Athens.  A  Greek  student  made 
an  attempt  to  shoot  her  hi  1861.  On  Oct.  24, 


376 


AMALIE 


AMARANTH 


1862,  after  the  deposition  of  her  husband,  she 
went  with  him  to  Bavaria,  and  since  his  death 
(July  20,  1867)  has  resided  at  Bamberg.  Her 
sister  married  in  1855  Maximilian  de  Washing 
ton,  a  Bavarian  baron,  a  descendant  of  the 
English  Washington  family,  resident  in  Styria. 

AMALIE,  Marie  Fricderike  Anguste,  duchess,  a 
German  dramatist,  eldest  sister  of  King  John 
of  Saxony,  born  in  Dresden,  Aug.  10,  1794, 
died  in  the  palace  of  Pillnitz,  Sept.  18,  1870. 
She  wrote  two  dramas  under  the  name  of  Ama- 
lie  Ilerter  (Dresden,  1829-'30).  Among  her 
subsequent  productions,  which  are  noted  for*  a 
love  of  humanity  and  virtue,  her  comedies  Der 
Onkcl  and  Die  Fursteribraut  became  very  pop 
ular.  The  latter  was  performed  in  Paris  under 
the  title  Une  feinme  cliarmante  (1840).  Others 
of  her  plays  were  also  adapted  to  the  French 
stage.  A  complete  edition  of  her  dramatic 
works  was  published  in  Dresden,  for  the  bene 
fit  of  the  women's  association,  under  the  title 
of  Originalbeitrage  zur  deutschen  Schaubuhne 
(6  vols.,  1837-42).  A  3d  edition  of  the  1st 
volume  appeared  in  1858,  and  a  French  version 
of  it  (Comedieti)  at  Paris  in  1841.  Six  of  her 
dramas  were  translated  into  English  by  Jame 
son  (London,  1846),  and  six  others  anonymously 
(1848).  She  composed  operas  and  sacred  music. 

AMALS,  or  Amali,  the  name  of  the  royal  fam 
ily  of  the  Goths.  Of  this  family  were  all  the 
sovereigns  of  this  nation  until  the  division  into 
Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths.  After  that  event 
the  Ostrogothic  kings  were  Amals  until  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  in  Theodoric  the 
Great.  According  to  the  legendary  chronol 
ogy  recorded  by  Jornandes,  the  Gothic  bishop 
and  chronicler  Amal,  or  Amala,  who  gave  the 
name  to  the  family,  was  the  fourth  descendant 
of  Gapt,  the  first  Gothic  king.  Amal  is  sup 
posed  to  have  signified  spotless. 

AMALTH/EA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  nurse 
of  the  infant  Zeus.  She  is  commonly  supposed 
to  have  been  a  goat,  who,  with  her  two  young 
ones,  was  translated  to  the  skies,  where  all 
three  were  metamorphosed  into  stars  by  the 
father  of  the  gods.  Zeus,  according  to  one  of 
the  various  myths  on  the  subject,  broke  off  one 
of  the  horns  of  the  goat  Amaltluiea,  and  pre 
sented  it  to  the  daughters  of  Mclisscus,  king 
of  Crete.  This  horn  was  endowed  with  such 
miraculous  power  that  whenever  the  possessor 
wished,  it  would  instantly  become  filled  with 
whatever  might  be  desired. 

AMA3VUS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  mountain 
range,  a  branch  of  Mount  Taurus,  extending 
in  a  N.  E.  direction  from  the  gulf  of  Issus  to 
ward  the  Euphrates,  and  separating  Cilicia 
from  Syria,  which  it  bounds  on  the  north. 

AMAR,  J.  P.  Andre,  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  in  Grenoble  about  1750,  died  in  Paris  in 
1816.  Elected  in  1792  to  the  convention  for 
the  department  of  Isere,  he  voted  for  the  exe 
cution  of  Louis  XVI.  within  24  hours,  and  for 
the  rejection  of  the  appeal  to  the  people.  Be 
ing  sent  as  a  commissary  to  his  own  depart 
ment,  he  showed  himself  a  merciless  persecu 


tor  of  his  neighbors,  systematically  denounced 
the  Girondists  on  every  occasion,  and  contrib 
uted  his  part  to  the  fall  of  the  Dantonists, 
then  called  moderes,  and  the  Ilebertists,  stig 
matized  as  anarchists.  He  appeared  to  favor 
Robespierre's  system,  but  materially  contrib 
uted  to  his  defeat  before  the  convention. 
When  in  1795  Collot  d'llerbois,  Billaud-Va- 
rennes,  and  Barrere  were  condemned  to  be 
transported,  he  presented  himself  as  their  ad 
vocate.  The  consequence  of  this  act  was  his 
confinement  in  the  fortress  of  Ham.  He  re 
gained  his  liberty  by  the  decree  of  amnesty 
rendered  by  the  convention  on  its  final  ad 
journment.  By  order  of  the  directory,  he  was 
subsequently  arrested  as  an  accomplice  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Drouet  and  Baboeuf,  but  released 
for  want  of  legal  testimony.  However,  he  was 
exiled  from  Paris  during  Xapoleon's  reign,  and 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  obscurity. 

AMARANTH  (amarantm ;  Gr.  auapavros,  un 
fading,  because  the  flowers  retain  their  bright 
colors  when  dead),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
family  of  amarantacece.  This  genus  is  rich  in 
species,  most  of  which  grow  within  the  tropics 
(about  60  in  Asia,  105  in  America,  10  in  Africa), 
some  without  the  tropics  (about  20  in  Asia,  25 
in  America,  28  in  Kew  Holland,  several  in 
Africa,  5  in  Europe),  either  in  groups  or  singly, 
in  dry  stony  situations  or  among  thickets,  few 
in  salt  marshes.  The  most  ornamental  exotic 
species,  cultivated  in  Europe  and  in  the  United 
States,  all  annuals,  are  :  A.  caudatm  (love-lies- 
bleeding),  native  of  India,  from  2  to  3  feet  high  ; 


Amarantus  caudatus  (Love-Lies-Bleeding1). 

leaves  oval,  oblong,  reddish ;  flowers  crimson, 
I  in  long  hanging  clusters ;  a  gigantic  variety  is 
I  9  feet  high.     A.  sanguineus,  of  India;    stem 
j  and  leaves  blood-red ;  leaves  oval,  often  emar- 
|  ginate  ;  flowers  red,  small,  axillary,  with  inter- 
nudal  clusters.     A.  speciosus,  of  Xepaul;  py 
ramidal,  6  feet  high ;  flowers  purplish  crimson 
along  the  branches.      A.   tricolor,   of  China; 


AMAEAPUEA 


AMATI 


377 


branchy,  3  feet  high;  leaves  yellow,  red,  and 
green;  flowers  green,  lateral.  A.  liypochon- 
driticus  (prince's  feather),  with  erect  flower 
spikes  and  purplish  foliage,  is  a  native  of 
Virginia.  These  hardy  species  can  be  sown 
in  the  open  border,  while  the  less  hardy 
require  a  gentle  hot-bed,  whence  «they  may 
be  potted  off  singly,  in  rich  soil,  and  well 
watered.  The  above-named  species  blossom 
from  June  to  October.  Many  of  the  spe-  | 
cies,  having  mucilaginous  leaves,  are  used 
a^  pot  tierbs,  with  lemon  juice.  A.  viridis  is 
emollient,  good  for  cataplasms.  The  seeds  of 
A.  frumentaceus  and  anardhana  are  eaten  in 
India.  A.  oltusifolius  is  diuretic.  Some  others 
are  variously  employed  in  South  America. 

AMARAPIRA,  or  Immerapnra,  a  city  of  the 
Burman  empire,  6  in.  N".  E.  of  Ava,  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy.  It  was  founded 
in  1783,  and  made  the  capital  of  the  country, 
but  in  1819  the  seat  of  government  was  trans 
ferred  again  to  Ava.  In  March,  1810,  the 
whole  city,  then  containing  over  170,000  in 
habitants,  was  burned  to  the  ground.  In  1827 
the  population  was  not  over  30,000.  Many  of 
the  public  buildings  present  a  magnificent  spec 
tacle,  having  their  roofs  richly  gilt  within  and 
without.  One  of  its  temples,  a  vast  edifice 
adorned  with  sculptures,  contains  a  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  Gautama.  A  whole  street  was 
formerly  occupied  by  goldsmiths.  Dr.  Adolf 
Bastian,  who  visited  Amarapura  in  1861-'2, 
describes  it  as  entirely  decayed,  only  a  suburb 
inhabited  by  Chinese  exhibiting  any  activity. 

A3IASIA,  Amasieh,  or  Aniasi)  all,  a  city  of  Asia  Mi 
nor,  in  the  pashalic  of  Sivas,  on  the  Yeshil-Irmak,  \ 
50  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Samsun  on  the  Black  sea ;  '• 
pop.  about  25,000.     It  is  situated  in  a  deep  val 
ley  enclosed  by  precipitous  rocks,  upon  one  of  ; 
which,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  are  the  re-  i 
mains  of  an  ancient  acropolis  and  two  Hellenic 
towers.     Four  bridges,  one  probably  of  Roman 
construction,  cross  the  river  within  the  limits 
of  the  city.     The  houses  are  of  stone,  but  mean  | 
and  small ;  the  bazaars  are  poor  ;  and  the  prin-  | 
cipal  buildings  are  in  ruins.     There  is  an  active  i 
trade  in  raw  silks,   wine,  madder,  grain,  and 
cotton.      The  early  history  of  the  town  is  un 
known.      It   was    the   metropolis   of    Pontus 
under  the  Roman  domination  of  Asia  Minor. 
Strabo   the  geographer  was    born    here,  and 
gives  a  minute  description  of  the  place.     The 
tombs  of  tho  kings,   of  which  he  speaks,  are 
still  to  be  seen,  scooped  out  of  the  face  of  the 
rock  upon  which  the  citadel  stands. 

AMASIS,  or  Amosis  (Eg.  Ahames  or  Ahmes,  the  j 
new  moon,  or  engendered  by  the  moon),  the  I 
name  of  two  Egyptian  kings.  I.  The  first  Pha-  i 
raoli  of  the  18th  dynasty.  He  reigned  from  | 
1525  to  1499  B.  C.  He  led  the  insurrection  ! 
against  the  Hyksos  in  Lower  Egypt,  besieged  i 
and  captured  their  great  stronghold,  Avaris,  : 
pursued  them  into  Canaan,  captured  there  a  ! 
number  of  towns,  and  thus  began  that  series  of 
Egyptian  wars  in  western  Asia,  in  which  his 
successors  carried  their  arms  even  beyond  the 


Euphrates.  II.  The  last  ruler  but  one  of  the 
26th  dynasty,  reigned  from  509  to  526  B.  C. 
lie  erected  monuments  in  various  parts  of 
Egypt,  and  particularly  adorned  Sa'is.  He  was 
a  good  sovereign,  and  is  mentioned  especially 
by  Herodotus  as  having  had  friendly  inter 
course  with  Solon,  and  with  the  celebrated  Poly- 
crates  of  Samos.  lie  encouraged  Greeks  to 
settle  in  Egypt,  and  maintained  good  relations 
with  Gyrene  and  other  Hellenic  states.  Under 
his  son  Psammenitus,  who  reigned  only  six 
months,  Egypt  was  conquered  by  Carnbyses. 

AMATI,  a  family  of  Cremona,  celebrated 
for  the  perfection  attained  by  many  of  its 
members  in  the  construction  of  violins  and 
instruments  of  that  class.  I.  Andrea,  born  in 
Cremona  between  1500  and  1520,  died  about 
1577.  He  is  said  to  have  served  an  appren 
ticeship  as  a  violin  maker  at  Brescia,  and 
he  established  a  shop  of  his  own  at  Cremona 
while  still  a  young  man.  The  instruments  used 
in  the  chamber  concerts  of  his  time,  such  for 
instance  as  the  lutes,  theorbos,  guitars,  and 
mandolins,  were  all  soft-toned,  and  sweetness 
rather  than  power  of  tone  was  sought  in  their 
construction.  Following  this  taste,  his  violins 
are  remarkable  for  their  exquisite  softness  of 
tone  and  the  beauty  of  their  workmanship. 
They  are  of  small  and  medium  patterns,  the 
arch  elevated ;  the  wood  of  the  bottom  runs 
with  the  grain,  the  sounding-boards  are  mod 
erately  thick,  and  the  varnish  is  of  a  clear 
brown.  Very  few  of  his  instruments  now  ex 
ist.  Charles  IX.  possessed  a  collection  of  24 
violins,,  viols,  and  basses  made  to  his  order  by 
Andrea  Amati.  They  were  very  elaborately  or 
namented,  having  the  arms  of  France  and  vari 
ous  other  devices  painted  in  colors  on  the  back. 
II.  IVicolo,  a  younger  brother  of  the  preceding, 
known  for  the  excellence  of  his  violoncellos. 
He  is  believed  to  have  outlived  Andrea,  though 
the  exact  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  un 
certain.  III.  Antonio,  son  of  Andrea,  born  at 
Cremona  about  1550,  died  in  1635.  He  was  his 
father's  pupil,  and  succeeded  him  in  business. 
For  a  time  he  was  associated  with  his  brother 
Geronimo,  and  the  instruments  bearing  their 
joint  names  are  much  esteemed.  Antonio 
adopted  the  models  of  his  father,  but  made  a 
much  greater  number  of  small  than  of  large  in 
struments.  His  violins  produce  delicate,  sweet, 
and  pure  tones,  but  they  have  little  power. 
The  first  and  second  strings  are  the  best,  the 
third  a  little  dull,  and  the  fourth  slightly  dry  in 
tone.  His  violins  are  all  of  exquisite  finish  ; 
the  arch  is  high  in  the  centre,  and  the  fir  of 
which  the  sounding-boards  are  made  is  of  a  fine 
and  delicate  grain.  IV.  Geronimo  (date  of  birth 
and  death  unknown),  youngest  son  of  Andrea, 
was  a  pupil  of  his  father.  His  violins  were 
generally  of  a  larger  pattern  than  those  of  his 
father  and  brother,  and  inferior  to  them.  No 
i  violins  bearing  his  mark  subsequent  to  1638 
!  are  known  to  exist.  V.  Nicolo,  son  of  Geroni- 
j  mo,  born  Sept.  3,  1596,  died  Aug.  12,  1684. 
I  lie  was  the  most  celebrated  of  the  family,  and 


378 


AMATITLAN 


AMAZON 


the  greater  part  of  the  instruments  known  as 
Amatis  are  from  his  hands.  He  not  only  made 
great  changes  in  the  models  and  proportions 
adopted  hy  his  family,  but  gave  to  his  details 
a  higher  finish  and  to  his  curves  a  greater  per 
fection,  while  he  discovered  a  mellower  and 
more  beautiful  varnish.  The  relation  of  the 
swells  and  the  thicknesses  of  his  instruments 
is  better  planned  than  in  those  of  his  father  or 
his  uncle.  Thence  it  is  that,  while  preserving 
their  distinguishing  sweetness  of  tone,  they  at 
tain  more  power  and  brilliancy.  Some  violins 
at  which  this  maker  would  seem  to  have  work 
ed  with  unusual  care  are  masterpieces  of  art. 
One  of  two  dated  1688  was  at  Milan  in  the  col 
lection  of  Count  Cozio  de  Salabue.  In  perfec 
tion  of  finish,  purity  and  mellowness  of  tone, 
this  instrument  was  considered  a  marvel.  The 
great  violinist  Alard  also  possessed  one  of  the 
finest  instruments  that  ever  came  from  the 
hand  of  this  great  maker.  The  weakest  point 
in  his  violins  is  the  second  string,  which,  owing, 
it  is  believed,  to  the  too  sudden  decrease  in  the 
thickness  of  the  belly  toward  the  sides,  is  thin, 
the  notes  Si  and  Do  being  particularly  liable  to 
this  objection.  As  is  the  case  with  the  instru 
ments  of  all  the  other  makers  of  this  family,  the 
tones  of  those  made  by  Nicolo  are  slender,  but 
in  an  especial  degree  sweet,  round,  and  silvery. 

AMATITLAN,  a  town  of  Guatemala,  Central 
America,  about  18  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Guate 
mala,  in  lat,  14°  30'  N.,  Ion.  90°  17'  W.  ;  pop. 
about  15,000.  It  lies  in  a  volcanic  region,  near 
and  somewhat  below  a  mountain  lake  of  the 
same  name.  It  is  a  principal  seat  of  the  coch 
ineal  cultivation.  The  houses  are  of  one  story 
and  of  mud,  roughly  moulded.  Hot  springs 
abound  in  the  neighborhood.  The  waters  of 
the  lake  have  a  high  temperature,  and  are  sup 
posed  to  possess  medicinal  qualities. 

AMATIS  LUSITANUS  (that  is,  the  Portuguese), 
whose  proper  name  was  JOAO  RODEIGITEZ  DE 
CASTEL  BEAXCO,  a  Jewish  physician,  born  in 
Portugal  in  1511,  after  the  expulsion  of  all  un 
converted  Jews  from  the  country,  died  in  1568. 
He  was  ostensibly* brought  up  as  a  Christian, 
studied  at  Salamanca,  travelled  in  France,  the 
Netherlands,  and  Italy,  and  dissected  12  human 
corpses  in  Ferrara,  which  was  a  great  feat  for 
a  time  when  religious  and  popular  prejudices 
ran  so  strong  against  the  practical  prosecution 
of  anatomical  science.  Having  settled  in  An- 
cona,  he  was  persecuted  as  a  Jew,  and  obliged 
to  leave  the  town  after  the  accession  of  Paul  IV. 
in  1555.  He  fled  from  city  to  city  to  save  him 
self  from  the  inquisition.  At  last  he  obtained 
safe  refuge  at  Salonica  in  Macedonia,  where  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  days. 

AMAUROSIS  (Gr.,  from  auavp6^  dark),  par 
tial  or  complete  loss  of  sight,  dependent  on  a 
change  in  the  nerve  structure  of  the  eye.  The 
term  was  formerly  used  to  denote  any  loss  of 
sight  the  cause  of  which  could  not  be  appreci 
ated  by  the  naked  eye ;  but  the  invention  of 
the  ophthalmoscope  has  been  the  means  of  re 
stricting  it  to  those  cases  in  which  the  optic 


nerve  or  its  expansion,  the  retina,  has  under 
gone  atrophy,  or  its  component  parts  are  ?o 
pressed  upon  that  they  are  no  longer  capable 
of  performing  their  functions.  The  tissue  which 
holds  together  the  fibres  of  the  optic  nerve 
being  in  close  connection  with  that  covering 
the  bone  in  its  vicinity,  and  with  the  mem 
branes  of  the  brain,  an  inflammation  of  these 
latter  may  by  extension  induce  the  disease.  A 
haemorrhage  (apoplexy),  or  a  tumor  near  or  in 
j  the  nerve,  may  by  pressure  cause  this  condi 
tion  ;  or  even  a  plugging  of  the  artery  which 
should  supply  the  nerve  with  blood ;  or,  finally, 
certain  diseases  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  or 
of  the  nerve  itself.  The  disease  is  usually  pro 
gressive.  If  the  cause  be  mechanical  from 
pressure,  of  recent  origin,  and  removable  by 
treatment  before  change  in  the  nerve  structure 
has  proceeded  too  far,  the  vision  may  be  re 
stored  or  its  further  loss  prevented.  Such 
cases  are  exceptional. 

AMACRY,  or  Amalric,  the  name  of  two  kings  of 
Jerusalem.  I.  Count  of  Joppa,  bora  in  1135,  died 
July  11,  1173.  He  was  crowned  king  of  Jeru 
salem  in  1162,  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Bald 
win  III.  He  was  a  vain,  ambitious,  and  im 
prudent  prince,  and  passed  the  eight  years  of 
his  reign  in  making  war  on  the  natural  ally  of 
the  Franks,  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  his  only 
sure  support  against  the  inroads  of  the  Sel- 
juk  Turks.  Having  invaded  Egypt  with  some 
success,  he  was  soon  forced  to  the  defensive 
by  Saladin,  who  continued  his  conquests  under 
Baldwin  IV.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Amaury. 
II.  Of  Lusignan,  king  of  Cyprus,  was  called  to 
the  tottering  throne  of  Jerusalem  when  near  its 
downfall.  His  nominal  reign  there  lasted  from 
1194  to  1205.  He  called  upon  the  western  na 
tions  to  aid  him  against  the.  Saracens,  but  the 
crusaders  preferred  stopping  at  Constantinople, 
and  partitioning  the  Byzantine  empire,  to  the 
more  dangerous  service  against  the  Moslems. 
He  left  Cyprus  to  his  son  Hugo  de  Lusignan. 

AMAIRY  OF  CHARTRES.  See  ALMAEIC  OF 
BEXE. 

AMAXICIII,  or  Amaknlu,  a  seaport  town  of 
Greece,  capital  of  the  nornarchy  of  Leucas,  at 
the  N.  E.  extremity  of  Santa  Maura,  Ionian 
Islands,  separated  by  a  narrow  channel  from 
Acarnania;  lat.  38°  50'  15"  N.,  Ion.  20°  43'  E. ; 
pop.  about  5,500.  From  the  liability  to  earth 
quakes,  the  houses  are  chiefly  of  wood  and  of 
one  story.  It  is  rendered  unhealthy  in  sum 
mer  by  numerous  salt  marshes.  The  harbor 
has  an  extensive  mole,  but  is  only  available  for 
small  craft.  The  town  is  defended  on  the  N. 
by  the  strong  castle  of  Santa  Maura.  It  is  the 
see  of  a  Greek  archbishop. 

AMAZIAH,  king  of  Judah  838-809  B.  C.  See 
HEBEEWS 

AMAZON,  or  Amazons  (Port.  Rio  das  Ama- 
zonas),  the  largest  river  on  the  globe,  flowing 
easterly  from  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic,  and 
draining  about  a  third  of  South  America,  or 
an  area  variously  estimated  from  1,500,000  to 
2,500,000  sq.  m.  The  Apurimac,  an  affluent 


AMAZON 


379 


of  the  Ucayali,  is  by  some  considered  as  its 
source ;  but  it  properly  rises  in  Lake  Laurico- 
cha  near  the  mines  of  Cerro  Pasco.  The  head 
waters,  under  the  name  of  Tunguragua  or 
Upper  Marafion,  flow  northerly  500  m.  in  a 
saries  of  rapids  between  the  Peruvian  Cordille 
ras,  and  on  reaching  the  boundary  of  Ecuador 
run  E.  X.  E.,  maintaining  this  course  to  their 
exit  under  the  equator.  But  the  Amazon  is  a 
vast  river  system,  rather  than  one  river.  More 
than  boO  branches  and  lesser  tributaries  unite 
in  the  grand  trunk  of  this  giant  stream.  From 
lat.  3°  N.  to  19°  S.,  a  distance,  measured  by 
the  windings  of  the  mountain  chain,  of  2,000 
m.,  there  is  not  a  stream  that  descends  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Andes  that  does  not  con 
tribute  its  waters  to  swell  this  mighty  flood. 
Besides  the  Tunguragua,  we  find  on  the  S.  side 
the  Huallaga,  rising  within  a  few  miles  of  its 
source,  and  having  nearly  the  same  course  and 
length ;  it  is  navigable  by  steamers  to  Yurima- 
guas  and  by  canoes  to  Tingo  Maria.  About 
200  m.  below  its  mouth  enters  the  magnificent 
Ucayali.  This  tributary  rises  near  Cuzco,  and 
has  a  length  of  about  1,200  m.,  with  an  average 
width  for  250  m.  above  its  mouth  of  half  a 
mile,  and  a  current  of  3  m.  an  hour.  A  small 
steamer  has  ascended  773  m.  from  Xauta. 
Several  large  but  little  known  streams  succeed, 
as  the  Javari,  Jutahi,  TelFe,  and  Purus,  the  last 
of  which  has  been  ascended  1,800  m.  But  the 
largest  contributor  to  the  Amazon  is  the  Ma 
deira.  At  its  junction  it  is  2  m.  wide  and  60 
feet  deep.  Its  extreme  length  is  probably 
2,000  m.,  and  it  is  navigable  480  m.  Of  its 
affluents,  the  Beni  rises  near  Lake  Titicaca, 
and  the  Mamore  is  separated  only  15  m.  from 
the  source  of  the  Pilcornayo,  the  largest  afflu 
ent  of  the  Paraguay.  The  Tapajos,  1,000  m. 
long,  rises  within  20  m.  of  the  head  waters 
of  the  Paraguay,  and  is  navigable  160  m.  above 
Santarem.  East  of  the  Tapajos  are  the  Xingu 
and  Tocantins,  navigable  about  150  m.,  the 
latter  of  which,  however,  is^an  affluent  of 
the  Para,  and  not  of  the  Xinazon  proper. 
From  the  north,  the  great  river  receives  the 
Xegro,  1,200  m.  long.  This  tributary  is  of 
commercial  importance,  not  only  because  of 
the  rich  region  through  which  it  flows,  but 
also  because  it  is  connected  \rith  the  Orinoco 
by  the  natural  canal  Cassiquiare.  Nearly  par 
allel  to  the  Xegro  are  the  Japura  and  Putu- 
mayo,  each  1,000  m.  long;  and  further  W. 
flow  the  Xapo  and  Pastaca,  rising  in  the 
Quitonian  Andes,  the  former  navigable  500  m., 
the  other  a  torrent.  The  total  length  of  the 
Amazon  from  its  source  to  Para,  following  the 
curves,  is  2,750  m.  If  we  consider  the  Ucayali 
as  the  head,  it  will  measure  3,000.  Lieut.  Hern- 
don  estimated  its  length  from  the  source  of  the 
Huallaga  at  3,944  m.  Though  not  the  longest, 
the  Amazon  is  the  most  voluminous  river  on 
the  globe.  The  water  passing  Obidos  every 
second  amounts  to  500,000  cubic  feet,  and  its 
freshening  influence  is  perceptible  500  m.  from 
the  coast.  Some  idea  of  its  magnitude  may  be 


gained  from  the  fact  that  900  m.  from  its  mouth 
it  receives  a  tributary  2,000  m.  long.  The  usual 
current  is  3  m.  an  hour.  The  depth  varies 
from  42  feet  in  the  upper  part  to  312  at  its 
mouth ;  at  Tabatinga,  where  it  crosses  the 
Brazilian  frontier,  it  is  66  feet.  It  is  deep  at 
the  very  edge,  not  having  those  sloping  shores 
which  characterize  most  streams.  At  Xauta, 
2,300  m.  from  the  sea,  it  is  -*-  m.  wide;  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Madeira  it  is  3  m. ;  below  San- 
tarein  it  is  10  in. ;  and  if  we  include  the  Para, 
its  mouth  is  180  m.  wide.  The  Para  river, 
however,  is  distinct,  and  is  joined  to  the  Ama 
zon  by  very  narrow  channels.  —  Like  other 
tropical  rivers,  the  Amazon  is  subject  to  pe 
riodical  inundations.  The  banks,  usually  high, 
are  overflowed,  and  vast  tracts  are  flooded. 
The  rise  above  the  lowest  level  is  between  7 
and  8  fathoms.  At  Ega  the  rise  begins  about 
the  close  of  February.  The  tide  of  the  ocean 
is  perceptible  at  Obidos,  450  m.  up.  The  bore, 
or  pororoca,  as  it  is  termed  by  the  natives,  is  a 
phenomenon  worthy  of  remark.  It  was  well 
described  by  La  Oondamine,  more  than  100 
years  ago,  in  these  terms  :  "During  three  days 
before  the  new  and  full  moons,  the  period  of 
the  highest  tides,  the  sea,  instead  of  occupying 
six  hours  to  reach  its  flood,  swells  to  its  highest 
limit  in  one  or  two  minutes.  The  noise  of  this 
terrible  flood  is  heard  flve  or  six  miles,  and 
increases  as  it  approaches.  Presently  you  see 
a  liquid  promontory,  12  or  15  feet  high,  fol 
lowed  by  another,  and  another>  and  sometimes 
by  a  fourth.  These  watery  mountains  spread 
across  the  whole  channel,  and  advance  with  a 
prodigious  rapidity,  rending  and  crushing  every 
thing  in  their  way.  Immense  trees  are  instant 
ly  uprooted  by  it,  and  sometimes  whole  tracts 
of  land  are  swept  away."  It  is  difficult  for  ves 
sels  to  withstand  such  a  tide,  and  hence  those 
accustomed  to  the  navigation  of  the  river  avail 
themselves  of  espems,  or  resting  places,  where 
their  vessels  may  be  sheltered  from  its  vio 
lence.  Another  characteristic  feature  is  the 
system  of  back  channels  joining  the  tributaries, 
and  the  iga rapes  or  canoe  paths  through  the 
forest.  One  may  go  from  Santarem  1,000  m. 
up  the  Amazon  without  ever  entering  it.  The 
water  of  the  upper  Amazon  and  of  the  Pasta 
ca,  Iluallaga,  Tapajos,  Xingu,  and  Tocantins 
is  blue  or  olive-green ;  that  of  the  lower  Ama 
zon  and  of  the  Madeira,  Purus,  Jutahi,  Javari,  « 
Ucayali,  Xapo,  Putumayo,  and  Japura  is  yel 
lowish;  of  the  Xegro  and  Tefi°e,  black.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  will  average  about 
80°.  The  river  is  full  of  islands  and  sand  bars, 
and  the  axis  of  the  channel  is  constantly 
changing.  A  vast  amount  of  sediment  is  carried 
into  the  sea,  but  there  is  no  delta  proper,  the 
Marajo  and  other  islands  in  the  great  estuary 
having  a  rocky  base. — The  immense  valley  of 
the  Amazon  is  walled  in  by  the  Andes  and  the 
highlands  of.  Guiana  and  Matto  Grosso.  Xo 
other  region  of  equal  area  has  such  a  remark 
ably  uniform  character,  and  its  geological 
formation  is  of  deep  interest.  Scarcely  any- 


380 


AMAZON 


AMAZONS 


thing  is  visible  but  variegated  clays  and  a  red 
dish  sandstone.  Prof.  Agassiz  has  considered 
it  a  cretaceous  basin  filled  with  glacial  drift ; 
but  Prof.  Orton  in  1867  discovered  a  highly 
fossiliferous  deposit  in  the  clay  formation,  con 
taining  extinct  shells,  showing  it  to  be  of  plio 
cene  or  miocene  date.  The  region  traversed 
by  the  Amazon  and  its  affluents  is  covered  with 
vast  forests,  and  possesses  a  soil  of  extraor 
dinary  fertility.  ulf,"  says  Huraboldt,  "the 
name  of  primeval  forest  can  be  given  to  any 
forest  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  none  perhaps 
can  so  strictly  claim  it  as  those  that  fill  the 
connected  basin  of  the  Orinoco  and  the 
Amazon."  "From  the  grassy  steppes  of  Ven 
ezuela  to  the  treeless  pampas  of  Buenos 
Ayres,"  says  a  later  traveller  just  referred 
to,  "expands  a  sea  of  verdure,  in  which  we 
may  draw  a  circle  of  1,100  m.  in  diameter 
which  shall  include  an  evergreen,  unbroken 
forest.  There  is  a  most  bewildering  diver 
sity  of  grand  and  beautiful  trees — a  wild,  un- 
conquered  race  of  vegetable  giants,  draped, 
festooned,  corded,  matted,  and  ribboned  with 
climbing  and  creeping  plants,  woody  and  suc 
culent,  in  endless  variety.  The  exuberance 
of  nature  displayed  in  these  million  square 
acres  of  tangled,  impenetrable  forest  offers  a 
bar  to  civilization  nearly  as  great  as  its  sterility 
in  the  African  deserts."  Palms,  leguminous 
trees,  and  giant  grasses  are  the  predominant 
forms.  The  most  valuable  for  commerce  are 
the  caoutchouc  tree  and  Brazil-nut  tree,  and 
more  than  100  varieties  of  beautiful  woods 
eminent  for  their  hardness,  tints,  and  texture. 
— Animal  life  is  not  so  conspicuous  in  the  forest 
as  in  the  river.  The  latter  is  crowded  with 
strange  fishes  (of  which  the  largest  is  the  pira- 
rucu,  8  ft.  long),  alligators,  turtles,  anacondas, 
porpoises,  and  manatees.  Mammals,  birds,  and 
reptiles  are  scattered  through  the  forest  in 
great  variety,  but  few  appear  in  any  one  place. 
The  common  forms  are  monkeys,  jaguars,  tapirs, 
capybaras,  peccaries,  sloths,  deer,  armadillos, 
toucans,  and  macaws.  The  shores  are  likewise 
thinly  inhabited ;  the  most  important  tribes  are 
the  Mundurucus,  Tucunas,  and  Yaguas.  The 
largest  towns  are  Para,  Santarem,  Manaos,  and 
Iquitos. — The  Amazon  presents  an  unparalleled 
extent  of  water  communication.  It  starts  with 
in  70  m.  of  the  Pacific,  and  with  its  tributaries 
touches  Guiana  and  Paraguay.  The  Amazon 
was  opened  to  the  world  in  1867,  and  regular 
lines  of  steamers  ascend  to  Yurimaguas  on  the 
Huallaga.  The  most  important  exports  are  rub 
ber,  cacao,  nuts,  copaiba,  cotton,  hides,  piacaba 
(palm  fibre),  sarsaparilla,  farina,  tonka  beans, 
annotto,  and  tobacco.  The  Amazon  navigation 
company  (Brazilian),  established  in  1854,  had 
in  1872  a  capital  of  $2,200,000,  and  9  steam 
ers,  5  of  which  ply  exclusively  in  the  Amazon 
waters :  2  between  Para  and  Loreto  in  Peru, 
distance  2,100  m. ;  1  on  the  Peruvian  branch 
of  the  river,  288  m. ;  1  from  Para  to  Obidos, 
400  m. ;  1  from  Santarem  to  Faro ;  total  dis 
tance,  round  trips,  10,491  m.  Total  receipts  in 


1869  for  passengers  and  freight,  $207,452  08. 
Imports,  $402,580  40;  exports,  $364,614  19. 
— Yanez  Pinzon  discovered  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  in  1500  ;  but  the  river  was  first  naviga 
ted  by  Orellana,  Pizarro's  officer,  who  in  1541 
descended  from  the  Napo  to  the  Atlantic.  In 
1637  Texeira  ascended  by  the  Napo  to  Quito, 
and  Father  Acufia,  who  accompanied  him, 
published  the  first  description.  The  name 
Amazon  is  derived  either  from  the  Indian  word 
amassona,  boat-destroyer,  or  from  Orellana's 
story  of  his  fight  with  a  nation  of  female  war 
riors;  which  fable  probably  grew  out  of  the 
f:ict  that  the  men  part  the  hair  in  the  middle 
and  wear  long  tunics.  The  old  names  of  the 
river,  Orellana  and  Parana-tinga,  are  obsolete. 
Alto  xVmazonas,  or  Upper  Amazon,  is  applied 
to  all  above  the  Negro.  To  the  middle  Ama 
zon,  between  Tabatinga  and  Manaos,  the  name 
Solimoens  is  sometimes  given.  The  part  above 
Tabatinga,  or  the  Peruvian  portion,  is  called 
Maranon,  which  includes  the  Tunguragua. 

AMAZONAS.  I.  The  northernmost  province 
of  Brazil,  bounded  N.  by  Guiana  and  Vene 
zuela,  N.  W.  by  Colombia,  "W.  by  Ecuador  and 
Peru,  S.  by  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  the  Brazilian 
province  of  Matto Tirosso,  arid  E.  by  the  prov 
ince  of  Para.  Its  limits  have  not  been  pre 
cisely  defined;  pop.  about  80,000.  The  sur 
face  is  covered  by  virgin  forests,  and  but  little 
known.  In  this  province,  at  and  near  the 
town  of  Manaos,  the  river  system  of  South 
America  unites.  The  principal  streams  are  the 
Amazon  (which  above  Manaos  is  called  the 
Solimoens),  Negro,  Putumayo,  and  Madeira.  II. 
A  N.  department  of  Peru,  bounded  N.  by  Ecua 
dor  ;  area,  about  18,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  44,000, 
besides  about  60,000  Indians  of  nomadic  tribes. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Andes.  The  soil,  which 
is  watered  by  the  Maranon  and  several  of  its 
affluents,  is  extremely  fertile,  and  produces 
wheat,  corn,  rice,  all  sorts  of  fruits  and  vege 
tables,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  cacao,  coffee,  cot 
ton,  indigo,  quinine,  and  sarsaparilla  in  abun 
dance.  Its  virgin  forests  are  rich  in  mahog 
any,  cedar,  and  other  valuable  timber.  The 
chief  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  sugar, 
rum,  cottons,  and  woollens,  and  the  salting  of 
fish.  Capital,  Chachapoyas. 

AMAZOJVIA,  a  title  given  by  the  geographers 
of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  to  an  unexplored 
tract  in  the  central  portion  of  the  Amazon 
basin,  supposed  to  be  inhabited  by  a  tribe  of 
warlike  women,  who  governed  themselves,  and 
would  tolerate  no  males  in  their  community. 

AMAZONS  (Gr.  a  privative  and  //a£d?,  breast), 
a  race  of  warlike  women,  whose  original  seat 
is  said  to  have  been  in  the  country  adjoining 
the  Caucasus.  They  were  believed  to  be  gov 
erned  by  a  queen,  and  to  propagate  the  spe 
cies  by  cohabiting  once  every  }*ear  with  the 
Gargareans,  a  nation  of  men  whose  territory 
was  separated  from  that  of  the  Amazons  by  a 
chain  of  mountains.  Their  male  children  were 
either  sent  to  the  Gargareans  or  put  to  death. 
Their  female  children  were  deprived  of  the 


AMBASSADOR 


AMBER 


381 


rig!it  breast,  and  trained  by  their  Amazon 
mothers  to  war,  hunting,  riding,  and  agricul 
ture.  The  favorite  deities  of  the  Amazons  were 
Mars  and  the  Taurian  Diana.  The  Amazons 
were  fabled  to  have  made  extensive  conquests 
in  the  early  ages,  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe, 
and  to  have  founded  several  cities  in  Asia 
Minor  and  the  islands  adjoining  it,  such  as 
Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Cyme,  and  Paphos.  It  is  a 
question  with  ancient  writers  whether  these 
extraordinary  women  ever  existed. 

AMBASSADOR,  or  Embassador,  a  term  general 
ly  applied  to  the  highest  class  of  diplomatic 
representatives  in  foreign  countries.  In  an 
official  sense  it  designates  only  those  who  are 
accredited  by  one  potentate  to  another,  and 
who  represent  the  sovereign  himself,  while 
ministers  plenipotentiary  and  envoys  extraor 
dinary,  although  accredited  to  the  crown,  rep 
resent  only  the  state,  and  not  the  person  of  its 
chief.  The  queen  of  England,  for  instance, 
sends  ambassadors  to  the  most  influential  sov 
ereigns,  but  only  a  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
the  United  States.  The  American  minister 
plenipotentiary  and  envoy  extraordinary  (the 
title  ambassador  being  not  often  used,  although 
it  is  mentioned  in  the  act  of  congress  of  1856 
relating  to  the  diplomatic  service)  is  conse 
quently  outranked  at  European  courts  by  the 
ambassadors  of  the  pettiest  sovereign  princes. 
The  legates  and  nuncios  of  the  pope  are  en 
titled  to  the  same  social  and  diplomatic  privi 
leges  as  ambassadors.  An  ambassador  may  at 
all  times  demand  a  personal  interview  with 
the  sovereign  as  a  matter  of  right,  while  the 
minister  plenipotentiary  can  only  claim  an 
audience  as  a  favor.  Ambassadors  extraordi 
nary  are  those  sent  on  special  missions,  and 
occupy  a  still  more  exalted  position  than  those 
called  ordinary,  who  permanently  reside  at  a 
court.  Ambassadors  in  the  principal  non-Chris 
tian  countries  enjoy  extra-territorial  rights, 
based  upon  the  fiction  that  they  carry  along 
with  them  the  whole  territory  of  their  sover 
eign,  so  that  the  country  represented  is  deemed 
to  be  present  in  China,  Japan,  Turkey,  &c.,  as 
well  as  its  sovereign  himself,  in  the  person  of 
the  ambassador.  The  extra-territorial  rights  of 
ambassadors  and  other  official  representatives 
of  Christian  powers  in  the  East  are  guaran 
teed  by  treaties,  and  are  predicated  upon  their 
jurisdiction  over  more  or  less  extensive  com 
munities  of  their  countrymen  and  over  other 
persons  under  their  protection. 

AMBER,  a  hard,  light,  nearly  transparent  res 
inous  substance,  found  in  loose  pieces  in  allu 
vial  deposits,  or  scattered  along  the  coast  after 
severe  storms.  It  was  regarded  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  with  superstition,  and 
in  mythology  was  spoken  of  as  the  tear  drops 
shed  by  the  sisters  of  Phaethon,  and  petrified  as 
they  fell  into  the  sea.  The  electrical  phenom 
ena  first  exhibited  by  this  substance  (which 
the  Greeks  called  faeK-oov)  added  to  its  mys 
tery.  It  was  even  believed  by  some  of  the 
philosophers  to  be  possessed  of  a  soul.  The  ' 


Arabs,  noticing  the  same  phenomena,  gave  it 
the  name  in  their  language  of  k<ir<ilte,  catch- 
chaff.  The  Romans  called  it  auccinum,  and 
the  ancient  Germans  glissum.  The  ancient 
trade  in  amber  is  described  in  Sir  George 
Cornewall  Lewis's  "  Historical  Survey  of  the 
Astronomy  of  the  Ancients"  (London,  1862). 
Amber  is  now  generally  understood  to  be  a 
fossilized  vegetable  gum.  The  trees  from  which 
it  exuded  stood  in  forests  of  past  epochs,  and 
are  no\v  found  forming  strata  of  bituminous 
wood  beneath  beds  of  sand  and  clay.  The 
wood  is  more  or  less  impregnated  with  the 
amber;  and  this  is  also  met  with  depending 
from  the  trunks  in  the  form  of  stalactites,  and 
again  in  rounded  pieces  mixed  with  pyrites  and 
coarse  sand  under  the  layer  of  trees.  Such  a 
bed  is  worked  as  a  mine  for  the  amber  near 
the  coast  of  Prussia.  The  fossil  stratum  is  from 
40  to  50  feet  thick,  and  is  followed  to  the 
depth  of  100  feet  below  the  surface.  In  other 
countries  it  is  found  in  beds  of  brown  coal  and 
of  lignite;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  pieces 
of  it  picked  up  on  the  seashores  have  been 
washed  out  from  the  extension  of  these  reposi 
tories  beneath  the  waters  of  the  sea. — On  the 
Prussian  coast  of  the  Baltic,  between  Konigs- 
berg  and  Mem  el,  amber  is  more  abundant  than 
in  any  other  known  locality.  From  this  source 
the  great  demand  for  this  material  in  the  Mo 
hammedan  countries  is  principally  supplied. 
The  trade  was  first  appropriated  by  the  grand 
masters  of  the  Teutonic  order,  who  often  paid 
by  it  the  whole  expense  of  their  court.  After 
it  became  a  royal  monopoly  it  was  guarded  by 
most  stringent  laws;  "strand  riders"  patrolled 
the  coast,  and  a  peasant  concealing  or  attempt 
ing  to  sell  a  piece  of  amber  he  had  found  was 
hanged  on  one  of  a  range  of  gallows  kept 
standing  in  terrorem.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  the  government  monopoly 
has  been  farmed  out  to  private  contractors. 
Prosecution  for  theft  may  still  be  instituted 
against  persons  who  retain  pieces  of  amber 
they  have  picked  up,  and  any  one  passing  cer 
tain  limits  of  the  beach  may  be  punished  as  a 
trespasser.  The  amber  is  washed  ashore  in 
considerable  quantities  near  the  village  of  Stiir- 
men.  Not  only  is  it  found  in  the  sands  on  the 
shore,  but  also  in  the  interior  at  a  greater  or 
less  depth  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
At  present  the  chief  amber  diggings  in  the 
north  of  Prussia  are  on  the  N".  and  W.  coasts 
of  Samland,  N.  E.  of  Konigsberg.  These  are 
worked  by  an  open  excavation  into  the  moun 
tain  near  its  base,  in  which  the  amber-bearing 
bed  is  laid  bare,  sometimes  presenting  a  thick 
ness  of  2|-  feet.  Exhausted  in  one  place,  a 
new  excavation  exposes  it  in  another.  The 
fishing  and  picking  of  amber  from  the  sea  fur 
nishes  employment  to  great  numbers  of  people. 
This  is  generally  undertaken  after  a  storm,  when 
the  swell  of  the  waves  is  moderate.  The  work 
men  wade  into  the  sea,  and  catch  in  nets  the 
seaweed  which  is  borne  in  by  the  waves.  This 
is  spread  on  the  shore,  where  the  women  and 


382 


AMBER 


AMBERG 


children  collect  from  it  pieces  of  amber  of  vari 
ous  sizes,  which  is  delivered  by  them  to  the 
superintendent.  This  mode  of  procuring  amber 
is  always  less  laborious  and  often  more  produc 
tive  than  digging.  In  winter,  when  the  sea 
by  the  shore  is  covered  with  ice,  the  ice  crust 
is  broken  through  and  the  seaweed  and  amber 
are  picked  up  through  the  opening.  The  fishers 
frequently  go  out  in  small  boats  when  the  sup 
ply  near  the  shore  fails,  and  in  this  way  a 
large  quantity  of  amber  is  found,  though  it  is 
less  valuable  than  that  gained  by  digging.  Bag 
nets  are  used  in  fishing  for  amber,  and  long 
spears  in  drawing  large  pieces  out  of  the  surf. 
The  production  in  1869  by  digging,  fishing, 
and  spearing  on  the  coast  of  Samland  was  700 
quintals,  the  dredging  machines  at  Schwarz- 
ort  on  the  Cur  Flats  obtained  795,  and  the 
diving  at  Brusterort,  between  the  Cur  and  the 
Fresh  Flats,  215;  making  a  total  of  1,710 
quintals,  valued  at  700,000  thalers.  The  diving 
apparatus  used  was  placed  in  the  Paris  exhibi 
tion  of  1807  by  Capt.  Rouquayrol  Venayrouse, 
its  inventor. — Amber  is  used  almost  wholly  for 
small  ornaments,  as  necklaces,  and  especially 
for  the  mouthpieces  of  pipes.  A  varnish  is 
also  prepared  from  it,  as  well  as  an  oil  used  in 
medicine,  and  succinic  acid,  a  useful  reagent 
in  chemical  investigations,  so  called  from  suc- 
cinum,  the  Latin  word  for  amber.  The  largest 
piece  of  amber  known  is  one  weighing  IS^lbs., 
in  the  mineralogical  museum  at  Berlin.  The 
value  of  the  specimens  is  not  at  all  proportion 
ate  to  their  sizes.  A  piece  of  a  pound  weight 
might  sell  for  $50,  while  one  of  13  Ibs.  weight 
would  readily  bring  $5,000. — Amber  is  of 
a  yellow  brownish  or  whitish  brown  color, 
transparent  or  translucent,  and  resembles 
rosin.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1  '08.  It  is  nearly 
as  hard  as  calcareous  spar,  and  is  susceptible 
of  a  fine  polish.  When  rubbed  it  becomes  neg 
atively  electrical.  Heated  to  448°  F.,  it  melts, 
and  then  takes  fire,  burning  with  a  yellow 
flame,  and  evolving  much  black  smoke  and  an 
agreeable  odor.  The  analyses  that  have  been 
made  of  it  give  proportions  of  carbon  varying 
from  70  to  80  per  cent,  hydrogen  from  7  to  11, 
and  oxygen  from  7  to  8.  Its  principal  ingre 
dient  is  a  resin  insoluble  in  alcohol,  which 
forms  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  With 
this  is  found  a  resin  soluble  with  difficulty  in 
alcohol,  and  a  trace  of  an  odorous  volatile  oil. 
The  products  of  its  distillation  are  inflammable 
gases,  water  holding  succinic  and  acetic  acids 
and  empyreumatic  oil  in  solution  (the  spirits  of 
amber  of  old  pharmacy),  sublimed  succinic  acid 
(salt  of  amber),  and  an  empyreumatic  oil  (oil  of 
amber).  The  residue  is  12  to  13  per  cent,  of 
charcoal. — Pieces  of  amber  are  often  met  with 
containing  the  remains  of  insects  that  have 
become  entangled  in  the  substance  when  it 
was  of  thinner  consistency.  Their  legs  and 
wings  are  sometimes  seen  detached  from  the 
bodies,  as  if  the  insects  had  struggled  hard  to 
disengage  themselves  from  the  sticky  mass. 
These  insects  resemble  more  those  of  tropical 


climates  than  such  as  are  now  known  in  the 
regions  where  amber  is  found.  According  to 
Tasche  (1860),  there  have  been  found  in  amber 
5  species  of  Crustacea,  33  of  myriapoda,  and  205 
of  arachnida;  of  insects,  24  species  of  aptera, 
CO  of  herniptera,  8  of  orthoptera,  87  of  neurop- 
tera,  and,  according  to  Loew  (1864),  850  of  dip- 
tera,  the  latter  chiefly  of  the  proboscidean  divi 
sion.  Leaves  of  fern  plants,  and  occasionally 
some  mineral  substances,  are  also  met  with  in 
amber.  Loew  believes  the  amber  fauna  to  be  a 
fragment  of  a  larger  fauna,  and  chiefly  found  in 
sluggish  waters  and  ponds  and  in  rotting  wood. 
— It  is  not  known  when  the  property  possessed 
by  amber  of  attracting  light  substances  when 
rubbed  wTas  first  noticed.  It  is  spoken  of  by 
Thales  of  Miletus,  Theophrastus,  and  Pliny. 
Electricity  is  excited  to  such  a  degree  in 
the  processes  of  working  amber  into  the  forms 
in  which  it  is  sold,  that  the  workmen  are 
affected  with  nervous  tremors,  and  are  obliged 
to  change  frequently  the  pieces  they  handle, 
that  the  excited  electricity  may  be  dispersed. 
— Amber  has  recently  been  discovered  in  va 
rious  parts  of  Coin-land.  It  is  also  found  in 
several  other  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  in 
E.  Africa.  False  amber  is  sent  from  India 
to  China,  and  is  sold  for  nearly  the  same 
price  as  the  genuine  article.  Amber  is  found 
at  various  places  in  the  United  States,  oc 
curring  in  the  greensand  formation  and  in 
the  clays  which  succeed  it,  associated  with 
lignite.  The  principal  localities  are  at  Amboy, 
N.  J.,  at  Gay  Head  on  Martha's  Vineyard,  and 
at  Cape  Sable  in  Maryland. — The  commerce  in 
amber  is  divided  by  its  tints,  the  bright  yellow 
transparent  variety  being  esteemed  in  Europe, 
while  the  clouded  whitish  yellow  is  preferred 
throughout  Asia,  far  more  than  the  other  is 
elsewhere,  not  alone  for  jewelry,  but  for  gen 
eral  decoration  of  personal  utensils.  It  forms 
the  favorite  mouthpiece  of  the  oriental  tobacco 
pipe,  from  its  presumed  power  of  resisting  in- 
!  fection,  the  more  necessary  where  it  is  dis- 
I  courteous  to  wipe  a  pipe  passed  from  one  per- 
j  son  to  another,  as  much  the  symbol  of  amity 
as  the  calumet  of  our  Indians.  Singular  to  say, 
Americans  follow  the  orientals  in  preferring 
the  whitish  mottled  variety.  Gum  copal  has 
been  substituted  for  amber,  which  it  resembles, 
but  it  can  be  distinguished  by  its  enclosing 
modern  insects,  while  amber  holds  only  extinct 
varieties  ;  also  by  copal  burning  steadily,  while 
amber  has  marked  scintillation. 

AMBERG,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  formerly  capital 
of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Yils,  35  in.  E.  of  Nuremberg;  pop.  in  1871, 
11,688.  It  is  a  neat  and  well  built  town,  with 
a  great  number  of  churches,  schools,  colleges, 
hospitals,  and  other  public  buildings,  a  royal 
palace,  an  arsenal  manufacturing  from  10,000 
to  20,000  stand  of  arms  yearly,  a  salt  magazine, 
manufactures  of  glass,  iron,  cotton,  tobacco, 
stoneware,  and  hats,  and  important  iron  mines, 
yielding  about  8,000  tons  yearly.  In  the  neigh 
borhood  of  Amberg  the  rear  guard  of  the 


AMBEEGER 


AMBOYNA 


383 


French  under  Jourdan  was  defeated   by  the  j 
archduke  Charles,  Aug.  24,  1796. 

AMBERGER,  ihristoph,  a  famous  German  j 
painter  of  Ambers;  (whence  the  name),  born  at  j 
Nuremberg  about  1490,  died  at  Augsburg  in  • 
1568.  His  best  productions  are  his  portraits,  ; 
in  the  style  of  Holbein,  whom  he  imitated,  j 
His  historical  paintings  are  small,  and  hard 
and  sharp  in  style. 

AMBERGRIS,  a  perfume,  generally  used  in  its  i 
alcoholic  solution.     It  is  a  morbid  secretion  of 
the  liver  of  the  spermaceti  whale,  and  is  prin-  , 
ci pally  found  floating  upon  the  seas  of  warm  j 
climates  intermixed  with  remains  of  the  food  j 
of  whales;  it  is  also  met  with  in  the  intestines  j 
of  the  whale.     When  of  good  quality  it  is  of  a  | 
bright   gray   color,   streaked   with    black   and  j 
yellow,  so  soft  that  it  may  be  flattened  in  the  j 
fingers,    and    exhaling    an   agreeable   odor   if  \ 
rubbed  or  heated.     Its  fracture  presents  a  fine  i 
.-Tain,  its  cut  surface  a  waxy  appearance.     It  j 
is  somewhat  lighter  than  water,  fuses  at  140°  j 
to  150°  F.,  and  at  a  higher  temperature  gives  I 
out  a  white  smoke,  which  condenses  into  a  I 
crystalline  tatty  matter.     It  contains  about  85 
per  cent,  of  a  peculiar  fatty,  fragrant  substance 
called  ambreine,  which  is  extracted  by  boiling  | 
in   alcohol,  and   separating  the  crystals  that  j 
form  in  the  cooled  solution. — Persons  engaged  i 
in  whale  fishing  look  for  ambergris  in  the  in-  \ 
testines  of  the  spermaceti  whale,  and  are  most  : 
successful   in  finding  it  in  those  that  appear  ; 
torpid,  sick,  and  lean ;  whence  it  would  seem 
that  the  substance  is  a  product  of  disease.     It  j 
is  in  the  lower  part   only  of  the  intestinal  \ 
canal,  mixed  with   the  fasces,  that  the   sub 
stance  is  found.     The  lumps  of  it  are  from  3 
inches  to  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  from  1  Ib.  to  J 
'JO  or  30  Ibs.  in  weight.      The  largest  piece  ! 
known  was  bought  by  the  Dutch  East  India 
company  of  the  king  of  Tidore;    it   weighed 
182  Ibs.     A  piece  weighing  130  Ibs.  was  found 
inside  of  a  whale  near  the  Windward  Islands,  ' 
and  was  sold  for  £500  sterling.     Genuine  am-  ! 
bergris   emits   a   fragrant    smell   when   a  hot  | 
needle  is  thrust  into  it.     It  also  melts  like  fat  : 
to  [i  uniform  consistence.    The  counterfeit  does . 
not  present  these  peculiarities. 

AMBIORIX,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  i 
Gallic  chiefs  who  fought  against  Julius  Cassar  j 
toward  the  middle  of  the  first  century  B.  C.  j 
Conjointly  with  the  superannuated  Cativolcus,  i 
he  was  ruling  over  the  Eburones,  on  the  lower  i 
Meuse,  when  the  country  was  invaded  by  Caesar,  | 
who  strove  to  corrupt  him,  but  only  made  him  ' 
dissemble  while  waiting  his  opportunity.  Dur-  1 
ing  Caesar's  second  excursion  to  England,  Ambi-  • 
orix  organized  an  extensive  conspiracy,  which  j 
broke  out  after  the  Roman  legions  had  gone  j 
into  winter  quarters.  Having  by  stratagem  in-  i 
duced  one  garrison  to  leave  their  fort,  he  mas-  I 
sacred  them  to  a  man.  He  was  about  to  at-  j 
tack  another  camp  when  Cresar  marched  to  | 
its  relief,  and  easily  dispersed  the  assailants. 
Cativolcns  took  poison,  but  Ambiorix,  with  a 
few  friends,  made  his  escape  into  the  forests. 


AMBLETEUSE,  a  small  decayed  seaport  of 
France,  on  the  English  channel,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Pas-de-Calais,  5  m.  X.  of  Boulogne. 
Here  James  II.  landed  on  his  flight  from  Eng 
land  in  1(589.  Napoleon,  while  meditating  an 
invasion  of  England  in  1804,  attempted  unsuc 
cessfully  to  improve  the  harbor  of  Ambleteuse 
for  his  flat-bottomed  boats.  In  the  vicinity  is 
the  famous  granite  column  erected  by  Napo 
leon  to  the  grand  army  in  1805. 

AJMBOISE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Indre-et-Loire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Loire,  14  m.  E.  of  Tours;  pop.  in  1866,  4,188. 
The  town  was  rendered  conspicuous  at  the 
opening  of  the  French  religious  wars,  in  the 
16th  century,  by  the  plot  framed  there  against 
the  Guises,  known  as  the  conspiracy  of  Am- 
boise.  The  ancient  castle,  which  has  been  the 
residence  of  several  kings  of  France,  stands  on 
a  rocky  precipice,  and  is  almost  inaccessible. 
It  is  of  Roman  origin,  was  rebuilt  in  the  4th 
century,  and  lastly  renovated  by  Louis  Phi 
lippe.  Abd-el-Kader  was  confined  here  during 
the  greater  part  of  his  captivity.  The  town 
has  manufactures  of  firearms  and  files. 

AMBOISE,  George  d>,  a  French  statesman  and 
cardinal,  born  at  Chaumont-sur-Loire  in  1460, 
died  in  Lyons,  May  25,  1510.  As  a  younger 
son  he  was  destined  for  the  church,  and  was 
titular  bishop  of  Montauban  at  the  age  of  14, 
and  later  archbishop  of  Rouen.  During  the 
lifetime  of  Charles  VIII.  he  belonged  to  the 
party  of  the  duke  of  Orleans ;  and  when  the 
latter  ascended  the  French  throne  as  Louis  XII. 
in  1498,  Amboise  at  once  became  prime  minis 
ter.  He  prevailed  on  the  court  of  Rome  to 
annul  the  marriage  of  Louis  XII.  with  Jeanne 
de  France,  and  received  from  Alexander  VI. 
the  cardinal's  hat.  He  accompanied  Louis  XII. 
into  Italy,  and  arranged  the  alfairs  of  Milan  af 
ter  its  conquest  by  the  French  troops.  At  the 
death  of  Alexander  VI.  he  aspired  to  be  pope, 
but  the  Italian  cardinals  passed  him  over,  and 
elected  first  Pius  III.  and  afterward  Julius  II., 
in  spite  of  his  lively  antagonism,  which  threat 
ened  a  schism.  He  left  a  large  fortune. 

AMBOYNA,  or  Amboina  (Malay,  Ambon,  dews), 
an  island  in  the  Malay  archipelago,  the  most 
important  though  not  the  largest  of  the  Moluc 
cas  or  Spice  Islands,  between  lat.  3°  20'  and 
3°  48'  S.,  and  Ion.  127°  57'  and  128°  27'  E. ; 
length  35  in.,  average  breadth  10  m.  ;  area, 
about  300  sq.  m. ;  pop"  32,000.  A  deep,  narrow 
bay,  called  the  bay  of  Binnen,  14  m.  long,  al 
most  bisects  it.  The  two  halves  are  composed  of 
high  hills  rising  abruptly  from  the  sea,  and  cov 
ered  with  tall,  coarse  grass,  groves  of  the  co 
coa  palm  near  the  shore,  and  thick  forests  in 
the  valleys  and  near  some  of  the  summits. 
The  island  is  of  primitive  formation.  It  is  sub 
ject  to  earthquakes  every  year,  after  which  fe 
vers  commonly  prevail,  but  in  other  respects  the 
climate  is  very  healthy.  There  are  few  animals 
except  the  wild  hog,  deer,  and  horse.  Birds 
are  abundant  and  of  many  species,  and  the 
coasts  have  long  been  famous  for  multitudes 


384 


AMBOYNA 


AMBROSE 


of  beautiful  shells.  The  commonest  fruits  are 
the  cocoanut,  mango,  banana,  nutmeg,  and 
pineapple,  the  last  having  been  introduced 
from  the  West  Indies.  Excellent  indigo  is 
raised,  and  the  cajeput  tree  furnishes  a  medi 
cinal  oil.  Indian  corn  has  been  introduced, 
and  now  forms  with  sago  the  staple  food  of  the 
Malay  natives.  Cacao  is  extensively  cultivat 
ed,  and  is  rapidly  supplanting  the  clove,  of 
which,  however,  there  are  still  valuable  gar 
dens  on  the  hillsides.  The  production  of 
cloves  was  once  a  valuable  monopoly  of  the 
Dutch  government.  At  the  time  of  the  Span 
ish  occupation  (1581-1 007)  it  was  immeasur 
ably  greater  than  it  is  now.  The  spice  is  cul 
tivated  on  this  island  and  the  three  little  isl 
ands  of  Haraku,  Saparua,  and  Nusalaut,  lying 
immediately  east  of  it,  and  the  total  yield  of  the 
four  is  about  785,000  Ibs.,  of  which  Amboyna 
supplies  about  one  third.  The  population  of 
Amboyna  consists  principally  of  Malays,  most  of 
whom  profess  Mohammedanism.  Savage  abo 
rigines  called  Horaforas  still  exist  in  the  forest, 
and  there  are  Chinese,  Europeans,  and  half- 
breeds  at  the  capital.  The  native  villages  are 
governed  by  rajalis  appointed  by  the  Dutch 
resident.  The  island  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1515,  was  acquired  by  Spain 
in  1581,  when  Philip  II.  conquered  Portu 
gal,  captured  by  the  Dutch  in  1607,  and 
by  the  English  in  1015,  and  retaken  by  the 
Dutch  in  1022,  when  a  horrible  massacre 
of  the  English  settlers  took  place,  for  which 
Cromwell  afterward  compelled  the  Nether 
lands  to  make  compensation.  In  1796  the  isl 
and  was  once  more  taken  by  the  British. 
They  restored  it  at  the  peace  of  Amiens  in 
1802,  seized  it  a  third  time  in  1810,  and  it  re 
verted  finally  to  Holland  in  1814. — Amboyna, 
the  capital  of  the  island  and  of  the  Dutch  gov 
ernment  of  the  same  name,  which  includes 
Amboyna,  Ceram,  Amblauw,  and  Buro,  is  sit 
uated  on  the  S.  E.  shore  of  the  bay  of  Binnen, 
in  lat,  3°  40'  S.,  Ion.  128°  15'  E.,  8  or  9  m. 
from  the  sea  ;  pop.  14,000,  of  whom  9,000  are 
natives,  400  Arabs,  300  Chinese,  and  700  nom 
inally  Europeans,  though  nine  tenths  of  them 
are  half-caste  Dutch.  The  city  has  a  pleasant 
aspect  from  the  sea,  occupying  a  level  area, 
with  broad,  straight,  and  well  shaded  streets. 
It  has  a  hospital,  a  public  garden,  and  two 
Christian  churches.  The  government  is  ad 
ministered  by  a  Dutch  assistant  resident,  subor 
dinate  to  whom  are  a  rajah  for  the  Malay  pop 
ulation  and  a  "captain  China"  for  the  Chinese. 
There  is  a  fort  called  Nieuw  Victoria.  Good 
anchorage  is  found  in  the  harbor,  and  the  port 
is  annually  visited  by  about  200  vessels  and 
praus  of  all  kinds.  There  is  a  monthly  mail 
steamer  to  Batavia.  The  imports,  valued  at 
$200,000  to  $300,000  annually,  consist  chiefly 
of  cotton  goods  and  rice,  and  the  exports  of 
cloves,  cocoa,  cajeput  oil,  nutmegs,  mace,  and 
various  kinds  of  wood.  The  port  has  been  free 
since  1854,  but  the  trade  is  much  less  prosperous 
than  it  was  during  the  last  English  occupation. 


AMBRACIA  (now  Arta\  a  town  of  ancient 
Greece,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arachthus,  N. 
of  the  Ambracian  gulf  (now  gulf  of  Arta), 
which  separated  Epirus  from  Acarnania, 
though  originally  the  town  was  included  in 
the  latter  division.  It  was  colonized  by  the 
Corinthians  about  GOO  B.  C.,  and  early  ac 
quired  importance.  About  the  time  of  Alex 
ander  the  Great  it  became  subject  to  the  kings 
of  Epirus,  of  whom  Pyrrhus  made  it  his  capi 
tal,  and  adorned  it  with  public  buildings. 
Having  joined  the  ./Etolian  league,  it  was  taken 
by  the  Roman  conquerors  in  189  and  stripped 
of  its  works  of  art.  At  a  later  period  its  in 
habitants  were  transported  to  the  new  city  of 
Nicopolis,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  gulf, 
opposite  Actium,  founded  by  Augustus  Caesar 
to  commemorate  his  victory  over  .Mark  Antony 
off  the  last  named  place.  (See  AETA.) 

AMBRIZ,  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Portu 
guese  colony  of  Angola  in  "W.  Africa ;  area, 
89,300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  reported  at  about  2,100,- 
000,  but  much  less  according  to  the  official 
statements  of  the  Portuguese  government. 
The  town  of  Ambriz,  or  Oporto  do  Ambriz,  is 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Logo  or  Ambriz  river,  in 
lat.  7°  52'  S.  It  was  formerly  the  port  of  the 
small  negro  kingdom  of  Ambriz,  the  capital  of 
which  is  Quibanza.  The  Portuguese  annexed 
the  town  in  1855  ;  in  1805  it  contained  16  fac 
tories  or  trading  stations,  two  of  which  were 
American. 

AMBROSES,  a  nation  of  Gaul,  who  lived  near 
the  Alps  between  Switzerland  and  Provence. 
They  joined  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  in  their 
invasion  of  the  Roman  territories,  and  were 
routed,  together  with  the  latter,  and  almost 
annihilated,  by  Marius,  in  the  battle  of  Aqua; 
Sextise  (Aix),  in  102  B.  C.  Their  women, 
after  a  futile  attack  upon  the  Roman  soldiers 
who  were  following  in  pursuit  of  the  flying 
foe,  offered  to  yield  on  the  condition  that  their 
chastity  should  be  respected.  This  proposition 
being  rejected,  they  first  slew  all  their  chil 
dren  and  then  themselves. 

AMBROSE,  Saint,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the 
Latin  church,  born  at  Trevcs,  in  Gaul,  in  340, 
died  at  Milan  in  397.  His  father  was  the  Ro 
man  governor  of  Gaul,  but  his  mother  was  a 
Christian.  He  was  trained  to  the  law,  and  in 
trusted  at  an  early  age  with  the  government 
of  a  province.  His  probity  and  wisdom  in  this 
public  administration  seemed  to  justify  his  re 
moval  to  the  place  of  bishop,  although  at  the 
time  of  his  election  he  had  not  even  been  bap 
tized.  The  various  objections  and  stratagems 
by  which  he  tried  to  escape  the  honor  thus 
pressed  upon  him  were  all  disregarded  ;  and  at 
the  age  of  34  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Milan,  and  continued  to  hold  this  office  until 
his  death,  a  period  of  more  than  22  years. 
His  predecessor,  Auxentius,  was  an  Arian. 
The  sympathies  of  Ambrose,  however,  were 
with  the  supporters  of  the  Nicene  creed.  He 
would  not  tolerate  the  Arian  worship,  and 
though  he  protected  an  Arian  priest  from  the 


AMBROSE 


AMBROSIAX  LIBRARY 


385 


violence  of  the   mob,  lie  resisted  the    dicta 
tion  of  the  empress  Justina,  who  wished  that 
an  Arian  bishop  should  be  appointed  for  the 
city.      lie  rebuked  Valentiniun,  defied  Maxi- 
mus,  and  compelled  Theodosius  to  a  humilia 
ting  penance  and  submission.     When  all  the  ! 
officers  of  the  court  were  silent  upon  the  mas-  j 
sacre  which  in  a  lit  of  anger  Theodosius  had  , 
ordered  at  Thessalonica,  Ambrose  declared  to  | 
the  emperor  that  his  crime  was  beyond  abso-  | 
lution  without  a  special  act  of  penance,  and 
that  the  mass  could  not  fitly  be  celebrated  in  : 
such  a  presence.     His  boldness  prevailed,  and 
the   emperor  humbly  obeyed  his  orders,   and 
continued  ever  after  to  be  his  firmest  friend. 
His  contest  with  Symmachus  is  scarcely  less  i 
remarkable.     At  the  instigation  of  this  learned 
man,  then  prefect  of  Rome,  the  senate  took  the  , 
occasion  of  a  famine  in  383  to  ask  that  the  pa 
gan  worship  might  be  revived.     Ambrose  was 
prompt  to  throw  against  the  scheme  all  the 
force  of  his  authority  and  eloquence.     lie  was  ; 
by  no  means   the   equal   of  his   adversary  in 
graces  of  rhetoric  and  fulness  of  scholarship,  j 
but    his    earnestness,    and    perhaps    in    some  j 
degree    his    threatenings,    won    the   cause. — 
The  writings  of  Ambrose  fill  two  folio  volumes  ; 
in  the  editions  of  Erasmus  (Basel,  1527)  and 
the  Benedictines  (Paris,  108G-'90).     His  moral  I 
teaching  has  throughout  an  ascetic  tone,  though 
less  austere  than  that  of  the  Greek  fathers. 
He  was  hostile  to  all  amusements  and  all  pleas 
ures  of  sense,  and  commended  the  monastic  ; 
life  as  the  truest  way  of  Christian  obedience  j 
and  spiritual  growth.     He  wrote  treatises  on  | 
*'  Widows,"  on  tc  Virginity;"  on  "  Penance,"  and  | 
on  the  "Duties  of  Ministers,"  which  satisfied  j 
the  severe  taste  of  Jerome  much  better  than 
his  seven  books  on  "  Faith  and  the  Holy  Spirit," 
which  that  harsh  critic  pronounced  to  be  at  | 
once    weak,    fantastic,    and     stolen   from   the  j 
Greeks.      His  panegyrics,    as   we   read  them 
now,  hardly  justify  his  reputation  for  a  won 
derful  oratory.     Of  his  letters  only  a  part  have 
come  down  to  us.    They  show  very  faithfully  the 
character  of  the  man,  his  moderation,  courage,  ' 
fidelity,  practical  wisdom,  and  unaffected  piety,  j 
There  was  a  dignity  in  his  manner  and  bearing  j 
which  made  him  appear  at  once  like  a  ruler  j 
and  a  saint.      Arbogastes,   a  Roman  general,  j 
making  war  upon  the  Franks  of  the  Rhineland,  j 
was  asked  by  one  of  their  chiefs  whom  he  had  j 
conquered  if  he  was  a  friend  of  Ambrose.    From  < 
motives  of  policy  he  gave  an  affirmative  an-  ' 
swer.     "  Xo  wonder  that  you  have  beaten  us," 
was  the  reply,  "since  you  have  the  favor  of  a  | 
man  whom  the   sun   itself  would  obey  if  he  j 
should  command  it  to  stand  still."     The  most  | 
valuable   legacies  of  Ambrose  to  the  church  j 
were  the  hymns  which  he  wrote  and  the  im-  ! 
provements  which  he  made  in  the  method  of  j 
chanting  the  sacred  offices.     The  most  famous  | 
of  these  are  the  morning  song,  Sterne  rerum  \ 
Conditor  ;  the  evening  song.  I)eus  Creator  om-  i 
nium;  the  Christmas  chant,  Veni,  Redemptor 
gentium  ;  and  the  short  hymn  to  the  Trinity, 
VOL.  i. — 25 


which  Luther  translated  and  adopted.  These 
hymns  of  Ambrose  are  not  to  be  praised  for 
the  beauty  of  their  diction  or  for  any  artistic 
merit.  They  are  rude,  loose,  and  as  far  from 
the  musical  tiow  of  later  Christian  rhyming  as 
from  the  ancient  finish  of  classic  Latin  verse. 
But  their  vigor,  their  fervor,  their  striking  im 
agery,  not  less  than  their  association  with  the 
revered  name  of  their  author,  give  them  a  place 
in  the  veneration  of  the  faithful.  The  body  of 
Ambrose  is  kept  in  the  ancient  basilica  of  Milan 
which  bears  his  name,  and  his  feast  day  is  ob 
served  by  the  Latin  church  on  the  7th  of  De 
cember,  the  day  of  his  ordination  as  bishop. 
He  has  also  the  honor  of  a  place  among  the 
saints  of  the  eastern  church,  and  his  name  is 
classed  on  their  registers  with  the  names  of 
Basil,  Athanasius,  and  the  two  Gregories. 

AMBROSIA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  food 
of  the  gods,  which  was  brought  to  Zeus  by 
pigeons,  and  which  conferred  upon  the  dwellers 
on  Olympus  eternal  youth  and  immortality.  It 
supplied  the  place  of  all  terrestrial  comestibles. 
Favorites  of  the  gods  are  recorded  to  have  had 
it  given  to  them  as  a  great  favor.  It  was  also 
used  by  the  gods  to  anoint  their  body  and  hair ; 
hence  we  read  of  the  ambrosial  locks  of  Zeus. 

AMBROSIAX  CHAM,  a  method  of  singing 
hymns  first  introduced  into  the  western  church 
by  St.  Ambrose,  about  386.  Although  gene 
rally  supposed  to  be  the  foundation  of  all 
church  music,  it  was  in  fact  derived  through 
the  eastern  church  from  the  Greeks,  and  is  so 
little  known  at  this  day,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
say  more  of  its  general  character  than  that  it 
was  constructed  on  the  ancient  Greek  tetra- 
chords,  and  embraced  the  four  authentic  modes, 
the  four  plagal  or  collateral  ones  being  added 
by  Gregory  to  form  what  is  known  as  the  Gre 
gorian  chant.  The  Ambrosian  chant,  and  in 
deed  all  kinds  of  church  music,  were  at  first 
limited  strictly  to  the  performance  of  the 
psalms  and  doxologies,  from  an  apprehen 
sion  among  the  early  fathers  and  bishops  that 
heretical  doctrines  might  creep  into  the  ser 
vices  by  the  introduction  of  original  hymns. 
Ambrose,  however,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek 
fathers,  subsequently  wrote  several  hymns,  in 
cluding,  it  has  been  erroneously  supposed,  the 
Te  Deum,  which  he  caused  to  be  habitually 
sung  according  to  the  new  method  in  his 
church ;  and  St.  Augustine,  who  was  baptized 
there,  speaks  with  great  delight  of  the  impres 
sion  which  the  performance  of  the  psalms  and 
hymns  made  upon  him.  The  Ambrosian  chant 
continued  to  be  used  in  the  services  of  the 
church  until  about  the  commencement  of  the 
7th  century,  when  it  was  superseded  by  the 
new  method  adopted  by  Pope  Gregory. 

AMBROSIAX  LIBRARY*,  a  collection  founded  in 
Milan  in  1009  by  Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo, 
archbishop  of  that  city,  and  named  in  honor  of 
St.  Ambrose.  It  is  especially  rich  in  MSS.,  for 
the  collection  of  which  learned  men  were  sent 
into  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  into  Asia.  A 
very  large  number  of  palimpsests  belong  to  ti:'.s 


386 


AMBULANCE 


AMENOPIIIS 


library ;  some  of  them  are  exceedingly  rare  and 
valuable,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Ci 
cero's  De  Republica,  fragments  of  bis  orations, 
and  the  letters  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Fronto. 
The  palimpsests  were  mostly  obtained  from  the 
monastery  of  Bobbio,  and  were  discovered  by 
the  librarian,  Angelo  Mai,  in  1814.  There  is  a 
MS.  of  Virgil,  valuable  for  its  marginal  notes 
by  Petrarch,  among  which  is  one  relative  to  his 
first  meeting  with  Laura.  The  library  at  pres 
ent  contains  about  90,000  printed  volumes  and 
more  than  15,000  MSS.,  besides  a  large  collec 
tion  of  statuary,  antiques,  medals,  and  pictures. 
Among  these  are  Raphael's  cartoon  of  the 
"  School  of  Athens  "  and  the  studies  of  Leonar 
do  da  Vinci.  Many  of  the  treasures  of  this 
library  were  carried  to  France  during  Napo 
leon's  campaigns  in  Italy,  and  some  of  them 
have  never  been  returned.  A  printing  press  is 
connected  with  the  library,  and  several  profes 
sors  and  editors  are  constantly  engaged  in  col 
lating  and  translating  the  MSS. 

AMBULANCE  (Lat.  ambulare,  to  walk),  a  tem 
porary  and  movable  military  hospital,  formed 
on  the  field  of  battle  for  the  immediate  succor 
of  the  sick  and  wounded.  The  word  is  tech 
nically  applied  to  covered  wagons  on  springs, 
and  to  such  other  vehicles  as  are  used  for  mov 
ing  wounded  men  from  the  field  of  battle  to 
the  temporary  hospitals,  or  for  carrying  the 
sick  and  wounded  with  the  moving  columns  or 
to  the  permanent  hospitals.  The  ambulance 
is  a  comparatively  modern  invention,  due 
mainly  to  the  French.  Military  surgery  was 
formerly  but  little  understood,  and  those  who 
were  wounded  on  the  field  of  battle  were  left 
to  the  care  of  those  around  them,  without  any 
selection  of  fit  persons  for  the  duties  of  sur 
gery.  Nor  do  we  find  any  trace  of  a  regularly 
organized  system  of  military  hospitals,  moving 
with  the  army,  until  the  time  of  Henry  IV. 
of  France.  The  movable  ambulances  at  first 
consisted  of  a  cumbrous  depot  of  surgical  and 
medical  appliances,  kept  with  the  baggage  at  a 
distance.  At  present  two  kinds  of  ambulances 
are  recognized :  one  fixed  or  general,  the  other 
movable  and  light.  The  larger  and  reserved 
ambulances  remain  with  the  heavy  baggage  at 
some  distance  from  the  field  of  battle,  and  may 
be  established  either  in  permanent  buildings  or 
in  large  tents  or  temporary  structures.  In  the 
late  war  in  France  the  temporary  hospitals 
fitted  up  in  the  palace  of  Versailles  and  in  the 
public  buildings  of  Paris  were  called  ambu 
lances.  The  lighter  and  more  strictly  movable 
ambulances  accompany  the  soldiers  on  the 
field.  The  system  was  brought  to  its  highest 
state  of  efficiency  in  the  United  States  army 
during  the  civil  war.  The  surgeons  accom 
panying  the  troops  are  supplied  with  abundant 
means,  such  as  lint,  plaster,  and  bandages,  for 
dressing  wounds,  and  with  the  necessary  in 
struments  for  surgical  operations.  Ambu 
lances,  or  small  spring  wagons  drawn  by  one 
or  two  horses  (to  which  the  term  is  in  the 
United  States  commonly  confined),  and  con 


taining  all  the  necessary  appliances,  including 
beds,  for  transporting  two  or  more  patients, 
follow  close  after  the  troops  on  the  march  and 
in  approaching  the  field  of  battle.  The  ambu 
lances  of  each  division  or  corps  d'armee  are  or 
ganized  into  a  corps  under  the  command  of  a 
subaltern  of  the  line,  styled  ambulance  officer. 
Railway  cars  and  steamboats  have  been  pro 
vided  with  beds  and  all  other  conveniences 
for  carrying  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  to  the 
permanent  and  more  distant  hospitals.  The 
American  ambulance  system,  with  local  modifi 
cations,  is  now  used  by  most  civilized  nations. 

AMELIA,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia,  drained  by 
the  branches  of  the  Appomattox  river,  which 
almost  encircles  it;  area,  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  9,878,  of  whom  0,828  were  colored.  It 
is  intersected  by  the  Richmond  and  Danville 
railroad.  The  surface  is  somewhat  diversified. 
The  productions  in  1870  were  04,007  bushels 
of  wheat,  70,509  of  corn,  02,088  of  oats,  and 
1,037,721  Ibs.  of  tobacco.  Capital,  Amelia 
Court  House. 

AMELOT  DE  LA  IIOISSA1E,  Abraham  Nicolas, 
a  French  author,  born  in  Orleans  in  1034,  died 
in  Paris,  Dec.  8,  1700.  After  his  return  from 
Venice,  whither  he  went  in  1009  as  secretary 
of  an  embassy,  he  devoted  himself  to  history, 
politics,  and  philosophy.  His  principal  work 
Avas  a  "History  of  the  Government  of  Venice," 
besides  which  he  wrote  several  volumes  of 
miscellaneous  memoirs,  and  translated  four 
books  of  Tacitus,  Machiavelli's  u  Prince,"  in 
the  notes  to  which  he  spoke  of  his  author  as  a 
great  satirist,  and  Paolo  Sarpi's  "History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,"  with  very  free  annotations. 
This  translation  of  Fra  Paolo  was  attacked  by 
the  ultramontanists,  who  presented  three  memo 
rials  for  its  suppression,  while  it  was  defended 
and  eulogized  by  the  Gallicans.  The  "  History 
of  Venice,"  by  its  exposure  of  the  secret  policy 
of  that  republic,  raised  a  great  outcry  there ; 
and  it  is  said  that,  through  the  intervention  of 
the  Venetian  senate,  Amelot  was  thrown  into 
the  Bastille. 

AMELOTTE,  Denis,  a  French  writer,  born  in 
Saintes  in  1000,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  7,  1078. 
His  life  of  Charles  de  Coudren,  second  general 
of  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory,  of  which 
he  was  a  member,  contained  some  strictures  on 
Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  which  brought  him 
into  collision  with  the  Port  Royalists.  His 
influence  with  the  chancellor  Seguier  prevented 
the  publication  of  their  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  in  100G-'8  a  translation  of 
his  own  in  4  vols.  8vo,  with  annotations,  was 
published,  which,  although  imperfect,  wa& 
superior  to  any  of  its  predecessors,  and  is  still 
extensively  used. 

AMEi\OPHIS,  Amnnopli,  or  Amcn-hotep,  a  name 
borne  by  three  Egyptian  kings  belonging  to  the 
18th  dynasty,  which  commenced  with  Amasis 
or  Aahmes  I.,  about  1525  B.  0.  I.  The  second 
Pharaoh  of  that  dynasty,  who  married  thc- 
widow  of  Aahmes,  continued  the  conquests 
begun  by  his  predecessor,  after  th^  expulsion 


AMERBACH 


AMERICA 


387 


of  the  Tlyksos,  in  southern  Canaan ;  subdued 
the  Shasu  of  the  desert  east  of  Egypt ;  and  made 
an  expedition  toward  Ethiopia,  to  extend  the  j 
southern  frontiers  of  his  kingdom,  and  restore  | 
the  financial  prosperity  of  the  country  destroyed  j 
by  the  shepherd  kings.  He  reigned  21  years 
(1499-147S).  II.  The  son  and  successor,  in 
1414,  of  Thothmes  III.,  and  father  of  Thothmes 
IV.,  of  whom  little  is  known.  His  reign  was 
short.  III.  The  son  of  Thothmes  IV.,  devoted 
himself  during  a  reign  of  at  least  3G  years 
(about  1400-131)1)  to  the  improvement  of  his 
kingdom.  Ancient  Egypt  was  never  so  pros 
perous  nor  so  extensive  as  under  his  adminis 
tration.  It  extended  into  Syria  as  far  as  the 
western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  south, 
embracing  a  part  of  Ethiopia.  Monuments  of 
the  greatness  of  Amenophis  III.  exist  all  over 
Egypt,  among  them  the  two  large  colossi,  one 
of  which  is  celebrated  as  uthe  vocal  Memnon." 

A.IIERBIUI,  Jokann,  a  German  printer,   born 
in  Swabia,  died  about  1520.     lie  was  educated  j 
in  Paris,  and  established  his  press  at  Basel  in  j 
1481,   publishing   the    works   of  St.   Ambrose  ! 
(1402),  and  the  first  collected  edition  of  the  \ 
writings  of  St.  Augustine  (1506),  from  which 
the  name  of  St.  Augustine  type  was  given  to  a 
variety  of  large  letter  used  in  the  book.     lie 
proposed  to  publish  the  works  of  Jerome  also, 
and  to  this  end  had  his  three  sons  thoroughly 
educated  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.     The  j 
edition  was,  some  years  after  his  death,  issued  j 
by  Froben.     Amerbach  was  one  of  the  first  to  I 
substitute   the  Roman   for  Gothic   and   Italic  j 
letters. — His  son  BOXIFAZ  (1495-1502),  profes-  j 
sor  of  civil  law  at  Basel,  was  one  of  the  most 
intimate  friends  of  Erasmus   and  his   general 
legatee.     He  was  distinguished  as  a  Latin  and 
Greek  scholar  and  writer. 

AMERICA,  one  of  the  four  great  recognized  con 
tinental  divisions  of  the  globe.  It  is  bounded  X. 
by  the  Arctic  ocean ;  E.  by  the  Atlantic,  which 
separates  it  from  Europe  and  Africa ;  W.  by  the 
Pacific,  which  separates  it  from  Asia ;  and  S. 
by  the  Antarctic  ocean.  The  longer  axis  of 
the  American  continent  runs  almost  due  north 
and  south.  Measured  on  its  central  line,  Ion. 
V0°  \V.,  its  length  from  the  arctic  regions  to 
Patagonia  is  about  10,500  in.  From  east  to 
west  it  presents  two  shorter  axes,  each  of  some 
thing  more  than  3,000  m. :  one  from  Labrador 
to  British  Columbia,  nearly  in  lat.  51°  X. ;  the 
other  between  Capes  St.  Roque  in  Brazil  and 
Parina  in  Peru,  in  about  lat.  5°  S.  The  Amer 
ican  continent  is  separated  into  two  not  very 
unequal  parts  by  the  isthmus  of  Darien  or  Pan 
ama,  less  than  30  m.  wide  at  its  narrowest 
point.  All  north  of  this  isthmus  (taken  in  its 
more  extended  sense)  is  known  as  North  Amer 
ica;  all  south  of  it  as  South  America:  the 
greater  part  of  the  isthmus  itself  being  styled 
Central  America.  Estimates  of  the  area  of 
America  vary  considerably,  some  authorities 
making  it  a  little  more  than  14,000,000  sq.  m., 
others  raising  it,  including  Greenland,  to  more 
than  17,000,000  sq.  in. .  It  may  be  set  down  at 


15,000,000  sq.  m.,  of  which  about  8,000,000, 
are  in  North  America  and  7,000,000  in  South 
and  Central  America.  The  area  is  thus  about 
four  times  that  of  Europe,  nearly  a  third  great 
er  than  that  of  Africa,  and  about  six  sevenths 
that  of  Asia.  Geographically,  America  lies 
within  the  arctic,  the  northern  and  southern 
temperate,  and  the  tropical  zones.  About  one 
seventh  is  unavailable  for  cultivation ;  the  re 
mainder  is  not  surpassed  in  capacity  to  sus 
tain  life  by  any  equal  area  of  the  globe.  The 
population,  including  that  of  the  islands,  is 
about  85,000,000,  riot  far  from  TV  that  of  the 
entire  globe. — The  geology  of  America  is  wor 
thy  of  careful  study.  The  oldest  strata  are  a 
range  of  crystalline  rocks  which  crop  out  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  great  lakes  to  the 
Arctic  ocean ;  these  consist  chiefly  of  gneiss, 
granite,  and  trap.  In  North  America  this  pri 
mary  range  is  about  1,500  miles  in  length,  with 
a  breadth  of  200,  seldom  reaching  an  elevation 
of  800  feet.  It  forms  the  western  slope  of  the 
Andes  and  Rocky  mountains.  It  extends  over 
the  eastern  part  of  South  America,  hidden  in 
the  valley  of  the  Amazon  by  alluvial  deposits. 
In  the  central  portion  it  dips  under  the  Silu 
rian  strata,  but  is  free  from  superincumbent 
deposits,  showing  that  even  in  the  Silurian 
age  it  formed  dry  land,  and  has  suffered  less 
disturbance  than  is  manifested  in  most  other 
formations.  The  Silurian  rocks,  consisting  of 
sandstone,  limestone,  slate,  shale,  &c.,  are  di 
vided  into  several  periods,  and  abound  in  fos 
sil  remains.  The  Silurian  strata  dip  under  the 
Devonian,  which  are  in  parts  overlaid  with 
conglomerate.  The  latter  forms  the  basis  of 
the  carboniferous  strata  which  occupy  large 
portions  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi.  At  the  close  of  the  carboniferous 
period  the  continent,  nearly  as  large  as  at  pres 
ent,  was  scarcely  elevated  above  the  ocean. 
The  great  mountain  ranges  are  of  more  recent 
origin.  They  were  forced  through  the  Silurian, 
Devonian,  and  carboniferous  strata,  dislocating 
and  disturbing  the  hitherto  horizontal  layers. 
It  is  where  the  ancient  rocks  have  been  pene 
trated  by  masses  of  igneous  rock  that  the  pre 
cious  metals  are  usually  found.  The  volcanic 
fires  have  long  since  been  extinct  in  the  Appa 
lachian  range  ;  but  >roofs  of  their  former  exist 
ence  are  found  in  t  le  metamorphosed  Silurian 
and  carboniferous  rocks  of  New  York  and  Penn 
sylvania,  which  were  long  supposed  to  be  pri 
mary  granite.  This  igneous  force  still  mani 
fests  itself  in  the  volcanoes  of  the  Andes  and 
Cordilleras.  Volcanoes  still  active,  at  greater 
or  less  intervals,  mark  the  whole  of  the  An 
dean  range  from  Chili  to  Alaska,  the  most 
intense  action  within  the  historical  period  be 
ing  in  Ecuador,  within  two  or  three  degrees  of 
the  equator.  Here  is  the  volcano  of  Cotopaxi, 
one  of  the  two  or  three  in  constant  eruption. — 
The  animals  native  to  America  differ  in  many 
respects  from  those  of  the  other  hemisphere. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  larger  spe 
cies.  The  elephant,  hippopotamus,  and  rhi- 


388 


AMERICA 


noceros  of  the  eastern  continent  are  in  Amer-  ' 
ica  represented  by  the  much  smaller  tapir  ;  the 
camel  and  dromedary  by  the  llama  and  vicuna ; 
the  lion  and  tiger  by  the  jaguar  and  panther. 
Of  the  carnivora  the  bear  is  the  only  species  in  ; 
America  which  exceeds  its  congeners  in  the 
other  hemisphere,  the  grisly  bear  of  Califor 
nia  being  the  largest  of  its  species.  The  Amer 
ican  bison  exceeds  in  size  any  others  of  its  kin 
dred,  and  the  largest  members  of  the  deer  i 
family  are  natives  of  America.  Among  the  | 
carnivora  native  to  America  are  the  grisly,  j 
white,  black,  and  brown  bears ;  wolves  and  j 
foxes  of  various  species;  the  puma,  jaguar,  | 
lynx,  and  wild  cat.  Of  the  marsupalia,  there 
is  every  variety  of  the  opossum ;  of  the  ro- 
dentia,  the  beaver,  hare,  marmot,  mouse,  porcu 
pine,  and  squirrel;  of  the  ruminantia,  many 
varieties  of  deer,  among  which  are  the  moose 
or  elk  and  reindeer,  the  bison,  musk  ox,  sheep, 
goat,  and  antelope.  The  quadrumana  (apes) 
differ  specifically  from  their  congeners  on  the 
eastern  continent ;  all  of  them  have  long  tails, 
and  many  prehensile  tails,  which  is  a  peculiar 
ity  of  American  species.  The  horse  and  ox  are 
introductions  from  Europe.  Among  the  birds 
there  are  some  species,  as  the  wild  turkey, 
toucan,  and  humming  bird,  peculiar  to  Amer 
ica.  There  are  eagles,  and  others  of  the  same 
family,  vultures  (among  them  the  great  condor 
of  the  Andes),  ravens,  crows,  and  an  immense 
variety  of  the  smaller  birds,  few  of  them  being 
identical  with  those  bearing  the  same  names 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  Serpents  are  numerous. 
Among  these  are  the  great  boa  and  the  rattle 
snake,  peculiar  to  America.  Alligators  swarm 
in  the  tropical  and  subtropical  rivers ;  turtles 
in  the  tropical  seas.  The  lakes  and  streams  are 
prolific  in  fish,  among  which  the  salmon  have 
a  wide  range.  The  cod  fisheries  of  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland  are  unequalled  in  productive 
ness.  Some  regions  are  infested  with  insects, 
especially  mosquitoes.  There  is  a  native  wild 
bee,  but  the  common  hive  bee  was  introduced 
from  Europe. — The  vegetable  productions  of 
America  are  very  numerous.  The  pine,  oak, 
and  maple  are  characteristic  of  the  temperate 
regions ;  palms,  of  many  species,  of  the  tropical. 
In  some  parts  of  southern  America  the  trees  are 
so  knotted  together  by  twining  plants  as  to  ren 
der  the  forests  impenetrable  to  wild  animals, 
except  through  narrow  paths  which  they  have 
constructed.  Maize  is  the  only  important  cereal 
native  to  the  new  world.  Nearly  all  the  fruits  of 
the  old  world  have  been  introduced  into  Amer 
ica,  where  they  flourish  in  their  appropriate  lati 
tudes.  The  vine  is  a  native,  and  within  a  few 
years  its  cultivation  has  received  great  atten 
tion. — We  proceed  to  give  more  detailed  state 
ments  under  the  general  divisions  of  the  conti 
nent.  I.  NOETII  AMERICA  extends  from  the 
arctic  region  southward  to  near  lat.  15°  N.  It 
is  bounded  N .  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  E.  by  the 
Atlantic  and  gulf  of  Mexico,  S.  by  the  gulf  and 
Central  America,  and  "W.  by  the  Pacific.  Its 
entire  eastern  coast  line  from  Barrow  strait  to 


the  southern  extremity  of  Mexico,  including  the 
shores  of  Hudson  bay  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
is  about  13,000  in. ;  the  western  coast,  being 
less  deeply  indented,  has  a  shore  line  of  not 
more  than  11,000  m. ;  or  24,000  in  all.  Reclus, 
counting  in  the  adjacent  islands,  gives  the  shore 
line  of  North  America  as  29,969  m. ;  South 
America,  16,012;  together  about  one  third 
more  than  that  of  Asia,  about  three  times  that 
of  Africa,  and  considerably  more  than  twice 
that  of  Europe.  To  the  maritime  system  of 
North  America  properly  belong  also  the  great 
lakes,  or  inland  seas,  which  it  is  estimated  con 
tain  a  third  of  all  the  fresh  water  of  the  globe. — 
North  America  has  three  main  systems  of  moun 
tains  and  watersheds,  which  divide  it  into  four 
great  hydrographical  basins :  1,  that  which 
empties  its  waters  into  the  Pacific  ocean ;  2, 
into  the  Arctic  ;  3,  into  the  Atlantic ;  4,  into 
the  gulf  of  Mexico.  Each  of  these  great  ba 
sins  is  divided  into  two  or  more  parts.  The 
Rocky  mountain  range,  skirting  the  Pacific 
coast,  is  a  continuation  of  the  Andes  of  South 
America.  At  the  isthmus  of  Panama  it  sinks 
low,  rarely  attaining  the  height  of  1,000  ft., 
with  depressions  of  less  than  half  that  altitude. 
From  the  isthmus  the  range-  rises  gradually, 
through  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  up  to 
lat.  60°  N.,  where  it  begins  to  sink  into  the  Arc 
tic  basin.  This  mountain  range  bears  different 
names  in  different  parts  of  its  course.  Through 
Mexico,  where  it  forms  a  broad  table  land,  it  is 
known  as  the  Mexican  Cordilleras.  It  is  only  in 
the  United  States  and  the  British  possessions  that 
it  bears  the  specific  name  of  Rocky  mountains. 
The  Spaniards  designate  the  whole  as  the  Sierra 
Madre  (Mother  Range).  Its  general  elevation 
is  from  5,000  to  9,000  ft.,  with  many  summits 
much  loftier.  Among  these  are  Orizaba  and 
Popocatapetl  in  Mexico,  which  exceed  17,000 
ft.,  and  several  in  the  United  States  and  Brit 
ish  America  of  from  12,000  to  18,000  ft.  Mt. 
St.  Elias,  about  lat.  60°  N.,  reaches  or  surpasses 
the  height  of  17,850  ft.  This  range  follows 
the  shore  line  at  various  distances,  the  greatest 
deviation  being  about  lat  40°  N.,  where  the 
Pacific  slope  of  the  Rocky  mountains  has  a 
breadth  of  some  GOO  in.,  upon  which  are  situ 
ated  the  states  of  California  and  Oregon,  and 
the  territories  of  New  Mexico  and  Utah.  The 
Rocky  mountain  range  is  not  a  single  ridge,  but 
rather,  like  the  Cordilleras  of  South  Amer 
ica,  a  parallel  pair  of  ridges.  Between  the 
two  lies  the  isolated  basin  of  the  Great  Salt 
lake.  As  the  Rocky  mountains  run  so  near 
to  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  the  rivers  iiowing 
from  them,  draining  only  a  small  area,  are  ne 
cessarily  small.  The  Columbia  and  Sacramen 
to,  flowing  directly  into  the  Pacific,  and  the  Col 
orado,  flowing  into  the  gulf  of  California,  are  the 
only  ones  of  any  considerable  size.  The  Yukon, 
although  flowing  into  Behring  sea,  a  part  of 
the  Pacific  ocean,  belongs  to  a  different  hydro- 
graphical  system.  Skirting  the  Atlantic  coast 
is  the  Appalachian  range.  Starting  from  the 
promontory  of  Gaspe,  on  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 


AMERICA 


389 


rence,  it  runs  south  westward  for  1,300  m.  to 
northern  Alabama,  where  it  sinks  to  the  level  of 
the  gulf  slope.  The  Appalachian  system  con 
sists  of  several  parallel  ridges,  divided  into  two 
main  lines.  The  eastern  ridge  is  made  up  of  the 
Green  mountains  of  Vermont,  the  Highlands  of 
New  York,  the  South  mountains  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  and  the  Blue  Ridge  of  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  and  Georgia.  The  western  ridge 
comprises  the  Adirondack,  Catskill,  Alleghany, 
and  Cumberland  ranges.  Between  these  two 
ridges  lies  an  almost  continuous  valley,  with  a 
breadth  of  from  15  t )  60  miles,  designated  in 
various  parts  as  the  valleys  of  the  Champlain, 
the  Hudson,  the  Cumberland,  the  great  valley 
of  Virginia,  and  the  valley  of  Tennessee.  The 
general  tendency  of  the  Appalachian  ridge  is 
to  a  greater  elevation  as  it  runs  southward; 
the  White  mountains  of  New  Hampshire  being 
merely  an  isolated  projection  from  the  cen 
tral  mass  of  the  Green  mountain  range.  Ex 
cept  in  a  few  points  this  range  rarely  reaches 
an  elevation  of  4,000  ft.  Mount  Mansfield,  the 
highest  summit  of  the  Green  mountains,  is 
4,359  ft. ;  Mount  Marcy,  the  highest  of  the 
Adirondacks,  5,337;  Mount  Washington,  the 
loftiest  of  the  White  mountains,  0,285,  an  ele 
vation  exceeded  by  many  points  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  chain,  the  highest 
being  Mitchell's  peak,  in  North  Carolina, 
6,733  ft.  The  Appalachian  chain  is  pierced 
at  intervals  by  gaps  which  give  passage  for 
rivers,  canals,  and  railways,  linking  the  At 
lantic  slope  with  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  Appalachian  ridge  forms  the  watershed 
between  the  streams  which  How  into  the  At 
lantic,  with  the  exception  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  those  which  fall  into  the  Mississippi, 
and  thence  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  Several 
of  these  rivers  are  of  considerable  size,  such 
as  the  Merrimack,  Connecticut,  Hudson,  Dela 
ware,  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  and  James.  The 
Atlantic  slope  of  North  America,  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  Florida,  varies  in  width  from  50 
to  200  m.,  the  mean  elevation  of  its  upper 
margin  being  from  150  to  1,000  ft.  Through 
out  its  whole  extent  it  is  without  marked 
transverse  ridges.  The  Rocky  mountains  and 
the  Appalachians  form  two  sides  of  a  triangle, 
only  the  latter  is  broken  off  without  reaching 
the  point  of  junction.  The  third  side  of  this 
triangle  is  formed  by  a  broad  low  swell,  without 
any  defined  crest,  and  rarely  reaching  the  ele 
vation  of  1,500  ft.  This  swell,  starting  from  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Rooky  mountains  in  about 
lat.  50°  N.,  runs  eastward,  separating  the 
waters  which  fall  into  the  Arctic  ocean  and 
Hudson  bay  from  those  which  find  their  way 
into  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  So  gradual  is  the 
rise  that  we  can  define  its  summit  only  by 
noticing  whether  the  general  course  of  the 
streams  is  northward  or  southward.  This  low 
swell  divides  the  continent  of  North  Amer 
ica  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains  into  two 
nearly  equal  parts,  the  northern  half  of  which 
is  almost  all  incapable  of  cultivation.  A  little 


west  of  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  this  swell 
divides.  One  branch  sweeps  southeastward, 
the  other  northeastward,  forming  between 
them  the  basin  of  the  lakes  whose  waters  pass 
through  the  St.  Lawrence  into  the  Atlantic. 
So  slight  is  the  elevation  of  the  southeastern 
watershed  that  a  canal  with  no  cutting  of  more 
than  100  feet  would  open  an  outlet  for  the 
waters  of  Lake  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  and 
Erie  into  the  Mississippi,  and  thence  to  the 
gulf  of  Mexico,  instead  of  into  Ontario,  and 
through  the  St.  Lawrence  into  the  northern 
Atlantic.  The  lake  basin  of  North  America  is 
thus  closely  connected  with  that  of  the  Missis 
sippi.  Between  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  and  the  western  slope  of  the  Ap 
palachian  range  lies  the  basin  or  valley  of  the 
Mississippi.  This  is  in  some  respects  the  most 
notable  on  the  globe.  Its  area  is  about  1,250,000 
sq.  m.,  being  only  exceeded  in  extent  by  the  val 
ley  of  the  Amazon.  Latitude,  elevation,  and 
rainfall  combine  to  render  every  part  of  it  capa 
ble  of  supporting  a  dense  population.  Next  to 
it  in  this  respect  comes  the  basin  of  the  Plata  in 
South  America.  The  most  striking  physical  fea 
ture  of  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  is  its  uni 
form  plain-like  character.  From  the  mouth  of 
the  river  to  its  sources  there  is  nothing  like  a 
mountain.  At  its  junction  with  the  Missouri 
it  is  but  381  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  at 
its  source  in  Lake  Itasca  it  is  1,680  ft.,  the  av 
erage  descent  for  the  whole  distance  being  less 
than  eight  inches  to  the  mile.  Its  great  afflu 
ent,  the  Missouri,  from  Fort  Benton  to  the  junc 
tion,  falls  only  ten  inches  to  the  mile.  The 
Ohio,  from  Pittsburgh  to  its  mouth,  falls  less 
than  five  inches  to  the  mile.  The  Red  river 
falls  a  little  more  than  a  foot,  the  Arkansas 
not  quite  two  feet  to  the  mile.  Except  on  its 
exterior  rim,  the  basin  drained  by  the  Mississippi 
and  its  main  branches  falls  less  than  six  inches 
to  the  mile.  The  consequence  is  that  there  are 
no  rapids  to  obstruct  navigation,  each  river 
being  navigable  as  far  as  the  depth  of  water 
will  permit.  The  entire  navigable  length  of 
these  rivers  is  about  40,000  in.  The  hydrog 
raphy  of  the  remaining  regions  of  North 
America  is  of  little  consequence,  the  Rio 
Grande  being  the  only  other  river  of  any  im 
portance  upon  the  eastern  side. — With  the  ex 
ception  of  purely  tropical  productions,  North 
America  has  nearly  every  species  of  grain, 
fruit,  and  vegetable.  It  has  given  to  the 
eastern  continent  maize,  which  next  to  rice  is 
the  cereal  which  enters  most  largely  into  hu 
man  consumption,  directly  as  an  article  of  food, 
and  indirectly  as  sustenance  for  animals. — 
North  America  is  rich  in  nearly  every  valuable 
mineral.  Iron  is  so  widely  diffused,  especially 
within  the  United  States,  that  it  may  be  con 
sidered  universal.  Copper  is  found  in  many 
localities,  the  most  abundant  deposits  being  in 
the  region  of  Lake  Superior.  Gold  and  silver 
have  been  found  in  every  part  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  and  Appal acbian  chains,  the  de 
posits  in  Mexico,  California,  and  the  adjacent 


390 


AMERICA 


regions  probably  exceeding  those  of  all  the  rest 
of  the  globe.     Lead  is  found  in  various  parts, 
the  main  locality,  probably  the  most  produc 
tive  in  the  world,  being  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Mis 
souri,  and  Wisconsin.    Quicksilver  has  hitherto  j 
been  found  chiefly  in  Mexico  and  California,  j 
where  the  mines  equal  in  productiveness  those 
of  Austria.    Zinc  has  been  found  only  within  a  ! 
limited  area,  mainly  in  New  Jersey  and  Penn-  ' 
sylvania.    Tin  is  the  only  valuable  metal  which 
does  not  occur  in  large  quantities.     The  coal  \ 
fields  of  North  America  comprise  more  than  i 
seven  eighths  of  all  known  to  exist.     Those 
already  explored   exceed   the  entire   area  of 
Great  Britain.      Salt  is   widely  diffused,    the 
principal  saline  springs  being  in  New  York, 
Virginia,    and    Michigan.      Petroleum,    which 
may  properly  be  classed  among  mineral  sub-  ! 
stances,  abounds  within  a  comparatively  lim-  i 
ited  area,  the   central   point   being  in   north-  j 
ern  Pennsylvania,  thence  extending  northward  ] 
and  westward. — Politically  North  America  is 
divided  into  British  America,  the  United  States, 
and  Mexico.     British    America  occupies   the 
whole  northern  half,    with  the  exception  of  \ 
Alaska,  the  extreme  northwestern  angle,  for-  | 
merly  Russian  America,  but  now  by  purchase  ! 
belonging  to  the  United  States.     It  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  E.  by  Davis  strait  and 
the  Atlantic,  S.  by  the  United  States,  and  W.  i 
by  Alaska  and   the   Pacific  (where  its  shore  j 
line  is  very  narrow,  only  about  350  in.).     Its  i 
entire   area   is   about    3,500,000   sq.   m.  ;    but  i 
with   the   exception  of  a  border   on   the   St.  | 
Lawrence  and  the  lakes,  and   a  very  narrow  | 
strip  on  the  Red  river,  and  a  portion  on  the  j 
Pacific,  the    whole  of  British    America    lies 
north  of  the  line  of  cultivation.     The  popula-  \ 
tion  is  4,455,000,  of  which  the  larger  part  are  j 
of  European  descent.     Nearly  all  of  habitable 
British   America  is  now  consolidated   as   the 
Dominion  of  Canada. — The  United  States  oc 
cupy  the  central  part  of  North  America,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.     They  are  mainly 
bounded  N.  by  British  America  (Alaska  occu 
pying  an  isolated  position),  S.  by  Mexico,  E.  by 
the  Atlantic,  and  W.  by  the  Pacific.     The  total 
area,  including  Alaska  (580,107  sq.  m.),  is  about 
3,600,000  sq.  m.    The  population  by  the  census 
of  1870  is  38,558,371,  of  whom  33,589,377  are  ' 
white,  4,880,000  colored,  03.254  Chinese,  and 
25,731  settled  Indians. — Mexico  is  bounded  N. 
by  the  United  States,  E.  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Caribbean  sea,  W.  by  the  Pacific;,  and 
S.  by  Central  America.    It  has  an  area  of  near-  i 
ly  800,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  estimated  in 
1808  at  9,173,052,  of  whom  more  than  half  are  j 
set  down  as  Indians,  and  only  about  1,000,000  i 
whites,   the  remainder  being  of  mixed  blood  \ 
and  negroes.     II.  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  occupy 
ing  the  greater  part  of  the  isthmus  of  Darien, 
comprises  the  states  of  Guatemala,  San  Salva 
dor,    Honduras,    Nicaragua,    and   Costa   Rica, 
which  since  1803  have  formed  a  loose  political  j 
union,   under  the  name  of  States  of  Central 
America.     They  contain  about  175,000  sq.  in., 


with  a  population  estimated  in  1865  at  2,065,- 
000,  of  whom  1,500,000  are  Indians,  1,000,000 
of  mixed  blood,  130,000  whites,  and  85,000 
blacks.  Central  America  lies  wholly  within 
the  tropics ;  but  many  parts  of  it  are  sufficiently 
elevated  to  give  a  temperate  climate.  III. 
SOTJTII  AMERICA  extends  from  Cape  Gallinas, 
lat.  12°  30'  N.,  to  Cape  Horn,  lat.  55°  59'  S., 
its  extreme  length  being  4,550  m.  The  distin 
guishing  physical  feature  is  the  chain  of  the  An 
des  or  Cordilleras,  which  borders  the  whole  W. 
coast,  at  a  distance  of  from  50  to  100  m.  from 
the  shore,  gradually  sinking  at  the  southern  ex 
tremity  to  the  level  of  the  ocean,  a  few  sum 
mits  appearing  as  rocky  islands.  From  lat. 
22°  S.  northward  the  range  widens,  spreading 
into  a  series  of  ridges  generally  parallel,  the 
westernmost  ridge,  almost  continuous,  being 
the  Andes  proper,  or  Cordillera  of  the  coast. 
The  main  line  follows,  or  rather  constitutes  the 
isthmus  of  Panama,  an  ofishoot  striking  north 
easterly  to  the  Caribbean  sea.  This  last  is 
divided  into  several  parallel  ridges,  through  the 
intervening  valleys  of  which  the  Atrato  and 
the  Magdalena  flow  northward  info  the  Carib 
bean.  The  general  chain  is  nowhere  broken 
through,  and  thus  forms  a  complete  separation 
between  the  waters  which  flow  into  the  Pacific 
and  those  which  fall  into  the  Atlantic.  On 
the  Pacific  side  there  is  no  considerable  river. 
From  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes  several 
ranges  of  highlands  divide  the  whole  country 
into  a  number  of  shallow  basins.  Topographi 
cally  South  America  is  divided  into  seven  dis 
tinct  regions :  1.  The  shore  of  the  Pacific,  50  to 
100  m.  in  breadth,  the  extremities  of  which  are 
fertile,  the  centre  being  a  sandy  desert.  2.  The 
elevated  table  lands  lying  between  the  folds  of 
the  main  Andes  and  the  other  Cordilleras;  the 
chief  of  these  are  those  of  Quito  and  Bogota. 
3.  The  basin  of  the  Orinoco,  a  series  of  llanos, 
or  level  plains  thinly  wooded,  but  covered  du 
ring  the  wet  season  with  late  herbage,  which 
withers  in  the  dry  season,  when  the  heat  is  in 
tense.  4.  The  great  basin  of  the  Amazon,  cov 
ering  about  2,000,000  sq.  m.,  for  the  most  part 
densely  wooded  and  thinly  peopled.  5.  The 
basin  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  a  series  of  plains, 
known  as  pampas,  the  river  banks  clothed  with 
forests,  and  the  interior  covered  with  luxuriant 
grass,  which  supports  immense  herds  of  cattle, 
millions  of  which  are  annually  slaughtered  for 
their  hides.  The  cattle  here  probably  excel  in 
number  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  globe.  6. 
The  mountainous  region  of  E.  and  S.  Brazil, 
extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  interior, 
where  it  almost  imperceptibly  joins  with  the 
two  former  regions.  7.  Patagonia,  occupying 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  continent  from  about 
lat,  40°  S.  to  Cape  Horn.  This  region  is  almost 
wholly  unexplored.  The  Argentine  Confedera 
tion  claims  dominion  over  a  great  part  of  it ; 
but  practically  it  is  inhabited  only  by  savages, 
with  scarcely  a  trace  of  even  a  tribal  govern 
ment.  About  three  fourths  of  South  America 
lie  geographically  within  the  tropics ;  but  the 


£  f-      ••:•  ."fe^^^T  7     *    ^  :- 

^^^4^^3  ~|  " 


111    J?    ||       "  ?y 

'^.<        -,    "      57  ^*' 


AMERICA 


391 


climate  is  greatly  modified  by  the  elevation. — 
With  the  exception  of  a  small  tract  in  the  X. 
E.  angle,  comprising  French,  Dutch,  and  Brit 
ish  Guiana,  no  part  of  South  America  is  under 
the  dominion  of  any  foreign  power.  The  pres 
ent  political  divisions  are  eleven  in  number. 
"We  enumerate  them  in  geographical  order,  com 
mencing  at  the  north  :  1.  Venezuela,  in  the 
north,  bordering  on  the  Atlantic  and  Caribbean 
sea;  area,  425,0'JO  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  1,250,000. 
The  only  census  ever  taken  was  in  18-47,  when 
the  population  was  1,207,000,  since  which  it 
has  probably  decreased  somewhat  owing  to 
frequent  revolutions.  The  bulk  of  the  popula 
tion  are  of  mixed  Indian  and  negro  blood, 
hardly  one  in  a  hundred  being  put  down  as 
pure  whites.  2.  The  United  States  of  Colom 
bia,  formerly  known  as  Xew  Granada,  bound 
ed  X.  by  the  Caribbean  sea  and  Central  Amer 
ica,  E.  by  Venezuela,  S.  by  Brazil  and  Ecuador, 
and  W.  by  the  Pacific.  It  comprises  the  south 
ern  part  of  the  isthmus  of  Darien,  the  Panama 
railroad  running  through  it.  Area,  500,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1804,  2,794,000,  since  which 
time  partial  enumerations  indicate  a  slight  in 
crease.  Most  of  the  population  is  of  mixed 
races.  Thoso  in  whom  European  blood  pre 
dominates  over  Indian  are  about  1,480,000; 
Indian  over  European,  440,000 ;  Indian  and 
negro,  440,000;  pure  Indian,  150,000;  negro, 
90,000.  3.  The  empire  of  Brazil,  the  only 
monarchy,  stretching  westward  in  its  northern 
part  from  the  Atlantic  to  Colombia,  in  its  south 
ern  part  to  Bolivia.  It  includes  the  greater  part 
of  the  basin  of  the  Amazon.  Area,  3,140,000 
sq.  m.  The  population  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  10,000,000  to  12,000,000.  The  best  native 
authority  gives  it  in  1807  at  11,780,000,  of 
whom  9,880,000  were  free,  1,400.000  slaves, 
and  500,000  uncivilized  Indians.  The  propor 
tion  of  people  of  mixed  blood  is  small  com 
pared  with  other  South  American  states.  4. 
Uruguay,  bounded  by  Brazil,  the  Atlantic,  and 
the  Argentine  Confederation;  area,  75,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  300,000.  5.  Paraguay,  bounded  by 
Bolivia,  Brazil,  and  the  Argentine  Confedera 
tion,  the  only  country  with  no  seacoast ;  area, 
70,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1857,  1,300,000,  but 
sin<5e  greatly  reduced  by  war  and  famine.  0. 
Bolivia,  extending  from  Brazil  to  the  Pacific ; 
area,  575,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  2,000,000.  7.  The 
Argentine  Confederation,  extending  from  Bo 
livia  and  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic;  area, 
000,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  1,800,000.  8.  Patago 
nia,  occupying  the  extreme  southern  end  of  the 
continent ;  area,  350,000  sq.  m.  The  population 
is  insignificant,  consisting  wholly  of  savages, 
destitute  of  any  organized  government.  All' the 
foregoing  states  are  E.  of  the  Andes.  The 
remaining  ones  are  on  the  Pacific  shore,  the 
summits  of  the  range,  and  its  eastern  slope. 
9.  Ecuador,  upon  and  just  S.  of  the  equator; 
area,  275,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  1,300,000,  of 
whom  half  are  reckoned  as  whites,  though 
many  are  of  mixed  blood.  Its  cultivated  parts 
comprise  a  narrow  strip  on  the  Pacific,  the  ele- 


!  vated  valley  of  Quito,  between  the  ridges  of 
I  the  Cordilleras,  and  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
latter.     Within  its   limits   are    several  of  the 
,  loftiest  peaks  of  the  Andes.     10.  Peru.  S.  of 
i  Ecuador,  crossing  the  Andes,  and    extending 
!  down  the  eastern  slope ;  area,  000,000  sq.  m. ; 
j  pop.    2,500,000,    of  whom    15    per    cent,    arc 
1  whites  and  57  per  cent.  Indians.     11.   Chili, 
:  occupying  the  narrow  Pacific  coast  S.  of  Bo 
livia  and  W.  of  the  Argentine  Confederation 
and  northern  Patagonia  ;  area,  within  its  estab 
lished   limits,   about    150,000  sq.   m. ;  pop.    in 
1808,    1,900,000.     IV.    ISLANDS   OF   AMERICA. 
!  The  islands  not  immediately  adjacent  to  the 
mainland,  which  may  be  properly  considered 
,  as  belonging  to  the  American  continent,   are 
;  grouped  as  follows :  1,  the  Greater  Antilles,  in 
cluding  Cuba,  Hayti,  Jamaica,  and  Porto  Ptico : 
i  2,  the  Lesser  Antilles,  including  Barbadoes  and 
about  30  others;  3,  the  Bahamas,  about  500  in 
number,    most   of   them  uninhabited.      Their 
|  total  area  is  not  far  from  100,000  sq.  m.,  with 
a  population  of  over  4,000,00jj|  With  the  ex 
ception  of  Hayti,  these  are  siflfect  to  different 
European  powers.     To  these  may  be   added 
I  Greenland,  belonging  to  Denmark,  the   popu- 
I  lation  of  which  numbers  only  a  few  thousands. 
—The  area  and  population  of  the  American 


bers  as  follows: 

COUNTRIES. 

Area,  sq.  m. 

|  Population. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 
British  America 

3  500  000 

J     4  455  000 

Mexico. 

800  000 

!     9175000 

United  States.  . 

3,600,000 

1  38,553,000 

Totals,  North  America  

7,900,000 

52,188.000 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 
Costa  Rica  
Guatemala 

20.000 
40,000 

135,000 
1,180000 

Honduras  

47.000 

831,000 

Nicaragua  
San  Salvador. 

58.000 
10,000 

400.000 
600,000 

Totals,  Central  America  
SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Argentine  Confederation.   .  . 

175,000 
600.000 

2,665,000 

'1.800,000 

Bolivia 

575  00:') 

2  000.000 

Brazil  

3.140.000 

11.780,000 

Chili  

150.1,00 

1.900,000 

Colombia 

500  00  0 

2.C00.000 

Ecuador  
Guiana  

275.000 
480.000 

1300.000 
300.000 

Paraguay 

70.000 

325.000 

Patagonia  

350.1  '00 

4.000 

Peru  
Uruguay 

GOO.iiOO 

75.000 

2.500.000 
300  000 

Venezuela  

Totals.  South  America  

425,000 
7,240.0.  JO 

1.250.000 
26.259,000 

100  000 

4  000  000 

— The  history  of  America,  as  authentically  re 
corded,  hardly  goes  back  five  centuries,  or 
about  100  years  before  the  colonization  by 
the  Europeans.  For  everything  earlier  we  have 
only  the  ruins  left  by  extinct  races,  and  tradi 
tions  in  which  the  mythical  element  is  pre 
dominant.  It  is  certain  that  the  Northmen 


392 


AMERICA 


visited  Greenland  as  early  as  the  10th  century, 
and  planted  a  colony  there,  with  which  they 
maintained  an  almost  continuous  intercourse. 
They  also  sailed  for  some  distance  down  the 
Atlantic  coast;  but  there  is  no  evidence  that 
they  ever  reached  further  south  than  New 
England,  or  penetrated  a  score  of  miles  into 
the  interior.  But  wherever  Columbus  and  his 
followers  went,  they  found  the  country  peo 
pled  more  or  less  densely  by  a  race  or  races  to 
whom  they  gave  the  general  appellation  of 
Indians.  When  and  whence  they  came  is 
unknown.  The  widely  spread  race  which  we 
group  together  as  Esquimaux  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  inhabitants  of  Siberia  on 
the  one  side  and  those  of  Lapland  on  the 
other.  They  may  have  reached  America  from 
one  side  by  way  of  Iceland,  or  on  the  other 
by  crossing  Behring  strait ;  not  impossibly  by 
both.  But  in  either  case  intercourse  with 
their  European  and  Asiatic  kindred  was  early 
interrupted.  There  is  little  likelihood  that 
any  intercourse,  existed  betwen  the  dwellers 
on  Baffin  bay*and  those  on  Behring  strait. 
Both  live  mainly  on  the  products  of  the  sea — 
salmon  in  the  one  case,  and  seals  in  the  other ; 
consequently  they  never  move  far  from  the 
shore.  There  is  no  evidence  that  they  have 
ever  moved  southward  to  more  hospitable 
regions  than  those  which  they  now  inhabit. 
The  name  Esquimaux  is  of  French  origin.  In 
the  regions  around  Baffin  bay  they  call  them 
selves  Innuits,  which  means  simply  folks.  In 
almost  every  respect  they  differ  widely  from 
the  tribes  who  were  found  spread  over  the 
whole  of  what  now  constitutes  the  United 
States  E.  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  The  early 
explorers  found  this  whole  region  peopled  by  a 
race  homogeneous  in  physical  character  and 
way  of  life.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  they 
had  been  preceded  by  another  race  of  a  higher 
type.  This  race,  known  as  the  mound-builders, 
certainly  occupied  the  whole  extent  of  the  val 
ley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  penetrated  as  far 
north  as  the  copper  region  of  Lake  Superior, 
where  they  have  left  behind  them  evidences 
that  they  had  made  no  inconsiderable  ad 
vances  in  the  art  of  working  metals.  Their 
principal  memorials  are  found  in  the  earthworks 
which  they  erected.  Of  these  many  thousands 
have  been  found  in  the  single  state  of  Ohio. 
Their  number  and  magnitude  prove  them  to 
have  been  the  work  of  a  numerous  people 
organized  into  large  communities.  How  and 
when  this  people  disappeared  is  beyond  even 
plausible  conjecture.  Passing  southward,  we 
come  to  Mexico,  which  was  found  occupied  by 
a  people  more  advanced  in  many  respects  than 
we  can  suppose  the  mound-builders  to  have 
been.  The  ruling  race  at  the  time  of  the  con 
quest  were  the  Aztecs;  but  they  had  occupied 
this  place  for  only  a  few  generations.  They 
were  apparently  immigrants  to  the  table  land 
of  Anahuac ;  but  it  is  still  a  disputed  question 
whether  they  came  from  the  north  or  the  south. 
Their  civilization  was  undoubtedly  engrafted 


upon  an  earlier  one,  to  which  the  name  of  Tol- 
tec  has  been  given.  In  the  southern  Mexican 
states  of  Yucatan  and  Chiapas,  and  in  Hondu 
ras  and  Guatemala,  are  ruins  of  large  cities 
which  evince  a  still  higher  grade  of  culture. 
The  existence  of  these  great  ruins  shows  that 
this  region,  where  the  present  population  is 
hardly  ten  to  the  square  mile,  was  once  dense- 
|  ly  peopled.  In  the  part  of  South  America  E. 
j  of  the  Andes,  the  aboriginal  population  never 
attained  to  any  form  of  civilization.  That 
portion  of  South  America  occupying  the  ele 
vated  valleys  between  the  various  ranges  of 
the  Andes,  within  the  present  states  of  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  Ecuador,  was  the  seat  of  a  civili 
zation  known  as  that  of  the  incas.  The  time 
of  its  origin  is  variously  stated  ;  some  place  it 
back  three  or  four  thousand  years  or  more; 
but  a  more  probable  date  is  about  A.  D.  1000. 
It  was  at  its  height  at  the  period  of  the  Spanish 
conquest.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  civilizations  of 
the  prehistoric  races  of  America  are  generally 
regarded  as  purely  indigenous,  having  no  con 
nection  with  and  but  slight  resemblance  to  these 
of  any  other  peoples.  (See  AMERICAN  ANTIQFI- 
TIES.) — The  historical  period  of  America  as  fairly 
written  begins  with  the  discovery  of  the  West 
Indian  islands  by  Columbus  in  1492.  In  the 
course  of  different  voyages  he  sailed  for  some 
distance  along  the  shores  of  the  continent.  In 
1497  the  Cabots  discovered  Newfound  land,  and 
coasted  as  far  down  as  Florida.  The  Spaniards 
took  the  lead  in  conquest  and  partial  coloniza 
tion.  AVithin  half  a  century  they  took  posses 
sion  of  the  islands;  Cortes  conquered  Mexico, 
Balboa  and  others  Central  America,  and  Pizar- 
ro  and  Almagro  overran  Peru.  The  Spaniards 
were  adventurers  rather  than  colonists;  their 
chief  object  was  gold,  and  they  pushed  mainly 
into  the  regions  where  this  was  found.  They 
reached  New  Mexico  before  1537.  Brazil  was 
formally  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  in  1549, 
j  fell  successively  under  the  dominion  of  Spain 
and  Holland,  and  was  finally  recovered  by  Por- 
j  tugal  in  1654.  The  French  took  formal  posses- 
!  sion  of  Canada  in  1534,  and  laid  claim  to  the 
j  region  westward  and  southward,  including  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi.  The  English  were 
much  later  in  colonizing.  Their  first  permanent 
settlement  at  Jamestown  was  made  in  1G07. 
The  Dutch  and  Swedes  also,  not  long  alter,  set 
tled  at  a  few  points.  In  1770  the  American 
continent  was  divided  among  three  European 
nations.  England,  having  taken  the  French, 
Dutch,  and  Swedish  possessions,  held  by  claim 
the  whole  of  North  America,  except  Mexico. 
i  Spain  held  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the 
i  whole  of  South  America,  except  Brazil,  which 
|  belonged  to  Portugal.  Somewhat  Liter,  Rus- 
I  sia  acquired  an  extensive  territory  in  the  ex 
treme  N.  W.  of  the  continent.  In  1775  be 
gan  the  series  of  revolts  which  in  less  than 
half  a  century  almost  entirely  expelled  the 
!  European  governments,  except  Great  Britain, 
from  the  continent  of  America.  The  thirteen 
British  colonies  rose  in  1775,  and  proclaimed 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


393 


their  independence  In  1770,  which  was  acknow 
ledged  in  178:3.  In  1807  the  connection  be 
tween  Portugal  and  Brazil  was  virtually  dis 
solved,  the  royal  family  abandoning  Europe, 
and  taking  refuge  in  America.  The  rising  in 
the  Spanish  possessions  began  soon  after  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  Venezuela,  and  Chili.  Mexico 
revolted  in  1810,  and  secured  its  independence 
in  1821.  The  other  states  followed  at  various 
intervals,  Bolivia  in  182-4  being  the  last.  In 
1825  the  surrender  of  the  castle  of  San  Juan  de 
Ulloa  removed  the  last  vestige  of  Spanish  do 
minion  on  the  American  continent.  In  1867 
Russia  sold  her  possessions  to  the  United  States. 
AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES.  A  large  part  of 
what  are  called  the  antiquities  of  America 
consist  only  of  the  architectural  and  other  re 
mains  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  and  nations,  which 
were  displaced  or  subjugated  by  European  con 
quest  and  settlement.  Such  are  many  of  the 
ruined  temples  and  other  edifices  of  Peru,  Cen- 


I  yond  the  straits  of  Bearing.     Cortes  in  Mexico, 
Grijalva  and  Montejo  in  Yucatan,  Alvarado  in 
Guatemala,  and   Pizarro  and  his  captains   in 
Peru,  all  found  vast  and  imposing  structures,  the 
|  work  of  the  actual  inhabitants,  the  ruins  of 
I  which  are  almost  universally  confounded  with 
!  those  of  more  ancient  monuments,  the  earlier 
|  works  of  the  same  hands  or  of  unknown  or  ex- 
|  tinct  peoples.  It  is  certain  that  Cholula,  Uxmal, 
!  and  Chichen,  Quiche  and  Pachacamac,  were  all 
|  perfect  and  occupied  at  the  time  of  the  conquest. 
i  Hence  their  remains,  however  interesting  and 
valuable  as  illustrating  American  aboriginal  art, 
can  hardly  be  considered  as  falling  within  the 
denomination  of  American  antiquities.     Under 
this  head,  in  a  strict  sense,  we  can  only  include 
such  monuments  as  were  really  regarded  as 
antiquities  by  the  aborigines  themselves,  con 
cerning  the  origin  of  which  they  were  wholly 
ignorant,    or    only    possessed    a    traditionary 
knowledge.     Of  this  character  are  most  of  the 
earthworks  and  mounds  on  the  terraces  of  the 
Mississippi  valley,  and  in  the  forests  bordering 
on  the  Mexican  gulf.     Such  also  are  the  ruined 
pyramids  of  Teotihuacan  and  the  crumbling 
edifices  of  Mitla,  in  Mexico ;  the  still  more  elab 
orate  structures  and  sculptured  monoliths  of 
Palenque  and   Copan;  and  the  vast  enigmat 
ical  monuments  of  Tiahuanaco  on  the  south 
ern  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca  in  Bolivia ;  to  say 
nothing  of  the  bewildering  remains  of  Man- 
siche  or  Grand   Chimu   in   northern   Peru. — 
Commencing  with  our  own  country,  we  find 


Casa  Grande,  Xew  Mexico. 

tral  America,  and  Mexico,  as  well  as  most  of 
the  ruder  monuments  of  New  Mexico,  and 
probably  all  of  those  still  ruder  earthworks  and 
rock  sculptures  which  are  found  eastward  of 
the  Alleghanies.  Cartier  in  Canada,  and  Smith 
in  Virginia,  as  well  as  the  pilgrims  in  New 
England  and  the  French  in  western  New  York, 
all  found  the  Indians  constructing  defences, 
consisting  of  ditches,  embankments,  and  pali 
saded,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  numerous, 
and  which  have  been  variously  ascribed  to 
Celtic,  Hebrew,  and  Tartar  origins.  So  too 
Coronado,  who  marched  into  New  Mexico  as 
early  as  1540,  found  there  in  perfect  condi 
tion  and  actual  use  those  singular  edifices 
of  fort-like  dimensions  and  numerous  stories, 
which  since,  abandoned  and  ruined,  under  the 
name  of  casas  grander,  have  been  claimed  as 
monuments  of  a  supposed  migration  of  the 
Aztecs  from  some  undefined  northern  region, 
or  from  the  frozen  wastes  of  Kamtchatka,  be- 


Fortified  Hill,  Butler  County,  Ohio. 


394 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


in  the  Mississippi  valley  a  succession  of  earth 
works,  manifestly  defensive  in  character,  ex 
tending  from  the  lakes  southward  to  the  gulf. 
They  generally  crown  the  summits  of  steep 
hills,  and  consist  of  an  embankment  and  exterior 
ditch,  of  varying  dimensions,  with  approaches 
often  artfully  covered.  Fort  Ilill,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Little  Miami  river  in  Ohio,  has  a  line 
of  circumvallation  nearly  four  miles  in  extent, 
varying  in  height,  according  to  the  natural 
strength  of  the  point  protected,  from  10  to  20 
feet,  and  embracing  an  area  of  several  hundred 
acres.  When  not  erected  near  to  streams,  and 
in  cases  where  springs  are  not  included  with 
in  their  lines,  we  almost  always  find  artificial 
reservoirs  for  holding  water.  A  large  class  of 


Ancient  Works  near  Chillicothe,  Ohio. 

these  defensive  works  consist  of  a  line  of  ditch 
and  embankment,  or  of  several  lines  one  within 
another,  carried  across  the  necks  of  peninsulas 
or  bluff  headlands  formed  within  the  bends  of 
streams.  Associated  with  these  defensive  works, 
and  often  included  within  them,  are  structures 
connected  with  religious  ideas  and  ceremonies. 
They  consist  of  earthworks  with  their  ditches, 
when  such  exist,  interior  and  not  exterior  to 
the  walls,  of  regular  outline,  squares,  circles, 
octagons,  and  other  geometrical  figures,  often 
combined,  and  sometimes  of  great  extent ;  as  for 
instance  at  Newark,  Ohio,  where  they  cover  an 
area  of  more  than  two  miles  square,  and  probably 
comprise  upward  of  12  miles  of  embankment 
from  2  to  20  feet  in  height.  (Sec  "  Monuments 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  by  Squicr  and  Da 


vis,  forming  the  first  volunie  of  the  "Smith 
sonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge.")  Other 
works  of  a  sacred  or  religious  origin,  consisting 
of  mounds  of  earth  and  stone  of  various  sizes, 
but  always  regular  shapes,  are  found  in  con 
nection  with  those  above  described,  and  are 
very  numerous.  They  are  oftenest  square, 
terraced,  and  ascended  by  graded  ways ;  some 
times  hexagonal,  octagonal,  or  truncated,  and 
ascended  by  spiral  paths,  in  most  respects 
coinciding  with  the  teocallis  of  Mexico  and  the 
topes  of  India — the  high  altars,  symbolical  in 
form,  on  which  the  priests  ottered  up  sacrifices, 
and  paid  adoration  to  the  solar  god.  Some  of 
these  arrest  our  attention  by  their  geometrical 
accuracy  of  form,  and  others  by  their  great  size, 
covering  several  acres  of  ground,  and  rising  to 
imposing  altitudes.  A  mound  of  this  descrip 
tion,  on  the  plain  of  Cahokia,  Illinois,  opposite 
the  city  of  St.  Louis,  is  TOO  feet  long  by  500 
feet  broad  at  the  base,  and  90  feet  high,  cover 
ing  upward  of  eight  acres  of  ground,  and  hav 
ing  20,000,000  cubic  feet  of  contents.  These 
mounds  frequently  contain  skeletons.  The 
most  common  monuments  in  the  Mississippi 
valley,  however,  are  those  which  are  incontes- 
tably  simple  places  of  sepulture,  memorials 
raised  over  the  dead,  and  in  their  size  probably 
bearing  a  certain  relation  to  the  importance 
when  living  of  the  personages  over  whom  they 
were  erected.  Some  of  these,  like  that  at  Grave 
Creek  near  Parkersburg  in  West  Virginia,  and 
that  at  Miamisburg  in  Ohio,  the  one  TO  and 
the  other  68  feet  in  vertical  height,  no  doubt 
mark  the  graves  of  personages  of  high  conse 
quence  among  the  builders  of  these  monu 
ments.  It  sometimes  happens  that  one  of  these 
sepulchral  mounds  contains  two  or  more  skele 
tons,  but  they  rarely  cover  more  than  one,  except 
in  cases  where  the  later  Indian  tribes,  with  a 


Conical  Mound,  Marietta,  Ohio. 

vague  notion  of  their  sanctity,  have  buried  their 
dead  in  them.  The  early  white  settlers  also 
occasionally  buried  in  them.  The  notion  that 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


395 


they  contain  vast  heaps  of  slain,  and  are  memo 
rials  of  great  battles,  is  unsupported  by  facts. 
Still  more  remarkable  earthworks  are  those 


Aniinal-shaped  Mounds,  Wisconsin. 

commonest  in  Wisconsin  and  Iowa,  but  of 
which  a  few  examples  are  found  in  Ohio,  and 
which  bear  the  outlines  of  men  and  animals, 
constituting  huge  bass-reliefs  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  One  of  these,  surveyed  by  Squier 
and  Davis  in  1846,  on  the  banks  of  Brush 
creek,  Adams  county,  Ohio,  is  in  the  form  of 
a  serpent,  over  1,000  feet  in  length,  extended 
in  graceful  curves,  and  terminating  in  a  triple 
coil  at  the  tail.  The  embankment  constituting 


Serpent-shaped  Mound,  Adams  County,  Ohio. 

the  effigy  is  upward  of  5  feet  high  by  30  feet 
base  at  the  centre  of  the  body,  diminishing 
somewhat  toward  the  head  and  tail.  The  neck 


of  the  figure  is  stretched  out  and  slightly 
curved,  and  its  mouth  is  opened  wide,  as  if  in 
the  act  of  swallowing  or  ejecting  an  oval  fig 
ure,  which  rests  partly  between  the  distended 
jaws.  This  oval  is  formed  by  an  embankment 
4  feet  high,  and  is  perfectly  regular  in  outline, 
its  transverse  and  conjugate  diameters  being 
103  and  39  feet  respectively.  The  combined 
figure  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  a  represen 
tation  of  the  oriental  cosmological  idea  of  the 
serpent  and  the  egg.  With  the  remains  of  the 
dead  in  the  sepulchral  mounds,  as  also  within 
those  which  are  believed  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  religion  of  their  builders,  many  relics 
of  art  have  been  discovered,  displaying  greater 
skill  than  was  known  to  exist  among  the  tribes 
found  in  occupation  of  the  country  at  the  time 
of  the  discovery.  Elaborate  carvings  in  stone, 
pottery  often  of  elegant  design,  articles  of  use 
and  ornament  in  metal,  silver,  and  native  cop 
per  from  Lake  Superior,  mica  from  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  shells  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
obsidian,  probably  also  porphyry,  from  Mexico, 
are  found  side  by  side  in  the  same  mound. 
Articles  of  comparatively  recent  date,  some 
of  them  of  undoubted  European  origin,  have 
also  been  found  among  the  later  and  secondary 
deposits  in  the  mounds.  Forged  inscriptions, 
stones  bearing  mysterious  characters,  kv  Erse, 
I  ancient  Greek,  Phoenician,  Celtiberic,  and  Ru- 
|  nic,"  as  evidences  of  every  possible  and  im- 
I  possible  theory  of  American  origin,  have  each 
I  found  people  credulous  enough  to  accept  and 
j  defend  their  authenticity,  even  after  the  au- 
i  tliors  of  the  various  impostures  have  abandoned 
1  them  to  their  fate.  The  facts  connected  with 
,  the  monuments  of  the  Mississippi  valley  "  indi- 
i  cate  that  the  ancient  population  was  numerous 
|  and  widely  spread,  as  shown  from  the  number 
:  and  magnitude  of  their  works,  and  the  exten- 
I  sive  range  of  their  occurrence;  that  it  was 
i  essentially  homogeneous  in  customs,  habits, 
religion,  and  government,  as  appears  from  the 
\  great  uniformity  which  the  works  display,  not 
only  in  respect  to  position  and  form,  but  in  all 
t  minor  particulars ;  and  that  the  features  com- 
mon  to  all  the  remains  identify  them  as  apper- 
:  taining  to  a  single  grand  system,  owing  its  ori 
gin  to  a  family  of  men  moving  in  the  same 
I  general  direction,  acting  under  common  impul- 
;  ses,  and  influenced  by  similar  causes."  What- 
|  ever  differences  the  monuments  display  are 
such  as  might  result  from  the  progressive 
I  efforts  of  a  people  in  a  state  of  development,  or 
j  from  the  weaker  efforts  of  colonies,  or  what 
:  might  be  called  provincial  communities.  It  is 
impossible  that  a  population  for  whose  protec 
tion  such  extensive  military  works  were  neces- 
;  sary,  and  which  was  able  to  defend  them,  should 
i  not  have  been  eminently  agricultural ;  and  such 
!  monuments  as  the  mounds  at  Grave  Creek  and 
Cahokia  indicate  not  only  a  dense  agricultural 
population,  but  a  state  of  society  essentially  dif 
ferent  from  that  of  the  existing  race  of  Indians 
north  of  the  tropic.  There  is  not,  and  there 
was  not  at  the  period  of  the  discovery,  a  single 


396 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


tribe  of  Indians,  north  of  the  semi-civilized 
nations  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  which 
had  the  means  of  subsistence  to  enable  them  to 
supply  for  such  purposes  the  unproductive  labor 
necessary  for  the  work  ;  nor  were  they  in  such 
a  social  state  as  to  compel  the  labor  of  the 
people  to  be  thus  applied.  As  regards  the  an 
tiquity  of  these  monuments,  apart  from  such 
facts  as  a  total  absence  of  any  reasonable  tra 
ditions  as  to  their  origin  among  the  Indians 
themselves,  and  the  existence  of  the  largest  and 
most  ancient  forest  trees  on  the  embankments 
and  in  the  ditches  of  the  various  works,  there 
are  other  facts  which  enable  us  to  arrive  at  ap 
proximate  conclusions  upon  this  point.  None 
of  these  works  occur  on  the  lowest  formed  of 
the  river  terraces  which  mark  the  subsidence 
of  the  western  streams ;  and  as  there  is  no  good 
reason  why  their  builders  should  have  avoided 
erecting  them  on  that  terrace,  while  they 
raised  them  promiscuously  upon  all  the  others, 
it  seems  to  follow  that  this  terrace  has  been 
formed  since  these  works  were  erected  ;  a  con 
clusion  supported  by  the  important  fact  that 
some  of  them  have  been  in  part  destroyed  by 
streams  which  have  since  receded  for  half  a 
mile  arid  upward,  and  which  under  no  present 
possible  rise,  from  rains  or  other  natural  cause, 
could  reach  the  works  again.  Upon  these 
premises,  the  time  since  the  streams  have  flowed 
in  their  present  courses  may  be  divided  into 
four  periods,  corresponding  to  the  four  terraces 
which  mark  the  eras  of  their  subsidence,  of 
which  period  the  last  and  longest  (since  the 
excavating  power  of  the  streams  diminishes  as 
the  square  of  their  depth  increases)  has  elapsed 
since  the  race  of  the  mounds  flourished.  An 
other  fact  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the 
age  of  these  works  is  the  extremely  decayed 
condition  of  the  human  remains  found  in  the 
mounds.  Considering  that  the  earth  around 
the  skeletons  is  for  the  most  part  wonderfully 
compact  and  dry,  and  that  the  conditions  for 
their  preservation  are  exceedingly  favorable, 
while  they  are  in  fact  in  the  last  stage  of  de 
composition,  we  may  form  some  approximate 
estimate  of  their  remote  antiquity.  In  the 
barrows  of  the  ancient  Britons,  in  a  moist 
climate  and  under  unfavorable  conditions  as 
regards  preservation,  entire  and  well  preserved 
skeletons  are  often  found  possessing  an  un 
doubted  antiquity  of  at  least  1,800  years. 
From  these  and  other  facts  and  circumstances 
equally  conclusive,  we  may  deduce  an  age  for 
most  of  the  monuments  of  the  Mississippi  val 
ley  of  not  less  than  2,000  years.  By  whom 
built,  and  whether  their  authors  migrated  to 
remote  lands  under  the  combined  attractions 
of  a  more  fertile  soil  and  more  genial  climate,  or 
whether  they  disappeared  beneath  the  victorious 
arms  of  an  alien  race,  or  were  swept  out  of 
existence  by  some  direful  epidemic  or  universal 
famine,  are  questions  probably  beyond  the  pow 
er  of  human  investigations  to  answer.  —  The 
principal  remains  of  antiquity  in  Mexico  are 
the  ruins  of  temples  and  of  structures  dedicated 


to  defensive  purposes.  Those  of  undoubtedly 
high  antiquity  are  most  massive  in  character, 
and  display  remarkable  evidences  of  taste  and 
skill.  It  would  seem  that  during  the  aboriginal 
rule  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  dwelt  in  rude 
structures  of  thatch  and  cane,  which  after  a  few 
years  of  abandonment  would  decay  and  leave 
no  trace  of  their  existence,  except  perhaps  in 
the  fragments  of  broken  pottery  which  might 
surround  them.  Whatever  of  architectural  skill 
the  people  possessed  was  dedicated  to  the  con 
struction  of  their  temples  and  the  residences 
of  their  chiefs,  which  were  often  included  the 
one  within  the  other.  These  temples  were  in 
nearly  all  cases  pyramidal  in  form,  terraced 
'and  truncated,  and  ascended  by  flights  of  steps 
usually  built  on  an  inclined  plane  running  up 
the  centre  of  one  of  the  sides,  generally  that 
opposed  to  the  rising  sun.  These  structures 
perhaps  better  deserved  the  name  of  altars,  or 
the  Scriptural  name  of  "high  places,"  than  of 
temples ;  an  edifice  built  on  the  level  summit 
in  reality  constituting  the  naos,  or  temple 


Mexican  Teocalli. 

proper.  The  great  temple  of  Mexico,  which  is 
described  by  all  the  early  writers  as  nearly 
identical  in  form  and  structure  with  all  the 
temples  of  Anahnac,  consisted  of  an  immense 
square  area,  "surrounded  by  a  wall  of  stone 
and  lime  eight  feet  thick,  with  battlements  or 
namented  with  many  stone  figures  in  the  form 
of  serpents."  The  extent  of  this  enclosure, 
which  occupied  the  centre  of  the  ancient  city, 
may  be  inferred  from  the  assertion  of  Cortes 
that  it  might  contain  a  town  of  500  houses.  It 
was  paved  with  polished  stones,  so  smooth,  says 
Bernal  Diaz,  that  "  the  horses  of  the  Spaniards 
could  not  move  over  without  slipping.1"  The 
four  walls  of  this  enclosure  corresponded  with 
the  cardinal  points,  and  gateways  opened  mid 
way  upon  each  side,  from  which,  according  to 
Gomera,  led  off  broad  and  elevated  avenues 
or  roads.  In  the  centre  of  this  grand  area 
arose  the  great  temple,  an  immense  pyramidal 
structure  of  five  stages,  faced  with  stone,  300 
feet  square  at  the  base  and  120  feet  high, 
truncated,  with  a  level  summit,  upon  which 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


397' 


were  situated  two  towers,  the  shrines  of  the  j 
divinities  to  whom  it  was  consecrated.     It  was 
here  that  the  sacrifices  were  performed  and 
the  eternal  tire  was  maintained.     One  of  these 
shrines  was  dedicated  to  Tezcatlipoca,  the  other 
to  Huitzlipochtli ;  which  divinities  sustained  the 
same   relation  to  each  other   in  the  Mexican 
mythology  as  Brahma  and  Siva  in  that  of  the 
Hindoos.    Besides  this  great  pyramid,  according 
to  Clavigero,  there  were  40  similar  structures,  of 
smaller  size,  consecrated  to  separate  divinities ; 
one  was  called  Tezcacalli,  which  was  covered 
with  hrilliant  materials,  and  sacred  to  Tezcatli 
poca,  the  god  of  light,  the  soul  of  the  world, 
the  viviiier,  the  spiritual  sun ;   another  to  Tla- 
loc,  the  god  of  water,  the  fertilizer ;   another  j 
to  Quetzalcoatl,  said  to  have  been  the  god  of  j 
the  air,  whose  shrine  was  distinguished  by  being  j 
circular,  "even,"  says  Gomera,  "as  the  winds  I 
go  round  about  the  heavens ;  for  that  consid-  I 
eration  made  they  his  temple  round."     Besides  j 
these,  there  were  the  dwellings  of  the  priests 
(amounting,  according  to  Zarate,  to  5,000)  and  j 
of  the  attendants  in  the  temples,  seminaries  | 
for  the  instruction  of  youth,  and,  if  we  are  to  j 
credit  some  accounts,  houses  of  reception  for  I 
strangers  who  came  to  visit  the  temple  and  see  j 
the   grandeur  of  the   court;    also   ponds   and  j 
fountains,  groves  and  gardens,  in  which  llowers  j 
and  "  sweet-smelling  herbs  "  were   cultivated 
for  use  in  certain  sacred  rites,  and  for  the  deco 
ration   of  the   altars.      "And   all  this,"  says  j 
Solis,  "  without  retracting  so  much  from  that  | 
vast  square,  but  that  8,000  or  10,000  persons  j 
had  sufficient  room  to  dance  in  it,  upon  their  j 
solemn  festivals."    The  area  of  this  temple  was 
consecrated  ground ;  and  it  is  related  of  Mon- 
tezuma   that  he   only   ventured   to   introduce  j 
Cortes  within  its  sacred  limits  after  having  I 
consulted  with  the  priests  and  received  their  j 
permission,  and  then  only  on  the  condition,  in  j 
the  words  of  Solis,  that  the  conquerors  "should 
behave  themselves  with  respect."     The  Span 
iards  having  exhibited,  in   the  estimation  of 
Montezuma,  a  want  of  due  reverence  and  cere 
mony,  he  hastily  withdrew  them  from  the  tem 
ple,  while  he  himself  remained  to  ask  the  par 
don  of  his  gods  for  having  permitted  the  impi-  j 
ous  intrusion.     There  is  a  general  concurrence  I 
in  the  accounts   of  -this   great   temple   given  j 
by  the    early  authorities,    among    whom    are  1 
Cortes,  Diaz,  and  others,  who  witnessed  what  ! 
they  described.     They  all  unite  in  presenting 
it  as  a  type  of  the  multitude  of  similar  struc 
tures  which  existed  in  Analmac.     Their  glow 
ing  descriptions,  making  due  allowance  for  the 
circumstances    under   which   they  wrote,    are 
clearly  sustained  by  the  imposing'  ruins  of  Pa- 
pantla,    Xoxachalco,   Misantla,   Quemada,   and 
the  thousand  other  monuments  which  are  yet 
unrecorded  by  the  antiquary.     Solis  speaks  of  j 
eight  temples  in  the  city  of  Mexico  of  near-  | 
ly  equal  grandeur  with  that  above  described,  j 
and  estimates  those  of  smaller  size  to  amount  j 
to  2,000  in  number,  "dedicated  to  as  many 
idols  of  different  names,  forms,  and  attributes. 


Torquemada  estimates  the  number  of  temples 
in  the  Mexican  empire  at  40,000,  and  Clavigero 
places  the  number  far  higher.  "  The  architec 
ture,"  he  adds,  "of  the  great  temples  was  for 
the  most  part  the  same  with  that  of  the  great 
temple  of  Mexico;  but  there  were  many  like 
wise  of  a  different  structure,  composed  of  a 
single  body  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  with  a 
staircase,  &c."  Gomera  says,  "  They  were 
almost  all  of  the  same  form ;  so  that  what  we 
shall  say  of  the  principal  temple,  will  suffice  to 
explain  all  the  others."  Cortes,  in  a  letter  to 
Charles  V.,  states  that  he  counted  400  of  these 
pyramidal  temples  at  Cholula.  From  all  sources 
we  gather  that  the  principal  temples,  or  rather 
sacred  places,  of  Mexico  consisted  of  large 
square  areas,  surrounded  by  walls,  with  pas 
sages  midway  at  their  sides,  from  which  ave 
nues  or  roads  sometimes  led  off;  and  that 
within  these  enclosures  were  pyramidal  struc 
tures  of  various  sizes,  dedicated  to  different 
divinities,  as  also  the  residences  of  the  priests, 
with  groves,  walks,  and  fountains.  It  has  al 
ready  been  said  that  the  pyramids  of  Teotihua- 
can,  which  are  found  within  eight  leagues  of 
the  city  of  Mexico,  on  the  plain  of  Otumba, 
are  probably  among  the  most  ancient  monu 
ments  of  Mexico.  There  are  two  principal 
ones,  dedicated,  according  to  tradition,  to  the 
sun  and  moon  respectively ;  each  built  of  cut 
stone,  square,  with  four  stages  and  a  level  area 
at  its  summit.  Humboldt  says  the  larger  is  150 
feet  and  the  smaller  145  feet  high.  Mr.  Brantz 
Mayer,  however,  affirms  that  the  larger  is  1V1 
feet  high ;  Mr.  Glennie,  221  feet.  It  is  680  feet 
square  at  the  base,  covering  an  area  of  11 
acres,  or  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  great 
pyramid  of  Cheops  in  Egypt.  The  pyramid  of 
Cholula  also  has  four  stages,  and  when  meas 
ured  by  Ilumboldt  was  160  feet  high  by  1,400 
feet  square  at  the  base,  covering  an  area  of  45 
acres. — The  temples  of  Central  America,  of 
which  so  many  ruins  still  exist,  although  pos 
sessing  a  general  correspondence  with  those 
of  Mexico,  had  nevertheless  mcny  features  pe 
culiar  to  themselves.  The  artificial  terraces  or 
pyramidal  elevations  seem  to  have  been  usually 
less  in  size,  but  crowned  with  more  extensive 
buildings,  upon  which  aboriginal  art  exhausted 
its  utmost  capabilities.  These  structures  were 
marked  by  broad  stairways,  leading  directly  to 
their  principal  entrances.  Upon  some  of  these 
terraces  a  single  building  was  erected,  but 
upon  the  larger  ones  several  (usually  four) 
were  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  court  or  area. 
They  were  massively  built,  the  walls  being  in 
all  cases  of  great  thickness.  The  larger  num 
ber  were  one  story  high ;  but  there  were 
many  of  two,  and  some  of  three  or  more 
stories.  In  these  cases,  each  successive  story 
was  usually  smaller  than  that  belov/  it,  giv 
ing  the  structure  the  appearance  of  a  pyramid 
of  several  stages.  The  fronts  of  these  build 
ings,  though  sometimes  stuccoed,  were  usual 
ly  of  stone,  and  covered  with  elaborately 
carved  figures  and  ornaments,  many  of  them 


398 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


without  doubt  symbolical.  The  interiors  of 
some  corresponded  with  the  imposing  charac 
ter  of  their  exteriors.  They  were  divided  into 


Pyramidal  Temple,  Palenque. 


narrow  corridors  and  dark  chambers.  These 
were  arched,  or  rather  the  roofs  were  support 
ed  by  overlapping  courses  of  stones — consti 
tuting  a  pointed  arch,  corresponding  in  type  to 
the  eariie-t  monuments  of  the  old  world.  The 
walls  of  these  corridors  were  often  stuccoed, 


Monolith,  Copan. 

and  covered  with  paintings  and  figures  in  bass- 
relief.  Within  some  of  the  chambers,  as  at  Pa 
lenque,  have  been  discovered  tablets  clearly  of  a 


I  mythological  character,  covered  with  elaborate 
!  and  artistic  sculptures  and  hieroglyphics.  In 
I  these  chambers  are  still  found  the 'remains  of 
I  idols  and  altars,  and  evidences  of  ancient  sacri 
fices.  The  works  of  Stephens,  Catherwood, 
!  Squier,  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  and  Charney 
contain  full  accounts  of  these  monuments.— In 
Honduras,  at  Copan,  the  remains  of  edifices  are 
found,  corresponding  generally  with  the  preced 
ing  description,  but  associated  with  grand  mon 
oliths,  intricately  carved,  such  as  have  been 
discovered  nowhere  else  except  at  Quirigua, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Copan,  and  on  the  islands  of 
Lake  Nicaragua.  They  seem  to  have  been  plant 
ed  in  the  areas,  perhaps  also  on  the  steps  and 
summits,  of  the  ancient  structures.  Whether 
designed  as  statues  of  the  gods  of  ancient  wor 
ship,  or  to  commemorate  distinguished  priests, 
warriors,  or  statesmen,  can  probably  only  be 
determined  when  the  hieroglyphical  inscrip 
tions  which  some  of  them  bear  shall  have  been 
deciphered.  To  Copan  we  may  safely  assign 
an  antiquity  higher  than  to  any  of  the  other 
monuments  of  Central  America  with  which  we 
;  are  acquainted,  except  those  rude  works  of 
j  earth  and  uncut  stone  which  also  exist  there, 
!  and  which  seem  to  have  been  the  early  types 
!  after  which,  as  civilization  and  the  arts  ad- 
i  vanced,  the  more  imposing  monuments  of 
!  which  we  have  spoken  were  modelled.  It  is 
'  certain  that  Copan  was  a  ruin,  concerning 
which  only  the  vaguest  traditions  existed,  at 
the  period  of  the  Spanish  conquest. — In  New 
Granada,  among  many  minor  relics  of  antiqui 
ty,  such  as  figures  of  divinities  and  objects 
worked  in  gold  and  stone,  are  found  a  few  con 
siderable  monuments,  consisting  of  structures 
which  seem  to  have  been  supported  by  columns 
of  large  size  and  just  proportions. — In  Peru 
we  find  a  very  large  number  of  aboriginal 
monuments,  consisting  not  alone  of  ruined 
temples,  but  of  great  works  of  public  utility 
— aqueducts,  bridges,  and  paved  roads  hun 
dreds  of  miles  in  length.  The  remains  of  the 
great  temple  of  the  sun  at  Cuzco  are  still  im 
posing.  In  describing  it  as  it  existed  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest,  the  early  Spaniards  ex 
pended  every  superlative  of  their  language.  It 
consisted  of  a  principal  building  and  several 
chapels  and  inferior  edifices,  covering  a  large 
extent  of  ground,  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 
Aqueducts  opened  within  this  sacred  enclo 
sure  ;  and  it  contained  gardens,  and  walks 
among  shrubs  and  flowers  of  gold  and  silver, 
made  in  imitation  of  the  productions  of  na 
ture.  It  was  attended  by  4,000  priests.  "The 
ground,"  says  La  Vega,  "for  200  paces  around 
the  temple,  was  considered  holy,  and  no  one 
was  allowed  to  pass  within  this  boundary  but 
with  naked  feet."  Nor  even  under  these  re 
strictions  were  any  permitted  to  enter  except 
of  the  blood  of  the  incas,  in  whom  were  cen 
tred  the  priestly  and  civil  functions  of  the  gov 
ernment.  Besides  the  great  temple  of  the  sun, 
there  was  a  large  number  of  inferior  temples 
in  Cuzco,  estimated  by  Herrera  at  300.  Nu- 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


899 


merons  others  are  scattered  over  the  empire, 
all  of  which  seem  to  have  corresponded  very 
nearly  in  structure  to  that  already  described. 


Eemains  of  Temple  of  the  Sun,  Cuzco,  Peru. 

The  one  most  celebrated,  next  to  that  of  CLIZCO, 
was  that  of  Pachacamac,  which  contained  a 
considerable  town,  the  grand  pyramidal  shrine 
of  the  divinity  Pachacamac,  and,  after  the  con 
quest  of  the  coast  by  the  incas,  a  temple  of 
the  sun  and  a  convent  of  the  vestals  of  the 
sun,  the  whole  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  sev 
eral  miles  in  extent.  According  to  Roman, 
who  speaks,  however,  with  little  authority, 
"  the  temples  of  Peru  were  built  upon  high 
grounds  or  the  tops  of  hills,  and  were  sur 
rounded  by  four  circular  embankments  of 
earth,  one  within  the  other.  The  temple  stood 
in  the  centre  of  the  enclosed  area,  and  wras  quad 
rangular  in  form/'  A  structure  corresponding 
very  nearly  with  this  description  is  noticed  by 
Humboldt,  who  denominates  it,  in  accordance 
with  local  traditions,  Ingapilca,  "House  of  the 
Incas,"  and  supposes  it  to  have  been  a  sort  of 
fortified  lodging  place  of  the  incas,  in  their 
journeys  from  one  part  of  the  empire  to  the 
other.  It  is  situated  at  Cannar,  and  occu 
pies  the  summit  of  a  hill.  The  "citadel"  is 
a  very  regular  oval,  the  greatest  axis  of  which 
is  125  feet,  and  consists  of  a  wall,  built  of 
large  blocks  of  stone,  16  feet  high.  Within 
this  oval  is  a  square  edifice,  containing  but 
two  rooms,  which  resembles  the  ordinary  stone 
dwellings  of  the  present  day.  Surrounding 
these  is  a  much  larger  circular  enclosure,  which, 
from  the  description  and  plate,  we  infer  is  not 
far  from  500  feet  in  diameter.  This  series  of 
works  possesses  few  military  features,  and  it 
seems  most  likely  that  it  was  a  temple  of  the 
snn.  This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the  fact 
that  at  the  base  of  the  hill  of  Cannar  was  for 
merly  a  famous  shrine  of  the  sun,  consisting 
of  the  universal  symbol  of  that  luminary 


formed  by  nature  upon  the  face  of  a  great 
rock.  Ulloa  describes  an  ancient  Peruvian 
temple,  situated  on  a  hill  near  the  town  of 
Cayambe,  perfectly  circular  in  form  and  open 
at  the  top.  It  was  built  of  uubiirnt  bricks,  ce 
mented  together  with  clay.  The  most  won 
derful  and  probably  amon'j;  the  most  ancient 
monuments  of  Peru  (or  rather  Bolivia,  formerly 
Upper  Peru)  are  those  at  Tiahuanaco,  already 
referred  to,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca. 
Their  origin  is  lost  in  obscurity,  and  they  are 
supposed  by  many  writers  to  have  been  the 
work  of  a  race  anterior  to  the  incas,  denot 
ing  perhaps  a  more  advanced  civilization  than 
the  monuments  of  Palenque.  They  have  been 
described  by  a  number  of  the  early  writers, 
commencing  with  Pedro  de  Ceica,  one  of  the 
followers  of  Pizarro,  in  whose  day  their  ruins 
seem  to  have  differed  but  slightly  from  what 
they  are  now.  The  latest  and  probably  the 
most  exact  account  of  these  enigmatical  re 
mains  is  that  of  Mr.  Squier,  who  spent  several 
weeks  in  their  investigation  in  1804.  He  de 
scribes  them  as  situated  in  a  broad,  open,  arid 
plain,  cold  in  the  wet  and  frigid  in  the  dry 
season,  where  no  cereals  will  ripen,  the  only 
production  fit  for  human  use  being  a  variety  of 
small  bitter  potato.  The  monuments  consist 
of  rows  of  erect  stones,  some  of  them  rough 
or  but  rudely  shaped  by  art ;  others  accurately 
cut  and  fitted  in  walls  of  admirable  workman 
ship  ;  long  sections  of  foundations  with  piers 
and  portiWs  of  stairways;  blocks  of  stones 
with  mouldings,  cornices,  and  niches  cut  with 
geometrical  precision ;  vast  masses  of  Sand 
stone,  trachyte,  and  basalt,  but  partially  hewn  ; 
and  great  monolithic  doorways,  carved  from 
single  blocks  of  stone,  and  bearing  symbolical 
ornaments  in  relief,  besides  smaller  rectangu 
lar,  and  symmetrically  shaped  stones,  rising  on 
every  hand  or  scattered  in  confusion  over  the 
plain.  The  central  and  most  conspicuous  por 
tion  of  the  ruins  is  a  great  rectangular  mound 
of  earth,  650  feet  long,  450  wide,  and  now 
about  50  feet  high.  It  was  originally  terraced, 
each  terrace  being  faced  by  a  massive  wall  of 
cut  stones,  artfully  dovetailed  and  clamped  to 
gether,  and  had  on  its  summit  various  stone 
edifices.  This  mound,  which  is  called  "the  for 
tress,''  has  on  its  E.  side  an  apron  or  dependent 
platform,  320  x  180  feet.  A  short  distance  to 
the  X.  of  this  mound  is  what  is  called  l'the 
temple/'  a  rectangle  of  445  by  388  feet,  defined 
by  lines  of  erect  stones,  some  entirely  rude, 
and  others  apparently  partially  shaped  by  art. 
They  support  a  terreplein  of  earth,  on  which 
are  traces  of  structures,  and  on  the  E.  side  of 
which  are  ten  great  stone  pilasters,  suggestive 
of  Stonehenge,  perfectly  alligned,  and  of  vary 
ing  sizes ;  the  largest  being  14  feet  high  above 
ground,  by  4  ft.  2  in.  broad  and  2  ft.  8  in.  thick. 
Near  "the  temple''  are  the  foundations  of 
what  is  called  "the  palace,"  the  piers  which 
supported  the  walls  being  of  hard  trachyte  ad 
mirably  cut,  in  this  respect  equalling  the  finest 
stone  work  of  ancient  or  modern  times.  Be- 


400 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


sides  these  there  is  an  enclosure  called  "the 
hall  of  justice,"  rectangular,  420  by  870  feet, 
within  which  are  the  ruins  of  a  nameless 
structure,  "sanctum  sanctorum,"  131  by  23 
feet,  composed  of  massive  stones  beautifully 
cut,  some  of  which  are  25 1  feet  long  by  14 
broad,  and  0  ft.  (>  in.  thick,  held  together  by 
bronze  clamps.  A  distinguishing  and  peculiar 
feature  of  the  remains  at  Tiahuanaco  are  a 
number  of  monolithic  doorways,  the  largest  of 
which  is  18  ft.  5  in.  lung  by  7  ft.  2  in.  high 
above  ground,  and  18  in.  thick.  Through  its 
centre  is  cut  a  doorway  4  ft.  6  in.  high  above 
ground,  and  2  ft.  9  in.  wide,  above  which,  on 
its  S.  E.  front,  are  four  lines  of  sculpture  in  low 
relief,  and  a  central  figure  immediately  over 
the  doorway  in  high  relief.  On  the  reverse 
the  doorway  is  surrounded  by  friezes  or  cor 
nices,  with  ornamental  niches,  cv.c.  Besides 
these  remains  there  are  innumerable  others 
of  massive  proportions,  covering  fully  a  square 
mile,  of  which  it  would  require  many  pages  to 
give  an  intelligible  description,  even  with  the 
aid  of  cuts  and  plans.  Mr.  Squier  is  disposed 
to  rank  the  great  areas  at  Tiahuanaco,  sur 
rounded  with  upright  stones,  with  those  vast 
open  temples  like  Stonehenge  and  Avebury 
in  England,  and  of  which  examples  are  found 
in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Looking  to  the 
cold,  barren  region  in  which  these  remains  oc 
cur,  so  ill  adapted  to  the  support  of  any  con 
siderable  population,  Mr.  Squier  fails  to  regard 
them  as  relics  of  an  ancient  capital  or  seat  of 
dominion,  but  of  a  sacred  spot  or  shrine,  the 
position  of  which  was  determined  by  an  augu 
ry,  an  incident,  or  a  dream.  Certain  it  is,  they 
were  ruins  at  the  time  the  inca  conquerors 
swept  over  the  Collao.  Mr.  Squier  was  the  first 
to  make  known  the  existence,  in  the  great  An 
dean  plateau,  of  a  class  of  rude  lithic  and  mega- 
lithic  monuments,  generally  regarded,  through 
out  the  world,  as  the  earliest  efforts  of  human 
art.  These  consist  of  circles,  defined  by  un 
cut  stones,  which  in  Scandinavia,  the  British 
islands,  France,  and  northern  and  central 
Asia,  have  been  loosely  designated  as  "sun" 
or  "Druidical"  circles;  also  of  piles  of  rough 
stones  coincident  in  style  and  character  with 
the  cromlechs,  dolmens,  &c.,  of  the  same  re 
gions.  On  the  bare  mountain  tops  of  High 
Peru  are  hundreds  and  thousands  of  enclosures 
or  fortresses,  pucuras,  antedating  all  history, 
which  were  built,  according  to  Peruvian  tradi 
tion,  when  the  country  was  divided  up  into 
warlike  and  savage  tribes,  "before  the  sun 
shone,11  or  the  incas  had  established  their 
beneficent  rule.  They  strongly  resemble  the 
remains  which  in  Europe  are  uncritically  known 
as  Pelasgic.  They  are  held  in  great  reverence, 
as  the  works  of  giants  whose  spirits  still  haunt 
them,  and  to  whom  offerings  of  various  kinds 
are  still  made.  The  symbolic  character  of  the 
stone  circles  may  be  inferred  from  the  name 
they  still  bear,  intiliuntani,  places  where  the 
sun  is  arrested  or  tied  up.  There  is  another 
class  of  monuments  also  antedating  the  incas, 


'  the  chulpas  or  burial  towers,  presumably  of 
1  the   ancient   Aymaras.      Some   of    these   are 
;  round,  others  square,  of  varying  proportions, 
|  from  15  to  40  feet  high ;  sometimes  constructed 
of  elaborately  cut  stones,  in  other  cases  of  high 
stones  stuccoed  over,  and  all  containing  inner 
j  chambers  in  which  the  dead  were  deposited, 
i  generally  in  niches  in  the  walls,  or  in  cists  be- 
!  neath  the  foundations.     The  remains  of  inca 
!  art  are  numerous  and  imposing.     A  considera 
ble  portion  of  the  gorgeous  temple  of  the  sun 
!  in  Cuzco  is  still  extant;    the  great  cyclopean 
fortress   of  Sacsahuaman   tlint   dominates  the 
•  city  of  the  sun,  and  in  storming  which  Juan 
|  Pizarro  lost  his  life,  is  almost  as  perfect  as  it 
|  was  three  centuries  ago  ;  the  mountain  strong 
hold  of  Pisac  challenges  our  admiration  by  the 
|  rare  engineering  skill  it  displays,  as  well  as  by 
I  its  massiveness  and  extent,  covering  as  it  does 
i  miles  of  area ;   Ollantitambo,  wrought  in  pol 
ished  porphyry,  is  a  marvel  of  aboriginal  art ; 
while  the  palace  of  the  vestal  virgins  on  the 
|  island  of  Coati  in  Lake  Titicaca,  the  terraced 
i  mountains,  the  vast  accq-uias,  and  the  paved 
roads  thousands  of  miles  long,  all  attest  the 
power  and  beneficence  of  the  incas.     The  Pc- 
|  ruvian   empire    was   a  concretion  of  families, 
i  tribes,  or   nationalities,  reduced  by  conquest, 
and  their  monuments,  especially  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  as  Europeans  found  them,  have  few  re 
semblances  and  no  identities  with  those  of  the 
i  elevated  interior  whence  the  inca  race  descencl- 
I  ed.     Among  the  most  important  of  the  coast 
I  nations  were  the  Chimus,  who  held  wide  sway, 
I  with  their  capital,  at  what  is  now  called  Grand 
i  Chimu,  or  Mansiche,  near  the  town  of  Truxillo, 
;  founded  by  Cortes,  in  what  is  known  as  north  - 
I  ern  Peru.     They  were  subjugated  by  the  incas 
I  at  a  period  not  easily  definable,  after  a  long 
I  and  bloody  struggle,  and  their  capital  given  up 
i  to   barbaric   ravage  and   spoliation.      But   its 
;  remains  exist  to-day,  the  marvel  in  many  re- 
I  spects  of  the  southern  continent,  covering  not 
|  less  than  20  square  miles.    Tombs,  temples,  and 
|  palaces  arise  on  every  hand,  ruined  but  still 
I  traceable.    Immense  huacas  or  pyramidal  struc- 
I  tures,  some  of  them  half  a  mile  in  circuit ;  vast 
I  areas  shut  in  by  massive  walls,  each  containing 
I  its  water  tank,  its  shops,   municipal   edifices, 
i  and  the  dwellings  of  its  inhabitants,  and  each 
a  branch  of  a  larger  organization  ;  prisons,  fur- 
I  naces  for  smelting  metals,  and  almost  every 
i  concomitant  of  civilization,  existed  in  the  an- 
I  cient  Chimu  capital.     One  of  the  great  huqcas, 
or  pyramidal  edifices,  called  "the  temple  of 
the  sun,"  is  812  feet  long  by  470  wide  at  the 
|  base,  and  about  150  feet  high.     Another,  "El 
|  Obispo."  is  nearly  equal  in  size.     These  vast 
i  structures  have  been  ruined  for  centuries;  but 
|  the   work   of  their   excavation   is   still    going 
on.     From  one  of  them,  called  that  of  Toledo, 
a  Spanish  explorer  of  that  name  in  1577  took 
$4,450,284   in   gold    and    silver. — As   already 
observed,  most  of  the  monuments  of  antiquity 
in  America  seem  to  be  the  ruins  of  temples, 
j  places  of  worship,  or  edifices  in  some  way  con- 


AMERICAN  INDIANS 


401 


nected  with  the  religion  and  superstitions  of 
their  builders.  Throughout  they  sustain  many 
and  obvious  resemblances,  consisting  of  elevated 
platforms  or  truncated  pyramids,  ascended  di 
rectly  by  broad  flights  of  steps,  or  circuitously 
by  winding  paths;  they  scarcely  differ  except 
in  the  materials  of  which  they  are  constructed, 
or  the  greater  labor  and  skill  displayed  upon 
them.  The  builders  of  the  temple  mounds  of 
the  Mississippi  valley  seem  to  have  been  gov 
erned  by  the  same  principles  which  controlled 
the  architects  of  the  majestic  teocallis  of  Mexi 
co  ;  their  ruder  structures  being  only  the  evi 
dences  of  their  ruder  or  earlier  state.  Instead 
of  being  faced  with  stone,  elaborately  carved 
with  the  symbols  of  their  religion,  the  green 
turf  covered  the  high  places  of  the  mound- 
builders;  they  ascended  them  by  graded  avenues 
or  winding  paths,  not  by  broad  and  imposing 
stairways  ;  and  the  wooden  temple  roofed  with 
bark  supplied  the  place  of  the  massive  edifices 
which  still  rear  their  crumbling,  spectral  fronts 
amid  the  forests  of  Central  America.  The  fea 
tures  of  resemblance  between  a  large  part  of 
the  monuments  of  America  and  many  of  the 
most  ancient  of  those  of  the  old  world  early 
attracted  the  attention  of  Humboldt,  who  seems 
to  have  been  strongly  impressed  with  their 
indentity,  yet,  with  characteristic  caution,  un 
willing  to  follow  the  connections  to  their  ulti 
mate  results.  That  the  practice  of  erecting 
these  colossal,  montiform  temples  was  neces 
sarily  derivative,  cannot  be  admitted.  The 
primitive  temples  of  every  people  on  the  globe 
seem  to  have  been  constructed  much  upon  the 
same  plan,  and  consisted  of  great  enclosures  of 
earth  or  upright  stones,  often,  if  not  always, 
symbolizing  in  their  forms  the  leading  concep 
tions  connected  with  the  worship  to  which 
they  were  dedicated.  The  primitive  altars,  or 
shrines  of  the  heathen  gods,  corresponded  in 
rudeness  and  size  with  their  vast  open  temples, 
and  like  them  sustained  everywhere  a  general 
resemblance.  This  resemblance  to  a  certain 
degree  may  be  regarded  as  accidental,  inas- 
•nuch  as  an  eminence  or  high  place  would  nat 
urally  suggest  itself  as  the  most  fitting  spot 
whereon  to  render  up  homage  to  those  superior 
powers  which  were  supposed  to  dwell  above, 
in  the  skies,  or  among  the  stars.  It  may  also 
have  resulted  in  no  small  degree  from  the  very 
general  primitive  superstition  that  mountains 
and  hills  were  the  abiding  places  of  the  gods. 

AMERICAN  INDIANS.  When  America  was  dis 
covered  by  Columbus,  it  was  supposed  by  him 
and  his  contemporaries  to  be  a  part  of  the  re 
gion  vaguely  termed  India  beyond  the  Ganges ; 
and  the  newly  discovered  lands  were  thence 
forth  styled  Indies,  and  the  native  inhabitants 
to  this  day  are  called  Indians.  The  names  by 
which  Indian  tribes  are  known  to  us  are  a 
strange  medley.  Some  are  nicknames  given 
by  the  whites,  such  as  Ilurons,  Iroquois,  Nez 
Perces,  Gros  Ventres,  Diggers,  Blackfeet,  Flat- 
heads  ;  others  are  derived  from  some  locality 
near  which  they  resided,  as  the  Delawares, 
VOL.  i. — 20 


River  Indians,  Montagnais,  Athabascans,  &c. 
A  great  many  tribes  are  known  to  us  by  the 
names  applied  to  them  by  other  Indian  tribes. 
Thus  the  words  Mohawk,  Sioux,  Esquimaux, 
Assiniboins,  Arkansas,  and  Nottoway  are  not 
tHe  real  names  of  tribes,  but  all  Algonquin 
terms ;  so  too  Adirondacks  is  the  Mohawk  term 
of  contempt  for  the  Montagnais  on  the  St. 
Lawrence.  As  a  general  rule  Indians  when 
asked  their  name  give  the  term  Men  or  Real 
Men.  This  is  the  meaning  of  Onkwe  lion  we, 
used  by  the  Ilurons  and  Iroquois ;  Renappi, 
Lenni,  Illiniwek,  Irini,  Nethowuck,  used  by  Al 
gonquin  tribes  ;  Tinne,  used  by  the  Athabascans ; 
and  apparently  of  Apache.  But  this  meant 
the  tribe  as  composed  of  individuals :  each 
tribe  as  a  unit,  a  body  politic,  had  a  name, 
generally  that  of  the  animal  or  object  which 
was  the  totem  of  the  tribe.  Thus  the  five 
Iroquois  nations  were  called  as  one  Hotinnon- 
sionni  or  Hodenosaunee,  a  cabin ;  the  Mohawk 
was  the  Ganniagwari,  the  she  bear ;  the  Illi 
nois  were  called  Anoka. — The  whole  continent 
was  occupied  by  scattered  tribes,  from  the 
lowest  stage  of  barbarism  to  a  semi-civilized 
state,  corresponding  to  the  stone  and  bronze 
ages  of  the  old  world,  for  iron  was  nowhere 
wrought.  Agriculture  was  confined  to  a  few 
plants — maize,  squashes,  beans,  tobacco,  plan 
tains,  cassava,  &c.  Manufactures  were  con 
fined  to  the  making  of  canoes  from  bark  or 
hollowed  trees,  lodges  of  bark  or  skins,  gar 
ments  of  skins,  and  in  some  parts  basket 
work  and  rude  weaving,  weapons,  and  images 
carved  and  occasionally  hammered  or  moulded. 
There  seems  to  be  an  identity  of  race  through 
out  the  continent.  Lawrence  gives  their  gen 
eral  character  as  follows:  skin  brown  or  cin- 
namon-hued ;  iris  dark ;  hair  long,  black,  and 
straight ;  beard  scanty ;  eyes  deep-seated ;  nose 
broad,  but  prominent ;  lips  full  and  rounded : 
and  face  broad  across  the  cheeks,  which  are 
prominent,  but  less  angular  than  in  the  Mongo 
lian,  and  with  the  features  distinct.  The  gen 
eral  shape  of  the  head  is  square,  with  low  but 
broad  forehead,  back  of  head  flattened,  top  ele 
vated,  face  much  developed,  and  powerful  jaws. 
The  parietal  region  is  much  developed,  the 
orbits  are  large,  the  feet  and  hands  small  and 
well  proportioned,  and  the  teeth  white  and 
sound;  the  facial  angle  about  75°.  The  ave 
rage  stature  is  no  greater  than  in  other  races. 
The  muscular  development  is  not  great,  and 
there  is  a  tendency  to  grow  very  fat  when 
food  is  abundant  and  the  habits  of  life  are 
lazy.  Though  active  and  agile  in  sports  and 
pursuits  of  short  duration,  the  Indian  is  in 
ferior  to  the  white  race  in  labors  requiring 
compactness  of  muscle  and  long-continued  ex 
ertion.  The  complexion  varies  from  the  dark 
brown  of  the  California  tribes  to  the  almost 
white  of  the  Mandans  and  the  Chinooks.  The 
beard  is  scanty,  except  among  the  Athabas 
cans,  and  is  prevented  from  appearing  by  the 
custom  of  plucking  it  out.  The  Indian  has  a 
dull,  sleepy,  half-closed  eye,  .  with  little  fire, 


402 


AMERICAN  INDIANS 


unless  when  the  passions  arc  excited.  The 
features  are  frequently  regular,  and  the  ex 
pression  noble ;  many  of  the  women  are  hand 
some.  The  skin  is  thinner,  softer,  and  smoother 
than  in  the  white  races.  The  practice  of  arti 
ficially  moulding  the  skull  was  often  adopted. 
The  average  volume  of  the  brain,  as  measured 
in  nearly  050  crania,  is  only  77  cubic  inches 
for  the  semi-civilized  and  84  for  the  barbarous 
tribes.  Dr.  Morton,  from  a  scientific  examina 
tion  of  skulls  from  existing  tribes  and  ancient 
tombs,  considers  the  American  nations,  except 
ing  the  polar  tribes,  as  of  one  species  and  one 
race,  but  of  two  great  families,  which  resemble 
each  other  in  physical  but  differ  in  intellectual 
character.  The  North  American  Indian  was  of 
haughty  demeanor,  taciturn,  and  stoical  to  the 
last  degree  ;  cunning  and  watchful  in  the  sur 
prise,  persevering  in  the  pursuit,  and  revenge 
ful  in  the  destruction  of  his  enemies ;  cruel  to 
prisoners  of  war,  without  regard  to  age  or 
sex,  and  when  himself  a  captive  enduring  the 
most  painful  tortures  without  a  murmur ;  brave 
and  too  often  ferocious  in  war;  idle  and  grave 
in  peace,  except  when  engaged  in  hunting  and 
amusements;  hospitable,  and  grateful  for  fa 
vors  ;  of  necessity  a  close  observer  of  natural 
phenomena,  his  temperament  poetic  and  im 
aginative,  and  his  simple  eloquence  of  great 
dignity  and  beauty  of  expression.  As  a  race, 
however,  the  animal  propensities  strongly  pre 
ponderate  over  the  intellectual. — The  origin  of 
the  American  Indians  has  been  a  matter  of  de 
bate  for  centuries,  and  Grotius,  De  Laet,  Gar 
cia,  and  others  discussed  it  in  their  day  with 
more  learning  than  judgment.  During  the 
last  century  and  early  in  this  a  number  of  wri 
ters,  treating  many  early  usages  of  mankind 
as  peculiarly  Jewish,  endeavored  to  prove 
the  Indians  to  be  descended  from  the  ten 
tribes.  Others,  with  as  little  foundation  in 
facts,  endeavored  to  derive  them  from  the 
Welsh,  the  Mongols,  or  Malays.  The  tribes  of 
North  America  regarded  themselves  as  com 
paratively  recent  occupants  of  the  soil.  The 
Algonquins  and  Iroquois  had  traditions  of  their 
journey  eastward :  the  Algonquins  styled  the 
Dakotas  men  of  the  salt  water,  and,  being 
pressed  eastward  by  them,  repelled  their  ad 
vance.  The  Athabascans  kept  up  the  remem 
brance  of  their  emigration  across  the  Pacific; 
the  Choctaws  came  from  the  northwest,  and 
the  Mexicans  are  generally  supposed  to  have 
come  from  the  north,  though  the  latest  theo 
ries  assign  to  them  a  southern  origin.  All  this 
pointed  to  the  northwest,  where  the  abundance 
of  fish  made  a  natural  halting  spot  for  tribes 
till  they  were  driven  south  by  a  new  emigra 
tion.  The  Hnastecas  seem  the  first  moving 
northward.  While  language  fails  to  connect 
them  with  any  Asiatic  families,  their  modes  of 
life  and  implements  are  thought  to  connect 
them  with  all  the  earlier  races  of  the  eastern 
continent  whose  relics  are  found  in  mounds 
and  shell  heaps. — The  most  civilized  parts 
when  discovered  by  Europeans  were  those  ex- 


|  tending  from  New  Mexico  to  Peru.  There 
I  permanent  architecture  prevailed,  the  work  of 
the  occupants  or  of  a  previous  race,  the  finest 
specimens  being  in  the  Maya  region  and  in 
Peru,  and  the  least  enduring  the  adobe  build 
ings  of  the  Gila  and  Rio  del  Norte.  Out  of 
the  limits  of  this  district  nothing  but  the  most 
perishable  structures  were  raised,  the  only 
monuments  being  mounds,  often  peculiar  and 
apparently  symbolical  in  shape.  The  inhabi 
tants  were  divided  into  a  number  of  tribes, 
whose  natural  state  seemed  to  be  that  of  war. 
The  Esquimaux  in  the  north  were  warmly  clad 
in  furs,  and  lived  in  close  huts  of  snow  or  dug 
into  the  earth.  The  sea  furnishing  their  sub 
sistence,  they  invented  peculiar  boats,  spears, 
and  means  for  kindling  and  preserving  fire. 
Below  them,  the  wild  tribes  covering  most  of 
British  America  and  the  United  States  were 
hunters  and  fishers,  giving  little  attention  to 
agriculture,  except  among  the  Huron  Iroquois, 
who  raised  maize,  beans,  squashes,  and  tobacco, 
and  seem  to  have  been  the  earliest  who  carried 
on  any  trade.  In  point  of  manufactures  they 
were  about  equally  advanced.  All  made  pot 
tery.  The  Iroquois  bark  lodges  were  superior 
to  the  tent-like  hide  huts  of  the  Algonquins,  but 
the  latter  excelled  in  the  manufacture  of  the  in 
genious  -snow  shoes  and  in  canoe  building,  the 
Iroquois  using  elm  bark,  the  Algonquins  birch. 
The  Dakotas  excelled  in  the  manufacture  of 
stone  pipes,  and  the  Pacific  tribes  in  that  of 
baskets,  some  so  closely  woven  as  to  hold 
water.  The  Rocky  mountains  furnished  a 
sheep  wliose  wool  several  tribes  learned  to 
spin  and  weave.  In  point  of  progress  the 
Cherokee  and  Choctaw  Muscogees  resembled 
the  northern  tribes.  The  Natchez  were  the 
first  tribe  going  south  who  seem  to  have  had 
anything  like  a  temple  for  worship.  The  Pue 
blo  Indians  of  New  Mexico  had  towns,  built 
with  a  dead  wall  without  for  protection,  rising 
several  stories,  and  entered  by  ladders.  They 
had  also  temples,  and  cultivated  the  soil.  The 
Mexican  and  Peruvian  tribes  were  still  further 
advanced ;  their  range  of  manufactures  and 
cultivated  plants  was  greater ;  their  means  of 
perpetuating  the  memory  of  events  better.  At 
the  north  the  rudest  hieroglyphics  formed  the 
only  means,  the  Micmacs  in  Nova  Scotia  hav 
ing  the  most  distinct  system,  and  the  only  one 
which  Europeans  were  able  to  adopt  and  em 
ploy  ;  but  the  Mexicans  had  a  system  of  picture 
writing  of  which  enough  has  been  preserved  and 
explained  to  give  us  an  insight  into  their  history. 
The  Peruvians  at  first  had  a  system  of  record 
ing  by  quipos  or  knotted  cords,  which,  like  the 
wampum  belts  of  the  north,  seem  to  have  been 
merely  aids  to  the  memory.  The  uncivilized 
tribes  of  South  America,  embracing  the  large 
families  of  the  Caribs  on  the  north,  the  Tupi- 
Guaranis  on  the  east,  and  the  Araucanians 
on  the  south  and  west,  closely  resembled  in 
their  state  of  advancement  the  wild  tribes  of 
the  northern  portion  of  the  continent. — None 
of  these  tribes  seem  to  have  domesticated  any 


AMERICAN  INDIANS 


animal  except  the  dog,  and  among  the  Peru 
vians  the  llama.  In  no  part  consequently  were 
there  tribes  leading  a  pastoral  lite,  depending 
on  their  flocks  and  herds.  Game  was  taken 
"by  shooting  with  the  bow  and  arrow,  or  by 
means  of  darts  or  spears  ;  smaller  animals  were 
taken  by  traps.  Where  game  was  very  abun 
dant,  it  was  sometimes  driven  into  a  sort  of 
park  and  slaughtered.  The  South  American 
Indians  used  a  blowpipe  for  small  game,  and 
the  southern  tribes  used  the  lasso  and  stone 
halls  attached  to  hide  ropes.  Fish  was  taken 
by  nets  or  speared,  and  in  some  parts  the  fish 
in  lakes  were  captured  by  throwing  into  the 
water  vegetable  matter  that  caused  a  kind  of 
intoxication.  The  only  beverage  of  the  north 
ern  tribes  was  water,  but  the  Mobilian  tribes 
had  their  black  drink,  or  cassine.  In  Mexico 
pulque,  the  fermented  sap  of  the  metl  or  ma 
guey,  furnished  an  intoxicating  drink ;  and  in 
South  America,  a  similar  drink  was  the  cauiin, 
made  from  the  cashew  and  other  fruits  sub 
jected  to  fermentation.  All  tribes  were  fond 
of  painting  and  tattooing  their  persons,  the 
paint  being  varied  for  grief  or  joy,  war  or 
peace.  They  used  as  adornments  beads  made 
of  clam  shells,  feathers,  porcupine  quills,  and 
parts  of  birds  and  animals.  The  dress  of  the 
hunter  tribes  was  simple,  consisting  of  a  robe 
and  breech  cloth  for  the  men  and  a  short  petti 
coat  for  the  women ;  in  the  warmer  parts  this 
petticoat  was  often  a  mere  fringe  of  moss  or 
other  vegetable  matter,  and  men  went  entirely 
naked.  The  use  of  tobacco,  generally  mixed 
with  willow  (hence  Idnnikinnic'k,  a  mixture), 
was  almost  universal  among  the  Indian  tribes, 
and  has  spread  over  the  world.  It  was  intro 
duced  at  all  their  important  assemblies,  and 
the  Mississippi  tribes  made  the  pipe  the  symbol 
of  peace,  a  usage  which  spread  to  other  parts 
of  the  country.  The  word  calumet,  a  French 
Canadian  corruption  of  chalumeau,  has  been 
adopted  to  designate  this  national  pipe.  In 
Peru  the  leaves  of  the  coca  chewed  with  quick 
lime,  just  as  the  East  Indians  chew  the  areca 
nut  and  betel  palm,  produced  the  same  narcotic 
and  stimulating  effects.  The  amusements  of 
the  Indians  were  the  athletic  exercises,  run 
ning,  leaping,  paddling,  games  of  ball,  games 
with  small  stones,  some  quite  complicated,  and 
dances.  These  last  were  numerous,  and  entered 
into  religious  observances  and  preparations  for 
war,  as  well  as  merrymakings.  The  sexes  gen 
erally  danced  apart.  Boys  were  trained  from 
the  time  they  left  the  cradle  to  feats  requiring 
dexterity  and  courage.  The  probation  of  the 
young  warrior  was  attended  in  some  tribes 
with  long  fasts  and  rigorous  tortures ;  and  he 
acquired  a  name  and  a  recognized  position  in 
the  tribe  only  on  his  return  from  his  first  ex 
pedition  or  battle.  War  was  carried  on  rather 
by  treachery  and  surprise,  and  by  small  bands, 
than  by  set  battles  or  large  armies.  Those  who 
fell  were  in  the  north  scalped,  the  hair  of  the 
head  with  the  skin  being  torn  off  as  once 
practised  in  the  eastern  continent.  Prison 


ers  were  either  adopted  and  naturalized  or 
tortured.  Government  was  of  the  slightest 
kind.  Kings  and  hereditary  chiefs  were  found 
in  some  tribes ;  ability  in  others  raised  a  man 
to  command.  Laws  there  were  none,  or  courts, 
or  judicial  sentences,  except  among  the  more 
civilized  in  Mexico  and  Peru.  The  manner 
of  making  fire  in  different  parts  varied,  from 
rubbing  two  pieces  of  wood  or  cane  to  in 
genious  machinery  by  which  a  revolving  stake 
finally  gave  a  blaze.  The  tribes  believed  in 
a  future  state  of  existence,  and  paid  great  at 
tention  to  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  in  some 
cases  collecting  their  remains  after  a  certain 
number  of  years  and  burying  them  with  choice 
objects  in  fur-lined  trenches,  with  games, 
and  celebrations.  Food  was  placed  on  the 
graves  of  the  dead,  and  implements  of  the  chase 
for  use  in  the  next  world.  They  recognized  a 
supreme  being,  and  a  host  of  spirits  good  and 
evil,  the  latter  especially  to  be  propitiated. 
The  idea  of  sacrifice  was  apparently  universal, 
and  animals  and  human  beings  were  offered, 
the  former  as  substitutes  for  the  latter.  Canni 
balism,  except  where  impelled  by  necessity, 
was  apparently  connected  with  religious  ideas. 
Being  firm  believers  in  the  power  of  evil  spirits, 
they  ascribed  disease  and  defeat  to  their  malign 
influence;  and  the  medicine  men,  who  were 
supposed  to  counteract  these,  were  resorted  to 
in  sic-kness,  and  when  starting  on  the  war  path, 
the  hunt,  or  long  and  perilous  journeys  by  land 
or  water.  Dreams  exercised  a  great  influence 
over  them,  and  may  be  considered  a  part  of 
their  religious  system.  They  regarded  them 
as  manifestations  of  cravings  of  the  soul, 
the  non-gratification  of  which  would  be  at 
tended  with  serious  injury  to  the  whole  man. 
Tribes  were  divided  into  clans,  and  as  a  rule 
no  man  could  marry  in  his  own  clan,  and  the 
children  followed  the  clan  of  the  mother.  The 
scheme  of  relationship  was  curious  and  complex. 
Woman  was  in  a  degraded  state.  She  did  all 
the  work  except  war  and  hunting.  She  tilled 
the  earth,  and  bore  all  burdens.  Parturition 
was  attended  with  little  pain.  Cooking  was 
simple,  and  without  seasoning.  Baking  was 
done  in  holes  in  the  ground,  and  water  was 
boiled  by  throwing  heated  stones  into  it. 
The  common  plan  was  to  roast  over  the  fire. 
Corn  was  parched,  and  was  the  food  used 
while  travelling,  being  often  hidden  in  holes 
marked  so  as  to  be  recognized.  Some  diseases 
introduced  by  the  whites,  such  as  smallpox, 
and  alcoholic  drink,  have  been  singularly  de 
structive  and  fatal.  Disease  was  left  to  char 
latans  and  superstitious  treatment.  The  use  of 
vapor  baths  was  perhaps  the  most  general  and 
effective  remedy.  They  employed  as  emet 
ics  thoroughwort,  spurge,  and  Indian  hemp; 
and  as  cathartics  also  the  inner  bark  of  the 
horse  chestnut  and  butternut ;  as  rubefacients, 
mayweed  and  waterpepper.  They  were  ac 
quainted  with  many  poisons,  which  they  used 
for  self-destruction,  the  purposes  of  revenge, 
and  in  the  more  southern  parts  for  poison- 


404 


AMERICAN  INDIANS 


ing  their  weapons.  Blood-letting  and  cupping 
were  not  unknown.  In  asthma  they  smoked 
tohacco  and  drank  infusions  of  spice  wood, 
sassafras,  and  skunk  cabbage ;  in  coughs,  slip 
pery  elm  and  mallow  tea,  and  decoctions  of 
the  twigs  of  the  pine  and  spruce ;  in  renal  af 
fections,  bearberry,  spieewood,  and  gooseberry 
root ;  in  diarrhoeas  of  all  kinds,  decoctions  of 
the  low  blackberry,  cranesbill,  hardback,  white 
oak  bark,  partridge  berry,  and  American  ipe 
cacuanha  or  Indian  physic  (gillenia)  ;  in  drop 
sy,  the  bark  of  the  prickly  ash  and  wild  goose 
berry,  and  externally  a  sweat  in  heated  earth ; 
in  amenorrhcea,  sassafras,  spice,  and  worm 
wood  decoctions;  in  haemorrhage,  powdered 
puff  balls,  and  astringents  firmly  bound  on  the 
wound.  Incised  wounds  they  sewed  together 
with  strings  from  the  inner  bark  of  basswood 
or  fibres  from  the  tendons  of  deer ;  diseases  of 
the  skin  were  treated  with  yellow  dock,  and 
abscesses  by  poultices  of  onions. — In  their  in 
tercourse  with  the  Indians  the  Spanish  govern 
ment  educated  the  sons  of  princes  and  chiefs 
and  gave  them  rank  as  Spanish  nobles,  so  that 
to  this  day  distinguished  families  boast  their 
descent  from  Mexican  arid  Peruvian  monarchs  ; 
and  among  those  who  governed  Mexico  as  vice 
roys  under  the  kings  of  Spain  several  bore  the 
name  of  Montezuma.  The  lower  orders  of  In 
dians  were  assimilated  with  those  of  the  Span 
ish  emigrants,  and  at  an  early  period  were  ad 
mitted  to  the  same  civil  rights.  The  wilder 
tribes  were  gradually  formed  to  civilization  by 
missionaries  under  the  system  of  reductions, 
a  presidio  of  soldiers  being  assigned  to  each. 
The  children  of  the  first  converts  soon  mingled 
with  the  more  civilized  Indians.  The  con 
sequence  is  that  the  great  mass  of  the  peo 
ple  of  Spanish  America  are  of  Indian  origin, 
some  towns  being  almost  exclusively  so  ;  and 
it  would  be  almost  impossible  from  our  present 
data  to  give  the  exact  Indian,  white,  and  mixed 
population.  The  late  president  of  Mexico, 
Juarez,  was  a  pure  Indian  ;  and  so  have  been 
many  of  the  presidents  of  Central  America.  The 
number  of  wild  tribes  is  consequently  much 
less  in  proportion  to  the  whole  Indian  popula 
tion  in  Spanish  America  than  in  the  United 
States.  Of  the  missions  on  the  plan  of  reduc 
tions  the  most  famous  were  those  of  Paraguay. 
— The  French,  settling  in  Canada  and  subse 
quently  Louisiana,  had  less  civilized  tribes  to 
deal  with ;  but  they  acquired  a  permanent  as 
cendancy  over  them  without  wars.  The  Iro- 
quois,  occupying  the  present  state  of  New 
York,  were  the  great  enemies  of  the  French 
and  their  allies.  French  missionaries,  however, 
repeatedly  established  missions  even  among 
the  Iroqtiois,  and  the  descendants  of  their  con 
verts  form  three  towns  in  Canada.  Missions 
begun  at  the  commencement  of  the  French  set 
tlements  among  the  Nasquapees,  Montagnais, 
Algonquins,  Chippewas,  and  Ottawas  are  still 
maintained  among  the  surviving  remnants  of 
those  tribes.  New  missions  under  Catholic 
and  Protestant  direction  have  been  established 


among  the  Crees,  who  had  been  incidental 
ly  reached  by  the  old  missionaries,  and  the 
Athabascan  tribes  and  those  in  British  Colum 
bia  and  Oregon.  The  efforts  of  the  French 
government  to  elevate  the  social  condition 
of  the  Indians  were  unremitting ;  provision 
was  made  for  their  naturalization  as  citizens ; 
but  these  efforts  failed,  although  often  re 
newed,  and  the  most  experienced  gave  up 
the  task  as  hopeless.  Their  intestine  wars 
were  arrested,  agriculture  was  introduced  or 
improved  slightly,  and  morality  raised  to  a 
higher  standard,  so  that  they  resemble  the 
lower  grade  of  peasantry,  simple,  indolent, 
and  unambitious.  Though  some  chiefs  bore 
French  commissions,  and  the  convents  educated 
some  girls  who  became  capable  teachers  and 
even  entered  religious  orders  as  nuns,  there  is 
no  example  of  men  attaining  admission  to  any 
civil  profession.  The  diminution  of  game,  de 
stroyed  for  furs,  and  the  influence  of  intoxicat 
ing  liquors  have  steadily  diminished  the  numbers 
of  the  Indians  in  the  British  possessions. — The 
English  who  colonized  the  present  United  States 
were  not,  like  the  colonists  from  Spain  and 
France,  under  a  system  devised  and  maintained 
by  the  home  government.  There  was  no  In 
dian  policy,  and  between  the  English  settlers 
and  the  natives-  there  was  a  strong  degree  of 
incompatibility.  From  the  moment  the  set 
tlers  w^ere  able  to  dispense  with  Indian  aid  in 
supplying  Indian  corn  and  game  in  return  for 
trinkets  or  arms,  down  to  the  present  day, 
the  prevailing  instinct  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  in 
America  seems  to  have  been  to  remove  the 
Indian  as  far  as  possible  from  him.  In  the 
early  times  this  influenced  the  austere  religious 
Puritan  of  New  England  as  much  as  it  did  the 
careless  settler  of  Virginia.  New  England 
missions  were  early  begun  by  the  Mayhews  on 
Martha's  A^ineyard  and  Nantucket,  Eliot  among 
the  Naticks  at  Newton,  Mass.,  Cotton  and 
others  at  Plymouth,  and  Sergeant  and  his  fel 
low  laborers  in  Connecticut.  But  these  efforts 
were  almost  entirely  individual,  and  they  have 
left  us  monuments  of  their  zeal  and  ability 
in  Eliot's  Indian  Bible  and  other  works  pre 
pared  for  the  converts.  The  most  extensive  ef 
forts  to  Christianize  the  natives  of  what  is  now 
the  United  States  were  those  starting  from  the 
French  and  Spanish  colonies.  The  settlement 
of  Florida  was  followed  by  permanent  and  ben 
eficial  missions  among  the  Timuquas  and  Appa- 
laches,  which  lasted  till  they  were  almost  exter 
minated  by  the  people  of  Carolina.  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  and  California  were  also  seats  of  very 
extended  missions,  under  which  the  Indians 
were  instructed,  preserved  from  evil  influences, 
and  made  self-supporting.  The  Mexican  revo 
lution  overthrew  the  system,  and  the  whole 
structure  was  destroyed  in  a  few  years.  The 
Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico  alone  remain, 
much  degenerated  from  their  condition  of  a 
century  ago.  The  French  missions  within  our 
territory  embraced  those  among  the  Abenakis 
of  Maine,  now  represented  by  the  Catholic 


AMERICAN   INDIANS 


405 


Penobscots  and  Passamaquoddies  ;  among  the 
Iroquois  of  New  York,  their  converts  finally 
removing  to  Canada  and  now  found  at  Sault 
St.  Louis,  St.  Regis,  and  Lake  of  the  Two 
Mountains ;  among  the  Chippewas,  Ottawas, 
Pottawattamies,  Menomonees,  Illinois  (Kaskas- 
kias,  &c. ),  and  Minmis  (Weas,  &c.).  Those  in 
Louisiana,  among  the  Tonicas,  Natchez,  Choc- 
taws,  and  Arkansas,  seem  to  have  produced 
little  permanent  good,  except  perhaps  among 
the  last.  Maryland  began  missions  coeval  with 
its  settlement,  but  the  overthrow  of  the  origi 
nal  plan  of  colonization  put  an  end  to  them. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  the 
English  society  for  the  propagation  of  the  gos- 
pef  in  foreign  parts  began  a  new  era.  Missions 
arose  among  the  Mohawks  and  in  Virginia  and 
Carolina.  Dr.  Wheelock's  Indian  school  (after 
ward  Dartmouth  college)  contributed  to  the 
work.  The  Brainerds  labored  in  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania.  The  efforts  of  the  Mora 
vians  had  still  better  results,  and  their  Dela 
ware  mission  was  the  most  successful  yet  seen 
in  the  English  colonies.  During  the  present 
century  far  more  has  been  done.  The  society 
of  Friends  took  an  active  interest  in  Indian 
progress.  The  Episcopalians  established  an 
Oneida  mission ;  the  American  board  of  com 
missioners  for  foreign  missions,  organized  in 
1810,  established  missions  among  the  Chero- 
kees,  Choctaws,  Ottawas,  Chippewas,  Chicka- 
saws,  Creeks,  Dakotas,  Pawnees,  and  Senecas, 
some  of  which  were  remarkably  successful. 
Baptist  missions  were  also  established  among 
several  of  these  tribes.  A  Methodist  society 
established  in  1819  also  founded  Wyandot,  Iro- 
quois,  Creek,  Ottawa,  Shawnee,  Dakota,  and 
Oregon  missions ;  while  the  southern  Metho 
dists  also  created  missions.  The  Presbyterians 
in  1837  began  to  labor  among  the  Weas  and 
other  northwestern  tribes,  and  among  some  of 
those  in  the  Indian  territory.  The  American 
missionary  association,  American  Indian  mis 
sionary  association,  southern  Baptists,  and  Bap 
tist  home  missionary  society  also  entered  the 
field.  Their  labors  were  not  always  perma 
nent  or  well  concerted,  and  frequent  changes 
took  place.  Catholic  missions  arose  among  the 
Chippewas  and  Ottawas,  under  Bishop  Bara- 
ga  and  others,  among  the  Winnebagoes,  the 
Pottawattamies  and  Osages,  and  in  the  Rocky 
mountains. — The  French  were  able  to  main 
tain  peace  with  all  the  Canadian  tribes,  while 
the  English  colonies  were  constantly  at  war. 
The  first  war  between  the  English  colonists 
and  the  natives  occurred  in  Virginia  in  1022, 
when  the  Indians  under  Opechanganough  rose 
against  the  settlers  to  exterminate  them.  The 
colonists  in  a  ten  years'  war  reduced  them  at 
this  time,  and  again  in  1644;  and  in  another 
war  in  1675  they  still  more  diminished  the 
Indians.  The  New  England  wars  began  in 
K>37  with  the  destruction  of  the  Pequods  by 
tiie  settlers  of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts 
a*  allies  of  the  Narragansetts,  and  the  exter 
mination' of  the  Narragansetts  in  1643  by  the 


New  Englanders  as  allies  of  the  Mohegans. 
In  1675  began  the  war  with  Philip,  chief  of 
the  Wampanoags,  in  which  nearly  all  the  In 
dians  were  cut  off  or  driven  to  a  distance. 
Maryland  enjoyed  comparative  peace,  but  was 
in  1675  with  Virginia  involved  in  a  war  with 
the  Susquehannas.  The  Dutch  at  New  Am 
sterdam  at  first  maintained  friendly  relations 
with  the  Indians,  but  in  1643  became  involved 
in  wars  in  which  the  Indians  lost  severely.  In 
the  south,  North  Carolina  in  1711  suffered 
terribly  in  a  war  with  the  Tuscaroras,  who 
finally  emigrated  to  New  York;  and  South 
Carolina  in  1715  was  attacked  by  the  Yemas- 
sees  and  a  confederation  of  tribes  on  its  fron 
tier.  The  New  England  occupancy  of  Maine 
brought  on  new  hostilities  connected  with 
the  wars  between  France  and  England.  The 
French  in  Canada  proposed  neutrality  and  an 
agreement  to  employ  no  Indians  on  either  side. 
New  York  consented  and  was  saved  from  the 
horrors  of  Indian  war,  which  New  England 
preferred.  The  New  England  forces,  however, 
finally  overthrew  the  Pennacooks  and  Nor- 
ridgewocks  and  closed  their  Indian  war.  In 
the  seven  years'  war,  known  in  America  as  the 
French  and  Indian  war,  both  sides  used  the  In 
dians,  and  the  annals  of  the  time  teem  with 
horrors.  The  French  had  some  wars  with  the 
Foxes  and  Miamis  in  the  west,  and,  provok 
ing  the  Natchez,  drew  on  themselves  a  mas 
sacre,  followed  by  a  war  in  which  the  Natchez 
were  destroyed.  The  French  then  attacked  the 
Chickasaws,  but  failed  to  subdue  them.  The 
Indians  looked  on  the  English  success  in  Canada 
with  jealousy,  and  Pontiac  in  1763  organized 
a  vast  conspiracy  of  the  Indian  tribes,  aiming 
at  a  total  extirpation  of  the  whites ;  but  they 
were  finally  reduced,  as  were  the  Cherokees, 
who  made  war  in  1760.  In  the  course  of  these 
wars,  Michilimackinac,  and  Forts  St.  Joseph, 
Ouiatenon,  Miami,  Presqu'isle.  Leboeuf,  and 
Venango,  were  taken  by  the  Indians,  Detroit 
besieged,  and  stubborn  battles  fought  at  Bloody 
Bridge,  Fort  Pitt,  Bushy  Run,  and  at  Point 
Pleasant  between  the  Virginians  and  Shaw- 
nees.  When  the  American  revolution  began, 
the  English  government  at  once  employed 
Indians,  and  the  Iroquois  and  western  tribes 
ravaged  the  frontiers.  An  expedition  under 
Sullivan  laid  waste  the  territory  of  the  Six 
Nations.  The  articles  of  confederation  gave 
congress  little  power.  Under  the  constitu 
tion  of  1787  the  general  government  claimed 
sovereignty  over  the  whole  territory,  and  had 
the  management  of  Indian  tribes  not  within  a 
state  and  under  laws  and  treaties  with  it. 
The  LTnited  States  treaties  with  Indians  were 
made  as  with  foreign  powers.  The  great  ob 
ject  to  be  obtained  was  the  cession  of  the 
large  tracts  claimed  as  hunting  grounds,  some 
times  on  very  slight  pretexts.  The  Indian 
tribes  viewed  the  new  government  with  dis 
trust,  and  the  Miamis  began  hostilities  in  1790, 
and  in  two  engagements  near  the  present  Fort 
Wayne  defeated  the  army  under  Gen.  Ilarmar. 


406 


AMERICAN  INDIANS 


The  next  year  they  routed  St.  Glair's  army,  i  Sioux  in  Nebraska,  Montana,  and  Dakota 42.993 

kiiimg  nearly  half  of  his  men;  but  they  were ,  S^^r^^S!^:::::::::::::::::::::::::  ifSS 

reduced   by   Gen.    Wayne   in    1703.       The    war     Gros  Ventres.  Assiniboins,  Cheyennes,  and  Arapahoes, 

was  renewed  in  1811,  when  they  were  again '  cJf^iTt^t^-::::::::::::::::::::::::::::  Jiffi 

defeated  bv  Gen.  Harrison  at  lippecanoe.     In     utes  in  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Colorado 1 2.720 

the  war  with  England  that  followed,  the  In-  '  %^**S££K^SS&£  *** 

dians  aided  the  enemy  and  again  ravaged  the  |        ritory 8,706 

frontiers  ;  but  Harrison  defeated  the  combined    Nayajos  in  New  Mexico I!.!!!."."!!!""..'!  8^234 

forces  on  the  Thames  in  1813,  killing  Tecumseh,     y^hon"^  anV  Socks  'in  Wyoming;  Idaho,'  and  7 

the  head  of  the  great  Indian  confederacy ;  while  :        Oregon 7.687 

in  the  south  Jackson  in  1813  and  1814  humbled    gJSS^^toiKiT^te:::::::         '.  IS 

the   Creeks  at   lallnshatchee,    lalladega,   ana    Kiowas,  Comanches,  and  Apaches 5,872 

Tohopeka.     In  1817  the  Seminoles  commenced  i  Oregon  tribes 5.SOG 

hostilities,  but  were  punished  by  Jackson,  and  '  cwKwsto  iSdtei'terito^:::. ::::::::":::       !  |oS 

Florida  soon  after  became  part  of  the  United  :  Pimas,  Maricopas,  Papagos,  and  Cocopas,  in  Arizona..  4.031 

St-ifpsj  torritnrv       Tho  np\'t  Tndi-in  trrmhlo  was  :  Apaches  in  New  Mexico 3.479 

e  ".as  I  Arapahoes  and  ( lievennes  in  Indian  territory 3.8:  0 

that   Caused   by  the  attempt  of  Georgia  to  dlS-      Dwamish,  &c..  in  Washington  territory 3.3^3 

possess  the  Creeks  and  Cherokees,  who,  reiving    psages  in  Indian  territory 8,375 

i         -4--U    4-1      TT    -4-   A    C+." 4.         !  Colville,  Spokanes,  Okanagans,  Washington  territory.    3,349 

on  the  treaties  made  with  the  United  States,  i  Nez  Perces  in  Idaho .    2^07 

appealed  in  vain  to  congress  arid  the  supreme  j  Yakamas  in  Washington  territory 2,7*0 

court.     Failing  to  obtain  redress  they  yielded    J^^^...^........................    g« 

and  agreed  to  remove  beyond  the  Mississippi  in  Fend  d'Oreilles.  Flatheads,  and  Kootenays.in  Montana  1,900 
pursuance  of  a  plan  for  collecting  all  the  In-  Pottawattamies  in  Indian  temtorj  and  Kansas 1,736 

dians  in  one  territory,  to  be  theirs  inviolably    ^^^^^^^^^\\'\:     !    i£s 

and   for  ever.      Though  treaties  were  sifflied   in      Nesqually.  &c.,  in  Washington  territory 1,2S«J 

1825,  the  removal  was  not  completed  till  1838.     ™£f^£ska  &°''  "' Indian  t61  *  9™ 

The  Seminoles  under  Micanopy  and  Osceola  |  Chehaiis. Washington  territory.! '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  900 
refused  to  emigrate,  and  a  war  ensued  in  1835  j  Skiaiiams  Washington  territory &25 

,.   ,     ,      ,     ,    57-,-,    ..oin          i  rtn  "  f\(\r          Sacs  and  Foxes  with  lowas 7<>> 

Which   lasted   till   1 842,  and  COSt  Over  $15,000,-      Mohaves,  Arizona 725 

000.     The  Sacs  and  Foxes  under  Black  Hawk    Kansas,  in  Kansas 627 

gave  trouble  in   1832.     Greater  trouble   ^»\]^^^gS^S^"\"\r:":::":.      So 

given  by  the  SlOUX  or  Dakotas,  who  from  time  >  Spokanes  and  t'ceurs  d'Alene,  in  Idaho 3(  0 

to  time" attacked  frontier  settlements  and  had  ;  Kickapoos  Kansas.  2i:6 

j         T        mi       y-i  j     A          i  Illinois  and  Miamis,  Indian  territory 2ol 

to  be  reduced.     The  Comanches  and  Apaches    Quapaws.  Indian  territory 225 

have  been  almost  constantly  committing  denre-     Stoc-kbrfdgcs  and  Munsecs,  Wisconsin 220 

datkms,  often  joined  by  other  tribes.  The  Ore- 

gon  tribes  have  several  times  been  at  war  with 

the  whites.     The  establishment  of  the  Indian  Total 237'4TS 

territory  in  1833,  the  removal  of  the  Choctaws  Besides  the  Indians  thus  on  reservations,  there 
and  Creeks,  and  the  settlement  of  the  Qua-  are  60,000  in  Alaska,  and  tribes  not  yet  brought 
paws  and  other  tribes  there,  were  followed  by  in,  as  the  Apaches,  Comanches,  Lipans,  and 
the  formation  of  other  reservations,  under  Kickapoos,  with  a  few  remnants  of  tribes  in 
state  management  in  New  York,  and  under  the  Maine,  Georgia,  &c.  (2,000),  and  Florida  (500), 
general  government  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  estimated  at  53,000  more,  making  the  total  In- 
Minnesota,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Wyoming,  Mon-  dian  population  of  the  Union  about  350,000, 
tana,  Idaho,  Dakota,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  according  to  the  estimate  of  the  Indian  depart- 
Utah,  Nevada,  Arizona,  California,  Oregon,  ment  in"l87l. — That  the  red  race  is  steadily 
and  Washington  .territory.  The  civil  war  was  diminishing  can  scarcely  be  doubted.  In  1829 
ruinous  to  the  tribes  in  the  Indian  territory,  the  entire  Indian  population  of  the  United 
Geographically  in  the  south,  the  confederate  States  was  estimated  at  313,000 ;  and  though 
government  took  possession  of  it,  and  was  sup-  the  annexation  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and 
ported  by  many  of  the  chiefs.  Others  attempt-  !  California  brought  in  a  large  addition,  the  esti- 
ed  to  take  part  with  the  United  States  govern-  mate  of  400,000  made  in  1850  was  evidently 
ment.  The  result  was  disastrous  in  loss  of  life  too  large.  In  1855  Mr.  Schoolcraft's  estimate, 
and  property.  In  1869  a  board  of  Indian  com-  with  all  the  data  of  the  Indian  department, 
missioners  was  created  to  superintend  the  dis-  j  was  350.000.  In  1871  the  commissioner  esti- 
bursement  of  appropriations,  and  inspect  goods  !  mated  them,  including  60,000  in  Alaska,  as 
furnished  to  the  Indians.  The  powers  of  this  still  350,000,  showing  an  actual  decrease  of 
body  have  been  from  time  to  time  increased,  j  60,000  in  16  years.  Yet  some  of  the  civilized 
but  some  new  measures  were  adopted  which  I  tribes  have  held  their  own.  The  Cherokees  in 
have  not  yet  been  tested  by  time,  such  as  that  1822  numbered  11,000  ;  1825,  15,000  ;  1871, 
of  assigning  certain  districts  exclusively  to  cer-  14,682.  The  Chippewas  and  Ottawas  in  1822 
tain  missionary  bodies,  and  the  consequent  con-  were  18,977  ;  1825,  18,850 ;  1871,  19,732.  The 
founding  of  the  duties  of  Indian  agent  and  mis-  Iroquois  in  1822,  4,000;  1825,  4,510;  1871, 
sionary.  The  following' is  the  return  of  the  I  4,958.  The  Chickasaws  in  1822,  3,625;  1871, 
Indian  population  on  reservations  in  1871  :  '  5,000.  The  Creeks  and  Choctaws  in  that 


AMERICAN   INDIANS   (LANGUAGES) 


period  lost  about  one  third,  the  Serninoles  one 
half,  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  seven  eighths. — In 
the  eye  of  the  law  the  Indian  originally  held 
an  anomalous  position,  neither  citizen  nor  alien, 
and  incapable  of  becoming  a  citizen.  In  some 
parts  marriage  between  Indians  and  whites  was 
severely  punished.  The  disabilities  have  re 
cently  been  removed,  and  Indians  are  enabled 
to  leave  their  tribes  or  renounce  the  tribal 
system  as  a  body  and  become  citizens.  Col. 
Ely  S.  Parker,  a  Seneca  Indian,  has  even  held 
the  office  of  Indian  commissioner.  This  step 
enables  the  more  intelligent  and  industrious 
Indians  to  identify  themselves  with  the  white 
population,  and  induce  others  by  their  example 
to  follow  the  same  course.  The  Indian  popu 
lation  of  the  British  colonies  is  estimated  at 
150,000.  That  in  Mexico  and  Central  America 
is  not  easily  ascertained,  but  form  the  major 
part  of  the  people.  South  America,  with 
some  civilized  and  many  wild  tribes,  has  about 
7,000,000  Indians. 

AMERICAN  INDIANS,  Languages  of  the.  The 
languages  spoken  by  the  natives  received  lit 
tle  attention  in  the  English  colonies;  but  in 
French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  America  a 
more  or  less  extended  Indian  literature  grew 
up,  with  grammars  and  dictionaries  of  many 
of  the  languages.  Charlevoix  was  perhaps  the 
first  to  call  attention'  to  the  languages  as  the 
surest  mode  of  tracing  the  origin  and  affiliation 
of  tribes.  Hervas,  availing  himself  of  the  la 
bors  of  many  members  of  the  society  of  Jesus 
who  had  been  driven  from  Spanish  America, 
first  in  his  catalogue  of  languages  made  a  step 
toward  a  collection  and  comparison  of  the 
whole.  Smith  Barton  made  the  first  attempt 
in  the  United  States  to  reduce  the  languages  to 
system.  Duponceau  and  Schoolcraft  followed 
him.  The  Humboluts  gave  an  impulse  toward 
a  philosophical  treatment  of  the  study,  and 
Balbi  in  his  Atlas  ethnographique  popular 
ized  the  information  acquired.  At  a  later  date 
Albert  Gallatin  performed  an  immense  service 
by  securing  new,  full,  and  harmonious  vocabu 
laries,  and  tracing  manj  remote  and  overlook 
ed  affinities,  so  that  his  work  has  become  the 
real  basis  for  all  subsequent  labors  as  to  the 
tribes  of  the  United  States.  Turner  devoted 
many  years  of  philosophical  and  accurate  in 
vestigation  to  the  subject.  In  Europe  Adelung 
philosophically  arranged  the  general  study, 
and  Buschmann  and  others  contributed  to 
the  investigations  of  particular  families  of  lan 
guages.  Orozco  and  Pimentel  classified  the 
languages  of  Mexico,  Squier  those  of  Central 
America  and  Peru,  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  and 
the  accurate  Behrendt  also  elucidating  those 
of  Central  America.  Those  who  have  labored 
on  single  dialects  in  Europe  and  America  are 
too  numerous  to  note.  Ludewig  became  the 
bibliographer  of  the  labors  in  this  field  in 
his  "  Literature  of  American  Aboriginal  Lan 
guages"  (London,  1848). — The  languages  of 
America  form  a  group  apart,  no  one  having 
been  found  that  can  take  its  place  as  a  dialect 


of  any  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  They 
have  features  common  to  all,  one  being  the 
predominance  of  the  verb,  by  which  the  verb, 
subject,  and  object,  direct  and  indirect,  are 
often  conjugated  together  as  one  word.  In 
alphabetic  power  some,  like  the  Iroquois,  have 
no  labials;  the  Mexican  wants  &,  d,  f,  g,  ?', 
s,  and  the  aspirate ;  the  Choctaw  has  no  d  or 
g  hard ;  the  Otomi,  no  ?,  r,  or  «,  but  it  has  an 
emphatic  k  and  t;  the  Quichua  has  a  guttural 
/*,  emphatic  p,  t,  and  s,  and  aspirated  p,  t,  and 
k.  The  Otomi,  Athabascan,  and  many  of  the 
northwestern  tribes  have  singularly  confused, 
peculiar,  or  clucking  sounds,  often  impossible 
to  denote.  Almost  all  known  American  lan 
guages  have  comparatively  limited  vocabula 
ries,  and  lack  abstract  or  general  terms.  Many 
have,  for  instance,  no  word  for  brother  in  gen 
eral,  but  separate  words  for  elder  and  younger 
brother,  differing  again  according  as  spoken 
by  another  brother  or  a  sister.  So  there  will  be 

I  no  general  word  for  uto  fish,"  but  distinct 
words  for  fishing  with  a  net,  spearing,  spearing 

j  through  the  ice,  fire-fishing,  &c.  Some  have 
two  sets  of  numerals,  one  for  man  and  a  few 
objects  deemed  of  highest  importance,  the  other 
for  everything  else ;  and  some  have  even  a  third 
set  of  numerals  for  money. — We  can  give  only 
a  general  view  of  the  American  languages.  I. 
NOKTH  AMEBIOAN.  The  general  name  of  Es 
quimaux  (raw-fish-eaters)  comprehends  all  the 
languages  of  Greenland  and  of  the  northern 
countries,  from  the  coast  of  Labrador  to  Beh- 
ring  strait  and  the  peninsula  of  Alaska,  includ 
ing  also  that  of  the  settled  Tchuktchis  of  Sibe 
ria.  They  consist  of  two  groups :  the  eastern 
or  Esquimaux  proper,  with  three  dialects  in 
Greenland,  Labrador,  and  on  the  N.  and  W. 
shores  of  Hudson  bay;  the  western,  with  the 
idioms  of  the  Tchugatches,  Aleutians,  and  both 
American  and  Asiatic  Tchuktchis,  which  differ 
more  one  from  another  than  those  of  the  east 
ern  group.  The  dialect  on  Winter  or  Melville 
island  lacks  the  sounds  /,  </,  r,  z.  As  in  almost 
all  American  languages,  the  pronunciation  is, 
so  to  speak,  pectoral,  and  the  consonants  are 
indistinct.  The  Esquimaux  have  words  for  all 
shades  of  meaning  in  which  an  object  is  taken, 
according  to  its  age,  sex,  and  other  categories. 
Many  suffixes  and  few  postpositions  denote 
the  accidents  of  declension,  comparison,  and 
conjugation.  Examples  of  words  :  kernertok, 
(who  is)  black;  aglegiartorasuarpok,  he  quick 
ly  goes  away  to  write.  Numeration  proceeds 
by  20.  For  the  Hudson  bay  dialect,  see  the 
works  of  Dobbs,  I.  Long,  and  Parry;  for  that 
of  Kotzebue  sound,  see  Beechey ;  for  that  of 
the  Tchuktchis,  see  Kosheloff  and  Khromensko. 
— The  language  of  the  Karalits  (Greenlanders) 
lacks  (Z,/,  A,  z,  and,  as  initials,  1>,  g,  I,  v ;  abounds 
in  £,  k,  r ;  and  accumulates  hard  syllables,  al 
though  the  people  have  a  fine  ear  and  musical 
taste.  There  are  three  dialects,  viz. :  the  Ka- 
muk  of  Upernavik ;  that  of  the  isle  of  Disco,  the 
purest ;  and  the  southern,  of  Julianeshaab.  Nu 
merals  beyond  5  are  compounded ;  20  is  desig- 


4:08 


AMERICAN  INDIANS   (LANGUAGES) 


nated  by  the  words  "hands  and  feet,"  etc.  For 
grammars  of  their  tongue,  see  Thorhallesen 
(1776),  and  P.  Egede  (1760),  who  also  made  a 
dictionary,  as  well  as  O.  Fabricius  (1791-1804). 
—  On  the  northwest  of  the  American  continent, 
south  of  the  Esquimaux,  is  the  family  of  the  Ko- 
loshes,  found  about  Alaska.  South  of  the  Es 
quimaux,  on  the  east  and  south  of  Hudson  bay, 
and  running  west  in  a  narrow  strip  along  the 
Saskatchewan  to  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  ex 
tending  from  the  Red  and  Mississippi  east  to 
the  Atlantic  as  far  down  as  hit.  30°,  was  the 
extensive  Algonquin  family.  It  occupied  the 
whole  of  this  vast  territory,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  other  races  except  the  AVinnebagoes  on 
Lake  Michigan,  who  belonged  to  the  Dakota 
family,  and  the  Huron  Iroquois  family,  who, 
surrounded  by  Algonquins,  extended  from  Lake 
Huron  to  North  Carolina.  The  Algonquin 
family,  taking  its  name  from  tribes  on  the  Ot 


tawa  river,  Canada,  comprised,  above  the  St. 
e  lakes,  the  Nasquapees,  Mon- 
ins,  Ottawas,  and  Kilistinons 


Lawrence  and  the 
tagnais,  Algonquin 

or  Crees;  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Mic- 
macs,  Abenakis,  Sokokis,  Massachusetts,  Nar- 
ragansetts,  Mohegans,  Delawares,  and  Virgin 
ian  tribes  ;  in  the  west,  the  Chippewas,  Meno- 
monees,  Pottawattamies,  Miamis,  Illinois,  Sacs 
and  Foxes,  Blackfeet,  &c.  ;  at  the  south,  the 
Shawnees.  Many  of  these  dialects  have  been 
studied  thoroughly,  and  many  books  and  even 
papers  have  been  printed  in  them.  For  their 
study  we  have  Maillard's  Micmac  grammar 
(New  York,  1864),  Rale's  Abenaki  dictionary 
(Cambridge,  1833),  Eliot's  Massachusetts  gram 
mar  (Cambridge,  166G;  Boston,  1822),  Ro 
ger  Williams'  s  Narragansett  (1643),  Edwards's 
Mohegan  grammar  (1788),  Le  Boulanger's  Illi 
nois  grammar  and  dictionary  (MS.),  Baraga's 
Ohippewa  grammar  and  dictionary  (1851-'3), 
Belcourt's  Chippewa  grammar  (1839),  House's 
Cree  grammar  (1844),  Cuoq's  Algonquin  gram 
mar  (1866),  Zeisbergers  Lenni  Lenape  or  Del 
aware  grammar  (1827).  As  the  Algonquin 
was  the  language  of  the  tribes  on  the  seacoast 
where  the  English  colonies  were  planted,  it 
gave  several  words  to  the  settlers,  as  wigwam, 
squaw,  wampum,  tomahawk,  sachem,  &c.  In 
the  Algonquin  dialects  there  is  no  article, 
and  no  gender,  words  being  used  when  neces 
sary  to  designate  the  male  and  female  of  ani 
mals  and  birds.  The  only  division  is  into  what 
has  been  called  noble  and  ignoble,  or  by  some 
animate  and  inanimate.  The  Delaware  made 
trees  noble,  grass  ignoble.  Possession  is  desig 
nated  by  a  form  like  the  English  Peter  his  book 
—  Picn  o  masinaigan.  It  has  two  numbers, 
though  some  from  the  double  pronoun  we  make 
a  dual  also.  Nouns  receive  by  suffixes  modifi- 
tions  that  some  term  cases  ;  but  nouns  like  verbs 
undergo  a  kind  of  conjugation  by  the  prefixing 
of  possessive  pronouns.  Thus  in  Delaware  : 
ooch,  father;  nooch,  my  father;  ~kooc  A,  thy  fa 
ther  ;  noochenana,  our  fathers  ;  koochmra,  your 
father  ;  koochewawa,  your  fathers.  Algonquin  : 
ni  micomis,  my  grandfather;  ki  micomis,  thy 


|  grandfather;    omicomisan,  his  grandfather;  ni 
\  (or  Tci)  micomisinan,  our  grandfather;    ki  mi- 
I  comiaiwa,    your    grandfather;    omicomiaiican, 
their  grandfather.     Verbs  take  a  multiplicity 
of  forms,  not  only  positive,  negative,  reflective, 
I  and   reciprocal,    but   animate   and    inanimate. 
I  Thus  in  Algonquin:  ni  sakiha,  I  love  him  (an- 
I  imate) ;  ni  sakiton,   I  love  it  (inanimate) ;  Li 
sakiha,  thou  lovest  him ;    osakihan,  he  loves 
him;  but  M  sakih,  thou  lovest  me;  ki  mkihi- 
i  min,  thou  lovest  us;  ki  sakihim,  you  love  me  ; 
I  ki  sakihin,  I  love  thee  ;    ki  sakihinimin,   we 
I  love  thee.     In  all  these  there  are  two  forms 
|  of  we :   he   and  I,   ni ;   thou  and  I  (with  or 
I  without  others),  ki.     In  Delaware  :   ndahoala, 
I  love;    kdahoala,  thou;    wdahoala,  he;    nda- 
hoalaneen,  we;  kdahoaloTihumo,  you;   wdalio- 
alewak,  they;    ndahoatell,  I  love  thee;    kda- 
lioali,  thou  lovest  me.     The  passive  in  Algon 
quin  is  ni  sakihigo,  I  am  loved;  in  Delaware, 
ndahoalgussi.     I  am  loved  by  him  (Alg.),  ni 
sakihik. — The    Huron-Iroquois     family    com 
prised,  in  Upper  Canada,  the  Hurons  or  Wy- 
andots,  Tionontates,  Attiwandaronk  ;    the  Iro 
quois,  Ilodenosaunee,  or  Five  Nations  in  New 
York;    the  Minquas,  Aridastes,  or  Susquehan- 
nas  in  Pennsylvania;  the  Nottoways,  Meher- 
rin,  &c.,  in  Virginia;    the  Tuscaroras  in  Caro 
lina,   and   subsequently  in   New  York.      The 
dialects  generally  lack  the  labials.     Of  those 
that  have  been  most  studied  is  the  Mohawk, 
into  which  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and 
portions  of  the  Bible  have  been  translated,  as 
well   as  Roman  Catholic  manuals  of  prayer, 
catechisms,  &c.      The   radical   words   of  this 
dialect,  by  Bruyas,   were  published  at  New 
York   in   1863 ;    a  short   grammar   by  Cuoq, 
Montreal,  1866.     Of  the  Onondaga,  there  is  a 
dictionary  published  in  1860 ;  of  the  Seneca,  a 
spelling  book  and  some  minor  works.     In  Iro 
quois  dialects  the  verbs  have   two  distinctly 
marked  paradigms,  each  containing  live  regular 
conjugations.     In  the  paradigm  k  there  are  15 
persons,  I,  thou,  he,  she,  and  an  indefinite  pro 
noun  like  the  French  on  ;  thou  and  I,  he  and  I, 
you  two,  they  two  masculine,  they  two  femi 
nine,  making  five  dual  forms ;  and  for  the  plu 
ral,  you  and  we,  they  and  we,  you,  they  mascu 
line,  they  feminine.     In  all  the  verbal  relations 
pronouns  in  their  separate  form  are  replaced  by 
affixes  which  modify  the  initials  of  the  persons. 
M.  Cuoq  adds  to  the  three  numbers  another,  the 
indeterminate.     Every  noun  is  or  may  become 
a  verb.     There  are  no  articles,  no  prepositions, 
and  few  adjectives,  adverbs,  or  conjunctions. 
Nouns  have  no  cases,  and  no  gender  proper, 
the  only  distinction  being  that  of  two  classes, 
one   comprising   God,    the   angels,   and  males 
of  the  human  race,  the  rest  all  other  crea- 
i  tures   animate   or  inanimate.      The   verb   as- 
I  sumes  reflective,  reciprocal,  and  passive  forms 
by    inserting    syllables.      Thus:     kenomces,    I 
i  love ;    katatenonwes,   I  love  myself;    tetiata- 
j  tenonwes,  we  love  one  another.     The  pronoun 
'  object   enters   into   the   verb,   as   rinomces,   I 
j  love  him.     Verbs  of  the  paradigm  w  have  four 


AMERICAN  INDIANS   (LANGUAGES) 


409 


persons  less  than  those  in  k;   but  strangely,  j 
the  perfect  in  verbs  of  k,  and  all  their  deriva-  ! 
tives,  are  conjugated  under  the  paradigm  w.  \ 
Indicative  present :    kcnonwes,  I  love ;    senon-  | 
ires,  thou  lovest ;    ranonwes,  he  loves;  kanon- 
•ircs,    she    loves;     ienonices,    some    one    loves. 
Perfect:    wakenonwehon^  I  have  loved;  sanon- 
icehon,  thou ;  rononwehon,  he ;  wnomrehon,  she ; 
iakononwehon,  someone.    Present:  wakeriwai- 
en,   I  am  busy;    sariwaien,   thou;    roriwaien, 
he;    ioriwaien,   she;    iakoriwaien,  some    one. 
—West  of  Hudson  bay,   above  the  Churchill 
river,  were  the  northern  part  of  the  Athabascan  j 
family,  some  tribes  of  which  dwelt  on  the  shores  j 
of  the  Pacific,  and  the  main  body  extending 
south  to  the  Dakotas,  while  the  southern  part  \ 
of  the  family  occupied  the  frontier   between  I 
the  United  States  and  Mexico.     The  tribes  are  j 
strangely  different  in  character,  the  northern  j 
being  timid,  the  southern  fierce  and  bold.     The  i 
chief  tribes  at  the  north  were  the  Chipewyans,  ! 
Tahculli  or  Carriers,  Dog  Rib  Indians,  Sussees,  j 
Tlatskanai,  Umpquas,  Kwalhioqua,  Kenai,  &c. 
Of  the  southern,  the  most  conspicuous  tribes  i 
are  the  Apaches,   Navajoes,  and  Lipans.     Of  ! 
this  family  we  have  little  to  show  the  grammar  | 
or  affinities. — South  of  the  Athabascan  family,  j 
and  between   the  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky 
mountains,  were  the  Dakota  family,  extending 
as  far  south  as  the  Arkansas  river,  and  having 
one  tribe  on  Lake  Michigan,  the  Ochungaras, 
called  by  the  Algonquins  Winnebagoes.     The 
Dakota  family  includes    the    Assiniboins,  the 
Dakotas  or   Sioux,  lowas,   Omaha's,  Puncahs, 
Missouris,   Osages,  Kansas,  Ottoes,  Arkansas, 
Mandans,  Minnetares,  and  Crows.     In  Dakota 
there  are  separate  and  incorporated  pronouns.  ! 
There   is  a  dual   first  person,   we  (thou  and  j 
I),  but  there  is  no  incorporated  pronoun  for  j 
the  third   person   in   either   number,   so   that  <l 
the  third  person  singular  is  the  simplest  form 
of  the  verb.     Verbs  have   an   indicative,  im-  | 
perative,  and  infinitive,  and  two  tenses,  an  in-  j 
definite   and   a  future.     A  few  examples  will  j 
suffice :     Kashka,    he   binds ;    yakashka,    thou  i 
bindest ;    wakashka,    I    bind;    unkashka,    we 
two  bind;  kashkapi,   they  bind;  yakashkapi, 
ye  bind;  unkashkapi,  we  bind.     In  other  cases 
the  pronouns  are  introduced,  as  manon,  he  ; 
steals;    mayanon,    thou   stealest.      There   are  ' 
some  irregular  forms,  as  hiyu,  he  comes;  hidii,  \ 
thou  Comest;  hibu,  I  come.     The  pronoun  ob 
ject  enters  into  the  verb :  kashka,  he  binds  him,  j 
her,   it;  nicashka,  he  binds  thee;  makashka,  j 
he  binds  me.     Case  is  shown  by  position,  pos-  • 
session  by  the  possessive  at  the  end  :  wichash-  j 
tayatapi  tipi  tawa,  chief  house  his,  i.  e.,  the  ! 
chief's  house.     The  plural  is  formed  by  adding  i 
pi  to  nouns  and  verbs.     There  is  a  grammar 
and  dictionary  of  the  Dakota  by  the  Rev.  S. 
It.    Rigg   (Washington,    1852),    and    an    Iowa 
grammar    by   Irvin   and    Hamilton    (1848). — 
Adjoining  this  family  were  the  Pawnees,  em-  ' 
bracing  the  Pawnees,  Rickarees,  Huecos.  and 
Wichitas,    roving  bands  long   known,  but   as 
to    whoso    language    our   knowledge    is   con- 


fined  to  vocabularies. — Next  to  the  Athabas 
can  family  on  the  Pacific  coast  are  the  Kitu- 
nahas  or  Flatbows,  and  the  large  family  of  the 
Selish,  embracing  the  Shush waps  or  Atnahs, 
Flatheads,  Skitsuish  or  Coaurs  d'Alene,  Pisk- 
wans,  Clallam,  Lunimi,  Simiamu,  Songhus.  and 
some  other  tribes.  Their  language  has  been 
made  known  by  the  Grammaticct,  Lingucs 
Selicce,  a  Selish  or  Flathead  grammar,  by  Men- 
garini  (New  York,  1801).  The  Selish  lacks  &, 
(Z,  f,  r,  and  v ;  g  is  guttural  like  the  Spanish^'; 
ck  is  very  hard ;  it  has  a  peculiar  &,  pronounced 
with  the  tongue  at  the  palate.  Nouns  have  no 
cases,  but  form  plurals  by  doubling  the  roots,  as 
skoi,  mother,  skoikoi,  mothers,  and  in  several 
other  modes.  It  has  absolute  pronouns  and 
copulative  pronouns,  the  latter  used  in  connec 
tion  with  verbs.  The  verb  to  l>e  exists  and 
enters  into  the  conjugation  of  indeterminate 
verbs.  The  determinate  active  verb  is  thus 
conjugated  :  les  kolm,  I  do  (something  definite) ; 
as  kdlm,  thou  dost;  es  kol  m,  he  does;  kaes 
kolm,  we  do ;  es  kol  mp,  you  do  ;  es  koolm,  they 
do.  Perfect :  kol  w,  I  did  ;  1-61  ntgu,  thou  didst. 
The  relative  forms  vary  thus :  ku  ies  asgam, 
I  see  thee;  ko  as  asgam,  thou  seest  me;  ies 
asgam,  I  see  him ;  ko  es  azgams,  he  sees  me. 
— The  Sahaptin  family,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Selish,  comprise  the  Sahaptin  or  Nez 
Perces  and  the  Wallawallas,  running  east  to 
the  Rocky  mountains  and  south  to  the  Shosho- 
nees.  The  Wallawallas  comprise  several  tribes, 
the  Yakamas,  Palus,  Klikatats,  and  Tairtla. 
The  study  of  their  language  is  aided  by  Pando- 
sy's  "Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the  Yakama 
Language  r  (New  York,  1802).  The  language  is 
remarkable  for  the  multiplicity  of  its  pronouns, 
and  for  a  twofold  conjugation  of  its  verbs,  one 
with  the  tense  form  unchanged  for  the  persons 
preceded  by  the  pronoun,  the  other  with  the 
tense  form  modified  by  a  pronominal  suffix,  ex 
cept  in  the  third  person,  where  it  is  affixed. — 
Below  them  are  the  Wailatpu  family,  compris 
ing  the  Cayuse  and  Molele.  Beyond  this  fam 
ily  were  the  once  numerous  Chinook  family, 
embracing  a  number  of  tribes  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  to  the  Grand  Dalles.  They 
have  disappeared  with  fearful  rapidity,  and  the 
fullest  vocabulary  is  that  by  George  Gibbs 
(New  York,  1863).  Below  and  above  these  on 
the  coast  were  scattered  tribes  and  families, 
whose  relation  to  others  will  never  perhaps  be 
now  known  from  the  utter  want  of  material  of 
an  extended  character. — The  Shoshonees,  an 
other  important  family,  comprise  the  East  and 
West  Shoshonees,  on  the  head  waters  of  the 
Missouri  and  Columbia ;  the  Bannacks,  on  Snake 
river ;  the  Comanches.  from  the  head  waters  of 
the  Brazos  to  those  of  the  Arkansas  and  Mis 
souri  ;  the  Yutes  and  Pa  Utes,  in  Utah  terri 
tory  ;  the  Kioways,  in  Texas ;  and  several  tribes 
in  California,  the  Kizh  of  San  Gabriel,  the 
Netela  of  San  Juan  Capistrano,  the  Kechi  of 
San  Luis  Roy,  the  Cahuillos,  and  perhaps  the 
Moquis.  The  other  California  tribes  belonged 
to  several  distinct  families.  Arroyo's  grammar 


410 


AMERICAN  INDIANS   (LANGUAGES) 


and  vocabulary  of  the  Mutsun  (New  York,  | 
1861-'2)  affords  material  for  studying  that 
language,  spoken  at  San  Juan  Bautista,  Monte 
rey  county,  at  La  Soledad  on  Salinas  river,  and 
by  the  Rumsens  or  Achastlians  at  San  Carlos.  , 
A  vocabulary  with  some  grammatical  notes 
on  the  language  spoken  at  the  mission  of 
San  Antonio  shows  the  absence  of  pronouns  in 
the  third  person  and  great  simplicity  of  forms.  ' 
The  languages  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  ; 
Mexico  form  a  class  by  themselves. — South  of  | 
the  Algonquins  were  the  family  of  the  Cataw- 
bas  and  Waccoa  in  the  Carolinas ;  and  the  very  i 
extensive  family  of  the  Cherokees,  embracing  ! 
the  Ottare  and  Ayrate.  Their  language,  which  I 
has  analogies  with  the  Iroquois  dialects,  is  re 
markable  as  the  only  one  in  which  the  natives  I 
have  adopted  an  alphabet.  It  was  invented  by 
Sequoyah  or  George  Guess,  a  half-breed,  in 
1826.  His  scheme  consists  of  85  characters, 
including  six  vowels,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  the  French 
nasal  un  ;  and  nine  simple  and  three  combined 
initial  consonants,  g,  h,  /,  m,  n,  kv,  s,  d,  dl,  ts, 
w,  y,  to  which  the  vowels  are  attached.  The 
sounds  Jc  and  g,  t  and  d  occur  almost  promis 
cuously,  and  dl  or  tl  are  sometimes  written  Tel. 
As  in  most  languages,  there  are  two  forms  of  ice, 
viz.,  the  prefix  in  for  I  and  thou,  and  ast  for  I 
and  he ;  as  inaluniha,  I  and  thou  bind  it ;  asta- 
luniha,  I  and  he  bind  it.  Plurality  is  denoted 
by  the  prefix  t  or  te,  as  tetsigawati,  I  see  things. 
Continuative  action  is  indicated  by  the  suffixes 
sa  and  i,  as  tsikeyusa,  I  love  him  unceasingly. 
The  perfect  tense  is  of  two  sorts,  one  used  when 
the  narrator  was  present  at  the  action,  the 
other  when  he  was  absent ;  thus :  uhlun,  he 
killed  him  (in  my  presence),  and  uhle'i  (in  my 
absence).  The  transitions  of  the  verb  are 
either,  1,  as  animate,  or  2,  as  inanimate ;  thus : 
1,  galuniha,  I  bind  it  (an  animal  or  tree)  ; 
halunika,  second  person  ;  Icahluniha,  third  per 
son;  dual:  inaluniha,  I  and  thou  bind  it; 
astaluniha,  I  and  he  bind  it;  istaluniha,  ye 
two  bind  it;  plural,  italuniha,  we  bind  it;  2, 
galuniliawi,  I  bind  habitually,  or  am  in  the 
habit  of  binding,  &c.  Objects  are  frequently 
expressed  merely  by  changes  of  the  verb,  as 
fcutuwo,  I  am  washing  myself;  Jsulcstula,  I  am 
washing  my  head  ;  tsestula,  I  am  washing  an 
other  person's  head,  &c.,  through  13  different 
forms.  All  words  of  relations  between  parts 
of  speech  are  postpositions.  Parts  of  the  Bi 
ble  and  books  of  elementary  instruction  and 
newspapers  constitute  the  Cherokee  literature. 
— Below  the  Cherokees  were  the  Muskokees 
or  Creeks,  the  Choctaws  and  Chickasaws,  the 
last  two  speaking  the  same  language,  the  first 
a  language  bearing  strong  analogies  to  it.  The 
Spaniards  cultivated  the  Timuquan,  a  Choc- 
taw  dialect,  and  a  grammar,  catechism,  &c., 
were  printed  in  it  as  early  as  1613-'27.  The 
Choctaw  proper  has  been  thoroughly  investi 
gated  in  our  time  by  the  late  Rev.  Cyrus  By- 
ington,  whose  "Definer"  (1852)  and  "Choc- 
taw  Grammar"  (Philadelphia,  1870)  give  very 
satisfactory  means  of  study.  The  language  is 


remarkable  for  its  multitudinous  particles  with 
nice  shades  of  meaning.     It  has  the  usual  sepa 
rable  and  inseparable  pronouns,  and  the  double 
we.     Like  the  Dakota,  Mexican,  San  Antonio, 
and  some  others,  the  third  person  singular  of 
the  present  of  the  verb  has  no  pronoun,  and 
gives  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb.     The  in 
separable   pronoun   for  the   first  person   is  a 
suffix;  for  the  second,  an  affix:   Takchih,  he, 
she,  or  it  ties,  or  they  tie  him,  her,  it,  or  them; 
ishtakchih,  thou  tiest  him,  &c. ;    takcMlih,  I 
tie,  &o.     Among  the  peculiarities  is  a  pronoun 
used  among  those  related  by  marriage.     The 
Muskokee  language  is  divided  into  the  Musko- 
kee  proper  or  main  Creek  and  the  Ilitchitee. 
The  only  grammar  is  that  by  Buckner  (New 
York,  1860).      The  verb  in  its  modifications 
differs   from   the    Choctaw.      Issetv  (v  repre 
senting  an  obscure  sound),  to  take;   esais,  I 
take  it;  esichkis,  thou  takest  it;  esis,  he  takes 
it,  &c.     Neither  Creek  nor  Choctaw  has  the 
sound  of  a  in  fate  or  the  letters  d,  g,  j,  r, 
v,  or  z. — The  Natchez,  on  the  Mississippi,  had 
a    peculiar    language   which    has   some   anal 
ogy  with  the  Maya.     Of  the  other  Louisiana 
tribes  our  data  are  limited ;  the  Chetimachas 
and  Attakapas  had  languages  that  enter  into 
no  known  group.     Those  of  Texas  were  studied 
by  the  Spanish  missionaries,  and  works  were 
printed  in  them,  but  their  affiliations  are  not 
known. — The  languages  of  Mexico  have  been 
classified  by  recent  scholars,  Orozco  and  Pi- 
inentel.     The  first  family  is  the  Mexican,  in 
cluding  the  Nahoa,  the  Pipil  in  Central  Ameri 
ca,  the  Zacateco,  the  Chimarra   and  Concho 
|  in  Chihuahua,  the  Ahualulco  in  Tabasco,  the 
Jalisco,  the  Acaxee,  the  Sabaibo  in  Durango, 
the  Xixime  and  Tebaca  in  Sinaloa.    It  extended 
j  from  the  Gila  and  Rio  del  Norte  to  Guatemala. 
|  As  the  language  of  one  of  the  most  civilized 
j  races  in  the  new  world,  it  was  studied  by  the 
I  Spaniards  and  cultivated,  a  professorship  being 
founded  in  the  university  of  Mexico.    A  numbc  r 
!  of  grammars  have  appeared,  by  Olmoz  (1555), 
Molina  (1571),  Rincon  (1595),  Guzman  (1643), 
Vetancurt  (1073),  Avila  (1717),  Zenteno  (1753), 
Aldama  (1754),  and  Sandoval  (1810)  ;  and  the 
!  dictionary  of  Molina   (1571)  is  very  full.     A 
!  general  view  of  the  language  by  Albert  Gal- 
;  latin  will  be  found  in  the  "Transactions  of  the 
i  American  Ethnological    Society,"  vol.  i.     The 
j  Mexican  language  lacks  the  sounds  I,  c7,  .7,  r,  j 
\  (Spanish),  U  (Span.),  and  gn  (Italian),  but  it 
I  abounds  in  t,  z,  cJi  (Span.),  tz,  and  in  the  sylla- 
I  bles  tla,  tli,  atl,  itl ;  x  is  pronounced  with  a  pe- 
I  culiar  guttural  sound.  The  tone  generally  strikes 
i  the  penultimate  of  the  polysyllabic  expressions, 
j  in  which  the  particles  ca  and  ti  predominate. 
|  Gender  is  distinguished  in  animals  by  the  prefix 
oJricTi,  male,  ciJtua,  female.     There  is  only  one 
I  variation  for  case,  e  being  added  for  a  vocative 
;  by  men,  but  only  an  accent  on  the  last  sylla- 
i  ble  by  women.     As  a  general  thing,  inanimate 
things  have  no  different  form  for  singular  or 
plural;  some   have,    as  milli,  sowed    ground, 
plural  miltin.     Of  plurals  of  animate  nouns 


AMERICAN  INDIAN'S   (LANGUAGES) 


411 


these  are  samples:  Ichcatl,  a  sheep,  ichcame, 
sheep;  eo<(tl,  a  snake,  cocoa,  snakes;  tatli, 
father,  tatin,  fathers.  All  nouns  may  unite 
with  four  particles:  tziti  or  tzintli,  signifying 
respect;  ton  or  tontJi<  depreciating;  pol,  signify 
ing  excess;  pil,  diminutive  implying  affection: 
as  iehen}>il,  a  lamb  (dear  little  sheep).  Pos- 
sossive  affixes  are  no,  mo,  i,  to,  anmo,  in.  Cal- 
U,  house;  nocal,  my  house;  nomill,  my  sowed 
ground;  leal,  his  house;  icxitl,  foot;  nocxi, 
my  foot ;  teotl,  God ;  noteouh,  my  God ;  drop 
ping  a  termination,  and  sometimes  substituting 
another.  The  inseparable  pronouns  for  conju 
gations  are:  1st  person  singular,  ni ;  2d,  ti ; 
plural,  1st,  ti  (strongly  accented);  2d,  an,  am. 
Sinemi,  I  live  or  walk;  tinemi,  thou;  nemi, 
lie;  tinemi,  we;  annemi,  you;  nemi,  they. 
In  the  imperative,  ti  and  an,  of  the  2d  person, 
change  to  xi,  and  ma  is  prefixed  to  all  persons. 
JIa  or  macuela  is  prefixed  for  the  optative. 
Participles  are  wanting.  It  has  the  usual 
transitions.  Ni  tlazotla,  I  love;  nino  tlazotla, 
I  love  myself;  ni  pin,  I  guard,  e.  g.,  John;  ni 
tlapia,  I  guard  him ;  ni  tepia,  I  guard  it,  &c. 
The  Mexican  has  given  us  two  common  words, 
tomato  (tomatl,  waterberry)  and  ocelot  (pcelotl). 
— The  next  family  is  the  Otomi  or  Hi  alii u 
(pronounced  Ilianghiting),  a  monosyllabic  lan 
guage  resembling  the  Chinese.  Its  dialect 
is  the  Mazahui.  The  Otomi  is  spoken  in 
Mexico,  Michoacan,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Quere- 
taro,  most  of  Guanajuato,  and  parts  of  Puebla 
and  Vera  Cruz.  Its  grammar  is  peculiar  from 
the  fact  that  the  verb  remains  unchanged,  the 
pronoun  being  conjugated.  It  has  many  words 
of  the  same  letters  distinguished  by  the  intona 
tion.  It  lacks  f,  I,  r,  and  s,  and  abounds  in 
guttural  and  nasal  sounds;  has  a  peculiar  c 
(cc=.qq),  pronounced  with  the  root  of  the  tongue 
and  palate ;  a  dental  t  (tt) ;  and  a  variety  of 
vowel  sounds  quite  unusual,  a  having  four,  e 
four,  i  three,  u  four;  and  z  has  three  sounds. 
Distinctions  are  made  by  prefixing  na,  ma,  xa  : 
•nho  or  manJw,  good ;  xanho,  a  good  thing ; 
rnddi,  to  love ;  nahmddi,  love. — The  Huaxteco- 
May a- Quiche  is  a  remarkable  language,  extend 
ing  over  a  very  wide  range,  of  which  the  Huax- 
teco  seems  a  northern  offshoot.  It  is  spoken 
with  the  Totonac  in  Puebla,  Yera  Cruz,  and 
San  Luis  Potosi.  The  Maya  proper  and  its 
dialects,  the  Lacandon,  Peten,  Caribe,  Chanu- 
bal,  and  Punctunc,  are  spoken  in  Yucatan, 
Chiapas,  and  Tabasco ;  while  its  kindred  tongue, 
the  Chontal,  prevails  in  Tabasco,  Oajaca, 
Guerrero,  and  Guatemala;  the  Quiche  and 
Mam  in  Chiapas  and  Guatemala ;  the  Tzendal 
and  Tzotzil  in  Chiapas  ;  the  Col  in  Chiapas  and 
Guatemala,  with  the  Totzlem.  Gage  made  the 
Poconcho,  a  dialect  of  the  Mam,  known  to  Eng 
lish  readers  two  centuries  ago.  In  our  time 
extensive  studies  have  been  made  as  to  it  by 
Squier,  Behrendt,  and  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg. 
It  resembles  the  Otomi  in  monosyllabism  and 
tones ;  it  has  six  gutturals  which  are  extremely 
rough;  it  lacks  the  sounds  of  d,  f,  g,  r,  s;  its 
words  are  not  inflected.  The  plural  is  formed 


by  ob,  the  comparative  by  U;  thus:   clie-ob, 
woods;  tily-il,  better.     There  are  four  conjuga 
tions.     The  language  abounds  in  elisions.     As 
spoken  in  a  district  of  Yalladolid,  it  is  praised 
for  elegance  and  conciseness.      By  many  the 
i  Chontal  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  language 
I  of  Cuba  and  llayti,  the  tongue  which  has  given 
i  us  the  earliest  words  that  were  adopted  into 
|  European  languages,  tobacco,  canoe,  &c. — The 
Mixteca-Zapoteca  language  has  several  dialects : 
the  Chocho  in  Puebla,  Oajaca,  and  Guerrero; 
the  Yope  in  the  two  latter  states ;  the  Popo- 
loco  or  Teca  in  Michoacan,  Jalisco,  and  Guate 
mala  ;  the  Amuchco  in  Guerrero ;  the  Zapoteca 
and  Cuicateco  in  Oajaca.    A  Mixteca  grammar 
by  Antonio  de  los  Reyes  and  a  vocabulary  by 
Alvarado  were  printed  at  Mexico  in  1593;  a 
grammar   of  the   Zapoteca  by   Cordova   was 
printed  there  in  1564,  and  a  vocabulary  by  the 
j  same   author  in  1578.      The  Matlaltzinca  or 
|  Pirinda  is  spoken  in  Michoacan ;  the  Ocuilteca 
|  in  the  state  of  Mexico  seems  related  to  it.     Of 
this  grammars  were  written,  but  none  have  been 
published.    The  Tarasco  prevails  in  Michoacan, 
Guerrero,    Guanajuato,   and  Jalisco.      In  this 
;  language  /  and  I  are  wanting ;  and  I,  d,  g,  ?', 
i  and  r  never  begin  a  word.     Nouns  are  divided 
!  into  rational,  irrational,  and  inanimate.     There 
1  are   absolute   and  inseparable  pronouns.      In 
conjugating  the  inseparables  are  suffixed  :  Pa, 
to  carry;  pa  Jiaca,  I  carry;  pangahaca,  I  am 
carried;  panstahaca,   I  am  always  carrying; 
i  pacata,  that  which  is  carried,  a  burthen.  There 
:  is  a  Tarasca  grammar  by  Baselenque  (Mexico, 
1714),  of  which  a  sketch  is  given  in  the  u  Trans- 
•  actions  of  the  American  Ethnological  Society," 
vol.  i.,  pp.  245,  &c. — The  Opata-Tarahumara- 
|  Pima  family  embraced  a  number  of  dialects 
;  spoken  by  tribes   in   Sonora,    California,   and 
Arizona;  the  Opata  and  Eudeve  in  Sonora;  the 
Jova  in  Sonora  and  Chihuahua ;  the  Pima  with 
its  dialects,  the  Papago,  Sobaipuris,  Yuma,  and 
I  Cahuenche,    in    Sonora  ;    the   Tarahumara   in 
j  Chihuahua,    with    dialects    in    Durango    and 
;  Sonora;    and   the   kindred  Tepehuan   in   Du- 
1  rango,  Jalisco,  Chihuahua,  Coahuila,  and  Sina- 
i  loa.      This  family   also   includes   the    Cahita, 
1  Cora,  and  Colotlan.     A  grammar  of  the  Pima 
i  or  Nevome  (New  York,  1862)  shows  it  to  lack 
the  sound  of  a  in  fate,  f,  I,  and  z  ;  &  and  p,  d 
|  and  t,  c  and  g  are  easily  confounded ;  contrac- 
1  tions  are  numerous.     There  is  but  one  conjuga- 
'  tion  of  the  verbs,  and  the  verbal  form  in  each 
|  remains  the  same  in  each  tense,  the  pronoun 
i  and  prefixes  varying  with  the  persons.     The 
1  active  verb  is  simple  compared  to  the  passive: 
I  ani  haquiarida,  I  count;  ani  Jiaqviaridcada, 
I    counted;    ni    vusi    vomtad'arii'igui,  I  was 
assisted.     Yerbs  of  possession  are  made  from 
nouns  :  hunu<  maize ;  humiga,  to  have  maize. 
See  too  "A  Sketch  of  the  Heve  (Eudeve)  Lan 
guage,"  by   Buckingham    Smith    (Xew    York, 
1861). — The  Seris,  including  the  Upanguaima 
and  Guaima,  were  in  Sonora.     In  Lower  Cali 
fornia  were  two  families:  the  Guaicuru,  with 
five  dialects,   the  Cora,   Uchita,   Concho,  and 


412 


AMERICAN  INDIANS   (LANGUAGES) 


Laymen;  and  the  Cochimi,  with  three,  North 
Cochimi,  Edu,  and  Didu.  Of  the  Guaicuru  our 
best  notice  is  in  Begcrt's  Nachrichten  (Mann 
heim,  1772),  of  which  Ran  has  given  a  transla 
tion. — In  Central  America,  besides  the  Maya 
and  Mexican  already  noticed,  there  were  fami 
lies  which  Squier  supposes  affiliated  with  the 
Guaranis  and  Caribs.  For  the  study  of  these 
we  have  Cotheal  and  Henderson's  "Gram 
matical  Sketch  of  the  Mosquito"  (New  York, 
1846),  Scherzer  on  the  Valientcs  and  Tala- 
mancos,  Squier's  vocabularies,  and  his  mono 
graph  of  authors  on  the  languages  of  Cen 
tral  America  (London,  1861).  II.  SOUTH 
AMERICAN.  The  Caribs  (whose  vernacular 
name  was  Calina  or  Galibi)  once  dwelt  on 
the  shores  of  Colombia,  in  Guiana,  and  on 
the  Lesser  Antilles.  They  speak  about  30 
dialects,  which  are  very  harmonious,  but  of  a 
weak  utterance,  so  that  I  and  r,  ?>  and  p,  g  and 
&  are  almost  alike.  Nearly  all  words  end  in 
vowels.  Conjunctions  conclude  the  sentence ; 
animate  and  inanimate  things  have  different 
forms  of  expression.  Terminations  of  cases :  da 
tive  ««,  accusative  pona,  ablative  ta.  Persons : 
masc.  au,  inara,  fern,  nucuya,  niuro,  I ;  nana, 
we ;  amoro,  iburra,  amenle,  thou ;  hocoya,  you ; 
likia,  he ;  moscan,  they.  Possessives :  prefix 
e,  my ;  &,  thy ;  suffix  0,  his.  Verbal  pronouns : 
prefix  s,  1st  person;  m,  2d;  n,  3d;  plural, 
nanan,  &c.  Of  the  principal  Caribbean  dia 
lects,  the  Chaymas  is  spoken  in  Cumana.  The 
Tamanaca  has  more  verbs  obtained  by  means 
of  prefixes  than  perhaps  any  other  language ; 
it  lacks  /,  «,  and  g,  has  six  conjugations,  many 
tenses  (a  preterite  of  yesterday,  another  of  two 
weeks  ago,  a  third  of  six  months  and  more 
ago),  and  forms  for  near,  others  for  distant  ob 
jects;  the  auxiliary  of  the  passive  is  uocciri, 
to  be ;  brother  and  sister  are  distinguished  as 
to  age,  as  in  Magyar  and  other  Urale  Altaic 
tongues.  The  Arrawak,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Berbice  and  Surinam,  has  many  remarkable 
peculiarities,  such  as  the  formation  of  the  pas 
sive  voice  by  changing  the  final  n  of  the  infini 
tive  active  into  hurt,  and  many  prefixes  and 
suffixes.  Caribbean  grammars  were  published 
by  Fathers  Tauste,  Ruiz  Blanco,  R.  R.  Breton, 
and  Gilj,  and  dictionaries  by  the  first  and  last 
named  (1665-'7),  and  an  anonymous  one  (Paris, 
1763).  Some  writers  represent  the  Caribbean 
language  as  a  branch  of  the  Guarani,  which 
they  divide  into  the  southern  or  Guarani  prop 
er,  the  middle  or  Tupi  of  Brazil,  from  the  island 
of  Santa  Catarina  to  the  mouths  of  the  Amazon, 
and  the  northern  or  Caribbean. ---The  follow 
ing  seven  languages  are  worth  notice,  viz. : 
1.  That  of  the  Mozcas  (Muyscas),  who  before 
the  advent  of  Europeans  inhabited  the  table 
land  of  Bogota,  and  who  in  consequence  of  a 
culture  higher  than  that  of  their  neighbors 
extended  their  idiom  among  them.  It  once 
prevailed  in  the  city  of  Bogota,  but  is  now 
extinct.  It  counted  by  20,  had  a  negative  con 
jugation,  and  many  excellent  pecularities ;  it 
lacked  d  and  2,  and  had  an  indistinct  I.  2.  Of 


the  Saypures,  on  the  upper  Orinoco.  3.  Of  the 
Salivis.  between  the  Meta  and  Guaviare,  afflu 
ents  of  the  Orinoco,  and  in  the  Venezuelan  prov 
ince  of  Casanare  ;  full  of  nasal  sounds.  4.  Of 
the  Ottomacas,  between  the  Apure  and  Sina- 
rucu,  spoken  with  the  utmost  rapidity.  5.  Of 
the  Yaruras,  between  the  Meta  and  the  Ca 
sanare;  it  lacks  *,  abounds  in  the  Spanish 
aspirate  _;',  and  uses  the  substantive  verb  as 
auxiliary  of  all  others.  6.  Of  the  Betois,  on  the 
Casanare,  without  p.  7.  Of  the  Mainas,  in  the 
province  of  that  name,  differing  from  its  neigh 
bors.  In  the  eastern  parts  of  Colombia  there 
are  Caribbean  dialects.  Grammars  have  been 
prepared  by  Fathers  Anisson,  De  Tauste,  and 
De  Lugo,  and  a  vocabulary  by  De  Tauste 
(1680).— The  Andi-Peruvian  family  of  nations 
is  divided  into  four  classes:  1.  The  Quichuas 
(pronounced  with  a  faucal  croaking  sound, 
hence  also  written  Qquichhuas)  or  Incas  were 
more  widely  spread  at  the  time  of  the  Euro 
pean  invasion  than  they  are  now.  They  differ 
from  the  other  indigenous  races  of  South  Amer 
ica,  resembling  more  the  Mexicans,  and  being 
of  a  dark  olive  complexion.  The  language  of 
the  incas,  however,  was  not  intelligible  to  their 
subjects,  and  Fr.  Lacroix  supposes  that  it  was 
a  sort  of  hieratic  jargon,  unknown  to  the  pro 
fane.  The  Puquini  about  Paz  and  Lima  ob 
stinately  conceal  their  idiom  from  foreigners. 
The  language  of  the  Quichuas  was  extended, 
by  the  agency  of  the  incas,  over  their  whole 
empire ;  so  that  it  was  known  to  all  officers 
and  educated  persons  from  Quito  as  far  as 
Chili  and  the  kingdom  of  Tumac,  and,  sporad 
ically,  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Plata.  It 
consists  of  five  dialects:  #,  Cuzcucano,  one  of 
the  most  cultivated  idioms  of  South  America, 
spoken  also  by  the  Creoles  of  Lima  and  by 
others ;  5,  Quitena,  the  hardest  and  most  cor 
rupt;  c,  Lainano  of  Truxillo;  d,  Chinchaisuyo 
of  Lima;  c,  Calchaqui  of  Tucuman.  The  Qui- 
chua  sounds  very  harsh  and  explosive ;  it  lacks 
?>,  fZ,  /',  17,  j,  «,  w,  x,  and  z.  It  has  cases  and 
prepositions.  The  plural  is  generally  formed 
by  adding  cuna.  It  has  two  forms  of  ice. 
Munani,  I  love ;  munanqui,  thou ;  munan,  he ; 
munanchic  and  munnycu,  we ;  munanquichic, 
ye;  muiiftnc.u,  they;  munac,  lover;  mnnay, 
love ;  munfiHca,  the  person  or  tiling  loved. 
It  counts  by  tens  up  to  hundreds  of  thou 
sands  ;  and  has  a  very  rich  and  perfectly  regu 
lar  conjugation,  even  of  the  substantive  verb. 
Its  phraseology  is  simple,'  and  the  verb  con 
cludes  the  sentence.  It  was  used  for  writing 
even  by  the  incas,  and  the  Limans  prided  them 
selves  on  their  speaking  it  purely.  There  are 
grammars  by  Domingo  de  S.  Tomas  (1560),  D.  de 
Torres  Rubio  (1603),  D.  G.  Holguin  (1608),  and 
many  others ;  and  in  English,  Markham's  "  Con 
tributions  toward  a  Quichua  Grammar  and  Dic 
tionary"  (1864).  2.  The  Aymaras,  probably 
descended  from  the  high  plains  about  Lake  Titi- 
caca  (from  the  bosom  of  which  Manco-Capac, 
the  founder  of  the  inca  dynasty,  was  said  to 
have  risen),  are  almost  surrounded  by  the  Qui- 


AMERICAN   INDIANS   (LANGUAGES) 


413 


chuas,  but  (lifter  from  them  in  manners  and  lan 
guage.  This,  though  it  has  many  harsh  sounds, 
words,  and  grammatical  forms,  is  spoken  by 
the  descendants  of  Europeans  at  La  Paz,  and 
by  about  4(H)j)UO  aborigines.  It  is  rich  in 
many  modified  expressions  (having  for  instance 
12  homonyms  of  the  verb  to  carry),  abounds  in 
postpositions,  and  has  several  dialects.  There 
are  <rraminars  by  L.  Bertonio  (Rome,  1613) 
and  I),  de  Torres  Rubio  (Lima,  1616).  3.  The 
Atacamas,  numbering  about  8,000,  on  the  W. 
slope  of  the  Andes.  4.  The  Changes,  about 
1,000,  on  the  Pacific. — On  the  E.  declivity  of 
the  Andes,  in  Bolivia,  the  Antisian  family  (so 
called  from  the  eastern  of  the  three  Cordillera 
ranges,  and  from  which  the  word  Andes  is  ap 
plied  to  all  the  ranges)  contains  live  tribes  with 
their  own  tongues,  viz. :  the  Yuracares  (yurac, 
white,  and  cari,  men),  Mocetenes  (Chunchos), 
Tacanas,  Maropas,  and  Apolistas;  about  15,000 
in  all.  (Tschudi,  Antiguedades  Peruanas, 
Vienna,  1852.)  N.  W.  of  Bolivia,  on  the  Uca- 
yali,  are  the  Panos,  who  used  a  sort  of  hiero 
glyphics,  and  the  Carapuchos,  who  seem  to 
bark  in  speaking.  On  the  pampas  of  La  Plata, 
drained  by  the  Parana  and  both  Salados,  there 
are  about  40  tribes,  especially  in  the  forests 
of  Chaco,  of  which  we  mention  the  most  prom 
inent.  The  Abipones,  the  centaurs  of  South 
America,  seem  to  sing  their  long  words ;  they 
have  a  peculiar  sound,  half  r  and  half  g  (like 
the  Arabic  ghain),  and  count  in  their  language 
only  as  far  as  three.  The  Mbayas  (Guaycurus), 
on  the  Paraguay,  also  great  horsemen,  had  an 
ancient  idiom,  and  speak  now  the  Enacagas, 
without  nasals  or  gutturals ;  they  have  also  a 
woman  language  (man,  for  instance,  is  called 
hulegre  by  men,  but  aguina  by  women)  and 
castes,  and  are  called  Lenguas  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  Moxos,  about  13,000,  in  Bolivia  and  the 
Brazilian  province  of  Matto  Grosso,  have  a 
mild  harmonious  tongue,  many  modified  forms 
of  verbs,  and  very  few  numerals.  There  is 
a  grammar  and  vocabulary  by  P.  Marban 
(Lima,  1701).  The  Chiqnitos,  about  15,000, 
in  S.  E.  Bolivia,  near  the  Argentine  Gran 
Chaco,  have  many  nasal  and  guttural  sounds, 
the  French  u,  and  an  idiom  for  females,  as  well 
as  a  language  of  etiquette  used  in  addressing 
God  and  superiors. — In  the  vast  regions  E.  of 
the  river  Paraguay,  and  of  a  line  from  its 
sources  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  thence 
bounded  by  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  and  on 
the  S.  by  the  Plata,  there  is,  so  to  speak,  an 
archipelago  of  tongues  in  the  ocean  of  the  Gua- 
rani  family.  In  Brazil  alone  Texeira  counted 
150  and  Spix  and  Martius  300  tribes,  with  as 
many  languages ;  but,  as  their  affinities  cannot 
be  determined  clearly,  owing  to  the  paucity  of 
their  consonant  elements,  it  is  impossible  to 
know  which  of  them  are  languages  and  which 
are  dialects,  or  merely  local  idioms.  Hervas 
reports  51  languages  as  different  from  the  Tupi, 
and  16  as  akin  to  it.  This  Tupi  is  one  of  the 
three  great  branches  into  which  the  language 
of  the  Guaranis  is  divided,  viz. :  1.  Eastern 


'  Guarani  (the  liiigoa  gcral,  general  language  of 
Brazil),  which  lacks./,  /,  8,  and  r,  but  has  Ger 
man  cJi,  English  j,  French  u  (written  y)  and 
nasals,  Spanish  n  and  II;  also  ml),  nl>,  ml,  ng. 
Cases:  aba,  homo;  almupe,  homini;  abaki,  ho- 
mine.     There  is  no  plural  flexion.     The  com 
parative  is  formed  by  the  suffix  ete.     Numerals 
do  not  go  beyond  4,  5  being  expressed  by  the 
word  hand  (ambo),  10  by  two  hands  (opacombo\ 
;  and  higher  numbers  in  Spanish.      Pronouns: 
|  yxe.,  I,  my;  nde,  thou,  thy  ;  ae,  he;  y,  his;  oro, 
'  we  (I  and  he) ;  yande,  we  (I  and  you) ;  pee, 
you,2)e,  your.     Verbs:  a-juca,  occido;  ere-ju- 
\  ca,  occidis ;  o-juca,  occidit,  &c.     Tenses  are  in 
dicated  by  adverbs ;  voices  and  many  kinds  of 
verbs  by  intercalating  particles.     There  is  no 
substantive  verb.      Examples  of  phrases:    Co 
I  nanga  xe  reminbota  (Lat.  hcec  omnino  mihi  vo- 
!  luntas),  I  wish  it;  Ne  marangatu  (milti  bo?ii- 
tas),  I  am  good;  Ori  rul>  ybaqype  tec-oar,  imo- 
ete-pyram  nde  rera,  Our  Father  heaven-in  be- 
I  ing,  hallowed-be  thy  name.     There  are  gram- 
|  mars  by  Anchieta  (Coimbra,  1595)  and  Figuei- 
i  ra  (Lisbon,   1687),  a  dictionary  by  the  latter 
author,   and  a   recent  one  by  Dias   (Leipsic, 
1858).     2.  Southern  Guarani  (Guarani  proper), 
on  the  rivers  Parana,  Paraguay,  and  LTruguay ; 
spoken  by  many  tribes.     See  a  Voca1v.la.rio  in 
Franca's    Chrcstomathia    Brazilica    (Leipsic, 
1859).      3.  Western  Guarani,   spoken  by  the 
Chiriguani  (lat.  18°  to  22°  S.)  on  the  Pilcomayo, 
:  the  Guarayi  in  the  missions  of  the  Chiquitos, 
I  the  Cirionos  near  Santa  Cruz,  and  in  1GO  vil- 
[  lages  between  the  Chaco  and  Mapayo  streams, 
I  in  its  purity.      That  dialects  of  the  Tupi  once 
I  prevailed  over  many  districts  is  evident  from 
|  the  names  of  several  tribes,  such  as  the  Tupi- 
;  nambas,   Tupininquins,   Tapiguas,    Tummimirj, 
&c. ;  so  that  it  became  the  most  extended  na 
tive  idiom  in  South  America,  and  was  adopted 
by  the  Europeans,  as  well  as  by  many  hetero- 
;  geneous  tribes,  as  the  medium  of  communica- 
,  tion.     Its  analogy  with  the  other  branches  of 
:  the  same  family  and  with  the  Caribbean  aided 
I  its  extension.     Here  also  the  style  of  female 
j  speech  differs  in  some  particulars  from  that  of 
men.     The  Omaguas,  formerly  a  most  powerful 
|  association  of  tribes,  were  the  Phoenicians  of 
j  the  Amazon,  Japura,  &c.,  being  spread  inland 
I  as  far  as  the  Rio  Napo,  on  the  affluents  of  the 
|  Orinoco,  in  Venezuela,  to  the  S.  in  Solimoens, 
|  on  the  Para,  &c.     Their  language  differs  from 
I  all  others  in  South  America.     It  is  monosylla- 
j  bic,  has  nasal  and  guttural  sounds,  no  gender, 
!  and  a  very  simple  conjugation.    The  same  word 
j  has  many  significations,  according  to  its  tone  ; 
i  reciprocal  verbs  are  formed  by  the  suffix  ca, 
\  and  active  verbs  from  nouns  by  ta.     It  points 
to  the  Otomi  as  well  as  to  trans-Gangetic  lan 
guages.     Between  the  Madeira  and  the  Tapajos 
the  Mundurucus  and  Tocantins'  speak  a  tongue 
akin  to  the  preceding.      Other  tribes  on  the 
I  Amazon  have  idioms  which  are  related  to  either 
j  the  Guarani  or  the  Omagua,     There  are  gram 
mars  of  the  Guarani  by  A.  Ruiz  de  Montoya 
!  (Madrid,  1639),  and  P.  Restivo,  from  Bandini, 


41-1 


AMERICAN  INDIANS   (LANGUAGES) 


(1724).  Montoya  also  published  a  vocabulary. 
— Between  the  rivers  Doce  and  Pardo,  and  be 
tween  the  Atlantic  and  the  province  of  Minas 
Geraes,  we  find  the  Botocudos,  who  have  a 
language  of  their  own,  with  many  nasal  and 
other  peculiar  sounds,  although  scarcely  any 
gutturals ;  they  use  a  great  many  vowels,  but 
confound  many  articulations,  as  t  and  d,  and 
Z,  n,  and  r,  together;  for  instance,  Taru,  or 
Talu,  God.  Most  of  their  words  are  mono 
syllabic.  They  have  many  onomatopoeias  and 
various  figurative  expressions,  and  they  double 
many  words;  thus,  nac-nac,  sea  gull;  eng- 
eng,  woodpecker.  There  are  two  cases,  nom 
inative  and  oblique,  as  taru-ti-po  (courser 
of  heaven),  the  sun;  taru-niep  (heaven-rest), 
the  moon.  The  plural  and  comparative  are 
denoted  by  ruhu,  more;  the  superlative  by 
yikaram,  most.  In  conjugation  there  are  two 
moods,  infinitive  and  participles.  There  is  no 
substantive  verb ;  thus :  lie  mung,  he  gone ; 
e  Telia,  it  good,  &c.  Among  the  Brazilian 
tongues  is  that  of  the  Camacans  on  the  river 
Pardo,  in  the  province  of  Bahia,  with  extremely 
long  words,  very  abrupt  peculiar  final  sounds, 
and  many  gutturals ;  and  that  of  the  Macharis 
in  Porto  Segurp,  with  most  peculiar  palatals 
and  many  nasals.  For  materials  on  the  Brazil 
ian  languages,  see  the  works  of  L6ry  (1578) ; 
Mimiani,  on  the  Kiriris  (1695);  F.  de  Azara 
(1781);  Prince  Maximilian  of  Neuwied  (1815- 
717);  SpixandMartius(1817-'20);  Von  Esch- 
wege's  vocabularies  of  the  Puris,  Coroados, 
Coropos,  &c. ;  and  the  travels  of  D'Orbigny 
and  Auguste  St.  Hilaire. — The  Araucanian  or 
Chilidugu,  Chili  language,  formerly  extended 
more  northward,  and  is  spoken  by  the  Picun- 
ches,  from  Coquimbo  as  far  as  Santiago,  by  the 
Puelches  about  Mendoza  (E.  of  the  Cordillera), 
by  the  Huilliches  on  the  Biobio  and  Valdivia, 
and  by  the  independent  Aucas  in  the  south  of 
Chili,  with  dialectic  variations.  This  is  prob 
ably  the  most  harmonious  and  the  most  culti 
vated  language  among  the  indigenous  races; 
its  purity  and  elegance  being  so  cherished,  that 
even  a  preacher  is  often  upbraided  by  his 
hearers  if  he  commits  a  solecism  in  his  sermon. 
It  has  not  the  Spanish  aspirated  j,  g,  nor  x,  z, 
l>,  f ;  but  has  a  nasal  n  and  u  as  in  French.  In 
the  north,  d  and  r  are  used  for  s,  and  conversely 
in  the  south.  Words  end  in  vowels  and  in  the 
mild  consonants,  ?>,  d,  g,f,  I,  m,  n,  r  ;  only  about 
20  in  s  or  z.  There  is  no  gender  ;  the  signs  of 
sexes  are  alca,  male,  and  domo,  female.  The 
cases  are  three,  formed  by  adding  ni,  genitive ; 
mo,,  men,  ablative ;  egu,  instrumental.  Dual, 
cngu  ;  plural,  ica,  egn,  or  by  prefixing  pu,  or 
intercalating  que  between  adjective  and  sub 
stantive.  Persons  :  inche,  I ;  eimi,  thou  ;  taye, 
he;  dual:  inchu,  1st;  cimu,  2d;  taye  epu,  3d; 
plural:  inchin,  we;  eimn,  you;  tayeculd,  they. 
Personal  suffixes  to  verbs:  1,  n;  2,  imi ;  3,  i ; 
dual,  yu,  imu,  igu  ;  plural,  in,  imn,  ign.  The 
imperfect  tense  is  formed  by  intercalating  vu ; 
future,  a.  The  infinitive  ends  in  n ;  gerunds 
in  uam,  uum  ;  the  participle  active  in  lu,  pas 


sive  in  el;  the  conjunctive  in  li,  optative  in 
lichi ;  passive  voice  in  ngen  (thus,  aiiin,  to 
love;  aiilngen,  to  be  loved);  negation  inter 
calates  la  (imperative  qucl).  There  are  more 
than  20  forms  of  transition  for  all  sorts  of 
modifications  in  the  verb  (more  than  in  the 
Altaic  languages).  In  short,  some  of  the 
best  traits  of  the  Indo-European  and  the 
polysynthetic  languages  are  combined  in  the 
Chilidugu.  It  has  geometrical  terms,  and  is 
skilfully  employed  as  a  rhetorical  and  poetical 
idiom.  There  are  grammars  and  vocabularies  by 
L.  de  Valdivia  (Lima,  1607),  A.  Febres  (1765, 
1846),  and  B.  Havestadt  (Munster,  1777).  The 
Patagonians  (Tchuelhets)  are  divided  into  sev 
eral  tribes,  such  as  the  Tchuel-cunny  (South- 
men),  Tchuan-cunny,  (North-men),  &c.  Falk- 
ner,  an  English  Jesuit,  gave  a  grammar  and  vo 
cabulary  of  the  Moluches  (Hereford,  1774).  It 
is  supposed  that  an  idiom  similar  to  theirs  is 
spoken  by  the  Yacanacus,  who  inhabit  Tierra 
del  Fuego  and  the  southern  margin  of  the  con 
tinent,  as  well  as  the  Brunswick  peninsula, 

AMERICANISMS.  There  were  peculiarly  strong 
influences  in  America  to  cause  variations  in 
the  English  language  from  the  standard  of  the 
mother  country,  such  as  the  thinness  of  popu 
lation  ;  the  novelty  of  numerous  objects,  of  the 
mode  of  life,  and  of  the  system  of  government ; 
the  vast  influx  of  persons  speaking  the  lan 
guages  of  continental  Europe  and  Africa  ;  inter 
course  with  the  red  men ;  the  want  of  a  me 
tropolis,  a  court,  and  permanently  wealthy  fam 
ilies,  which  might  serve  as  authorities  ;  and  the 
adoption  by  newspaper  editors  of  the  slang 
words  of  the  multitude.  But  there  have  also 
been  very  strong  influences  at  work  to  protect 
the  English  language  in  America  from  varia 
tions.  These  influences  have  been,  a  more  ex 
tensive  and  thorough  popular  education  than 
that  of  any  other  country,  the  almost  universal 
habit  of  reading,  an  intercourse  between  dis 
tant  districts  by  travelling  unequalled  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world,  and  the  extensive  use 
of  dictionaries.  The  consequence  is,  that  there 
is  more  uniformity  in  the  English  language  as 
spoken  in  the  United  States  than  in  the  tongue 
of  any  other  people  equally  numerous ;  every 
American  can  with  ease  understand  every 
other  one ;  and  it  may  safely  be  said  that  as 
a  people  the  Americans  speak  English  better 
than  the  English  themselves.  But  the  stand 
ard  of  the  correct  language  still  remains  in  the 
use  of  the  learned  and  educated  people  of  Eng 
land. — Americanisms  are  of  various  kinds, 
viz.  :  First,  new  words,  such  as  sparse,  back 
woods,  caucus.  Secondly,  old  English  words 
in  new  meanings,  as  block,  meaning  the  land  or 
houses  enclosed  between  four  streets  in  a  town 
or  city ;  realize,  meaning  to  conceive  as  actu 
al  ;  and  section,  meaning  a  square  mile  of  land. 
Thirdly,  words  which  were  provincial  in  Eng 
land  adopted  in  general  American  use,  as  wilt 
for  wither.  Fourthly,  words  which  have  re 
tained  in  America  the  meaning  they  had  in  Eng 
land  several  hundred  years  ago,  while  in  the 


AMERICANISMS 


Litter  country  the  meaning  ha?  l>cen  changed. 
The  word  *•/('/•  is  an  example  of  this.  Fifthly, 
words  preserved  in  American  use,  which  have 
become  obsolete  in  England ;  such  as  tarry, 
freshet.  Subjoined  we  give  a  list  of  some  of 
the  most  noteworthy  Americanisms,  many  of 
which  are  occasionally  used  in  American  news 
papers,  while  almost  all  are  frequently  employ 
ed  in  conversation  by  the  less  educated  people. 
A  large  proportion  are  of  course  mere  vulgar 
isms,  never  used  by  Americans  of  any  culture. 
It  deserves  to  be  remarked  that  many  Ameri 
canisms  current  in  the  southern,  western,  and 
middle  states,  are  not  used  in  New  England, 
where  the  language,  at  least  as  written,  ap 
proximates  more  closely  to  that  of  the  mother 
country. 

Approbate,  used  instead  of  approve. 
Bad.  used  in  the  sense  of  ill. 

Bayf/n'ie,  used  to  signify  the  trunks,  boxes,  valises,  cloth 
ing,  &c..  of  a  traveller.  The  English  say  luggage,  and  con 
sider  baggage  pretentious. 

Balance,  meaning-  remainder:  as,  "Two  of  the  professors 
were  dismissed,  but  the  balance  were  retained." 

Boird,  always  used  to  signify  all  kinds  of  boards.     In  Eng 
land  nine  and  fir  boards  are  ordinarily  called  "  deals." 
Bo~>;/ux.  meaning  counterfeit,  false,  fraudulent. 
Bonier,  in   the   sense  of  a  greensward  or  line  of  flowers 
bordering  on  a  wall,  in  a  garden  or  yard ;    called  an  edging  in 
England. 

Bos*,  meaning  an  employer  or  superintendent  of  laborers. 
Brash,  for  brittle. 

Bread  At  ufa,  much  objected  to  by  English  writers  20  years 
ago.  but  now  admitted  to  be  a  good  word. 
"  £u(fft>/.  denotes  a  light  four-wheeled  wagon ;  in  England 
it  means  a  two-wheeled  carnage. 

Buncombe,  used  hi  the  phrase  to  "  speak  to  Buncombe," 
moaning  to  speak  only  to  catch  the  applause  or  favor  of  the 
vulgar.  This  phrase,  often  abbreviated  "  to  talk  Buncombe,"1 
was  derived  from  the  name  of  Buncombe  county,  N.  C.  A 
representative  in  congress  from  this  county  was  wont  to  make 
speeches  to  which  no  one  listened;  observing  the  members 
leaving  the  hense  while  he  was  speaking,  he  one  day  declared 
that  he  cared  little  how  many  left — he  was  not  speaking  to 
the  house,  but  to  Buncombe.  The  phrase  soon  came  to  mean 
any  speech  made  solely  to  please  a  constituency  or  the  public. 
Bureau,  universally" used  to  the  exclusion  of  the  English 
"  chest  of  drawers.'' 

Calculate,  used  in  the  sense  of  think,  suppose;  as  "I  calcu 
late  I  can  do  it." 

Calico,  in  the  United  States,  means  printed  cotton  goods; 
in  England  it  means  only  white  cotton  cloth. 

Caption,  used  in  the"  United  States  to  mean  the  heading 
of  a  chapter,  section,  or  page,  is  not  used  in  England. 

Clare r  usually  means  good-natured,  obliging,  in  America, 
and  quick-witted  or  intelligent  in  England. 

Conclude  is  used  by  Americans  in  the  sense  of  determine, 
as,  "  I  have  concluded  to  go."  In  Great  Britain  it  is  used  to 
signify  the  formation  of  an  opinion,  not  of  an  intention. 

In  this  connection  is  a  phrase  much  used  in  the  United 
States,  and  appears  to  have  been  first  brought  into  currency 
about  60  years  ago.  chiefly  in  Xew  England  periodical  litera 
ture.  English  writers  would  prefer  to  say,  ••  in  connection 
with  this  subject." 

Corn  means  only  maize  in  the  United  States ;  in  England 
it  means  gram  generally. 

County,  in  America,  is  ordinarily  used  after  the  proper 
noun  used  to  designate  particular  counties,  as  "  Pike  coun 
ty,"  &c.  The  English  always  say  "  county  of."  as  "  county  of 
Lancaster ; "  and  the  Irish  say  "  county  Wexford,"  &c.,  omit 
ting  -  of." 

Creek,  in  most  of  the  American  states,  means  a  small  river; 
in  England  it  means  a  small  arm  of  the  sea. 

Creole  properly  means  a  person  descended  from  European 
parents,  born  in  some  portion  of  America  which  belongs  or 
did  once  belong  to  Spain ;  but  the  Americans  often  use  the 
word  to  designate  a  native  of  the  South  tinctured  with  negro 
blood. 

Deadhead,  a  person  who  has  the  use  of  public  conveyances, 
the  telegraph,  or  the  mail,  admission  to  public  entertainments. 
ifec.,  without  payment.  The  transitive  verb  to  deadhead  is 
sometimes  used. 

Declination,  the  refusal  to  accept  a  nomination  to  office. 
l)r\i  (loads,  a  general  term  used  by  Americans  to  signify 
S-ich  articles  as  are  sold  by  linen  drapers,  haberdashers,  mer 


cers.  drapers,  hosiers.  &e.     The  word   '•  haberdashery  "  is  al 
most  unknown  to  the  [Tnited  Suites. 

Dress,  the  word  almost  universally  used  by  American 
women  to  designate  their  gowns. 

Elect,  used  intransitively  in  the  sense  of  choose :  as.  in  a 
division  of  property,  "He  elected  to  take  the  real  estate." 

Endorse,  a  word  adopted  from  commercial  usage  to  signify 
sanction,  approve,  confirm. 
Eventuate,  meaning  to  result  in. 

E.rpect.  misused  in  application  to  past  events ;  as,  "  I  ex 
pect  it  was." 
fall,  meaning  autumn. 

fancy,  used  as  an  adjective  to  signify  fantastic,  various. 
It  is  frequently  used  on  signs  of  shops  where  assorted  goods 
are  sold  ;  thus'.  "  Fancy  Store."  Whatever  is  ornamental  ra 
ther  than  useful  fantastic,  adapted  to  gratify  luxurious  tastes 
rather  than  necessary  wants,  more  elegant  than  substantial, 
fiirurcd  as  opposed  'to  plain,  may  be  described  as  "  fancy." 
Thus  there  are  "  fancy  silks,"  "fancy  horses."  &c.  For  anal 
ogous  reasons  the  term  is  also  applied  to  certain  classes  of  men 
and  women. 

fish-dealer,  the  American  name  for  a  fishmonger. 
fix  in  England  means  to  fasten  or  make  firm :    in  America 
it  means  almost  anything  in  the  way  of  putting  in  order,  ad 
justing,  mending,  setting  to  rights,  or  making. 
fleshy  for  stout. 

freshet,  meaning  a  flood,  is  not  recognized  in  England  as  a 
good  word ;  but  it  was  used  several  centuries  ago  by  good 
English  writers. 

frock  is  the  name  sometimes  given  by  American  women 

to  their  gown.     Ogilvie  says  frock  is  now  used  in  England 

I  "  for  a  loose  garment  or  shirt  worn  by  men  over  their  other 

|  clothes,  and  for  a  kind  of  gown,  open  behind,  worn  by  fe- 

j  males." 

fruit-dealer,  the  name  generally  given  in  the  United 
States  to  fruiterers  and  green-grocers. 

Gerrymander,  a  method  of  arranging  election  districts  so 
!  that  the  political  party  making  the  arrangements  will  be  eu- 
abled  to  elect  a  greater  number  of  representatives  than  they 
;  could  on  a  fair  system  of  districting,  and  more  than  they 
1  should  have  in  proportion  to  their  numerical  strength.  T^jj* 
I  word  was  derived  from  the  name  of  Elbridge  Gerry,  a  signer 
j  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  who  was  accused  of 
i  being  the  first  to  practice  this  species  of  fraud  on  the  rights 
•  of  the  people  while  governor  of  Massachusetts. 

Go  ahead  is  of  American  origin,  and  is  used  by  Americans 
in  cases  where  the  British  would  say  "  All  right." 

Guess,  used  as  "think;"  as,  "  I  guess  I  do."  "I  guess  so." 
Hack  usually  means  a  hackney-coach  in  America ;    in  Eng- 
:  land  it  means  a  livery  stable  horse,  or  one  merely  used  for 
|  travelling  and  routine  work. 

Hardicare  merchant,  or  hardware  dealer,  is  the  Ameri- 
|  can  name  for  an  ironmonger. 

Help  is  frequently  used  in  the  United  States  to  signify 
I  servant,  servants,  or  service. 

Hold  on  is  a  common  Americanism  for  "  stop."  It  is  prob 
ably  derived  from  the  German  halt  an. 

Homely  means  plain-featured  or  ugly  in  the  United  States; 
;  in  England,  it  means  pertaining  to  home,  plain,  simple,  un- 
'.  adorned. 

Improve  is  an  Americanism  for  opening  a  farm  on  wild 
1  land  t>y  cutting  away  the  wood  and  brush,  erecting  buildings 
i  and  fences,  ploughing  the  ground  and  putting  it  in  order. 
.  The  buildings  and  fences  are  styled  improvements. 

Levee,  in  the  United  States,  is  often  applied  to  ceremonious 
!  reception  parties  given  by  official  personages,  whether  in  the 
morning  or  evening.    In  England  the  word  is  restricted  to 
morning  receptions. 

Loafer,  Americanism  for  lounger  or  vagabond. 
Loan,  frequently  used  in  the  United  States  as  a  verb,  but 
seldom  in  England,  where  lend  is  the  usual  word. 

Lobby,  verb,  to  attempt  to  exercise  an  influence  on  mem 
bers  of  a  legislative  body  by  persons  not  members. 
Locate,  to  determine  and  designate  the  place  of.  to  settle  in. 
Logrolling  (with  the  verb  to  logroll),  a  system  of  man 
agement  by  which  a  member  of  a  deliberative  or  legislative 
body  attempts  to  secure  the  adoption  of  a  favorite  measure, 
i  by  inducing  other  members  to  vote  for  it  in  return  for  assist 
ance  in  carrying  their  several  pet  measures.      It  originated 
in  the  mutual  aid  of  the  early  settlers  in  clearing  trees  from 
the  land. 

Lot.  a  small  tract  of  land,  such  as  the  subdivisions  in  towns. 
\  The  English  usually  say  "  allotment." 

Lumber  means 'trash  in  England;    in  the  United   States, 
sawn  wood  for  building  and  other  mechanical  purposes.  Lum- 
|  bering  means  making  lumber;    lumberman,  one  engaged  in 
I  making  it;  and  lumber  merchant,  one  who  sells  it. 

Mad  is  frequently  used  by  Americans  to  signify  angry ;  it 
is  not  so  used  by  the  English. 

Mail  is  the  ordinary  word  used  in  the  United  States  to  ex 
press  the  ideas  conveyed  by  "  post"  in  England.  Americans 
say  "  mail  a  letter,"  "  send  it  by  mail."  In  such  expressions 
tlie  English  say  "post." 


416 


AMERICANISMS 


AMERICAN   WINES 


3fo?as$es  is  used  in  the  United  States  to  signify  treacle  as 
well  as  molasses.  Properly,  the  former  is  the  drainage  from 
sugar  in  the,  process  of  refining,  the  latter  from  sugar  in  the 
process  of  making.  Molasses  comes  from  the  sugar  planta 
tions,  treacle  from  sugar  refineries. 

Narrate  has  been  objected  to  as  a  bad  Americanism,  but  it 
is  used  by  English  authors,  is  found  in  English  dictionaries, 
and  is  of  English  origin. 

ATece$#itate  is  an  Americanism  much  objected  to  by  English 
writers. 

Nightfall  and  afterninht  are  expressions  common  in  the 
United  States,  but  not  used  in  England. 

Rot  if  if,  in  the  United  States,  means  to  give  notice  to ;  in 
England  it  means  to  make  known.  The  American  says, 
'•You  must  notify  the  drawer  of  the  protest.11  The  English 
man  says.  "  The  protest  must  be  notified  to  the  drawer.'1 

Obligate,  sometimes  used  by  American  writers,  is  objected 
to  by  English  lexicographers  as  a  low  word. 

Obnoxious  is  used  much  more  frequently  in  the  United 
States  than  in  England,  where  offensive  is  preferred. 

On  is  often  used  by  Americans  in  such  phrases  as.  ''Pie  lives 
on  a  street"  "  lie  took  passage  on  a  steamboat,"1  &c.  The 
Englishman  would  use  "in." 

Pantaloons  (or  more  commonly  pants),  the  common  Amer 
ican  name  for  trousers. 

Pipe-laying,  fraudulent  voting,  and  schemes  or  means  to 
obtain  fraudulent  votes.  The  word  had  its  origin  in  New 
York,  at  the  time  of  the  construction  of  the  Croton  water 
•works.  Some  leaders  of  the  whig  party  were  charged  with 
having  made  arrangements  to  bring  a  large  number  of  men 
from  Philadelphia,  ostensibly  to  lay  pipes  for  the  water,  but 
really  to  vote  at  an  approaching  election. 

Pond,  a  pool  or  body  of  water  smaller  than  a  lake,  with 
either  natural  or  artificial  banks.  In  England,  "pond"  im 
plies  that  the  water  is  confined  by  an  artificial  bank. 

Posted,  well  informed,  thoroughly  conversant  with. 

Quite,  in  the  sense  of  ''very.1'  is  in  universal  use  by  Ameri 
cans,  in  such  phrases  as.  "It  i's  quite  cold." 

Railroad,  railroad  track,  railroad  depot,  and  railroad  car,  j 
ore  the  American  names  for  the  English  railway,  railway  line,  ! 
railway  station,  and  railway  carriage.  The  American  travels  j 
••in  the  cars,"  the  Englishman  "  by  the  rail.'1  In  the  United  ! 
States  the  iron'  horse  is  ordinarily  a  "  locomotive ;  "  in  Britain  j 
it  is  an  "  engine." 

Rapid*,  that  portion  of  a  river  where  the  current  is  so  j 
swift  that  the  surface  of  the  water  is  broken  by  short  waves  or 
by  low  tails. 

Reckon,  used  in  the  southern  and  western  states  instead  j 
of  suppose,  think;  as,  "I  reckon  he  does;11    ''That'll  do,  I 
reckon." 

Reliable,  for  trustworthy,  has  been  adopted  in  the  common 
use  of  England,  but  is  not 'employed  by  careful  writers. 

Ride,  in  the  United  States,  means  riding  either  in  a  wagon  , 
or  on  horseback.  The  English  restrict  "  ride  "  to  horseback.  | 
In  America,  "to  drive11  means  to  hold  the  reins;  in  England  '. 
it  does  not.  Kide  was  formerly  used  by  the  English  as  it  is  I 
now  used  by  the  Americans. 

River  is  'always  placed  by  the  English  before  the  proper  j 
name  when  speaking  of  a  particular  stream,  as  "the  river  ! 
Thames."  The  Americans  generally  place  '•  river "  after  the  1 
proper  name,  as  "the  Ohio  river." 

Roil,  to  render  turbid,  a  provincial  word  in  England,  is  in  i 
general  use  throughout  the  United  States,  where  it  also  means  \ 
to  make  angry. 

Rooster  is  an  Americanism  for  "cock."1  a  male  barn-door  fowl.   | 

Sick  is  the  ordinary  American  word  for  ill.  but  is  used  by 
the  English  chiefly  to  express  sickness  at  the  stomach. 

Skedaddle,  to  run  away-  a  word  introduced  during  the  civil  j 
war.  and  at  that  time  in  general  use. 

Steif/h.  for  the  English  "sledge."  The  English  go  "sledge- 
driving;"  the  Americans  go  "sleigh-riding." 

Span  is  an  Americanism  for  pair,  applied  only  to  horses  or  i 
mules.  It  is  derived  from  the  German  Gespann. 

Stage,  for  stage  coach;  rarely  so  used  by  the  English. 

Stall  is  used  in  the  United  States  to  signify  stick  fast ;  as, 
"  The  horses  are  stalled.'1  "  The  wagon  is  stalled."  &c. 

Stoop  is  an  Americanism,  derived  from  the  Dutch,  meaning  j 
the  steps  at  the  entrance  of  a  house,  doorsteps,  a  porch,  a  piazza,  ; 
n  platform  of  stone  or  wood  before  a  door. 

Store  is  the  usual  American  name  for  a  shop ;   and  shop  is  : 
rarely  used  except  to  designate  a  place  where  mechanical  labor  i 
is  done.     Such  terms  as  "  book  store,"  ••  shoe  store,"  "  grocery  j 
store."  "liquor  store."  "druir  store."  are  always  used  by  the 
Americans  to  the  exclusion  of  "book  shop,"  &c. 

Suspenders  is  the  proper,  as  gallowses  i?  the  vulgar,  Ameri-  I 
can  name  for  the  articles  known  in  P'nyland  as  braces. 

Suspicion  is  sometimes  used  in  western  American  news-  ' 
papers  as  a  verb  instead  of  suspect. 

Sn-itch,  in  speaking  of  railroads,  as,  "to  switch  off."  The  ! 
English  say  "  shunt." 

Tarern.  a  place  where  travellers  are  entertained  and  lodged.  ! 
In  England  it  means  a  place  where  liquors  are  sold  and  enter-  i 
tainmeiit  (but  not  lodging1)  is  provided  for  parties. 


Ticket  is  used  by  the  Americans  in  many  ways  unknown  Jo 
the  English.  Politically  it  means  a  list  of  candidates  at  ;:n 
election.  When  an  American  engages  a  passage  on  a  railroad, 
he  purchases  a  ticket;  the  Englishman  is  booked  at  the  office. 
The  American  purchases  a  "through  ticket"  or  a  -way 
ticket;  "  the  Englishman  is  booked  for  a  portion  or  the  whole 
distance  of  his  intended  journey. 

Timber,  in  the  sense  of  forest  or  grove;  as  "the  house 
stands  at  the  edge  of  the  timber." 

Transient,  in  such  phrases  as  a  "transient  person,"  mean 
ing  a  person  staying  at  a  place  for  a  short  time,  a  stranger,  a 
traveller,  is  not  used  in  that  sense  in  England. 

Yenixon,  deer  meat;  in  England,  wild  meat  generally. 

Waggon  or  wagon,  according  to  the  usual  American  spell 
ing,  is  frequently  used  in  the  United  States  as  a  verb;  thus, 
"The  goods  were  wagoned  across  the  mountains." 

Will  is  generally  used  by  the  natives  of  the  southern,  west 
ern,  and  middle  states,  in  the  first  person,  instead  of  shall, 
when  they  merely  wish  to  express  an  expectation. 

Woods  is  the  common  American  name  for  what  the  Eng 
lish  term  "  a  wood." 

Vocabularies  of  Americanisms  have  been  pub 
lished  by  John  Pickering  (Boston,  1816),  John 
Russell  Bartlett  (New  York,  1848,  new  ed.,  re 
vised,  1859),  and  Prof.  Schele  de  Vere  (New 
York,  1872).  Such  multitudes  of  slang  words 
are  made  every  year  in  America  and  cir 
culated  by  careless  or  flippant  writers,  that 
if  they  were  all  collected  they  might  before 
long  equal  in  number  the  60,000  provincialisms 
of  England.  Fortunately  they  are  generally 
used  with  a  knowledge  of  their  vulgarity,  and 
many  of  them  are  forgotten  almost  as  easily  as 
they  are  coined. 

AMERICAN  RIVER,  in  N.  central  California, 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  its  N.  and  S.  forks 
near  the  W.  boundary  of  El  Dorado  county, 
30  miles  above  Sacramento  city,  flows  S.  W. 
between  the  counties  of  Placer  and  Sacra 
mento,  and  falls  into  Sacramento  river  near 
that  city.  The  N.  fork,  considered  by  some  as 
the  true  American  river,  rises  among  the  hills 
at  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  flo\vs  W. 
S.  W.,  forming  the  boundaries  between  Placer 
and  El  Dorado  counties  for  100  miles.  The  S. 
fork  flows  from  Bonpland  lake  through  El  Do 
rado  county,  and  forms  part  of  the  division  be 
tween  the  counties  of  Sacramento  and  El  Do 
rado.  These  streams  pass  through  one  of  the 
principal  gold-mining  districts. 

AMERICAN  WINES.  From  the  first  settlement 
of  America,  the  vine  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  colonists,  and  as  early  as  1565  wine  was 
made  from  native  grapes  in  Florida.  The  first 
vineyard  in  the  British  colonies  was  planted  by 
the  London  company  in  Virginia  in  1620,  and 
in  1630  French  vine-dressers  were  imported  by 
them ;  but  the  enterprise  failed.  AVine  was 
made  in  Virginia  in  1647,  and  in  1651  premi 
ums  were  offered  for  its  production.  Beverly 
mentions  that  prior  to  1722  there  were  vine 
yards  in  that  colony,  producing  750  gallons  per 
year.  In  1664  governor  Richard  Nicolls  of 
New  York  granted  to  Paul  Richards  the  privi 
lege  of  making  and  selling  wine  free  of  duty, 
as  the  first  who  entered  upon  its  cultivation  on 
a  large  scale.  Beauchamp  Plantagenet,  in  a 
description  of  New  Albion  in  1648,  states  that 
the  English  settlers  in  Uvedale,  now  Delaware, 
had  vines  running  on  mulberry  and  sassafras 
trees.  He  names  four  kinds  of  grapes:  Tou- 


AMERICAN    WINES 


417 


louse    muscat,    sweet-scented,   great  fox,  and  ; 
thick  grape.     The  first  two,  after  five  months,  j 
being  boiled  and  salted  and  well  fined,  made  a  j 
strong  red  sherry  ;  the  third,   a  light  claret ; 
the  fourth,  a  white  grape,  which  crept  on  the  | 
ground,  made  a  pure,  gold-colored  wine.     Ten-  i 
nis  Pale,  a  Frenchman,  made  out  of  these  four  j 
eight  sorts  of  excellent  wine ;  and  his  muscat  : 
after  four  months  would  intoxicate  a  man  with  j 
the  second  draught.     In   1683  William  Penn  j 
tried  to  establish  a  vineyard  near  Philadelphia,  , 
but  without  success.     A  few  years  later,  how-  , 
ever,  Mr.  Tasker  of  Maryland,  and  Mr.  Antill  j 
of  Shrewsbury,  N.  J.,  seem  to  have  succeeded  | 
somewhat  better.     In  179G  the  French  settlers  ! 
in  Illinois  made  110  hogsheads  of  strong  wine  | 
from  native  grapes.     At  Harmony,  near  Pitts-  ! 
burgh,  a  vineyard  of  10  acres  was  planted  by 
Frederick  Rapp  and  his  associates  from  Ger 
many,  and  they  continued  to  cultivate  grapes 
and  silk  at  their  new  colony  of  Harmony  in 
Indiana.     In  1700  a  Swiss  colony  was  founded 
in  Jessamine  county,  Ky.,  to  establish  a  vine 
yard,  but  failed,  as  they  planted  only  foreign 
grapes.     They  removed  to  Vevay,  Switzerland 
county,    Ind.,   in   1801,    there  planted  native 
vines,  especially  the  Cape  or  Schuylkill  musca 
tel,   and  had  more   success.     After  40  years' 
experience,  however,  they  seem  to  have  become  '' 
discouraged. — The  wines  and  wine  grapes  of  j 
America  may  be  divided  into  wines  of  the  At-  | 
lantic  coast  and  wines  of  the   Pacific   coast,  j 
They  are  so   entirely  distinct   that   they  can  j 
hardly  be  compared.     The  wines  of  the  first 
division  resemble  more  those  of  Germany  and 
France,  containing  more  acid,  more  sprightli- 
ness,  flavor,  and  bouquet ;  while  the  wines  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  especially  California,  contain  j 
but  little  acid,  a  good  deal  of  spirit,  and  little  ! 
flavor  or  bouquet,  thus  more  nearly  resembling 
the  wines  of  Spain  and  southern  Europe.     The  j 
cause  for  this  may  be  sought  partly  in  the  soil,  | 
but  mostly  in  climatic  influences.     It  is  well 
known  to  wine  makers  that  the  grape  must  j 
contain  a  certain  amount  of  acid  to  develop  j 
bouquet  during  fermentation  of  the  must  and  i 
its  transformation  into  wine ;   while  the  heat  ] 
of  the  southern  climate  develops  the  largest  j 
amount  of  sugar  in  the  fruit,  the  acids  diminish.  ! 
I.    WINES   OF   THE   ATLANTIC    COAST.     These  ' 
maybe  divided  into  three  distinct  classes :  1, 
white  or  light-colored  wines ;  2,  red  or  dark- 
colored  wines;    3,  wines    resembling   sherry,  j 
1.    White  Win es.     The  Catawba  grape  was  first  ; 
introduced  by  Major  Adlum  of  Georgetown, 
D.  C.,  having  been  found  by  him  in  Maryland. 
It  was  first  planted  on  an  extensive  scale  by 
Nicholas  Longworth,  who  may  be  called  one 
of  the  founders  of  American'  grape   culture. 
lie  leased  parcels  of  unimproved    land    near  | 
Cincinnati   to  German    settlers  to  plant  with  ' 
vines  for  one  half  the  proceeds.     In  1858  the  j 
whole  number  of  acres  planted  in  vines  around  j 
that  city,   mostly  Catawba,  was  estimated  at  i 
1,200,  of  which  Mr.  Longworth   owned   120.  ! 
The  principal  pioneers  in  the  business  there,  ! 
VOL.  i. — 27 


and  extensive  wine  makers,  are  Messrs.  Werk, 
Buchanan,  Mottier,  Bogen,  Rehfuss,  and 
Thompson,  all  owners  of  large  vineyards  and 
extensive  manufacturers  of  still  and  sparkling 
wines.  At  Hermann,  Mo.,  the  Catawba  was 
introduced  in  1846,  and  bore  its  first  fruit  in 
1847,  when  excellent  wine  was  made  from  it 
on  a  small  scale.  Shortly  afterward  it  was 
also  introduced  into  Illinois.  In  1860  the  Pleas 
ant  Valley  wine  company  was  formed  at  Ham- 
mondsport,  Steuben  county,  N.  Y.,  which  also 
cultivates  it  largely.  But  it  is  more  extensively 
cultivated  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie  than  any 
where  else,  where  the  soil  on  Kelly's  Island 
and  Put-in-Bay,  and  around  Cleveland  and 
Sandusky,  seems  to  be  well  adapted  to  it.  It 
makes  a  light-colored  wine,  sprightly  and  aro 
matic,  which  is  perhaps  better  known  and 
has  been  longer  appreciated  than  any  other 
wine  in  the  country.  It  varies  very  much  with 
the  different  locations,  the  wine  of  New  York, 
northern  Ohio,  and  northern  Illinois  contain 
ing  less  spirit,  but  a  high  flavor  and  a  good 
deal  of  acid,  while  the  wines  of  Missouri  and 
further  south  are  smoother,  heavier,  and  less 
acid  and  astringent.  Although  the  vine  is  very 
uncertain  in  its  product,  being  much  subject  to 
disease,  there  is  more  Catawba  wine  consumed 
now  than  perhaps  all  other  varieties  together, 
both  still  and  sparkling.  It  makes  an  excel 
lent  sparkling  wine,  which  many  connoisseurs 
prefer  to  the  imported ;  and  as  a  still  wine  it 
resembles  the  light  Rhine  and  Moselle  wines  of 
Germany,  though  of  course  with  a  peculiar 
characteristic  flavor.  Average  specific  gravity 
of  must,  80°  Oechsli ;  acid,  5  per  M.  The  Isa 
bella  is  a  native  of  South  Carolina,  and  was 
first  introduced  in  the  north  and  brought  to 
the  notice  of  cultivators  by  Mrs.  Isabella  Gibbs. 
It  has  been  nearly  superseded  by-  better  sorts. 
Its  wine  is  pale  pink,  light  and  somewhat  flat, 
hardly  ever  met  with  now  except  as  sparkling, 
for  which  it  is  well  adapted,  though  in  every 
respect  inferior  to  Catawba.  Sp.  gr.  of  must, 
65°  ;  acid,  6.  The  Cassady  originated  in  Phil 
adelphia,  in  Mr.  Cassady's  dooryard.  Wine 
fine  straw  color,  good  body  and  fine  flavor, 
strongly  resembling  the  wines  of  the  Palatinate. 
It  is  not  much  cultivated.  Sp.  gr.  of  must, 
90°  ;  acid,  4.  The  Diana  is  a  seedling  of  the 
Catawba,  raised  by  Mrs.  Diana  Crehore,  Boston. 
Its  wine  is  seldom  met  with  alone,  as  its  flavor 
is  too  strong,  and  the  must  is  mixed  with  other 
grapes.  It  has  little  value  as  a  wine  grape. 
The  wine  is  pale  straw  color,  less  sprightly  than 
Catawba,  with  strong  foxy  flavor.  Sp.  gr.  80°  ; 
acid,  4.  The  Goethe,  Rogers' s  hybrid  No.  1, 
originated  by  Mr.  Rogers  of  Salem,  Mass.,  is 
a  hybrid  between  labrusca  and  T  in  if  era.  The 
wine  is  very  pale,  almost  white,  of  a  delicate 
muscatel  flavor,  sprightly  and  ethereal ;  a  very 
fine  light  still  wine,  surpassing  Catawba,  and  no 
doubt  well  adapted  for  sparkling  wine,  though 
of  too  recent  origin  to  have  had  a  fair  trial. 
Sp.  gr.  of  must,  80°  ;  acid,  4.  It  is  extensively 
raised  at  the  west  as  a  wine  grape.  The  Lind- 


418 


AMERICAN   WINES 


ley,  Rogers's  No.  9,  is  of  the  same  origin  as 
the  last.  The  wine  is  somewhat  heavier  and 
stronger  flavored,  resembling  Catawha  in  color 
and  taste.  It  promises  well.  Sp.  gr.  90°  ;  acid, 
5.  The  Massasoit,  Rogers's  No.  3,  of  the 
same  origin.  Wine  stra\v  color,  fine  flavor 
and  body,  superior  to  Catawba  in  every  re 
spect.  Very  promising,  though  but  little  wine 
has  yet  been  made  of  it.  Sp.  gr.  1)5° ;  acid, 
5.  The  Salem,  Rogers's  No.  22,  of  the  same 
origin.  Wine  straw  color,  too  aromatic  to  be 
pleasant,  though  of  heavy  body.  Sp.  gr.  92°  ; 
acid,  4.  The  Martha  is  a  seedling  from  the 
Concord,  and  originated  with  Samuel  Miller  of 
Lebanon,  Pa.  It  first  fruited  in  1863.  Wine 
straw  color,  of  good  body,  less  sprightly  and 
more  foxy  than  Oatawba  at  first,  but  improves 
greatly  by  age  ;  and  as  the  grape  is  very  hardy 
and  productive,  succeeding  everywhere,  it  may 
become  one  of  the  leading  white  wines  of  the 
country  for  general  consumption.  Sp.  gr.  90° ; 
acid,  4.  The  Maxatawney  originated  at  Eagle- 
ville,  Pa.,  in  1844.  Wine  very  delicate  and 
smooth,  pale  yellow,  resembling  Rhine  wine  in 
character ;  a  fine  wine,  which  will  be  appre 
ciated  as  soon  as  it  becomes  better  known. 
Sp.  gr.  80° ;  acid,  4.  The  North  Carolina 
seedling  was  produced  by  J.  B.  Garber,  Colum 
bia,  Pa.,  from  seed  of  the  Isabella.  Wine  dark 
yellow,  of  fair  body  and  good  flavor,  if  pressed 
immediately ;  about  equal  to  good  Catawba, 
with  more  muscatel  flavor.  Sp.  gr.  80°  ;  acid, 
5.  The  lona  was  originated  by  Dr.  C.  W. 
Grant,  of  lona  Island,  N.  Y.  Wine  pale  yel 
low,  of  good  body  and  fine  flavor,  superior  to 
Catawba.  It  is  extensively  raised  as  a  wine 
grape  in  some  parts  of  its  native  state,  and 
were  it  not  so  uncertain,  its  wine  would  be 
come  one  of  our  leading  varieties.  Sp.  gr.  90°  ; 
acid,  5. — The  above  belong  to  the  class  of  la- 
brusca,  or  fox  grapes.  The  following  belong 
to  the  cestivalis  class,  destined  to  make  the  fin 
est  wines,  white  as  well  as  red,  yet  produced 
in  the  United  States.  The  precise  history  of 
the  Delaware  grape  is  unknown.  It  was  first 
introduced  to  the  public  and  disseminated 
from  Delaware,  Ohio.  The  wine  is  of  a  yellow 
color,  fine  flavor,  and  great  body,  resembling 
some  of  th<*  finer  Rhine  wines,  especially  the 
Traminer  of  Germany  ;  a  very  good  still  wine, 
though  not  so  well  adapted  to  the  manufacture 
of  sparkling.  As  the  grape  does  not  succeed 
everywhere,  it  will  be  confined  to  certain  lo 
calities.  Sp.  gr.  100°  ;  acid,  4.  The  Herbe- 
inont  or  Warren  was,  according  to  the  best  au 
thorities,  first  cultivated  by  Mr.  Neal,  a  farmer 
of  Warren  county,  Ga.,  in  1800.  In  the  early 
settlement  of  the  country  he  found  the  vine  in 
the  woods,  and  transplanted  it.  Its  produc 
tiveness  and  fine  flavor  attracted  attention,  and 
it  spread  over  the  state.  Mr.  llerbemont,  of 
Columbia,  S.  C.,  a  native  of  France  and  an 
enterprising  grape  grower,  cultivated  it  largely, 
and  thought  it  had  been  imported  from  France, 
and  belonged  to  the  pineau  class — an  opinion 
which  some  of  our  vintners  yet  entertain.  It 


was  named  in  honor  of  him  llerbemont,  or 
Herbemont's  Madeira.  It  was  by  him  sent  to 
Mr.  Longworth  at  Cincinnati,  and  from  there 
introduced  at  Hermann,  Mo.,  by  Mr.  Charles 
Teubner,  in  1847.  Mr.  llerbemont  made 
for  many  years  a  very  superior  wine  from 
this  grape,  and  reported  a  yield  in  one  sea 
son  of  1,500  gallons  to  the  acre.  It  is  now 
more  and  more  appreciated  as  a  superior  wine 
grape  for  the  west  and  south,  on  dry  lime 
stone  soils.  Its  juice,  if  pressed  before  fermen 
tation,  makes  a  very  delicate  white  wine,  re 
sembling  the  finer  qualities  of  Rhine  wine,  more 
sprightly  than  any  other  grape,  and  conse 
quently  well  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of 
sparkling  wine.  It  is  a  true  wine  grape,  with 
out  pulp,  and  very  juicy ;  and  after  fermenta 
tion  a  fine  red  wine  can  be  pressed  from  the 
skins,  which  contain  the  coloring  matter.  Sp. 
gr.  90° ;  acid,  5.  The  Louisiana  was  intro 
duced  into  Missouri  by  Frederick  Munch  of 
Warren  county,  who  received  it  from  Mr. 
Theard  of  New  Orleans  about  1855.  Mr. 
Theard  was  positive  that  it  had  been  imported 
from  France,  but  it  is  so  nearly  related  to  the 
llerbemont  that  a  mistake  may  have  occurred. 
Its  wine  is  perhaps  the  best  of  its  class  we  yet 
have  in  America,  fully  equalling  the  finest  Rhine 
wine,  of  fine  golden  color,  exquisite  flavor, 
and  great  body,  smooth  and  rich,  but  is  yet 
very  scarce  and  high-priced.  It  is  a  true  cabi 
net  wine.  Sp.  gr.  110°;  acid,  5.  The  Rulan- 
der  or  St.  Genevieve  was  first  cultivated  at  St. 
Genevieve,  Mo.,  by  some  of  the  French  settlers. 
It  was  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  vine 
growers  at  Hermann  by  Mr.  Louis  L.  Koch 
of  Golconda,  111.,  under  its  present  name 
of  Rulander,  and  is  now  extensively  culti 
vated  there.  Mr.  Peter  W^eitzenecker,  near 
St.  Louis,  also  cultivated  it  at  an  early  date, 
under  the  name  of  Rothelben.  Its  wine  is 
of  golden  yellow  color,  sometimes  having  a 
brownish  yellow  tint,  with  great  body  and  very 
fine  flavor,  standing  midway  between  a  choice 
hock  and  a  sherry,  having  some  of  the  charac 
teristics  of  both.  It  was  awarded  the  first  pre 
mium  as  the  best  light-colored  wine  at  Cincin 
nati,  Ohio,  in  1868,  about  25  varieties  of  the 
choicest  wines  competing.  Sp.  gr.  110° ;  acid,  5. 
The  Taylor  or  Bullitt  originated  with  Judge 
Taylor  of  Kentucky.  It  is  the  only  white 
wine  grape  belonging  to  the  cordifolia  class  of 
which  wine  has  yet  been  made.  It  makes  a 
wine  of  a  straw  color,  of  fine  flavor,  closely  re 
sembling  the  German  Riessling,  heavy  body, 
and  very  sprightly.  Were  the  grape  a  surer 
crop  than  it  lias  yet  proved  to  be,  it  would  be 
extensively  cultivated.  Sp.  gr.  of  must,  100° ; 
acid,  5^.  2.  Red  Wines.  In  the  labrusca  class 
of  grapes  the  Concord  takes  the  lead,  as  it  will 
succeed  anywhere,  on  any  soil,  and  is  healthy, 
hardy,  and  exceedingly  productive.  There  is 
perhaps  as  much  wine  made  from  it  as  from 
the  Catawba,  and  it  is  eifectually  and  truly  the 
poor  man's  wine,  as  it  can  be  produced  very 
cheaply,  and  Las  a  peculiar  enlivening  and  in- 


AMERICAN   WINES 


419 


vigornting  effect  upon  the  system.  For  a  light 
summer  wine  it  has  not  its  equal  as  yet,  and 
ought  to  supplant  all  the  cheap  French  clarets, 
as  it  is  better,  more  wholesome,  and  can 
be  made  cheaper.  It  originated  with  Mr. 
Bull  of  Concord,  Mass.,  about  1854,  but  was 
not  fully  appreciated  at  the  east.  In  1855  it 
was  introduced  into  Missouri  by  George  IIus- 
mann  of  Hermann,  and  also  about  the  same 
time  or  somewhat  later  by  Frederick  Munch 
of  Warren  county.  The  first  wine  was  made 
of  it  by  George  Husmann  in  the  autumn  of 
1857.  It  found  universal  favor,  and  the  wine 
spread  rapidly  over  the  western  states.  Now 
it  is  raised  everywhere  and  has  become  the 
grape  for  the  million.  Its  fruit  and  wine  are 
much  finer  at  the  west  than  at  the  east.  The 
wine,  if  fermented  on  the  husks,  varies  from 
bright  red  to  dark  red,  has  a  strong  native  fla 
vor  resembling  strawberries,  is  slightly  astrin 
gent,  sprightly,  and  invigorating.  If  the  grapes 
are  pressed  as  soon  as  mashed,  it  makes  a 
white  or  yellow  wine,  which  is  now  coming 
into  use  as  a  substitute  for  Catawba.  It  also 
makes  a  very  fine  sparkling  wine,  and  is 
largely  manufactured  into  the  latter  variety. 
Sp.  gr.  75° ;  acid,  5.  The  Creveling,  Bloom, 
or  Catawissa  originated  at  or  near  Catawissa, 
Columbia  county,  Pa.  It  makes  a  claret  wine 
of  very  fine  flavor,  without  the  foxiness  of  the 
Concord,  and  which  finds  more  favor  with 
Europeans  than  the  Concord.  It  is  but  moder 
ately  productive,  however,  and,  although  a 
finer  table  grape  than  the  Concord,  will  hardly 
become  so  popular  as  a  wine  grape.  It  has 
much  of  the  cestwalis  character,  and  may  be  a 
hybrid  between  labrusca  and  cestualis.  Sp. 
gr.  75°;  acid,  5.  The  Hartford  prolific  is  an 
old  variety,  raised  by  Mr.  Steele  of  Hartford, 
Conn.  Its  wine  is  very  light  and  foxy,  other 
wise  resembling  Concord  in  color  and  charac 
ter,  but  hardly  so  good.  It  is  but  little  culti 
vated  as  a  wine  grape,  although  it  yields 
abundantly.  Sp.  gr.  70°  ;  acid,  5.  The  Ives 
is  an  accidental  seedling  produced  by  Henry 
Ives,  near  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  whence  it  was  dis 
seminated  all  over  the  west.  It  is  productive 
and  hardy,  but  has  been  much  overpraised. 
Its  wine  is  a  fair  claret,  with  a  less  foxy  fla 
vor  than  the  Hartford  or  Concord,  of  a  dark 
color  and  a  good  deal  of  astringency,  in  quality 
midway  between  the  Concord  and  Norton, 
as  produced  at  the  west.  Sp.  gr.  80°  ;  acid,  6. 
Rogers's  hybrid  No.  2  originated  with  Mr. 
Rogers  of  Salem,  M-ass.,  and,  though  hardly 
thought  worthy  of  a  name  at  the  east  because 
of  its  late  ripening,  is  valuable  at  the  west,  be 
ing  productive  and  hardy,  and  producing  a 
wine  of  a  brilliant  red  color,  fair  body,  and 
peculiar  but  agreeable  flavor,  very  sprightly 
and  refreshing.  Sp.  gr.  80° ;  acid,  5.  The 
Wilder  (Rogers's  hybrid  No.  4),  of  the  same 
origin,  is  very  productive,  and  makes  a  pleasant, 
iight  red  wine,  of  not  much  character,  but  a 
good  summer  drink,  generally  preferred  to 
Concord.  Sp.  gr.  78° :  acid,  4.  The  Tele 


graph  originated  in  a  dooryard  near  Philadel 
phia,  and  was  first  disseminated  by  Major 
Freas  of  the  "Germantown  Telegraph."  The 
vine  is  very  productive,  healthy,  and  hardy, 
and  makes  a  fair  wine,  of  claret  character 
and  agreeable  flavor.  Sp.  gr.  80° ;  acid,  5. 
— Among  red  wine  grapes  of  the  astir-alts 
class,  the  Alvey  or  Hagar,  introduced  by  Dr. 
Harvey  of  Hagerstown,  Md.,  is  one  of  the  best 
grapes  in  quality,  succeeding  well  in  many 
parts  of  the  south.  Its  wine  resembles  the  finer 
Bordeaux  wines  in  character  and  flavor,  and, 
if  the  grape  should  prove  adapted  to  extensive 
cultivation,  would  soon  become  very  popular  in 
the  market.  Sp.  gr.  90° ;  acid,  5.  The  Cynthi- 
ana  was  introduced  to  general  culture  by  George 
Husmann  of  Hermann,  Mo.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  in  Arkansas;  hence  its  syno- 
nyme,  Red  River.  Cuttings  were  received 
from  William  R.  Prince  of  Flushing,  N.  Y., 
about  1858.  The  vine  closely  resembles  Nor 
ton's  Virginia,  but  the  fruit  is  sweeter  and 
more  juicy,  and  the  wine  of  an  entirely  differ 
ent  character,  resembling  the  choicest  Burgun 
dy,  very  dark,  of  great  body,  and  an  exquisite 
spicy  flavor.  It  is  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the 
best  of  American  red  wines,  and  may  safely  en 
ter  the  lists  with  the  best  brands  of  Burgundy ; 
while  the  hardiness  and  productiveness  of  the 
vine  makes  it  \vell  adapted  to  general  cultiva 
tion.  Sp.  gr.  180° ;  acid,  4.  The  Devereauxis 
a  southern  grape,  closely  related  to  the  Ilerbe- 
mont.  It  is  very  uncertain  in  its  crop,  but  makes 
a  splendid  dark  red  wine  of  the  Burgundy  class, 
the  only  rival  to  the  wine  of  the  Cynthiana  now 
produced,  and  perhaps  surpassing  it  in  smooth 
ness  and  delicacy,  though  not  as  aromatic  and 
spicy.  Sp.gr.  105°;  acid,  4.  Norton's  Vir 
ginia  (erroneously  called  Norton's  seedling) 
was  introduced  by  Dr.  Norton  of  Richmond, 
Va.,  and  was  found  by  him  on  an  island  in  the 
James  river.  It  was  first  popularized  by  the 
grape  growers  of  Hermann,  where  it  was  in 
troduced  about  1850  by  Mr.  Heinrichs  of  Cin 
cinnati,  and  Dr.  Kehr  from  Wheeling,  Va. 
After  a  long  and  patient  trial,  it  has  gradu 
ally  spread  over  the  west  to  such  an  extent 
that  its  wine  is  known  and  made  everywhere, 
and  recognized  as  the  best  medical  wine  of 
America.  It  is  dark  red,  almost  black,  very 
heavy,  astringent,  and  of  strong  flavor,  some 
what  resembling  the  flavor  of  green  coffee.  It 
is  a  remedy  against  bowel  complaints,  chronic 
diarrhoeas,  and  summer  complaints  in  children, 
and  as  such  will  hardly  be  equalled  by  any 
other  wine,  either  of  Europe  or  America.  It 
is  also  a  preventive  of  intermittent  fevers  and 
other  malarious  diseases,  and  has  already  been 
appreciated  in  Europe  as  one  of  the  best  red 
wines  of  the  world.  Sp.  gr.  110°;  acid,  4. — 
Of  the  cordifolia  class,  the  Clinton  origi 
nated  in  New  York  about  1832.  It  is  exten 
sively  planted,  and  a  good  deal  of  wine  is  made 
from  it,  especially  in  the  northern  states;  but 
it  is  a  very  rampant  grower,  and  much  subject 
to  the  attacks  of  the  gall  louse.  It  makes  a 


420 


AMERICAN   WINES 


good  dark  heavy  claret,  if  the  grapes  are  well  j 
ripened,  with  rather  a  pleasant  wintergreen 
flavor,  liked  by  some.  Sp.  gr.  90°  ;  acid,  6. 
The  Franklin,  probably  a  seedling  of  the  fore 
going,  is  very  productive  and  hardy,  and  pro 
duces  wine  of  similar  character  but  inferior  to  j 
Clinton.  Sp.  gr.  80° ;  acid,  6.  The  Marion,  j 
belonging  to  the  same  class,  makes  a  fair  red 
wine,  but  is  hardly  worth  cultivating  when  bet 
ter  varieties  are  abundant.  Sp.  gr.  83°  ;  acid, 
6.  3.  Sherry  Wines.  The  Cunningham  origi 
nated  in  the  garden  of  Mr.  Jacob  Cunningham, 
Prince  Edward  county,  Va.,  about  1812,  and 
proved  so  thrifty  and  hardy  that  it  covered  an 
arbor  50  feet  long  and  12  feet  high.  Mr.  Sam 
uel  Venable  then  cultivated  it  to  a  certain  ex 
tent  in  his  vineyard  in  Prince  Edward,  and 
was  probably  the  first  who  made  wine  from  it, 
very  much  resembling  Madeira.  It  is  now 
largely  cultivated  at  Hermann  and  Bluft'ton, 
Mo.  Its  wine  is  brownish  yellow,  of  great 
body,  and  fine,  sherry-like  flavor ;  and  as  the 
vine  is  a  rampant  grower  and  abundant  bearer, 
it  would  be  a  favorite  grape  were  it  not  some 
what  tender,  and  only  adapted  to  dry  hillsides. 
Sp.  gr.  100°  ;  acid,  6.  The  Hermann  originated 
with  Francis  Langendorfer,  near  Hermann,  Mo., 
and  first  fruited  in  1865.  It  is  a  seedling  of  Nor 
ton's  Virginia,  exceedingly  hardy,  healthy,  and 
productive.  It  may  be  too  late  for  extreme 
northern  localities,  but  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  profitable  varieties  for  the  west  and  south. 
The  wine,  if  properly  handled,  is  of  a  brownish 
golden  color,  with  true  sherry  flavor,  very  heavy, 
and  exceedingly  fragrant  and  spicy.  Con 
noisseurs  have  preferred  it  to  the  finest  imported 
sherries.  Sp.  gr.  105°;  acid  4. —  Wines  of  the 
Southern  Atlantic  States.  There  are  two  spe 
cies  of  the  vine  exclusively  confined  to  the 
southern  states,  which  will  not  succeed  north 
of  the  Potomac,  and  on  the  value  of  which  for 
wine  authorities  still  differ.  1.  Vitis  vulpinia 
or  rotundifolia  (the  muscadine  or  Bullace). 
To  this  species  may  be  referred  the  Scupper- 
nong,  and  its  seedlings,  the  Thomas,  Flow 
ers,  and  Mish.  The  vine  is  entirely  different 
from  any  other  species,  the  bark  being  smooth, 
the  leaves  round  and  glossy,  and  the  fruit  pro 
duced  in  clusters  of  from  three  to  twelve  ber 
ries,  which  drop  from  the  stem  when  fully  ripe,  j 
As  wine  has  generally  been  made  at  the  south  j 
so  far  by  an  addition  of  sugar  and  even  alcohol, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  judge  of  its  true  merits. 
One  of  the  best  wines  is  made  by  Germans  at 
Aiken,  S.  C.,  where  there  are  very  extensive 
vineyards.  The  white  Scuppernong  seems  to 
be  deficient  in  sugar,  as  its  must  seldom  ranges  j 
above  60°,  and  to  contain  so  much  gluten  that  j 
it  is  very  sluggish  in  fermentation.  But  al-  ' 
though  most  of  the  must,  even  now,  has  sugar 
or  alcohol  added  to  it  in  fermentation,  it  seems 
that  a  good  still  and  also  sparkling  wine  may 
be  made  of  it ;  and  as  the  grape  produces  ' 
abundantly,  and  is  very  healthy,  it  may  become 
a  great  source  of  profit  to  the  south.  Its  wine  j 
is  generally  pale  yellow,  of  strong  flavor  and  , 


heavy  body,  and  the  vines  are  said  to  produce 
alter  the  10th  year  from  750  to  1,500  gallons  to 
the  acre.  Sp.  gr.  60° ;  acid,  4.  2.  Vitis  mmtan- 
genxix,  or  mustang  grape.  This  is  found  in  great 
abundance  in  the  woods  of  Texas,  where  it 
climbs  to  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees.  So  far 
as  known,  no  attempts  have  been  made  to  cul 
tivate  it.  The  berry  is  large,  black  or 
purple,  and  contains  a  very  acrid  juice.  It 
is  said  to  produce  a  wine  resembling  claret, 
and  considerable  quantities  are  made  from  the 
wild  vines  every  autumn.  II.  WINES  OF  THE 
PACIFIC  COAST.  "The  history  of  grape  culture 
in  California,"  says  Charles  Reukl  in  his  work 
"California,"  "takes  its  rise  in  the  southern 
districts  of  the  state.  The  vine  was  introduced 
in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  by  the  Catho 
lic  missions.  The  pious  monks  had  brought 
their  native  thirst  from  the  sunny  fields  of 
Spain,  and  longed  to  quench  it  in  California. 
They  began  by  sending  for  large  numbers  of 
Spanish  and  French  cuttings,  which,  however, 
were  found  not  to  thrive  when  planted.  They 
grew,  but  bore  little  fruit,  and  only  at  inter 
vals.  A  ship  which  brought  the  monks  their 
regular  supplies  once  had  some  fine  raisins  on 
board.  One  of  the  missionaries  planted  the 
seeds,  and  the  experiment  succeeded;  the 
vines  flourished  to  admiration,  and  bore  superb 
grapes.  Large  plantations  were  then  made, 
with  the  aid  of  the  Indians,  at  the  mission  of 
San  Gabriel,  in  Los  Angeles  county."  The 
grape  originally  planted  by  the  missionaries  is 
called  Los  Angeles,  and  was  the  only  one  cul 
tivated  in  California  to  the  year  1820.  At  that 
date  a  new  variety  was  introduced  in  the 
Sonoma  valley,  believed  to  have  been  brought 
from  Madeira.  This  new  variety,  and  the  old 
one  of  the  missionaries  of  Los  Angeles,  are 
known  as  mission  grapes,  or  California  grapes, 
and  still  constitute  two  thirds  of  all  the  vines 
grown  in  the  state.  New  varieties,  however, 
have  been  introduced,  partly  from  Europe, 
especially  Germany,  and  partly  from  the  At 
lantic  states.  At  the  present  day  some  200 
kinds  of  grapes  are  raised  and  tried  in  Califor 
nia,  all  of  which  seem  to  succeed.  Those  most 
frequently  met  with  are:  of  European  or  Asi 
atic  origin,  the  Riessling,  Tokay,  muscatel, 
black  Hamburg,  Chasselas ;  of  American  origin, 
Catawba,  Isabella,  Concord,  Ives,  Herbemont, 
Delaware,  Diana,  Salem,  and  many  others. 
The  intelligent  and  workmanlike  culture  of  the 
vine,  and  the  management  and  sale  of  its  prod 
ucts,  are  of  recent  date.  The  long  experience 
of  other  countries  is  still  ivanting  there,  so  that 
many  and  grave  difficulties  are  encountered. 
For  some  time  the  vine  was  usually  planted  in 
level  river  bottoms,  and  even  on  wide  plains, 
and  the  vines  were  supposed  to  require  artifi 
cial  irrigation.  It  is  now  ascertained  that  the 
vines  planted  on  the  slopes  of  hills,  as  is  usual 
in  Germany  and  France,  succeed  far  better 
than  the  vineyards  on  open  plains,  and  produce 
wine  generally  heavier  and  of  finer  flavor. 
The  largest  vinsyard  in  California  is  that  of  the 


AMERICAN    WINES 


Buena  Vista  company  in  the  Sonoma  valley, 
which  contains  450  acres  and  306,000  vines. 
The  same  valley,  which  is  very  beautiful,  shel 
tered  against  the  \jtfnds,  and  free  from  fog, 
also  contains  the  Rhine  farm,  laid  out  by  Mr. 
Jacob  Gumllaeh,  in  company  with  Mr.  Emil 
Dresel.  Gen.  B.  1).  Wilson  of  San  Gabriel  has 
also  260  acres  in  vines.  The  total  number  of 
vines  growing  in  California  at  the  opening 
of  1870  was  22,548,315.  The  counties  most 
actively  engaged  in  grape-growing  are  Los 
Angeles,  4,000,000  vines  in  1870;  Sonoma, 
3,250,000;  Sacramento,  1,718,914;  Amador, 
1083,000;  El  Dorado,  1,357,895;  Solano, 
1,128,000;  Santa  Clara,  1,000,000.  In  1868, 
2, 676,550  gallons  of  wine  and  161,015  of  brandy 
were  produced.  According  to  local  authori 
ties,  the  wine  yield  of  the  state  for  1870  was 
from  4, 000,000  "to  5,000,000  gallons,  although 
the  federal  census  of  that  year  gives  only 
1,814,656.  The  uWine  Dealers'  Gazette"  esti 
mates  the  produce  of  1871  at  5,000,000;  others 
place  it  as  high  as  7,000,000  or  8,000,000. 
The  aggregate  value  of  the  vintage  of  Califor 
nia,  including  $400,000  as  the  cash  value  of 
grapes  marketed  for  other  purposes  than  wine 
making,  may  be  put  down  at  $2,500,000. 
The  kinds  of  wines  produced  in  California  are 
as  follows:  1.  White  Wines.  The  California 
Hock  is  of  a  bright  straw  color,  somewhat 
variable 'in  bouquet  and  quality,  according  to 
the  place  of  growth,  varieties  of  grapes  used, 
and  the  skill  of  the  producer ;  but  it  is  gene 
rally  far  stronger,  more  fiery  and  apt  to  intoxi 
cate  the  unwary  than  the  Rhine  wine.  It  is 
smoother,  but  has  little  of  the  exquisite  bou 
quet  of  the  Rhine  wines,  and  their  enliven 
ing  and  exhilarating  qualities.  Of  all  the 
wines  of  California,  this  is  most  consumed 
in  the  Atlantic  states,  and  is  sometimes  sold  as 
Rhine  wine.  The  Port,  principally  raised  in 
Los  Angeles,  is  dark  red,  strong  and  sweet, 
very  probably  made  so  by  the  addition  of  sugar 
and  alcohol,  like  its  European  namesake.  An 
gelica  is  a  sweet  wine,  a  favorite  among  ladies. 
It  is  not  a  pure  wine,  ac  alcohol,  distilled  from 
grapes,  is  added  to  it,  and  it  is  therefore  a  much 
stronger  wine  than  many  suppose.  Madeira, 
sherry,  muscatel,  and  claret  are  all  made,  but 
only  in  smaller  quantities,  and  not  highly  es 
teemed.  2.  Sparkling  Wines.  The  brothers 
Sansevain  first  undertook  to  make  sparkling 
wines  in  1837,  but  without  success.  They  and 
some  others  who  turned  their  attention  to  the 
subject  suffered  great  loss  in  numerous  ex 
periments,  w^hich  resulted  at  last,  however,  in 
making  a  good  sparkling  wine  from  the  grapes 
of  California.  The  Buena  Vista  company  have 
pursued  this  enterprise  with  great  success  since 
1863,  and  Isidor  Laudsberger  and  company  pre 
pare  monthly  between  800  and  1,000  bottles. 
It  is  rather  too  heavy  in  body,  however,  and 
lacks  the  sprightliness  and  ethereal  qualities  of 
the  best  imported  Erench  and  German  sparkling 
wines,  as  also  of  the  sparkling  Catawbas,  Con 
cords,  and  other  varieties  made  in  the  Atlantic 


states.  The  prices  of  the  California  wines  fluctu 
ate  a  good  deal,  but  it  is  perhaps  the  only  country 
where  wine  at  its  place  of  production  is  cheaper 
than  milk.  In  August,  1869,  a  gallon  of  or 
dinary  wine  brought  30  cts.  at  Anaheim  and 
Los  Angeles,  while  a  gallon  of  milk  cost  50  cts. 
— The  wines  of  New  Mexico  resemble  those 
of  California  very  much  in  character,  but  are 
rarely  in  the  market.  This  may  partly  be  ac 
counted  for  by  the  isolated  position  and  inac 
cessibility  of  the  country,  partly  by  the  indo 
lence  of  the  manufacturers.  During  the  last 
few  years  grape  culture  has  attracted  a  good 
deal  of  attention  in  Oregon,  and  it  seems  both 
native  and  foreign  varieties  thrive  there  equally 
well. — It  is  difficult  to  give  even  an  approxi 
mate  statement  of  the  amount  of  the  wine  in 
terest  in  the  United  States.  There  are  hardly 
any  trustworthy  statistics  to  be  gathered,  as 
the  manufacture  is  spread  over  so  vast  a 
territory,  of  which  many  portions  are  yet  but 
thinly  inhabited.  The  following  statistics  are 
mostly  derived  from  private  sources,  and  should 
i  only  be  taken  as  approximate  : 


California  
Ohio  

Gallons. 
.  5.000.000 
3.500.000 

Wisconsin  
Marvland  

Gallons. 
25.000 
25.000 

New  York 

3  000.000 

South  Carolina  

25.000 

Missouri  
Illinois  
Pennsylvania  
Iowa  

Kentucky.. 

..  2,500.000 
2.500.000 
..  2.000,000 
.  .      400.000 
300.000 

Alabama    
Connecticut  
Mississippi  
Tennessee  
Arkansas  

20.000 
20.000 
15,000 
15,000 
15.000 

200.000 

Georgia  

15,000 

Indiana  
North  Carolina.  .  . 

.  .      150.000 
40,000 
40000 

Louisiana  
Delaware  
Dist.  of  Columbia.  .  . 

10,000 
5.000 
5.000 

West  Virginia.  .  .  . 
Vu-'nnia 

35.000 
30000 

Massachusetts  
Nebraska  

5.000 
5,000 

Texas  

30,000 

Oregon  

5,000 

New  Mexico  
New  Jersey  

.  .       30,000 
25,000 

Washington  Ter  
Other  States  and  Ter 

5,000 
.        5,000 

Total  .  . 

20,000,000 

Of  this  amount  5,040,000  gallons  would  come 
from  the  Pacific  and  14,060,000,  from  the  At 
lantic  coast.  The  varieties  of  the  Atlantic 
states,  and  their  approximate  value  from  the 
producer  to  the  dealer,  may  be  estimated  as 
follows : 


Catawba  
Concord 

Gallons. 
6.000.000 
4,000  000 

Price. 
$0  75 
0  50 

Value. 
$4,500,000 
2.000,000 

Norton's  Virginia  
Delaware  
Clinton  . 

1.000,000 
1,000,000 
1  000  000 

1  00 
1  25 
0  T5 

1,000,000 
1,250,000 
750.000 

Isabella  

.     500,000 

0  50 

250,000 

Ives  
Herbemont  
Scupperuonir  

.    .        500,000 
250,000 
100,000 

0  75 
1  25 
1  00 

375.000 
312.500 
1  00.000 

Other  varieties  

610.000 

1  00 

610,000 

Total. 


.  .14,060,000 


$11,147,500 

I  To  this  may  be  added  : 

!  For  grapes  consumed $5,000,000 

:  For  grape  vines  and  grape  wood 5,000,000 

;  For  brandy  distilled  from  grapes,  husks,  and  lees. . .  1,000,000 

Total  product  of  vineyards  of  the  Atlantic  States..  $22,147,500 

;  If  the  fact  is  taken  into  account  that  grape 
culture  has  really  assumed  importance  only 
:  within  the  last  10  years,  it  may  safely  be  pre- 
!  dieted  that  it  will  be  trebled  within  the  next 
j  25  years,  and  become  a  vast  source  of  national 
i  wealth. 


AMERIGO   VESPUCCI 


AMES 


AMERIGO  VESPUCCI.     See  VESPUCCI. 

AMERSFOORT,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands, 
in  the  province  of  Utrecht,  with  a  port  on  the 
river  Eem,  about  10  in.  from  its  month  in  the 
Zuyder-Zee,  and  12  m.  E.  X.  E.  of  Utrecht; 
pop.  in  1867,  13,258,  nearly  half  Roman  Catho 
lics.  It  has  manufactories  of  cotton  and  wool 
len  stuffs,  an  industrial  school,  a  Latin  school, 
and  a  Jansenist  seminary.  Corn  and  tobacco 
are  cultivated  very  extensively  in  the  vicinity, 
and  a  brisk  trade  is  carried  on. 

AMES,  Edward  R.,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy 
man,  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church, 
born  at  Amesville,  Ohio,  May  20,  1806.  In 
1826  he  entered  the  Ohio  university  at  Athens, 
and  in  1828  opened  a  high  school  at  Lebanon, 
111.,  which  was  the  germ  of  McKendree  col 
lege.  After  remaining  here  until  1830,  he  en 
tered  the  itinerant  ministry  as  a  member  of 
the  Indiana  conference.  Being  one  of  the  del 
egates  to  the  general  conference  of  1840,  he 
was  elected  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
missionary  society  for  the  south  and  west. 
From  1844  to  1852  he  was  a  presiding  elder  in 
the  Indiana  conference,  and  was  then  elected 
bishop,  lie  was  the  first  Methodist  bishop  to 
visit  ihe  Pacific  coast.  During  the  civil  war 
he  served  on  several  important  commissions. 
Since  1861  he  has  resided  in  Baltimore. 

AMES,  Fisher,  an  American  orator,  states 
man,  and  political  writer,  born  in  Dedham, 
Mass.,  April  9,  1758,  died  there,  July  4,  1808. 
His  father,  who  was  a  physician,  died  when 
the  son  was  but  6  years  old,  but  his  loss  was 
in  some  degree  supplied  by  the  energy  and 
good  sense  of  his  widow.  Fisher  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  at  the  age  of  16.  His 
youth,  the  disturbed  state  of  public  affairs,  and 
the  narrowness  of  the  family  means,  delayed 
for  several  years  his  entrance  into  the  profes 
sion  of  the  law.  During  this  interval,  how 
ever,  he  was  busily  educating  himself  by  the 
study  of  the  Latin  and  English  classics.  In 
1781  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began 
practice  in  his  native  town.  But  it  was  his 
political  essays  in  the  Boston  newspapers,  un 
der  the  signatures  of  Brutus  and  Camillus,  that 
first  made  his  abilities  generally  known.  When 
their  authorship  was  discovered,  he  entered 
into  private  and  political  intimacy  with  the 
leading  men  of  his  own  state  and  elsewhere, 
who  were  afterward  the  prominent  feder 
alists  of  the  Washington  school.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  convention  as 
sembled  in  1788  for  ratifying  the  federal  con 
stitution,  and  made  himself  conspicuous  by  the 
zeal  and  eloquence  with  which  he  recommend 
ed  its  adoption.  When  the  federal  government 
went  into  operation,  Mr.  Ames  was  elected 
the  first  representative  of  his  district,  which 
then  included  Boston,  in  congress,  and  kept  his 
seat  during  the  eight  years  of  Washington's 
administration.  His  readiness  in  debate  and 
the  splendor  of  his  set  speeches  place  him  in 
the  very  first  rank  of  parliamentary  orators. 
At  the  close  of  his  speech  advocating  the  ap 


propriation  required  for  the  execution  of  Jay's 
treaty  with   Great   Britain,  a  member  of  the 
opposite  party  moved  an  adjournment,  on  the 
|  ground  that  the  house  was  not  in  a  state  of 
i  mind  to  dwell  calmly  on  the  question  when 
I  fresh  from  the  excitement  of  its  eloquence.    At 
!  the  close  of  his  fourth  term  Mr.  Ames  left  con- 
I  gress  and  returned  to  his  profession.    His  inter- 
!  est  in  public  affairs  at  that  most  excited  period 
|  was  manifested  by  fresh  essays  in  the  newspa 
pers  ;  but  he  took  no  immediate  part  in  politics 
|  and  accepted  no  office,  excepting  that  of  execu- 
j  tive    councillor   under   the    administration   of 
1  Governor  Suinner.     On  the  death  of  Washing- 
j  ton  he  pronounced  his  eulogy  before  the  legis- 
I  lature  of  Massachusetts.     The  gradual  failure 
i  of  his  health  compelled  him  soon  to  withdraw 
from  the  active  practice  of  his  profession,  and 
he  spent  the  last  years   of  his   life  in    philo 
sophic  retirement.     He  was  married  in  1792 
|  to  Frances,  daughter  of  John  Worthington  of 
j  Springfield,  and  in  the  occupations  of  domestic 
i  life,    the    superintendence    of    his    farm    and 
•  orchards,  the  study  of  literature,  and  the  soci- 
!  ety  of  a  brilliant  circle  of  friends,  his  life  wore 
away  peacefully  and  happily.    The  chief  draw 
back  to  his  satisfaction  was  found  in  the  gloomy 
forebodings   as  to  the   future  of  his  country 
and  the  success  of  the  experiment  of  republican 
government,  which   he  felt   in   common  with 
most    of  his   school   of  politics.      His   works 
were  collected   and  published  in  one  volume 
soon   after   his   death,    with   a   memoir   writ- 
;  ten    by   the   Rev.    John    Thornton    Kirldand. 
i  An  enlarged  edition,  in  two  volumes,  appeared 
I  in  1854,  edited  by  his  son,  Mr.  Seth  Ames,  of 
|  Cambridge,  Mass.     The  first  volume   of  this 
edition  is  composed  of  his  letters,  and   they 
add  to  his  former  reputation  that  of  one  of  the 
I  liveliest,  wittiest,  and  most  graceful  of  letter- 
I  writers.     His  orations,  essays,  and  letters  are 
i  of  the  highest  excellence  in  their  several  de 
partments,    although    the    exuberance   of    his 
I  imagination,  displayed  in   the   multitude   and 
!  splendor  of  his  metaphors  and  illustrations,  is 
sometimes  perhaps  a  little  excessive,  notwith 
standing  their  felicity  and  appositeness.     His 
I  appearance  was  attractive,  his  manners  gentle 
and   prepossessing,   the   play   of  his   wit   and 
imagination  brilliant  and  incessant.     Many  of 
his  lions  mots  have  passed  into  proverbs. 

AMES,  Joseph,  an  American  portrait  painter, 
born  in  Rosebury,  X.  II.,  about  1825,  died  Oct. 
30,  1872.     He  practised  his  art  many  years  in 
I  Boston.  Among  his  chief  works  are  portraits  of 
Pius  IX.,  Rachel,  Daniel  Webster,  Rufus  Choate, 
and  President  Felton  of  Harvard  college.     His 
"Death  of  Webster,"  a  large  composition  con 
taining  a  number  of  figures,  has  been  engraved. 
AMES,  Joseph,  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
I  Yarmouth,    Jan.  23,   1689,   died  Oct.  V,  1759. 
He  was  a  ship  chandler  or  an  ironmonger  in 
Wapping,  London,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"  Typographical  Antiquities,  being  an  Historical 
Account  of  Printing  in  England,   with   some 
Memoirs  of  our  Ancient  Printers."     It  was  a 


AMES 


AMHERST 


42; 


valuable  compilation,  and  made  more  so  by  the 
subsequent  additions  of  Herbert  and  Dr.  Dib- 
din.  He  was  the  author  of  some  other  anti 
quarian  works,  was  a  fellow  of  the  royal  so 
ciety,  and  secretary  of  the  antiquarian  society 
from  1741  till  his  death. 

AMES,  William,  D.  IX,  an  English  Independent 
divine,  born  in  Norfolk  county  in  1570,  died  in 
Rotterdam  in  November,  1(533.  He  was  educated 
at  Christ's  college,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  be 
came  a  fellow.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  he  left 
the  university  in  order  to  avoid  expulsion  for 
nonconformity,  and  retired  to  the  Hague,  where 
he  became  minister  of  an  English  church.  Sub 
sequently  he  filled  for  twelve  years  the  chair 
of  divinity  of  the  university  of  Franeker.  He 
then  removed  to  Rotterdam,  and  intended  to 
emigrate  to  New  England,  but  this  design  was 
frustrated  by  his  death.  His  widow  and  chil 
dren,  however,  did  sail  for  America.  He  left 
many  controversial  writings  against  the  Armin- 
ians  and  others,  and  his  Medulla  Theologies, 
was  famous  in  its  day. 

AMESBURY,  a  town  of  Essex  county,  Mass., 
about  40  m.  X.  of  Boston,  and  6  m.  X.  W. 
of  Newburyport,  extending  from  the  N.  bank 
of  the  Merrimack  river  to  the  New  Hampshire 
line;  pop.  in  1870,  5,581.  A  branch  of  the 
Eastern  railroad  extends  from  Salisbury  to  this 
point.  Manufacturing  is  extensively  pursued. 
The  town  contains  5  woollen  mills,  with  46 
sets  of  machinery,  using  annually  $1,257,500 
worth  of  stock,  and  employing  270  males  and 
372  females ;  1  brickyard,  2  manufactories  of 
hats  and  caps,  18  of  carriages,  1  of  carriage 
wheels,  3  of  harnesses,  3  saw  mills,  and  21 
blacksmith  shops.  There  are  several  churches, 
good  schools,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  It  is 
the  home  of  the  poet  John  G.  Whittier,  who  is 
frequently  called  the  bard  of  Amesbury.  Josiah 
Bartlett,  M.  D.,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  dec 
laration  of  independence,  was  born  here  in 
1729. 

AMETHYST  (Gr.  a^idvc-oc,  preventing  intoxi 
cation,  so  named  because  it  was  supposed  by 
the  ancient  Persians  that  cups  made  of  it  would 
prevent  the  liquor  they  contained  from  intoxi 
cating),  a  stone  consisting  of  crystallized  quartz 
of  a  purple  or  bluish  violet  color,  probably  de 
rived  from  a  very  small  amount  of  oxide  of 
manganese  or,  according  to  Heintz,  from  a 
compound  of  iron  and  soda.  The  color  is  not 
always  uniformly  diffused  through  it,  and  is 
less  brilliant  by  candlelight.  The  name  was 
used  by  the  ancients  for  several  other  minerals, 
which  had  a  color  similar  to  the  amethyst.  In 
mineralogy,  amethyst  is  that  variety  of  quartz 
that  exhibits  a  wrinkled  fracture,  instead  of 
the  usual  conchoidal  one. — For  oriental  ame 
thyst,  see  SAPPHIRE. 

AMGA,  a  river  in  Siberia,  which  rises  in  the 
Yablonnoy  mountain  range,  flows  in  a  N.  N.  E. 
direction  nearly  460  m.,  and  falls  into  the  Aldan, 
the  principal  eastern  affluent  of  the  Lena.  At  its 
passage  through  the  village  of  Amginsk,  where 
it  is  bounded  on  each  side  by  steep  rocks  up 


ward  of  30  feet  in  height,  it  attains  a  breadth  of 
3,000  feet. 

AMHARIC  LANGUAGE,  the  language  of  Am- 
hara,  the  largest  division  of  Abyssinia,  includ 
ing  all  that  portion  which  lies  between  the  Blue 
Nile  and  the  Tacazze  rivers,  and  having  Lake 
Tzana  in  the  centre.  It  is  spoken  with  some 
variations  of  dialect  throughout  Abyssinia,  and 
a  knowledge  of  it  is  therefore  essential  to  an 
Abyssinian  traveller.  It  is  of  ancient  Semitic 
origin,  and  related  to  the  old  Ethiopian  or  Geez, 
which  it  superseded  in  the  early  part  of  the 
14th  century  as  the  language  of  the  court,  and 
gradually  also  as  the  popular  idiom.  It  resem 
bles,  however,  the  Geez  much  less  than  does 
the  Tigre,  the  dialect  of  the  northern  province  of 
Abyssinia,  being  to  a  great  degree  corrupted 
by  non-Semitic  African  admixtures,  and  stinted 
in  its  grammatical  forms.  Its  alphabet  is  the 
Geez,  slightly  modified.  (See  ETHIOPIAN  LAN 
GUAGE.)  Very  little  is  known  of  the  Amharic 
language,  though  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
society  have  published  first  the  New  Testament 
(1829)  and  later  the  whole  Bible  in  that  tongue. 

A.1IIIERST,  a  W.  central  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  S.  E.  and  S.  W.  by  the  James  river, 
and  N.  W.  by  the  Blue  Ridge ;  area,  418  sq. 
in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,900,  of  whom  6,704  were 
colored.  It  abounds  in  fine  scenery,  of  which 
the  passage  of  the  James  river  through  the  Blue 
Ridge  is  specially  noted.  Its  soil  is  fertile,  and 
largely  covered  with  forests  and  plantations. 
The  productions  in  1870  were  75,065  bushels 
of  wheat,  160,655  of  corn,  117,608  of  oats, 
1,285,471  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  109,773  of  but 
ter.  The  Virginia  and  Tennessee  railroad 
passes  through  the  county.  Capital,  Amherat 
Court  House. 

AMHERST,  a  town  of  Hampshire  county,  Mass.. 
82  m.  W.  of  Boston,  on  a  branch  of  the  Con 
necticut  river;  pop.  in  1870,  4,035.  The  situa 
tion  of  the  town  affords  extensive  views  of  the 
Connecticut  valley  and  adjacent  mountain 
ranges.  It  contains  5  Congregational  churches, 
1  Baptist,  and  1  Episcopal.  The  preparatory 
high  school  is  considered  one  of  the  best  in  the 
state..  There  are  4  paper  mills,  an  establish 
ment  for  the  preparation  of  palm  leaf  for  hats, 
bonnets,  &c.,  and  one  for  their  manufacture. 
A  weekly  newspaper,  and  a  semi-monthly 
periodical  are  published  in  the  town.  The 
Massachusetts  agricultural  college,  with  its  ex 
tensive  dormitories  and  greenhouses,  is  about 
a  mile  N.  of  the  town,  and  possesses  with  other 
objects  of  interest  the  Durfee  plant  house,  which 
is  well  stocked  with  rare  and  beautiful  plants. 
Since  its  opening  in  1866  this  institution  has 
become  the  largest  and  most  successful  agricul 
tural  school  in  the  country.  Amherst  college, 
one  of  the  chief  seats  of  learning  in  New  Eng 
land,  was  founded  in  this  town  in  1821,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Orthodox  Congregational- 
ists.  Its  projectors  had  in  view  the  gratuitous 
education  of  young  men  for  the  ministry,  and 
the  charity  fund  devoted  exclusively  to  this 
object  now  amounts  to  about  $70,000.  There 


424 


AMIIERST 


AMICE 


is  a  large  number  of  scholarships  available  to 
needy  students,  and  no  earnest  young  man  is 
allowed  to  leave  for  want  of  money.  This  fund 
now  amounts  to  $100,000.  The  Rev.  Zephaniah 
Swift  Moore  was  the  first  president  of  the  col 
lege.  He  died  in  1823,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  Rev.  Ileman  Humphrey,  who  retained  the 
office  till  1845,  and  performed  important  ser 
vices  to  the  institution,  having  safely  carried  it 
through  the  most  perplexing  embarrassments. 
The  Rev.  Edward  Hitchcock  followed  him, 
and  resigned  in  1854,  when  the  present  in 
cumbent,  the  Rev.  William  A.  Stearns,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  was  inaugurated.  The  managers  of  the 
institution  had  to  struggle  against  many  discour 
agements  at  the  outset,  and  not  a  dollar  was 
appropriated  in  its  aid  from  the  state  treasury 
during  the  first  25  years  of  its  existence.  The 
state  appropriations  to  the  present  time  amount 
to  $52,500,  a  portion  of  which  was  for  the  en 
dowment  of  the  "Massachusetts  Professorship 
of  Natural  History."  The  college  has  received 
many  munificent  donations  from  individuals. 
Dr.  William  J.  Walker,  a  resident  of  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  and  a  graduate  of  Harvard  col 
lege,  besides  giving  to  the  institution  during  the 
latter  years  of  his  life  upward  of  $90,000  to 
ward  the  erection  of  a  building  for  scientific 
purposes,  and  founding  a  professorship  of  math 
ematics  and  astronomy,  left  a  legacy  for  similar 
purposes  of  nearly  $150,000.  The  next  largest 
giver  is  Samuel  A.  Hitchcock  of  Brimfield, 
who  has  contributed* to  the  college  $175,000. 
The  donations  of  the  Hon.  Samuel  Williston,  an 
eminent  manufacturer  in  Easthampton,  Mass., 
who  has  long  been  one  of  the  most  ardent 
friends  of  the  institution,  amount  to  about  $150,- 
000.  The  funds  for  the  college  church  recently 
erected  were  given  by  W.  F.  Stearns,  son  of 
the  president  of  the  college.  Amherst  college 
has  12  public  buildings  besides  the  president's 
house,  including  an  edifice  for  scientific  and 
other  purposes  recently  built  at  the  cost  of  more 
than  $120,000,  and  a  church  for  such  as  do 
not  prefer  to  worship  with  other  denomina 
tions.  In  the  tower  is  a  chime  of  bells,  pre 
sented  by  the  late  George  Howe  of  Boston, 
and  beneath  it  a  small  room  for  tablets  in  com 
memoration  of  the  young  men  who  fell  in  the 
war.  A  gallery  of  art  has  been  started.  In 
1847  a  handsome  edifice  was  erected  to  be  em 
ployed  as  a  cabinet  of  natural  history  and  an 
astronomical  observatory,  chiefly  by  the  ef 
forts  of  the  Hon.  J.  B.  Woods  of  Enficld.  The 
library,  a  fine  building,  was  constructed  in 
1853,  of  Pelham  granite.  The  college  possesses 
a  valuable  philosophical  and  astronomical  appa 
ratus,  an  extensive  geological  and  conchological 
museum,  collections  of  meteorites  and  geologi 
cal  specimens,  a  Nineveh  gallery  containing 
about  200  specimens  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Nineveh  and  Babylon,  a  museum  of  Indian 
relics,  and  the  Hitchcock  ichnological  collec 
tion.  In  this  unique  cabinet,  named  after  the 
late  President  Hitchcock,  are  to  be  found  about 
1,400  specimens,  containing  at  least  20,000 


tracks  of  animals  in  stone,  together  with  plas- 
|  ter  and  clay  casts  of  tracks  of  living  and  fossil 
I  animals.     There  is  in  the  curriculum  a  regular 
|  department  of  physical  training,  under  the  care 
|  of  a  physician.     There  are  13  professors  and 
8  lecturers  and  instructors.     The  libraries  of 
the  college  and  various  literary  societies  con 
tain  about  36,000  volumes.      The  number  of 
|  under  graduates  is  244.      In  1869  the  whole 
number  of  graduates  was  1,829,  of  whom  1,449 
survived.     Of  the  whole  number,  751  became 
clergymen,  75  missionaries,  129  physicians,  186 
lawyers,  and  208  teachers. 

AMHERST,  a  town  of  British  Burmah,  in  lat. 
16°  5'  N.,  Ion.  97°  25'  E.,  on  a  triangular 
|  peninsula  N.  E.  of  the  gulf  of  Martaban,  30  m. 
l  S.  of  Maul  main ;  pop.  increased  from  5,000  in 
1838  to  20,000  in  1853,  but  since  largely  re 
duced.  It  was  founded  by  the  English  in  1826, 
and  rapidly  increased  in  population  and  pros 
perity,  but  has  been  superseded  by  Maulmain, 
of  which  it  now  constitutes  an  outer  port  and 
a  station  for  pilots.  The  harbor  is  spacious  and 
secure,  but  the  bar  across  its  entrance  is  dan 
gerous.  The  military  cantonments  are  on  an 
elevation  1£  m.  outside  of  the  town.  It  is  a 
resort  of  invalids  from  Maulmain,  owing  to  its 
salubrious  climate. 

AMHERST.  I.  Jeffery,  baron,  an  English  gen 
eral,  born  in  Kent,  Jan.  29,  1717,  died  Aug.  3, 
1797.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  14, 
was  present  at  Dettingen  and  Fontenoy  on  the 
staff' of  Gen.  Ligonier,  and  in  1758  was  sent  to 
America  with  the  rank  of  major  general.  In 
conjunction  with  Wolfe  and  Prideaux,  he  made 
the  entire  conquest  of  the  French  strongholds 
in  Canada,  for  which  he  received  the  thanks  of 
the  house  of  commons  and  the  order  of  the 
Bath.  He  was  soon  afterward  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  Amer 
ica.  In  1763  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
Virginia,  and  in  1770  governor  of  the  island  of 
Guernsey.  He  was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  1772-'82,  and  again  1793-'5,  when  he 
was  superseded  by  the  duke  of  York,  and  was 
soon  afterward  made  a  field  marshal.  In  1776 
he  was  elevated  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title 
of  Baron  Amherst  of  Holmesdale  ;  and  in  1787 
he  received  a  patent  as  Baron  Amherst  of 
Montreal.  II.  William  Pitt,  earl,  and  Viscount 
Holmesdale,  a  British  statesman,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  born  Jan.  14,  1773,  died  March  13, 
1857.  He  was  British  ambassador  in  China, 
and  succeeded  Hastings  as  governor  general  of 
India  (1823-'7).  Under  his  administration 
the  Burman  war  resulted  in  an  important  ac 
cession  of  British  territory,  and  his  services 
were  rewarded  with  an  earldom  in  1826. 
AMIANTHUS.  See  ASBESTUS. 
AMICE,  or  Amiet  (Lat.  amictus,  girt  around), 
a  vestment  worn  by  priests  in  the  Roman  Cath 
olic  church  during  the  celebration  of  mass.  It 
I  consists  of  a  square  linen  cloth  tied  over  the 
!  neck  and  shoulders,  and  was  originally  used  as 
I  a  protection  for  the  throat.  After  the  general 
!  adoption  of  the  crava*  had  rendered  the  amice 


AMICI 


AMITE 


425 


unnecessary  as  a  neckcloth,  it  was  retained  for  ] 
the  significance  which  it  had  acquired  as  an  '• 
emblem  of  the  cloth  wherewith  the  Saviour  ; 
was  blindfolded  by  the  Jews  the  night  before  \ 
his  crucifixion. 

AMICI,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  Italian  optician  and 
astronomer,  born  in  Modena,  March  25,  1784,  ; 
died  in  Florence,  April  10, 18(53.  He  became  em-  ! 
inent  at  an  early  age  for  his  mathematical  and  , 
general  scientific  attainments,  and  directed  for  j 
upward  of  30  years  the  Florence  observatory,  j 
He  also  lectured  on  astronomy,  and  was  a  j 
member  of  almost  all  the  learned  academies  of  ! 
Europe.  Science  is  especially  indebted  to  him  ! 
for  his  improvement  of  the  telescope,  of  several  ; 
microscopes,  and  of  the  camera  lucida,  invented  j 
by  Hooke  and  Wollaston.  In  1827  he  made  di-  j 
optric  microscopes,  which  are  sold  with  his  I 
name  attached,  and,  notwithstanding  the  im-  | 
proved  microscopes  of  Oberhauser,  are  still  in  ; 
great  favor.  He  was  assisted  in  his  labors  by 
his  son  VIXCENZO,  who  is  professor  of  mathe 
matics  at  the  university  of  Pisa. 

AMIDAS,  Philip,  an  English  discoverer,  born  j 
in  Hull  in  1550,  of  a  Breton  family,  members  j 
of  which  had  been  for  nearly  a  generation  do 
mesticated  in  England,  died  about  1018.     He 
commanded  one  of  the  two  ships  composing  ! 
the  first  expedition  sent  by  Queen  Elizabeth  j 
under    Arthur    Barlow    to    North    America. 
They  touched  at  the  Canaries,  the  West  Indies, 
and  Florida,  and  then  made  their  way  north 
ward  along  the  coast.     On  July  13,  1584,  they  | 
entered  Ocracoke  inlet,  and  landed  on  Woco-  | 
ken  island.     Barren  and  desolate  as  this  part  j 
of  North  Carolina  now  is,  the  mariner  thought  j 
it  beautiful,  and  gave  gorgeous  descriptions  of  j 
it.     The  people  of  the  country  were  kind  and  I 
gentle,  and  the  scenery  was  lovely  and  luxuriant.  I 
On  the  return  of  Amidas  and  Barlow  to  Eng-  j 
land  they  reported  their  discoveries  to  Raleigh,  j 
who  does  not  appear  ever  to  have  been  on  the  | 
North  American  continent,  and  from  him  the  j 
matter  was  imparted  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  j 
called  the  new  land  "  Virginia."     Amidas  was  I 
long  after  in  the  English  maritime  service,  and 
went  in  charge  of  an  expedition  to  Newfound 
land  a  few  years  later.     He  died  in  England  a 
few  months  before  Raleigh's  execution. 

AMIENS,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  de 
partment  of  Somme,  70  m.  N.  of  Paris,  on  the 
Somme,   which  is  navigable  for  small  craft; 
pop.  in  1866,  61,063.     The  old  ramparts  have 
been  converted  into  fine  boulevards  and  prom- 
e  lades.     The  citadel  is  the  only  remnant  of 
tiie  former  fortifications.    Of  the  ancient  castle 
nothing  remains  but  the  crypt,  which  is  asso 
ciated  with  the  tradition  of  St.  Firmin's  mar 
tyrdom.     The  cathedral,  one  of  the  largest  and 
finest  Gothic  edifices  in  Europe,  is  remarkable 
for  the  splendor  of  its  interior.     Amiens  has  an 
academy,  a  lyceum,   and  a  public  library.     In  j 
the  place  St.  Michel  is  a  statue  of  Peter  the  j 
Hermit,   who   was    born    here.     Amiens   has  ' 
been  the  centre  of  the  French  cotton  industry  j 
since  the  last  century.     The  cotton  velvet  fac-  ! 


tories  employ  400  looms,  and  the  other  manu 
factories  over  3,000.  The  annual  consumption 
of  wool  is  estimated  at  100,000,000  Ibs. — Amiens 
was  the  Sarnarobriva  of  the  Romans,  the  pres 
ent  name  being  traced  to  the  Ambiarii,  the 
early  Gallic  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages  it 
wras  the  centre  of  a  district  then  called  the 
Amienois,  and  ruled  by  bishops  of  the  town. 
At  the  end  of  the  12th  century  it  was  united  to 
the  French  crown.  Subsequently  it  was  ruled 
by  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  but  it  reverted  to 
the  crown  under  Louis  XL  The  Spaniards, 
who  captured  Amiens  in  1597,  were  speedily 
dislodged  by  Henry  IV.  with  the  aid  of  Eng 
lish  troops.  The  treaty  of  Amiens,  establishing 
peace  between  England,  France,  Spain,  and  the 
Batavian  republic,  was  signed  in  1802.  During 
the  Franco-German  war  the  town  was  occupied 
for  some  time  by  the  Germans,  after  a  decisive 
victory  won  over  the  French  in  the  vicinity, 
Nov.  27,  1870. 

AMIOT,  or  Amyot,  Joseph,  a  French  Jesuit 
and  missionary  to  China,  born  in  Toulon  in 
1718,  died  in  Peking  in  1794.  He  was  early 
distinguished  for  great  scientific  attainments 
and  indefatigable  industry.  In  1750  he  was 
sent  to  China,  and  after  some  stay  at  Macao 
was  called  by  the  emperor  Kien-lung  to  Peking, 
which  he  reached  Aug.  22,  1751,  and  never 
afterward  left.  Devoting  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  antiquities,  history,  languages,  and  arts 
of  the  Chinese  and  Mantchus,  he  annually 
sent  to  France  memoirs,  treatises,  and  transla 
tions  which  greatly  extended  European  knowl 
edge  on  these  subjects.  Among  his  works 
published  separately  were  :  Eloge  de  la  mile  de 
Moukden,  a  translation  of  a  poem  by  the  em 
peror  Kien-lung,  with  numerous  notes  (1770)  ; 
Art  militaire  des  Chinois  (translation,  1772); 
and  Dictionnaire  tatar-mantchou-francais 
(3  vols.  4to,  1789),  which  was  edited  by  Lan- 
gles,  and  the  types  for  which  were  cut  and  cast 
at  the  expense  of  the  minister  Bertin.  But  the 
greater  part  of  his  writings  were  included  in 
the  Memoires  concernant  Vhistoire,  Us  sciences 
et  les  arts  des  Chinois  (15  vols.  4to).  The  list 
of  his  contributions  to  the  first  10  volumes  of 
this  work  occupies  14  columns  of  the  table  of 
contents.  His  treatise  on  Chinese  music  fills 
most  of  vol.  iv.,  and  his  life  of  Confucius  nearly 
all  of  vol.  xii.  In  vol.  xiii.  there  is  a  brief 
Mantchoo  grammar  by  him. 

AMITE,  a  river  rising  in  S.  W.  Mississippi, 
passes  into  Louisiana,  and  reaches  Ascension 
parish  by  a  southerly  course  ;  it  then  turns  and 
flows  S.  E.  and  E.  to  Lake  Maurepas.  It  is 
navigable  by  small  steamboats  for  a  distance 
of  60  miles. 

AMITE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Mississippi,  border 
ing  on  Louisiana,  named  from  the  Amite  river, 
which  fiows  through  its  centre,  and  bounded  on 
the  N.  TV7,  corner  by  the  river  Homochito ;  pop. 
in  1870,  10,973,  of  whom  6,777  were  colored. 
The  area  was  700  sq.  m.,  but  a  portion  of  its 
territory  was  taken  in  1870  to  form  the  new 
county  of  Lincoln.  The  county  is  mainly  oc- 


42G 


AMLWCH 


AMMOfl 


cupied  by  cotton  fields  and  forests ;  its  surface 
is  somewhat  uneven.  The  soil  is  fertile.  The 
productions  in  1870  were  254,784  bushels  of 
corn,  53,702  of  sweet  potatoes,  11,233  Ibs.  of 
rice,  and  17,456  bales  of  cotton.  Capital, 
Liberty. 

AMLWCH,  a  seaport  town  on  the  N.  shore  of 
the  island  of  Anglesea,  Wales,  the  terminus  of 
the  Chester  and  Ilolyhead  railway ;  pop.  in 
1861,  5,949.  The  celebrated  Parys  copper 
mines,  in  its  vicinity,  which  gave  the  town  im 
portance,  have  of  late  years  greatly  decreased 
in  productiveness. 

AMMAiV.  I.  Johann  Konrad,  a  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Schaffhausen  in  1669,  died  at  War- 
mund,  near  Leyden,  about  1725.  He  studied 
at  Basel,  but  established  himself  in  Holland. 
In  1692  he  published  an  essay  entitled  Surdm 
Loquens  ("The  Deaf  Speaking  ";,  in  which  he 
gave  an  account  of  the  results  of  his  successful 
efforts  in  teaching  a  girl  deaf  and  dumb  from 
birth  to  articulate.  In  1700  he  published 
another  essay  entitled  Dissertatio  de  Loquela. 
These  two  works  were  of  great  value  to  Ilei- 
nicke,  Braid  wood,  and  De  l'£pee,  who  at  a  later 
period  organized  schools  for  the  instruction  of 
deaf  mutes,  lie  was  also  noted  as  an  editor 
and  translator  of  the  classics.  !!•  Jost,  or 
Jodocus,  a  Swiss  painter  and  engraver,  born  in 
Zurich  in  1539,  died  in  1591.  In  1560  he  es 
tablished  himself  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  ac 
quired  fame,  especially  by  his  woodcut  illustra 
tions  of  Reineke  Fuchs,  Luther's  Bible,  Schop- 
pen's  Panoplia,  and  many  other  works,  being 
the  best  and  most  prolific  illustrator  of  his  time. 
His  paintings  are  rare  and  much  sought  for. 

AMAIIAMS  BIARCELLIMS,  a  Roman  soldier 
and  historian,  born  in  Antioch,  of  a  Greek 
family,  died  about  A.  D.  395.  In  his  youth  he 
embraced  the  military  profession,  and  served 
under  Ursicinus,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  generals  of  Constantius.  In  363  he  ac 
companied  the  emperor  Julian  in  his  expedi 
tion  against  the  Persians.  Pie  ultimately  set 
tled  at  Home,  and  devoted  his  latter  days  to 
the  composition  of  his  history  of  the  emperors 
from  the  accession  of  Nerva,  A.  D.  96,  to  the 
death  of  Valens  in  378.  It  comprised  31  books, 
the  first  1 3  of  which  are  lost.  The  style  is  vicious 
and  inflated,  but  the  work  is  highly  valuable 
as  an  authority. 

AllIMERGAr.     See  OBEK-AMMERCTAJT. 

AMMON,  a  deity  extensively  worshipped  in 
ancient  times  in  many  countries  of  Africa  and 
Europe.  The  Egyptians  called  him  Amen  or 
Amen-Ra  (Ammon  the  Sun),  the  Hebrews 
Amon,  the  Greeks  Zeus  Ammon,  and  the  Ro 
mans  Jupiter  Ammon.  His  most  celebrated 
temples  were  at  Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  the 
Libyan  oasis  of  Ammonium  (now  Siwah),  and 
at  Dodona  in  Greece.  lie  was  generally  repre 
sented  in  the  form  of  a  ram,  or  as  a  human 
being  with  the  head  of  a  ram.  This  repre 
sentation  meant  probably  that  Ammon  stood 
in  the  same  relation  to  men  as  the  ram  does  to 
the  liock ;  that  he  was  the  guide,  governor,  and 


j  protector  of  the  people.    The  derivations  of  the 
name  Amen  are  numerous,  but  none  has  as  yet 
j  obtained  general  acceptance. 

AMMOJV,  I'liristoph  Friedrkh  von,  a  German 
i  Protestant  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born 
I  in  Baireuth,  Jan.  16,  1766,  died  in  Dresden, 
I  May  21,  1850.  lie  studied  theology  in  Erlan- 
gen,  in  1789  became  professor  of  philosophy, 
and  in  1792  professor  of  theology  and  preacher 
at  that  university.  From  1794  to  1804  he  was 
professor  of  the  same  branches  in  Gottingen, 
then  until  1813  again  in  Erlangen,  and  from 
j  that  time  until  his  death  Protestant  court 
I  preacher,  vice  president  of  the  consistory,  and 
|  afterward  member  of  the  ministry  of  worship 
in  Dresden.  In  1825  he  accepted  the  old  title 
of  nobility,  which  his  family  had  lost  in  1640, 
together  with  their  feudal  estates,  on  account 
of  their  fidelity  to  Protestantism,  and  which  the 
king  of  Bavaria  had  in  1824  restored  to  them. 
j  Ammon  was,  together  with  Bretschneider,  Pmi- 
lus,  Rohr,  and  other  German  theologians  of  mi 
nor  mark,  the  father  of  what  is  known  as  Ger 
man  theological  rationalism.  In  his  principal 
work,  "Development  of  Christianity  into  the 
Universal  Religion  ?'  (Fortbildung  des  Ghristen- 
tlmms  zur  Welt-religion,  4  vols.,  Leipsie,  1833- 
'40),  he  holds  that  the  Christian  religion  is 
perfectible  not  only  in  its  external  form  as  a 
church,  but  also  in  its  substance  and  nature, 
and  must  be  further  developed  if  it  is  to  em 
brace  the  whole  of  humanity.  lie  regards 
Jesus  as  a  mere  man,  who  attained  the  highest 
scope  and  elevation,  and  so  became  intimately 
united  with  God.  Though  he  was  among  the 
first  to  introduce  the  Kantian  philosophy  into 
theology,  and  to  lay  a  great  stress  on  the  use 
of  reason  in  matters  of  revealed  religion,  he 
was  no  systematic  and  comprehensive  thinker. 
Nice  distinctions  being  at  that  time  drawn 
among  the  rationalists  between  rational  super- 
naturalism  and  supernatural  rationalism,  he 
called  himself  a  follower  of  the  latter  school, 
according  to  which  belief  or  faith  begins  where 
science  ends,  and  revelation  may  make  up  for 
the  deficiencies  of  reason.  This  position  being 
too  much  exposed  .to  objections  from  the  side 
both  of  believers  and  unbelievers,  he  was  some 
times,  as  for  instance  by  Schleierrnacher  in  the 
dispute  on  "Harms's  Theses,"  charged  with 
duplicity  ;  and  his  last  great  work,  "  The  Life 
of  Jesus"  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1842-'4),  was  even 
ridiculed  on  account  of  its  undecided  position 
in  regard  to  the  later  critical  theories  of  Strauss, 
Bruno  Bauer,  Feuerbach,  and  the  Tubingen 
school.  Among  his  other  writings  we  may  men 
tion  particularly  Handbuch  der  christlichen  Sit- 
tenlehre  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1823;  2d  cd.,  1838); 
Anleitung  zur  Kanzelberedsamleeit  (3d  ed.,  Er 
langen,  1826),  more  naturalistic  in  the  1st  and 
3d,  more  supernaturalistic  in  the  2d  edition ; 
Entwurfeiner  reinbiblischen  Thcologie  (2d  ed., 
3  vols.,  Gottingen,  1801-'2);  8umma  Theologies 
Christiana  (4th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1830);  and  his 
last  work,  Die  wahre  imd  false  he  Orthodoxie 
(Leipsic,  1849).  He  had  the  misfortune  to  see 


AMMOXIA 


427 


the  theological  system  which  lie  represented 
entirely  deserted  by  the  great  mass  of  his  con 
temporaries,  either  for  infidelity  or  for  thorough 
going  orthodoxy  and  pietism.  His  biography 
is  entitled  Ch.  F.  Ammon  nac.h  Leben,  Ansich- 
tcn  mid  Wirkcn  (Leipsic,  1850). 

AMHOHA,  volatile  alkali.  The  origin  of  the 
word  is  uncertain ;  some  authors  suppose  it  to 
be  from  the  god  Ammon,  near  whose  temple  in 
Upper  Egypt  it  was  produced;  others  from 
Ammonia,  a  Cyrcnaic  territory;  while  others 
again  derive  the  word  from  d//,uor,  sand,  because 
the  sal  ammoniac  (jo  aufiuvia^v)  was  found  in 
the  sands  of  Africa.  Pliny  was  probably  ac 
quainted  with  it ;  it  was  afterward  discovered 
in  1077  by  Kunckel,  still  later  in  1756  by  Dr. 
Black,  and  finally  more  fully  described  by  Dr. 
Priestley  in  1774.  It  is  composed  of  one  volume 
of  nitrogen  and  three  volumes  of  hydrogen, 
which  on  combination  condense  to  two  volumes. 
In  its  pure  state,  and  at  the  ordinary  tempera 
ture  and  pressure,  it  is  a  colorless,  pungent  gas, 
wholly  irrespirable,  not  a  supporter  of  combus 
tion,  excepting  of  bodies  which  readily  combine 
with  hydrogen,  strongly  alkaline,  having  a  spe 
cific  gravity  of  0'59,  and  readily  converted  into 
a  liquid  by  cold  or  pressure.  The  elastic  force 
of  the  vapor  of  liquid  ammonia  at  different 
temperatures,  according  to  Bunsen,  is  as  fol 
lows  :  at  — 33'7°  C.  =  1  atmosphere ;  at  — 5°  C. 
=4  atmospheres;  at  0°  0.  =4-8;  at  +5°  C. 
=5-0;  at  +10°  C.  =  6-5;  at  +15°  C.  =  7'6 ; 
at  +20°  C.  =  8-S.  Bunsen  prepared  the  liqui 
fied  ammonia  by  causing  the  perfectly  dry  gas 
to  pass  through  a  column  of  hydrate  of  potash, 
and  thence  into  a  tube  cooled  to  — 40°  C.  The 
liquid  ammonia  is  colorless,  very  mobile,  having 
a  specific  gravity  of  0*63.  It  freezes  under  a 
pressure  of  20  atmospheres  at  — 75°  C.,  and  at 
—87°  C.  in  vacuo.  This  solid,  frozen  ammonia 
is  a  white,  transparent,  and  crystalline  body, 
possessed  of  a  faint  odor.  Liquid  ammonia  is  a 
powerful  solvent  for  a  number  of  metals,  as  has 
been  recently  (1871)  shown  by  Professor  Charles 
A.  Seely  of  New  York.  T\vo  important  ap 
plications  of  liquid  ammonia  have  been  made  in 
modern  times.  The  first  is  its  employment  as 
a  motive  power  according  to  the  invention  of  a 
French  chemist,  M.  Tellier ;  and  the  second  is 
the  invention  of  M.  Carre  to  use  it  for  the  arti 
ficial  production  of  cold.  One  gramme  of  water 
at  0°  C.  and  760  mm.  pressure  absorbs  0*877 
gramme  or  1,149  times  its  volume  of  ammonia 
gas;  at  20°  C.  it  absorbs  681  times  its  volume 
and  yields  the  liquid  ammonia,  of  the  shops. — 
Commercial  ammonia  was  formerly  obtained 
from  the  sal  ammoniac  of  Africa ;  but  this  source 
is  entirely  inadequate  to  supply  the  present 
demand,  and  recourse  has  been  had  to  numer 
ous  other  sources.  The  greater  part  of  the  aqua 
ammonias  of  the  shops  is  derived  from  the  waste 
liquors  of  the  manufactories  of  illuminating 
gas.  The  ammonia  of  the  boracic  acid  works 
of  Italy  is  also  saved,  and  some  establishments 
yield  3,300  Ibs.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  every 
24  hours,  in  addition  to  the  boracic  acid  which 


is  condensed  in  the  water.  Some  of  the  crude 
crystals  of  borax  contain  nearly  4  per  cent,  of 
ammonia,  and  when  these  are  fused  with  soda, 
the  ammonia  is  driven  out  and  can  be  con 
densed  in  suitable  vessels.  When  caustic  soda 
is  mixed  with  Chili  saltpetre,  much  ammo 
nia  is  liberated,  which  can  be  condensed  and 
saved.  The  ammonia  arising  from  the  beet  in 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  from  the  gas  in 
coking  furnaces  is  also  economized  to  some 
extent.  The  preparation  of  ammonia  for  the 
arts  is  founded  upon  the  action  of  quicklime 
upon  a  convenient  ammoniacal  salt.  It  is  cus 
tomary  to  distil  an  intimate  mixture  of  one  part 
of  pulverized  sal  ammoniac  with  two  parts  of 
moistened  lime,  and  to  condense  the  gas  in 
water.  On  a  large  scale  ammonia  is  obtained 
directly  from  gas-house  liquors,  without  being 
previously  converted  into  sal  ammoniac. — Am 
monia  is  produced  in  the  juices  of  various  nitro 
genous  animal  and  vegetable  substances  in  their 
putrefactive  fermentation.  It  is  given  out  in 
their  decay,  and,  passing  into  the  atmosphere, 
is  condensed  by  the  aqueous  vapor,  and  returned 
to  the  earth  in  rain  water,  mists,  and  snow.  It 
furnishes  to  plants  the  nitrogen  they  require, 
and  is  thus  the  principal  valuable  ingredient  of 
the  manures.  Guano  is  a  great  repository  of 
it.  The  shavings  of  horn  have  been  used  to 
prepare  it,  whence  the  name  spirits  of  harts 
horn.  It  is  given  out  in  the  destructive  distil 
lation  of  all  bituminous  mineral  matters,  coin 
ing  over  in  an  impure  state,  condensed  in  the 
aqueous  vapors,  and  mixed  with  the  tarry  prod 
ucts.  This  is  the  source  from  which  it  is  now 
principally  obtained  for  commercial  purposes. 
It  is  also  evolved  from  urine  in  a  state  of  de 
composition  ;  and  from  this  substance  are  pre 
pared  annually  in  Paris  from  17,000  to  18,000 
Ibs.  of  ammoniacal  salts.  Refuse  animal  sub 
stances,  as  bones  and  horns,  blood  and  hair, 
horse  fiesh,  and  rags  of  wool  and  silk,  are  made 
to  yield  a  variety  of  ammoniacal  salts — as  the 
carbonate  and  acetate  —  by  distilling  them. 
The  chief  product  is  the  subcarbonate  of  am 
monia  in  solution.  From  the  solid  matters 
that  will  not  distil  over  are  obtained  animal 
black,  which  is  used  for  clarifying  sugars,  and  a 
carbonaceous  substance  employed  in  the  manu 
facture  of  Prussian  blue.  Sal  ammoniac  is  pre 
pared  from  the  crude  carbonate  thus  obtained 
in  combination  with  the  ammoniacal  products 
of  the  gas  works  and  other  operations  re 
ferred  to'.  The  liquors  are  saturated  with 
muriatic  acid  and  evaporated ;  the  salt  depos 
ited  is  dried  and  then  sublimed,  by  which 
means  it  is  collected  free  from  impurities.  Am 
monia  yields  numerous  salts,  some  of  which 
are  employed  in  the  arts.  They  are  all  readily 
destroyed  by  heat. — The  water  of  ammonia, 
the  carbonate,  chloride,  and  acetate,  are  used 
in  medicine ;  the  first  externally  as  an  irri 
tant  or  to  develop  the  gas ;  the  others  inter 
nally.  Their  efiect  is  to  temporarily  accelerate 
the  heart's  movements,  by  an  action  rather 
on  the  muscular  than  on  the  nervous  appa- 


428 


AMMONIAC 


AMMONIUM 


ratus,  and  to  liquefy  mucus  where  they  come 
in  contact  with  it,  either  directly  as  in  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  or  in  the  way  of  elimi 
nation,  as  in  the  bronchial  tubes.  It  leaves  the 
system  by  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys,  having 
much  less  effect  than  the  fixed  alkalies  in  alka 
lizing  the  secretion  of  the  latter  organ.  Car 
bonate  of  ammonia  is  used  as  a  rapidly  diffu 
sible  stimulant  in  various  diseases,  especially 
febrile  and  neuralgic,  and  sometimes  as  an  ex 
pectorant,  its  action  being  twofold,  strengthen 
ing  the  bronchial  muscles  and  liquefying  the 
mucus.  The  chloride,  though  it  is  less  pow 
erful  as  a  stimulant,  is  used  for  similar  pur 
poses,  and  also  in  some  affections  of  the  diges 
tive  organs.  The  liquor  ammonia}  acetatis  or 
spiritus  Mindereri  is,  in  the  doses  usually  given, 
but  little  more  than  a  placebo.  Ammonia,  in 
the  gaseous  or  liquid  form,  has  been  proposed 
as  an  antidote  to  several  poisons,  especially 
alcohol,  carbonic  acid,  and  prussic  acid.  For 
these  purposes  the  stimulant  action  is  desired, 
but  the  gas  must  be  used  with  great  caution  on 
account  of  its  irritant  effect  on  the  air  passages. 
The  injection  of  ammonia  into  the  veins,  as  a 
cure  for  the  bite  of  venomous  serpents,  has 
been  practised  by  Prof.  Halford  of  Australia, 
and  others  on  his  recommendation.  Although 
recoveries  have  been  reported,  the  question  of 
its  efficacy  must  be  regarded  as  still  unsettled. 

AMMONIAC,  the  concrete  juice  of  dorema  am- 
moniacum,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  a  native  of 
Persia.  It  occurs  in  masses  of  a  brownish 
color  containing  opaque,  yellowish,  homogene 
ous  tears,  or  the  same  tears  may  be  found  sep 
arated.  It  is  a  gum  resin  with  volatile  oil.  It 
has  been  used  in  medicine  as  an  expectorant 
and  so-called  antispasmodic.  In  the  form  of  a 
plaster  it  is  used  externally.  It  is  allied  thera- 
peutically  as  well  as  botanically  and  chemical 
ly  to  asafoetida. 

AMMONITES,  a  genus  of  fossil  shells  allied  to 
the  nautilus.  The  fossils  are  in  the  form  of  a 
coil  or  of  a  ram's  horn,  and  the  name  is  given  to 
them  from  their  resemblance  to  the  horns  upon 


great  depths  by  its  tubular  form  and  by  the 
ribs  or  plates  of  shell  that  supported  it  within. 
From  the  lower  rocks  of  the  transition  period 
up  to  the  tertiary,  the  ammonite  has  been  rep 
resented  by  many  species.  They  abound  espe 
cially  in  the  oolite.  They  appear  to  have  been 


Ammonites  Nodotianus. 


very  widely  distributed  over  the  ancient  seas, 
the  same  fossil  species  being  found  in  rocks  of 
the  same  period  in  different  quarters  of  the 
globe.  They  are  common  in  the  greensand 


Ammonites  Cordiformis. 


Ammonites  Jason. 

the  statues  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  They  also  resem 
ble  a  snake  in  its  coil,  and  are  generally  supposed 
by  the  common  people  to  be  petrified  snakes. 
The  animal  that  inhabited  the  shell  was  pro 
vided  with  air  chambers,  by  means  of  which  it 
could  rise  or  sink  in  the  water ;  and  its  shelly 
covering,  necessarily  very  delicate  in  order  to 
float,  was  made  strong  to  bear  the  pressure  at 


formation  in  New  Jersey,  and  far  up  the  Mis 
souri  river.  In  Asia,  at  an  elevation  of  16,000 
feet,  in  the  Himalaya  mountains,  some  of  the 
same  species  have  been  found  that  are  met 


Ammonites  Tornatus. 

with  in  England,  and  one  of  the  same  in  the 
Maritime  Alps,  9,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
They  are  so  abundant  in  some  parts  of  Bur 
gundy  that  the  roads  are  paved  with  them.  In 
the  chalk  formation  they  are  found  of  gigantic 
size,  three  and  even  four  feet  in  diameter. 

AMMONIUM,  the  hypothetical  radical  of  am 
monia,  supposed  to  be  metallic.  What  is  called 
an  amalgam  of  mercury  and  ammonium  was  first 
obtained  by  Berzelius  and  Pontin  from  the 


AMMONIUM 


AMNESTY 


429 


aqueous  solution  of  ammonia.  Davy  produced 
it  with  sal  ammoniac ;  and  it  has  since  been  ob 
tained  by  simply  dropping  an  amalgam  of  so 
dium  and  mercury  into  a  strong  solution  of  sal 
ammoniac,  At  a  temperature  of  32°  F.  it  is 
a  firm  crystalline  mass ;  at  70°  to  80°  it  is  a 
soft  solid.  It  is  about  three  times  the  density 
of  water.  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  consider 
it  a  mere  combination  of  mercury  and  am 
monia  ;  but  Berzelius  regards  it  as  a  real  amal 
gam  of  mercury  with  a  metal  composed  of  one 
volume  of  nitrogen  and  four  volumes  of  hydro 
gen.  Since  the  discovery  of  other  compound 
radicals  that  are  capable  of  neutralizing  acids, 
the  question  of  the  metallic  character  of  am 
monium  has  lost  its  significance,  and  few  chem 
ists  are  now  disposed  to  insist  upon  calling  it 
a  metal. 

AMMONIUM,  Oasis  of.     See  SIWAH. 

AMMONIUS,  a  Grecian  philosopher,  surnamed 
Saccas  or  the  Sack-carrier,  because  his  offi 
cial  employment  was  that  of  public  porter  of 
Alexandria,  died  A.  I).  243.  By  some  he  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  later  Platonic 
school.  He  numbered  among  his  pupils  Lon- 
ginus,  Plotinus,  and  Origen.  According  to  his 
system  of  theological  philosophy,  God  is  prima 
rily  essence,  and  secondarily  knowledge  and 
power,  the  last  two  being  developments  of  the 
first ;  the  world  is  committed  to  the  care  of 
inferior  divinities ;  and  ascetic  life  leads  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  infinite. 

AMMONOOSUCK,  Upper  and  Lower  or  Great, 
two  small  rivers  of  New  Hampshire,  tributary 
to  the  Connecticut.  The  former  is  entirely 
in  Coos  county,  and  empties  in  the  town  of 
Northumberland.  The  latter  rises  in  Coos 
county,  flows  W.  and  S.  W.  through  Grafton 
county,  and  empties  opposite  Wells  River,  Vt> ; 
it  has  a  branch  called  the  Wild  Ammonoosuck. 

AMMUNITION,  military  stores  or  provisions  for 
attack  or  defence.  In  modern  usage,  the  sig 
nification  of  the  term  is  confined  to  the  articles 
which  are  used  in  charging  firearms  and  ord 
nance  of  all  kinds,  as  gunpowder,  balls,  shot, 
shells,  percussion  caps,  primers,  and  cartridges, 
prepared  and  ready  for  use.  Small-arm  am 
munition  comprises  cartridges  and  percussion 
caps,  the  latter  having  replaced  flints,  and  in 
turn  been  replaced  by  an  arrangement  of  the 
fulminate  or  exploding  materials  in  the  base  of 
the  metallic  cartridges  now  coming  into  general 
use  throughout  the  world.  Field  artillery  am 
munition  is  composed  of  shot,  loaded  shell,  case 
shot,  shrapnel,  cartridges,  priming  tubes,  match 
es,  portfires,  &c.,  with  rockets  for  rocket  bat 
teries.  In  fortresses  and  for  sieges,  the  powder 
is  generally  kept  in  barrels,  and  made  up  in 
cartridges  when  required  for  use;  so  are  the 
various  compositions  required  during  a  siege. 
The  proportion  of  ammunition  accompanying  an 
army  in  the  field  varies  according  to  circum 
stances.  Generally  an  infantry  or  cavalry  sol 
dier  carries  from  40  to  60  rounds,  while  a  sim 
ilar  or  larger  quantity  per  man  accompanies 
the  army  in  wagons,  or  in  exceptional  cases, 


|  for  the  use  of  cavalry,  is  carried  upon  pack 
|  mules.  For  field  artillery,  from  100  to  200 
:  rounds  per  gun  are  always  kept  with  the  bat- 
|  tery,  partly  in  the  limber  boxes,  and  partly  in 
i  separate  wagons  called  caissons.  Another  20:) 
I  rounds  are  generally  with  the  ammunition  re- 
|  serve  of  the  army,  and  a  third  supply  follows 
I  in  wagons,  or  is  kept  on  hand  at  depots  estab- 
i  lished  at  convenient  points  near  the  theatre  of 
!  war.  Ammunition  for  siege  and  seacoast  guns, 
j  garrison  and  naval  use,  consists  mainly  of  gun- 
j  powder,  shot,  and  shell,  and  is  supplied  in  large 
I  quantities  proportioned  to  the  probable  require- 
I  ments  in  each  case,  the  usual  practice  in  time 
i  of  war  being  to  have  from  50  to  150  rounds 
i  prepared  and  ready  for  use,  and  the  magazines 
:  stored  with  materials  for  from  600  to  1,000 
rounds  more.  The  proportional  weights  of 
;  gunpowder  and  missiles  used  in  compounding 
ammunition  vary  considerably,  and  are  set 
!  forth  in  the  manuals  and  regulations  pertaining 
i  to  that  branch  of  the  military  service.  After 
a  few  months  of  active  campaigning,  the  sup- 
'  plies  of  ammunition  are  generally  severely 
|  drawn  upon ;  and  until  the  introduction  of  me- 
|  tallic  cartridges  for  small-arms,  as  much  was 
;  worn  out  and  rendered  useless  by  the  troops 
|  while  marching  as  was  expended  in  battle. 

AMNESTY  (Gr.  a/zi^cm'a,  forgetting,  oblivion), 
|  an  act  of  oblivion;  a  general  pardon  of  the 
:  offences  of  subjects  against  the  government,  or 
I  the  proclamation  of  such   pardon.     Bouvier, 
in  his  Law  Dictionary,  distinguishes  between 
j  amnesty  and  pardon.     Amnesty,  he   says,  is 
|  an  act  of  the  sovereign  power,  the  object  of 
•  which  is  to  efface  and  cause  to  be  forgotten  a 
crime  or  misdemeanor ;  while  pardon  is  an  act 
of  the  same  authority  which  exempts  the  indi 
vidual  on  whom  it  is  bestowed  from  the  pun 
ishment  which  the  law  inflicts  for  the  crime 
he  has  committed.     Amnesty  is  the  absolution 
and  forgetfulness  of  the  offence ;  but  pardon  is 
i  pity  and  forgiveness.     Pardon  is  given  to  one 
who  is  certainly  guilty ;    amnesty  to  those  who 
:  may  have  been  guilty.     The  two  things  differ 
further,  he  says,  in  their  effects  and  application  ; 
i  and  as  to  the  latter  distinction,  he  observes,  by 
way  of  illustration,  that  pardon  is  always  given 
to  individuals  and  after  judgment,  while  am 
nesty  may  be  granted  either  before  or  after 
judgment,  and  it  is  in  general  given  to  whole 
classes  of  criminals  or  supposed  criminals  for 
the  purpose  of  restoring  tranquillity  in  the  state. 
— But  it  does  not  appear,  after  all,  that  there  is 
.  any  substantial  difference  between  pardon  and 
amnesty.    The  act  of  grace  is  the  same,  whether 
it  be  expressed  in  the  pardon  of  an  individual 
or  in  the  amnesty  of  a  class,  and  though  the 
I  one  be  granted  after  conviction  and  the  other 
i  before  it.     The  distinctions  which  this  author 
;  suggests  seem  to  relate  to  the  different  occasions 
;  to  which  the  two  acts  refer,  and  to  the  merely 
incidental  results  in  either  case,  rather  than  to 
anything  different  in  the  essential  nature  of  the 
:  acts. — During   the   late   civil   war,    and   since 
it  ended,  the  presidents  of  the  United  States 


430 


AMNESTY 


have  issued  several  proclamations  of  amnesty 
to  those  Avho  participated  in  it  on  the  rebel 
side.  President  Lincoln  issued  the  first  of 
these  proclamations  on  Dec.  8, 18(53.  President 
Johnson  issued  similar  proclamations  on  May 
29,  1865,  Sept.  7,  1867,  July  4,  1868,  and  Dec. 
28,  1868.  Some  of  these  proclamations  were 
limited  and  conditioned,  but  the  later  ones  were 
more  liberal,  and  the  last  named  was  very  broad 
and  unqualified.  With  especial  reference  to  this 
last  paper,  the  question  was  mooted  whether 
the  president,  in  mere  virtue  of  his  office, 
and  without  the  concurrence  of  congress,  had 
constitutional  authority  to  order  a  general  am 
nesty  ;  and  in  a  report  of  the  judiciary  com 
mittee  of  the  senate  made  in  February,  1869, 
the  authority  was  emphatically  denied.  The 
position  taken  in  this  report  was  rested  on  two 
grounds  :  first,  that  from  the  time  at  least  when 
England  had  a  constitution  and  settled  juris 
prudence,  the  crown  did  not  assume  to  have  a 
power  to  grant  general  pardon  or  amnesty  by  its 
mere  proclamation,  and  without  the  concurrence 
of  parliament,  but  that  such  power  was  regularly 
and  properly  exercised  only  by  statute ;  second, 
that  for  hundreds  of  years  there  had  been  a 
clear  distinction  in  the  English  law  between 
pardon  and  amnesty,  and  that  because  the 
constitution  used  only  the  former  word  it  must 
be  understood  to  withhold  from  the  president 
the  power  of  granting  general  amnesty.  In 
reference  to  the  power  of  pardon  our  constitu 
tion  is  very  clear  and  precise:  "The  president 
shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons 
for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except 
in  cases  of  impeachment."  The  question  is, 
under  this  constitutional  provision,  what  does 
its  word  pardon  mean  ?  Does  it  include  such 
a  power  of  offering  general  amnesty  as  these 
proclamations  have  assumed  to  give?  It  is 
true  that,  in  very  many  of  the  instances,  though 
by  no  means  in  all,  in  which  general  pardons 
have  been  granted  in  England,  they  have  issued 
in  the  form  of  acts  of  parliament.  But  even 
in  these  the  tenor  of  the  statutes,  and  the 
proceedings  attending  their  enactment,  concede 
that  the  act  of  grace  proceeds  from  the  sover 
eign  alone,  and  not  from  parliament.  Thus  in 
the  acts  of  25  Charles  II.,  ch.  5  (1673),  after 
the  restoration;  of  2  William  and  Mary,  ch. 
10  (1690),  and  of  6  and  7  William  III.,  ch.  20 
(1694),  after  the  revolution  of  1688;  of  3 
George  I.,  ch.  19  (1717).  relating  to  the  insur 
rection  in  Scotland  in  favor  of  the  pretender ; 
and  of  20  George  II.,  ch.  52  (1747),  after  the 
second  rebellion  in  Scotland,  the  title  of  each 
runs:  "An  act  for  the  king's  (or  sovereign's) 
most  gracious,  general,  and  free  pardon."  The 
prerogative  of  the  crown  in  respect  to  pardon  has 
also  always  been  recognized  in  the  peculiar  char 
acter  of  the  bill,  even  when  the  pardon  goes  by 
act  of  parliament ;  for,  unlike  other  bills,  it  is 
regularly  signed  by  the  sovereign  before  it  is 
introduced  into  the  houses,  and  it  is  read  but 
once  in  either  of  them ;  and  when  it  receives 
the  assent  of  the  houses,  this  is  not  signified  in 


the  usual  form  of  concurrence,  but  "  the  pre 
lates,  lords,  and  commons,  in  the  name  of  all  the 
sovereign's   subjects,   most   humbly  thank  his 
majesty,"  &c.     With  regard  to  the  fact  that 
pardons  so  often  issued  by  statute,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  there  were  usually  very  sub 
stantial    reasons    for    the   participation,    in   a 
certain  sense,  by  parliament  in  the  sovereign's 
act  of  grace,  in  the  fact  that  a  parliamentary 
act  could  relieve  forfeitures  and  remove  certain 
other  disabilities  attending  attainders,  which  a 
mere  pardon  could  not  do ;  and  provisions  to 
this  effect  were  generally  introduced  into  these 
acts.     The  fact,  therefore,  that  in  any  instance  a 
general   pardon  or   amnesty  appears  to   have 
been  granted  in  the  form  of  an  act  of  parlia 
ment,  does  not  of  itself  imply  any  denial  of 
the  crown's  sole  prerogative  power  as  to  the 
pardon.     More  than  this,  there  will  be  found 
repeated   instances   in  English   history  where 
the  sovereign  has  granted  amnesties  by  general 
proclamation  independently  of  parliament,  and 
the  competency  and  validity  of  such  acts  have 
never  been  disputed.    In  short,  so  far  as  the  law 
and  practice  existed  in   England   before  and 
down   to   the   time  of  the  foundation  of  our 
government,  it  seems  to  be  beyond  question 
that   the   powrer   of  pardon   rested   finally   in 
the   sovereign,    and   that  his  grants  of    gen 
eral   amnesty   were  conceived  to  be  included 
in   the  general   power.      As  to   the  objection 
that  there  was  a   difference    in    the   English 
law  between   amnesty  and   pardon,    it   seems 
to   be  less  sound  than   the   other.     Amnesty 
was  never  a  specific  term  of  the  common  law, 
and  indeed  it  rarely  occurs  even  in  the  statutes-; 
or  text  books.     On  the  other  hand,  pardon  is 
a  technical  term  of  the  law,  and  is  almost  ex 
clusively  employed.    It  may  be  safely  admitted 
that,  in  allusion  to  great  classes  of  offenders 
rather  than  to  individuals,  and  to  the  political 
offences  involved  in  seditions  and  rebellions  in 
distinction  from  the  more  usual  crimes,  amnes 
ty  as  a  word  of  description  is  more  apposite  and 
I  familiar  than  pardon.     But  this  mere  use  of 
|  language  does  not  reach  the  core  of  the  thing, 
i  and  it  seems  to  be  beyond   dispute  that  the 
I  essential  nature  and  operation  of  amnesty  and 
I  of  pardon  in  a  legal  sense  are  precisely  identi- 
I  cal.     As  to  the  suggestion  that  the  use  of  the 
I  word  pardon  in  the  constitution  implies  a  de- 
j  sign  to  exclude  amnesty,  it  would  seem  to  be 
I  completely  refuted  by  the  history  of  the  de- 
j  bates   upon   the   constitution.      (See    Elliott's 
!  "Debates,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  497;  vol.  v.,  p.  480.) 
J  The  discussions  there  reported  show  that  the 
I  very  questions  of  the  expediency  of  reposing 
j  the  power  in  the  president  in  cases  of  political 
j  offenders,  and  it  may  fairly  be  said  of  giving 
I  him  the  power  of  general  amnesty,  were  ex- 
I  pressly  debated  in  the  conventions.     The  74th 
number  of  the  "  Federalist "  is  even  more  con 
clusive  upon  these  points.    Hamilton  says  there 
j  that  "the  expediency  of  vesting  the  power  of 
!  pardoning  in  the  president  has,  if  I  mistake 
I  not,  been   only   contested   in  relation  to   the 


AMNESTY 


crime  of  treason.  This,  it  has  been  urged, 
oiurht  to  have  depended  upon  the  assent  of  one 
or  both  of  the  branches  of  the  legislative  body. 
.  .  .  But  there  are  strong  objections  to  such  a 
plan.  It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  a  single 
man  of  prudence  and  good  sense  is  better  fitted 
in  delicate  conjunctures  to  balance  the  motives 
which  may  plead  for  and  against  the  remission 
of  the  punishments  than  any  numerous  body 
whatever.  It  deserves  particular  attention  that 
treason  will  often  be  connected  with  seditions, 
which  embrace  a  large  proportion  of  the  com 
munity,  as  lately  happened  in  Massachusetts 
[Shays's  rebellion].  .  .  .  But  the  principal  argu 
ment  for  reposing  the  power  of  pardoning  in 
this  case  in  the  chief  magistrate  is  this :  In  sea 
sons  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  there  are  often 
critical  moments  when  a  well  timed  offer  of 
pardon  to  the  insurgents  or  rebels  may  restore 
the  tranquillity  of  the  commonwealth,  which, 
if  suffered  to  pass  unimproved,  it  may  never  be 
possible  afterward  to  recall.  The  dilatory  pro 
cess  of  convening  the  legislature  or  one  of  its 
branches  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  its  sanc 
tion  to  the  measure,  would  frequently  be  the 
occasion  of  letting  slip  the  golden  opportu 
nity."  Before  this  question  about  amnesty  to 
rebels  arose,  or  rather  before  it  was  made  a 
subject  of  debate  and  dispute,  the  constitu 
tional  power  of  the  president  as  to  pardon  was 
construed  as  embracing  all  the  significance 
which  the  word  usually  had  in  the  English 
law  ;  and  this  was  large  enough  to  include  am 
nesty  in  the  sense  now  under  consideration. 
Chief  Justice  Marshall  defined  pardon  very 
early  as  "an  act  of  grace  proceeding  from  the 
power  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  the  law, 
which  excepts  the  individual  on  whom  it  is  be 
stowed  from  the  punishment  which  the  law  in 
flicts  for  a  crime  he  has  committed."  Story, 
in  his  "  Commentaries  on  the  Constitution " 
(§  1,500),  gives  the  broadest  scope  to  the  power, 
and  indeed  he  expressly  includes  in  it  the  pow 
er  of  granting  amnesty  to  rebels,  and  adopts, 
without  suggesting  any  doubt  of  its  pertinency 
and  conclusiveness  on  this  head,  and  as  "  the 
chief  argument  for  reposing  the  power  of  am 
nesty  in  the  president,"  the  language  on  that 
point  above  quoted  from  Hamilton.  The  early 
history  of  the  government  furnishes  significant 
illustrations  of  the  opinions  then  prevailing  as 
to  the  purport  of  the  constitutional  grant.  In 
three  instances  at  least  within  the  first  quarter 
of  a  century  after  the  formation  of  the  govern 
ment,  the  president  granted  general  pardons  by 
proclamation  without  the  participation  of  con 
gress.  The  first  of  them  was  made  by  Wash 
ington,  July  10,  1794,  in  respect  to  persons 
wiio  took  part  in  the  "  whiskey  insurrection  " 
in  Pennsylvania.  By  this  he  granted  a  full, 
tree,  and  entire  pardon  to  all  persons,  with 
certain  exceptions,  of  all  treasons,  misprisions 
of  treason,  and  other  indictable  offences  against 
the  United  States.  On  May  21,  1800,  President 
John  Adams  proclaimed  a  general  pardon  to 
all  persons  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  so- 


called  house-tax  insurrection  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1798.  Again,  in  February,  1815,  President 
Madison  proclaimed  a  general  pardon  to  cer 
tain  persons  known  as  the  "  Barataria  pirates." 
It  is  the  clear  opinion  of  those  legal  authors 
who  have  discussed  the  question  that  the  con 
stitutional  grant  was  intended  to  convey  the 
largest  power  implied  in  the  word  pardon, 
and  that  it  justified  such  proclamations  as  have 
been  referred  to,  and  which  were  issued  in  vir 
tue  of  its  assumed  authority. — Since  the  civil 
war  the  conditions  of  the  question  have  been 
in  some  respects  materially  changed.  When 
President  Lincoln  issued  his  first  proclamation, 
an  act  of  congress  existed,  that  of  July  17, 
1862,  by  which  congress  had  authorized  the 
president  at  any  time  thereafter,  by  proclama 
tion,  to  extend  pardon  and  amnesty  to  persons 
who  might  have  participated  in  the  rebellion  in 
any  state  or  part  thereof,  with  such  exceptions 
and  at  such  times  and  on  such  conditions  as  he 
might  deem  expedient  for  the  public  welfare. 
But  it  appears  from  the  tone  of  the  proclama 
tion  itself  that  the  president  did  not  conceive 
that  he  derived  his  capacity  from  this  act, 
either  wholly  or  even  in  part.  For  the  pream 
ble  runs:  "Whereas  in  and  by  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States  it  is  provided  that  the  pres 
ident  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and 
pardons,"  &c.,  and  "  whereas  the  congressional 
declaration  for  limited  and  conditional  pardon 
accords  with  the  well  established  judicial  ex 
position  of  the  pardoning  power,  I  do  pro 
claim,"  &c.  In  speaking  of  the  act  of  1802  as  a 
"declaration  for  limited  and  conditional  par 
don,"  the  president,  it  may  be  assumed,  was 
not  giving  to  the  act  all  the  dignity  and  virtue 
which  congress  would  have  claimed  for  it.  It 
was  in  fact  a  direct  intimation  that  the  act  was 
of  no  effect  whatever.  At  all  events,  in  his 
next  message  President  Lincoln  asserted  his 
exclusive  authority  under  the  constitution,  and 
his  independence  of  congress  in  respect  to 
the  pardoning  power,  even  more  emphatically 
than  in  these  proclamations.  This  provision  of 
the  act  of  July  17,  1862,  was  repealed  on  Jan. 
21,  1867,  the  bill  for  its  repeal  having  become 
a  law  by  the  omission  of  President  Johnson  to 
return  it  within  the  prescribed  time;  so  that 
thenceforth,  and  until  the  constitution  was 
amended,  the  power  stood  solely  on  the  origi 
nal  provision  of  the  second  article.  The  case 
of  ex  parte  Garland,  which  is  the  only  recent 
case  that  touches  the  subject,  was  before  the  su 
preme  court  in  1866.  Garland,  the  petitioner, 
had  received  in  July,  1865,  and  of  course  while 
the  section  of  the  act  of  1862  was  in  operation, 
"a  full  pardon  and  amnesty"  for  all  offences. 
No  particular  reference  was  made  on  the  argu 
ment  to  the  effect  of  that  act,  but  the  petition 
er's  counsel  quoted  the  language  of  the  consti 
tution,  and  relied  on  the  broad  construction 
given  to  it  by  Marshall  and  others.  The  court 
in  rendering  its  decision  held  that  the  power 
conferred  on  the  president  by  the  constitution 
was  unlimited,  with  the  single  exception  stated 


432 


AMNESTY 


AMONTOXS 


in  it,  and   that  it  extended  to  every   offence 
known  to  the  law,  arid  might  he  exercised  at 
any  time  after  its  commission,   either  before  I 
legal  proceedings  were  taken,  or  during  their  I 
pendency,  or  after  conviction  and  judgment;  ! 
and  it  said  further  that  the  power  was  not  sub-  I 
ject  to  legislative  control,  and  that  congress  | 
could  neither  limit  the  effect  of  his  pardon  nor  j 
exclude  from  its  exercise  any  class  of  offenders,  j 
Though  this  case  is  not  decisive  in  respect  to  | 
the  power  of  granting  general  amnesty,  as  the  j 
proclamations  which  have  been  issued  assume  j 
to  do,  the  case  being  one  of  a  special  pardon, 
yet  it  is  at  least  significant  upon  the  point  of 
the  exclusive  function  of  the  president  in  re 
spect  to  pardons  in  virtue  of  the  constitutional 
provision,  and  against  the  claim  that  it  is  to  be 
shared  in  any  respect  with  congress. — In  1868 
the  constitution  was  changed  by  the  adoption 
of  the  fourteenth  amendment.     This   amend 
ment  introduced  provisions  which  were  thence 
forth  of  a  force  and  validity  as  high  and  con 
trolling  as  the  original  provision  itself,  and  the 
two  articles  are  therefore  now  to  be  construed 
together.    From  the  considerations  which  have 
been  already  adduced,  it  should  seem  that  it 
was  believed  that  the  claim  of  congress  to  par 
ticipate  in  the  pardoning  power  could  be  well 
disposed  of  only  in  this  way.     This  provision, 
it  will   be   seen,  expressly  brings  within  the 
reach  and  control  of  congress  the  cases  of  the 
most  important  offenders  in  the  late  war ;  but 
it  does  not,  it  is  conceived,  annul  the  power  of 
the  president  to  grant  pardons  and  amnesties  j 
to  others  than    those  who  are  especially  de 
scribed,  nor  does  anything  in  the  amendment 
throw  any  light  on  the  right  construction  of 
the    power    under    the    provisions  of   article 
second.     As  to  all  else  relating  to  that  power 
and  its  scope  beyond  that  part  of  it  which  is 
reserved  to  congress  by  this  amendment,  we 
are  remitted  to  the  same  general   considera 
tions  and  arguments  which  have  been  here  sug 
gested.     The  amendment  (July  28,  1868)  is  in 
these  words :  "  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or 
representative  in  congress,  or  elector  of  president 
or  vice  president,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or 
military,  under   the   United   States,   or  under 
any  state,  who,   having   previously   taken    an 
oath  as  member  of  congress,  or  as  an  officer  of 
the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  state 
legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer 
of  any  state,  to  support  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrec 
tion  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid 
or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.     But  con 
gress   may  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each 
house  remove   such  disability." — In  January, 
1872,  in  the  case  of  Klein  against  the  United 
States,  the  supreme  court  held  doctrines  which 
sustain  the  positions  here  taken  in  respect  to  i 
the  president's  power  to  grant  general  amnesty  I 
under  the  original  provision  of  the  constitution. 
This  case  arose  before  the  fourteenth  amend-  I 
ment  was  adopted,  and  it  involves  the  effect  [ 
and  validity  of  an  act  of  July  12, 1870  (16  U.  S.  i 


Statutes,  235),  by  which  congress  had  attempt 
ed  to  annul  the  benefits  of  pardon  or  amnesty 
granted  by  the  president,  especially  with  refer 
ence  to  suits  by  pardoned  rebels  in  the  court  of 
claims.  The  claimant  in  Klein's  case  had  done 
certain  acts  in  aid  of  the  rebellion,  but  he  had 
accepted  a  pardon  under  one  of  the  proclama 
tions  of  amnesty,  and  had  taken  and  not  vio 
lated  the  oath  of  future  fidelity  which  was  pre 
scribed  by  it.  The  act  of  July  12,  1870, 
provided  that  the  acceptance  of  any  such  par 
don  should  be  conclusive  evidence  of  the  dis 
loyal  acts  pardoned,  and  that  on  proof  of  such 
pardon  and  acceptance,  and  on  account  of  the 
very  disloyal  acts  so  proved,  the  court  of  claims 
and  the  supreme  court  on  appeal  should  decline 
jurisdiction  of  any  suit  on  the  part  of  such 
pardoned  rebel.  But  the  court  held  that  con 
gress  had  no  power  to  make  any  such  law,  and 
refused  to  enforce  its  provisions.  With  refer 
ence  to  the  repeal  in  1867  of  the  act  of  1862 
already  referred  to,  Chief  Justice  Chase  says 
that  the  repeal  was  made  after,  and  he  fairly 
implies  in  consequence  of,  the  decision  in  the 
Garland  case,  where  it  had  been  held  that  the 
president's  power  of  pardon  was  not  subject  to 
legislation,  and  that  congress  could  neither 
limit  the  effect  of  his  pardon  nor  exclude  from 
its  exercise  any  class  of  offenders.  The  court 
also  sustained  the  position  assumed  by  President 
Lincoln  in  regard  to  his  exclusive  authority 
under  the  constitution.  The  court  further  held 
that  "it  is  the  intention  of  the  constitution 
that  each  of  the  great  coordinate  departments 
of  the  government,  the  legislative,  the  execu 
tive,  and  the  judicial,  shall  be  in  its  sphere 
independent  of  the  others.  To  the  executive 
alone  is  intrusted  the  power  of  pardon,  and  it 
is  granted  without  limit.  Pardon  includes  am 
nesty.  It  blots  out  the  offence  pardoned,  and 
removes  all  its  final  consequences.  It  may  be 
granted  on  condition.  In  these  particular  par 
dons  "  (that  is  to  say,  under  proclamations  of 
amnesty,  for  the  case  before  the  court  was  one 
of  that  sort),  "  that  no  doubt  might  exist  as  to 
their  character,  restoration  of  property  was 
expressly  pledged,  and  the  pardon  was  granted 
on  the  condition  that  the  person  who  availed 
himself  of  it  should  take  and  keep  a  prescribed 
oath.  It  is  clear  that  the  legislature  cannot 
change  the  effect  of  such  a  pardon,  any  more 
than  the  executive  can  change  a  law.  The 
court  is  required  to  disregard  pardons  granted 
by  proclamations  on  condition,  though  the  con 
dition  has  been  fulfilled,  and  to  deny  them 
their  legal  effect."  This  the  court  declined  to 
do,  and  affirmed  the  judgment  of  the  court  of 
claims,  which  had  awarded  restitution  to  the 
claimant. 

AMiEBA.     See  ANIMALCULES. 

AMONTONS,  Gnillanme,  a  French  physicist, 
born  in  Paris,  Aug.  31,  1663,  died  Oct.  11, 1705. 
lie  was  deprived  of  hearing  in  early  life  by  dis 
ease.  It  is  said  that  he  refused  to  make  any 
effort  to  relieve  his  malady,  and  devoted  him 
self  diligently  to  the  study  of  geometry  and 


AMOOR 


AMORETTI 


433 


mechanics.  He  wrote  several  important  trea 
tises  upon  scientific  subjects,  and  constructed 
some  new  instruments  in  physical  science.  He 
conceived  the  idea  of  communicating  between 
distant  points  by  signals  to  be  observed  through 
magnifying  glasses,  and  made  successful  exper 
iments  before  the  royal  family,  though  the  use 
of  the  signal  telegraph  was  not  introduced  till 
nearly  a  century  afterward. 

AMOOR,  Amur,  or  Saghalien,  a  river  in  N.  E. 
Asia,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  river 
Shilka,  flowing  *N.  E.  from  the  Trans-Baikal 
region  in  central  Siberia,  and  the  river  Argoon, 
coming  from  Mongolia  nearly  in  the  same  direc 
tion.  The  two  rivers  unite  at  the  spot  called 
Streletchnaya  Stanitza  (Shooter's  Post),  in  about 
lat.  53°  20'  X..  and  Ion.  121°  30'  E.  The  Amoor 
runs  between  the  Russian  Amoor  Country  and 
northern  Mantchuria,  making  an  arc,  and  pene 
trating  S.  as  far  as  lat.  47°  30' ;  then  flowing 
N.  E.  it  empties  in  nearly  the  same  latitude 
with  its  rise,  in  Ion.  141°  E.,  into  the  gulf  of 
Amoor,  "W.  of  the  island  of  Saghalien,  a  gulf 
connected  by  straits  N.  and  S.  with  both  the 
sea  of  Okhotsk  and  the  sea  of  Japan.  The 
whole  length  of  the  river  is  about  2,400  m. 
Its  principal  northern  affluents  are  the  Oldo, 
Jenkiri,  Bureya,  and  Amgoon ;  its  southern, 
the  Songari  and  Usuri.  The  Amoor  is  naviga 
ble  for  its  whole  length ;  its  estuary,  however, 
is  filled  with  sand  and  soft  mud,  rendering  the 
passage  difficult  for  30  to  40  m.  from  the  mouth. 
It  freezes  throughout  its  course  at  the  beginning 
of  November,  and  remains  frozen  till  March, 
forming  a  highway  for  sledges.  During  winter 
the  shores  are  visited  by  heavy  snow  storms, 
called  in  Siberia  purga.  Both  shores  'are  cov 
ered  with  thick  forests  of  pine,  oak,  lime,  ma 
ple,  and  cork  trees.  The  river  abounds  with 
fish,  and  contains  some  previously  unknown 
species  of  sturgeon.  A  steamer  called  the 
America,  built  in  New  York  for  the  navigation 
of  this  river,  first  ascended  it  in  1857. 

AMOOR  COUNTRY,  that  part  of  Mantchuria 
recently  annexed  to  Russia.  It  embraces  all 
the  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Amoor, 
together  with  the  coast  districts  east  of  it 
and  of  its  affluent  the  Usuri,  as  far  south  as  the 
river  Turn  en  on  the  frontier  of  Corea.  In  its 
widest  sense,  it  is  situated  between  lat.  42° 
and  57°  N.,  and  Ion.  120°  and  145°  E.  By  a 
ukase  of  Dec.  20,  1858,  the  country  was  divid 
ed  into  the  "province  of  the  Amoor,"  and  the 
"sea  district  of  the  Amoor  Country."  The 
latter  forms  a  part  of  the  "littoral  province 
of  East  Siberia."  The  province  of  the  Amoor 
embraces  the  country  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Amoor ;  capital.  Blagovieshtchensk ;  area  esti 
mated  at  109,053  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  22.297. 
The  principal  towns  in  the  sea  district  of  the 
Amoor  Country  are  Nikolayevsk  and  Sofyevsk. 
The  island  of  Saghalien  is  generally  included 
in  the  territory  of  the  Amoor  Country,  the 
whole  of  which  has  an  area  of  about"  276,- 
300  sq.  m.  The  principal  mountains  are  the 
Stanovoi  along  the  northern  frontier,  and  off- 
VOL.  i. — 28 


i  shoots  of  the  Chingan  mountains  in  the  west. 
1  The  winters  are  very  severe,  and  navigation  is 
|  generally  closed  from  the  end  of  October  to 
!  the   beginning   of    May.     The   soil   is   fertile. 
Many  plants  of  southern  Asia  are  met  with; 
I  the  rivers  swarm  with  fish  ;  and  extensive  gold 
i  fields  have  recently  been  discovered.    Although 
j  the  Russian  government  has  endeavored  to  de- 
!  velop  the  resources  of  the   country,  its  com- 
j  merce  made  no  progress  during  the  period  from 
1860  to  1870.     The  native  population  consists 
of  about  10,000  Tungusians,  divided  into  eight 
tribes.     In  September,  1860,  the  Russian  gov 
ernment  organized  a  force  of  Cossacks  of  the 
:  Amoor  to  defend  the  southern  frontier  and  to 
i  settle  the  territory. — The  first  knowledge  of 
1  the  country  of  the  Amoor  was  obtained  by  the 
j  Russian  authorities  in  East  Siberia,  in  1639. 
j  Several    expeditions,    undertaken  by  Russian 
|  adventurers,  led  to  protracted  hostilities  with 
I  the    Chinese,    until    in    1689    the    peace    of 
Nertchinsk    secured    the    whole    territory    to 
the   Chinese.     In   1849  the  Russian  plans  of 
conquest  'were  resumed.     After  exploring  the 
|  coast   for   several   years  and  establishing  the 
i  forts  of  Nikolayevsk    and   Mariinsk,    a  large 
|  military  force  was  sent  in  1854  into  the  coun- 
|  try  of  the  Amoor,  and  established  the  Russian 
I  rule  upon  a  lasting  basis.     A  ukase  of  Oct.  31, 
I  1856,  proclaimed  the  union  of  the  lower  part 
|  of  the  Amoor  Country  with  Kamtchatka,  and 
made  Nicolayevsk  the  seat  of  government.    By 
the  treaty  of  Aigoon,  May  28,  1858,  ratified  by 
the  commercial  treaty  of  Tientsin,  June  13,  the 
I  whole  country  of  the  Amoor  was  ceded  by 
i  China  to  Russia.     The  eastern  and  western  line 
|  between  Russia  and  China  was  regulated  by  a 
I  treaty  concluded  at  Peking  on  Nov.  14,  1860. 
— For  an  account  of  the  attempt  to  construct 
!  a  telegraph  from  Nikolayevsk  to  San  Francisco 
in   1863-'7,  see  TELEGRAPH.     Concerning  the 
:  country  and  river,  see  Collins,  "Exploration  of 
|  the  Amoor   River"  (Washington,   1858),   and 
i  "  A  Voyage  down  the  Amoor,  with  a  Land  Jour 
ney  through  Siberia,"  &c.  (New  York,  1860). 
AMOR.     See  EROS. 

AMORETTI.      I.    Carlo,    an    Italian    scholar, 

:  born  at  Oneglia,  March  13,  1741,  died  in  Milan, 

!  March  24,  1816.     In  1757  he  joined  the  order 

i  of  St.  Augustine,  and  some  years  later  became 

!  professor  of  canon  law  in  the  university  of  Par- 

I  ma;  but  in    1772  he  obtained   a  dispensation 

i  from  his  monastic  vows,  and  entered  the  ranks 

|  of  the  secular  clergy.     lie  was  appointed  cura- 

!  tor  of  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan  in  1797, 

|  and  was  the  first  to  make  known  its  treasures 

;  to  the  world.     lie  published  from  the  manu- 

;  scripts  in  this  collection  voyages  of  Pigafetta 

!  and  Ferrer  Maldonado ;  wrote  an  excellent  life 

of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  from  original  materials  ; 

j  and  prepared  several  treatises  on  natural  sci- 

|  ence.     His  Nuova  scelta  cVopmcoli  interessanti 

sulle  scienze  e  sulle  arti  (27  vols.  4to,  1775- '88) 

familiarized    the    Italians   with   the    scientific 

progress  of  other  nations.     II.  Maria  Pellegrina, 

niece  of  the  preceding,  who   bestowed   great 


431 


AMOEITES 


AMPERE 


pains  upon  her  education,  born  at  Oneglia  in 
1756,  died  in  1787.  At  the  age  of  16  she  sus 
tained,  in  public,  arguments  on  various  topics 
in  philosophy.  She  studied  law,  and  at  the 
age  of  21  graduated  at  Pa  via,  and  received 
from  the  university  her  doctor's  diploma.  She 
wrote  a  treatise  on  Roman  law,  which  was 
published  after  her  death. 

AMORITES  (according  to  Simonis  and  Ewald,  ! 
highlanders),  the  most  powerful  tribe  of  the  \ 
Canaanites,  to  all  of  whom  the  name  is  occa 
sionally   applied    in   the    Hebrew    Scriptures,  j 
They  dwelt  W.  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  territory  ! 
subsequently  allotted  to   Judah,  chiefly  in  its  ! 
mountainous  portion ;  and  E.  of  that  river  they  ; 
held  the  two  kingdoms  of  Heshbon  and  Ba- 
shan,  of  the  latter  of  which  the  gigantic  Og 
was  king  when  Moses  invaded  their  country. 
They  were  a  people  of  large  stature  and  great 
prowess,  and  the  Israelites  had  long  and  severe 
contests  with  them,  under  Moses,  Joshua,  and 
other  leaders. 

AMORTIZATION,    or   Amortizement   (law   Lat. 
amortisare),  in  old  English  law,  the  alienation  or  j 
conveyance  of  real  estate  to  corporations.  It  was  j 
prohibited  by  a  series  of  statutes,  the  earliest  of 
which,  the  Magna  Charta  of  Henry  III.,   ap 
plied  only  to  ecclesiastical,  but  which  were  sub 
sequently  extended  to  all  corporations.     Their 
influence  is  not  yet  extinct,  either  in  England 
or  America,  though  the  powers  of  corporations 
have  been  much  enlarged  in   both  countries, 
and  in  some  states  put  upon  the  same  footing 
in  this  regard  with  those  of  private  parties.  | 
These  statutes  were  called  the  statutes  of  mort-  j 
main,   as    forbidding  conveyances    into  dead 
hands ;  hence  amortization. 

AMORY,  Thomas,  an  English  author,  born 
about  1691,  died  ]STov.  25,  1788.  He  was  edu 
cated  as  a  physician,  but  lived  chiefly  in  retire 
ment  on  a  small  income.  In  1755  he  published 
"Memoirs  of  several  Ladies  of  Great  Britain," 
all  of  whom  were,  like  himself,  zealous  Unita 
rians;  and  in  1756  appeared  the  first  volume 
of  his  better  known  and  very  curious  "Life  of 
John  Buncle,  Esq.,"  in  which  he  is  supposed  to 
have  sketched  his  own  picture.  The  second 
volume  was  published  in  1766.  He  was  a  man 
of  learning,  ability,  and  deep  religious  convic 
tions,  but  very  eccentric. 

AMOS,  one  of  the  minor  prophets,  Avho  proph 
esied  in  the  days  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and 
Jeroboam  II.  of  Israel,  toward  the  close  of  the 
9th  century  B.  C.  He  was  a  native  of  Tekoah 
in  Judah.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
educated  as  a  prophet,  but  according  to  his 
own  account  was  taken  from  his  flocks  to 
prophesy.  His  prophecies  were  especially  ad 
dressed  to  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes,  and 
were  delivered  in  the  time  of  their  greatest 
prosperity  as  a  separate  people.  They  de 
nounce  the  idolatry  practised  at  Bethel,  Gilgal, 
Dan,  and  at  Beersheba  in  Judah,  and  also  the 
sins  of  the  nations  bordering  on  both  Hebrew 
kingdoms,  and  predict  punishment,  as  well  as 
a  brighter  future  for  the  Israelitish  people. 


AMOSKEAG.     See  MANCHESTER,  X.  II. 

AMOY  (Chin.  Hia-men  or  Sya-min ;  Fr. 
fimouy),  a  seaport  town  of  the  province  of 
Fokien,  China,  situated  at  the  S.  end  of  an  isl 
and  of  the  same  name,  in  lat.  24°  40'  N".,  Ion. 
118°  13'  E.,  opposite  the  centre  of  the  island  of 
Formosa;  pop.  about  250,000.  It  is  built  upon 
rising  ground,  facing  a  very  spacious  and  excel 
lent  harbor,  contains  many  large  buildings,  had 
at  the  time  of  the  British  invasion  several  con 
siderable  forts,  one  of  them  1,100  yards  long, 
and  is  reckoned  to  be  nearly  9  m.  in  circumfer 
ence.  It  is  the  port  of  the  large  inland  city  of 
Chang-choo-foo,  with  which  it  has  river  com 
munication.  Its  inhabitants  are  chiefly  em 
ployed  in  trade,  and  its  merchants  are  reckoned 
among  the  most  enterprising  in  China.  The 
port  was  open  to  the  world  till  1734,  when  it 
was  closed.  It  was  captured  by  the  British  in 
1841,  and  by  the  treaty  of  banking  was  thrown 
open,  first  to  Britain,  then  to  all  nations  alike. 
The  native  merchants  carry  on  an  extensive 
trade  coastwise,  and  with  Formosa,  Manila, 
Siam,  and  the  Malay  islands.  The  foreign  im 
ports  in  1870  were  valued  at  $4,500,000,  and 
the  exports  at  $2,300,000.  Amoy  is  a  princi 
pal  seat  of  Protestant  missionary  activity,  and 
the  missions  of  the  Reformed  church  of  Amer 
ica  and  other  denominations  in  1869  numbered 
1,271  communicants. 

AMPERE.  I.  Andre  Marie,  a  French  physicist 
and  mathematician,  born  in  Lyons,  Jan.  20, 
1775,  died  in  Marseilles,  June  10,  1836.  As  a 
boy  he  showed  a  singular  passion  for  mathe 
matics,  in  which  at  10  years  of  age  he  had. 
made  remarkable  progress,  but  could  not  be 
persuaded  to  apply  himself  with  zeal  to  other 
studies.  He  finally  consented  to  study  Virgil, 
that  he  might  be  able  to  master  the  works  of 
Euler  and  Bernoulli,  which  were  then  accessi 
ble  only  in  Latin.  At  the  age  of  18  he  had  gone 
through  the  whole  range  of  scientific  studies, 
and  had  read  the  great  encyclopaedia  of  Dide 
rot  and  D'Alembert  so  thoroughly,  that  40 
years  afterward  he  could  still  repeat  whole 
pages  of  it.  The  death  of  his  father  by  the 
guillotine  during  the  revolution  affected  him 
so  that  for  upward  of  a  year  his  friends  feared 
that  his  intellect  had  been  permanently  im 
paired.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Lyons,  a  post  which  he 
owed  to  his  first  publication,  "Considerations 
upon  the  Mathematical  Theory  of  Games  of 
Chance."  In  1805  he  became  a  teacher  in  the 
polytechnic  school  at  Paris,  in  1808  inspector 
general  of  the  university,  in  1809  professor 
of  mathematical  analysis  in  the  polytechnic 
school,  and  in  1814  a  member  of  the  institute. 
In  1820  he  began  to  devote  much  attention  to 
the  phenomena  of  electro-magnetism,  and  in 
1824-'6  published  Recueil  des  observations  elec- 
tro-dynamiques  (2  vols.),  a  work  characterized 
by  profound  thought  and  extraordinary  philo 
sophical  sagacity.  His  publications  are  nu 
merous,  many  of  them  being  contributions  to 
the  Journal  de  Vecole  2J^ytech?iique  and  the 


AMPFIXG 


AMPHIBIA 


435 


Memoires  de  Vinstitut.  Ampere  was  a  man 
of  genial  humor  and  great  simplicity  of  char 
acter,  and  singularly  ignorant  of  the  world, 
from  which  he  lived  retired.  He  was  engaged 
on  his  last  great  work,  "The  Classification  of 
the  Sciences,"  at  the  time  of  his  death.  II. 
Jean  Jacques  Antoine,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Lyons,  Aug.  12,  1800,  died  March  27,  1864. 
His  education  was  completed  under  the  super 
vision  of  his  father  at  Paris,  where  he  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  Mme.  Recamier  and  Chateau 
briand,  lie  pursued  a  course  of  philosophy 
with  Cousin,  and  early  conceived  a  passion  for 
English  and  German  literature,  romance,  and 
belles-lettres.  After  some  years  devoted  to 
travel  and  literary  pursuits,  he  was  in  1833 
appointed  professor  of  the  history  of  French 
literature  in  the  college  of  France.  His  work 
on  the  early  and  mediaeval  literature  of  France 
(4  vols.)  was  a  resume  of  his  lessons.  In  1842 
lie  was  elected  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
inscriptions  and  belles-lettres,  and  five  years 
afterward  of  the  French  academy.  He  visited 
many  parts  of  Europe  and  the  East,  studied 
successfully  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt,  and 
contributed  to  the  Remie  des  Deux-Mondes  a 
well  written  series  of  articles  on  a  journey  in 
Egypt  and  Xubia  in  1844.  He  also  made  an 
extended  tour  in  the  United  States,  paying 
much  attention  to  aboriginal  remains  and  an 
tiquities,  and  observing  carefully  the  habits  of 
the  people.  The  result  of  his  travels  was  pub 
lished  in  the  Revue  des  Deux-Mondes.  His 
works  entitled  De  la  Chine  et  des  travaux  de 
Remusat,  and  La  Grece,  Rome  et  Dante,  evince 
his  knowledge  of  languages  and  general  litera 
ture;  and  he  published  in  1841  a  valuable 
essay  on  the  formation  of  the  French  language. 
Among  his  other  works  is  VHistoire  romaine 
a  Rome  (4  vols.  8vo,  185 6-' 64),  a  novel  appli 
cation  of  archaeology  to  literature  and  politics. 
His  Correspondance,  constituting  an  autobiog 
raphy,  was  published  in  Paris  in  1872. 

AMPFIXG,  a  village  of  southern  Bavaria,  on 
the  Isen,  5  m.  "W.  of  Mtihldorf,  noted  as  the 
scene  of  a  terrible  conflict  in  1322  between  the 
emperor  Louis  the  Bavarian  and  Frederick  of 
Austria,  generally  known  as  the  battle  of 
Mtihldorf,  in  which  Frederick  was  entirely 
defeated  and  captured.  In  1800  the  famous 
retreat  of  Moreau  was  begun  here. 

AMPHIARAIS,  a  mythical  hero  and  seer  of 
Greece,  the  son  of  6'icles  and  Hypermnestra. 
He  was  married  to  Eriphyle,  sister"  of  Adrastus, 
king  of  Argos,  by  whom  he  had  numerous 
sons.  Having  sworn  that  he  would  abide  by 
the  decision  of  his  wife  on  any  difference  which 
might  arise  between  himself  and  Adrastus, 
Eriphyle  took  advantage  of  this  oath  to  force 
Amphiaraus  to  join  in  the  enterprise  of  the 
seven  against  Thebes.  Before  setting  out  he 
made  his  sons  promise  to  punish  her  treachery. 
(See  ALCM^EON.)  At  the  siege  of  Thebes  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself,  but  being  pur 
sued  by  Pericfymenus,  he  fled  toward  the  river 
Ismenius,  where  the  earth  opened  and  swal 


lowed  him.  Jupiter  made  him  immortal.  An 
oracle  of  Amphiaraus,  near  Thebes,  enjoyed 
great  reputation  among  all  the  Greeks. 

AMPHIBIA,    animals    which    frequent    both 

land  and  water.     There  is  probably  no  truly 

amphibious  animal,  as  that  would  imply  the 

possibility  of  living  and  breathing  equally  well 

!  in  air  and  in  water.     The  old  naturalists  gave 

the  name  to  beavers,  otters,  frogs,  and  other 

I  animals  from  all  the  orders  of  vertebrate ;  Lin- 

;  naeus  restricted  the  term  to  reptiles  with  cold 

blood   and  simple  circulation ;    Cuvier   called 

amphibia  such  mammals  as  can  dwell  on  land 

or  in  the  water,  like  the  seal,  the  walrus,  and 

•  the  dudong,  occupying  a  position  intermediate 
between  the  feline  and  the  marsupial  animals. 
There  are  animals  which  have  both  gills  and 

j  rudimentary  lungs,  as  the  proteus,  the  siren, 
and  the  menobranchns,  but  they  are  decidedly 
I  aquatic,  and  perish  sooner  or  later  in  the  air. 
j  The  amphibia  constitute  an  order  of  reptiles 
I  (the  Itatrachia  of  later  herpetologists),  and 
j  may  be  characterized  as  vertebrated  animals, 
j  with  cold  blood  and  naked  skin,  reproducing 
I  by  means  of  eggs,  and  most  of  them  under 
going  a  metamorphosis  or  change  of  condition, 
having  relation  to  a  transition  from  an  aquatic 
j  respiration  by  gills  to  an  atmospheric  respira 
tion  by  lungs,  and  a  consequent  alteration  in 
j  general  structure  and  mode  of  life.  These 
i  characters  have  led  some  writers  to  consider 
I  the  amphibia  as  a  distinct  class,  instead  of  a 
!  mere  order  of  reptilia.  Xo  arrangement  pro- 
I  posed  by  naturalists  presents  a  perfect  division 
!  of  the  different  forms;  the  following  by  Mr. 
I  Thomas  Bell  of  London,  founded  on  the  ab- 
|  sence  or  presence  and  duration  of  the  gills, 
;  seems  the  most  natural:  Class  AMPHIBIA, 
\  Order  1.  AMPHIPXEUBA.  Body  elongated, 
!  formed  for  swimming ;  feet  either  four,  or  two 
:  anterior  only;  tail  compressed,  persistert; 
I  respiration  aquatic  throughout  life,  by  exter 
nal  persistent  gills,  coexisting  with  rudiment 
I  ary  lungs;  the  eyes  with  lids.  Genera,  pro- 
\  teus,  siren,  siredon,  menobranchus,  pseuda- 
j  Iranchus. — Order  2.  AXOUEA.  Body  short 

•  and  broad ;  feet  during  the  tadpole  state  want 
ing,  afterward  four,  the  hinder  oney  long  and 

!  formed  for  leaping;  tail  before  the  metamor- 
j  phosis  long  and  compressed,  afterward  want- 
!  ing;  ribs  wanting;  vertebras  few  and  anchy- 
j  losed  together ;  respiration  at  first  aquatic  by 
gills,  afterward  atmospheric  by  lungs ;  gills  at 
!  first  external,  but  withdrawn  into  the  chest 
I  before   the  metamorphosis;   impregnation  ef- 
|  fected   externally  during  the  passage  of  the 
eggs.     Genera,  rana,  hyla,  cerat-ophrys,  bufo, 
rhinella,    otilopha,    dactylethra,    bombinator, 
breviceps. — Order   3.    UEODELA.      Body    long 
I  and  slender;  feet  always  four;  tail  long  and 
|  persistent;    ribs    very   short;    respiration    at 
'  first  aquatic  by  external   gills,   afterward   at 
mospheric    by   cellular    lungs ;    vertebrae   nu- 
!  merous  and  movable  ;  impregnation   internal. 
Genera,  sala/rnandrina,  salamandra,  malge. — 
Order  4.  ABB.I>CHIA.     Body  long  and  formed 


436 


AMPHIBIA 


for    swimming;     feet    four;     cranium    solid;] 
tail   compressed ;    respiration  by  lungs   only ; 
gills  absent ;  no  metamorphosis  known.     Gen 
era,  menopoma,  ampMuma. — Order  5.  APODA.  | 
Body  elongated,  slender,  and  snake-like ;  feet 
none ;  tail  very  short,  almost  wanting ;  lungs, 
one  larger  than  the  other ;  ribs  very  short ;  j 
breast  bone  wanting ;  impregnation  unknown, 
probably  internal.     The  existence  of  gills  at 
any  period  of  life  is  unknown.     Genus,  ccecilia. 
— In   the  adult  amphibia  the    skeleton  varies 
considerably.     In  the  frog,  which  moves  ex-  j 
tensively  on  land,  we  find  the  hind  legs  greatly  j 
developed  to  enable  it  to  take  the   enormous 
leaps  by  which  it  pursues  its  prey  and  escapes 
from  danger ;  hence  it  has  no  useless  tail,  the 
body  is  contracted  longitudinally  into  a  short 
space,  and  the  vertebrae  are  few,  united  into  a  I 
single  immovable  piece  unprovided  with  ribs,  j 
On  the  contrary,   the  water    salamanders    or 
newts  have  a  long  tail,  a  slender  flexible  body, 
and   all  their  organs   fitted   for    aquatic    life,  j 
The  structure  of  the  bones  is  more    compact  j 
and  calcareous,  and  less  transparent  and  flex-  | 
ible,  than  in  fishes.     The  bones  of  the  skull  do 
not  overlap  each  other,  but  have  their  margins 
in  contact  and  occasionally  united  ;  the  bones 
of  the  face  are  more  closely  united  to  those  of 
the  skull  than  in  the  fishes  ;  the  intermaxillary 
and  jaw  bones  are  much  developed  transverse 
ly,  expanding  the  general  form  of  the   skull 
without    involving    any    enlargement   of  the 
brain  cavity,  which  is  very  small.     The  hyoid 
bone  experiences  most  remarkable  changes  in  j 
those  genera  which   undergo  metamorphosis.  ] 
In  the  highest  amphibia,  the  bones  of  the  spine  j 
are  very  few ;  in  the  frog  there  are  9,  in  the 
pipa  only  8,  unprovided  with  ribs,  but  having 
long  transverse  processes ;  the  anterior  artic 
ular  surfaces  of  the  bodies  are  concave,  and 
the  posterior  convex.     In  the   tadpole,  and  in 
the  genera  which  retain  their  gills  through  life  | 
(siren,  menobranchm,  &c.,  hence  called  peren- 
nibranchiate),  the  substance  between  the  ver 
tebras  is  soft,  and  contained  in  cup-like  hollows 
formed  by  the  concave  articular  surfaces  of 
contiguous   bones,  precisely  as  in  fishes ;  an 
other  proof  of  the  intermediate  condition  of 
these  lower  forms  of  the  class.     In  the  sala 
manders   the   vertebrae    are    more   numerous, 
especially  those  of  the  tail ;  in  the  siren  the 
trunk  has  43,  and  the  tail  as  many  more.    The 
limbs  are  arranged  on  very  different  plans  in 
the  different  groups ;  in  the   frogs  and  toads 
they  are  well  developed,  and  suited  for  active 
leaping  and  swimming ;  in  the  elongated  aqua 
tic  species  the  limbs  are  small  and  feeble ;  in 
caecilia,  there  are  not  even  the  rudiments  of 
limbs ;  in  these  the  imperfect  development  of 
the  extremities  is  compensated  by  the  extent 
of  the  spine  of  the  body  and  tail,  by  the  curves 
and  flexures  of  which  they  sw'im  with  consid 
erable  rapidity.     In  the  fish-like  tadpole,  the 
limbs  are  at  first  scarcely  perceptible,  and  in 
their  gradual  development  acquire  a  consider-  I 
able  size  and  well-defined  form  while  vet  im-  ; 


prisoned  beneath  the  skin ;  the  hind  legs  are 
first  seen ;  the  tail  is  much  developed,  gradu 
ally  disappearing  by  absorption  as  the  limbs 
acquire  their  full  size.  All  the  amphibia  have 
teeth  on  the  palate ;  the  salamanders  have 
them  also  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws, 
the  frogs  in  the  upper  only,  and  the  toads  in 
neither ;  the  jaw  teeth  are  always  slender, 
sharp-pointed,  and  closely  set ;  the  frog  has 
about  40  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw;  the 
salamander  has  about  60  above  and  below  ;  the 
palatine  teeth  are  generally  arranged  trans 
versely,  parallel  to  the  jaw  teeth.  In  the  adult 
amphibia  the  gullet  is  wide  and  short;  the 
stomach  is  a  simple  sac,  elongated  in  the  aqua 
tic  species ;  the  intestine  is  but  slightly  con 
voluted,  and  terminates  in  a  cloaca,  or  pouch, 
which  also  receives  the  openings  of  the  genital 
and  urinary  organs.  The  vent  in  the  frogs  and 
toads  opens  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  back  ;  in 
the  other  forms  it  is  beneath  the  commence 
ment  of  the  tail,  as  in  ordinary  reptiles.  The 
liver,  pancreas,  and  spleen  are  found  in  all  the 
class.  The  lymphatic  and  lacteal  systems  are 
extremely  developed ;  in  the  course  of  the  lym 
phatics  are  found  pulsating  cavities  or  ventri 
cles  which  propel  their  contents  toward  the 
veins,  but  their  pulsations  do  not  coincide  with 
those  of  the  heart,  nor  those  of  one  side  with 
those  of  the  other.  In  the  circulating  system 
we  find  the  most  convincing  proof  of  the  inter 
mediate  position  of  the  amphibia ;  they  begin 
life  with  the  single  heart  and  gills  of  fishes,  but 
as  their  metamorphosis  goes  on,  the  heart  as 
sumes  the  compound  character  necessary  for 
the  pulmonary  respiration  of  the  reptiles.  The 
heart  in  the  early  stage  of  these  animals  con 
sists  of  a  single  auricle  which  receives  all  the 
blood  after  its  circulation,  and  a  single  ventri 
cle  which  sends  it  through  a  third  cavity,  the 
Inilbus  arteriosus,  to  the  gills  or  branchiae;  in 
the  gills  the  blood  is  purified  by  the  oxygen  of 
the  water,  and  returned  by  their  veins  to  the 
aorta ;  from  the  last  branchial  artery  a  branch 
is  given  off  on  each  side,  which  goes  to  the  ru 
dimentary  lungs  and  afterward  becomes  the 
pulmonary  artery ;  between  the  branchial  ar 
teries  and  veins  are  small  communicating 
branches,  which,  as  the  gills  are  absorbed, 
gradually  enlarge  until  they  form  continuous 
trunks,  and  the  original  branchial  artery  be 
comes  the  root  of  the  two  descending  aorta?, 
at  the  base  giving  off  the  pulmonary  artery ; 
the  two  veins  which  return  the  blood  from  the 
rudimentary  lungs  enlarge  as  these  organs  are 
developed,  and  become  the  pulmonary  veins, 
which  last,  being  distended  at  their  point  of 
union  with  the  heart,  ultimately  form  the 
second  auricle.  The  circulation,  then,  of  the 
adult  amphibia  assumes  the  character  which 
we  find  in  the  reptiles  generally,  being  per 
formed  by  a  single  ventricle  and  two  auricles ; 
the  pure  blood  in  the  pulmonic  auricle  and  the 
impure  blood  in  the  systemic  auricle  are  sent 
together  and  mixed  in  the  single  ventricle,  so 
that  a  half-purified  blood  is  distributed  to  the 


AMPHIBIA 


437 


organs.     The  gills,  whether  external  or  inter-  j 
nal,  are  expanded  in  a  leaf-like  form,  consider-  ', 
ably  divided,    though  much  less  so  than  in  j 
fishes ;  in  the  earliest  stages  they  are   always  ! 
external,   and  remain  so   permanently  in   the  J 
order  amphipneura,  but  in  the  higher  orders  j 
they  become  very  soon  internal ;  they  are  sup-  j 
ported   by  cartilaginous  or  bony  arches  con-  j 
nected  with  the  hyoid  bone,  which  changes  its  ! 
form  in  accordance  with  the  development  of  : 
the  respiratory  organ.     On  the  leaflets  of  the  j 
gills  the  minute  blood  vessels  run,  bringing  the  j 
venous  blood  into  contact  with  oxygen,  and 
sending  it  back  purified  to  the  heart.     While  \ 
some  amphibia  retain  their  gills  through  life,  j 
with  coexistent  rudimentary  lungs,  others  lose  j 
them  entirely  as  the  lungs  are  developed,  so  : 
that  there  probably  is  a  brief  period  in  the  life  I 
of  some  of  these  animals  in  which  they  may  j 
truly  be  called   amphibious.      In  the  caduci-  j 
branchiate  genera  (or  those  which  lose   their  I 
gills),  the  early  condition  of  the  lungs  is  that  of  j 
a  mere  sac  without  any  appearance  of  the  cells  | 
or  pulmonary  structure  afterward  developed ;  j 
it  becomes,  therefore,  an  interesting  question 
whether  the  similar  rudimentary  lungs  of  the 
perennibranchiate  genera  can  serve  any  of  the  j 
purposes  of  respiration.     From  the  mechanism 
of  respiration  in  the  higher  genera,  and  the  j 
anatomical  deficiencies  in  the  accompanying  ! 
apparatus  in  the  lower,  it  would  be  at  once 
seen  that  these  simple  sacs  could  hardly  aid  ! 
the  gills,  and  much  less  could  perform  their 
office   in  aerating    the   blood.      Eusconi  con 
cludes  that  in  the  proteus,  at  least,  these  sacs 
do  not  assist  in  respiration ;  and  experiments 
alluded  to  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Boston  j 
Society  of  Natural  History,"  vol.  vi.,  p.   153,  j 
show  that  the  menobranchus  perishes  in  about  '. 
four  hours  when  removed  from  the  water.     In  I 
the  higher  orders,  the  reception  of  air  into  the  j 
lungs  is  effected  by  a  simple  act  of  swallowing ; 
the  air  enters  the  mouth  through  the  nostrils, 
and,  the  gullet  being  closed,  is  forced  into  the 
lungs  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  hyoid 
bone.     The  fish-like  structure  of  the  nostrils  in 
the  lower  genera,  and  the  imperfect  condition 
of    their     glottis     and    windpipe,    with    the 
perfect    development  of  the  gills,   show  that, 
like  the  air  bag  of  fishes,    these  simple  sacs, 
though     they    represent     rudimentary   lungs, 
are     not     for    the     purposes    of    respiration 
proper.     The  brain  offers  the  same  gradations, 
from  the  fish-like  simplicity  of  that  of  the  tad 
pole  and  lower  genera  to  that  of  the  reptile,  in 
which  the  hemispheres  become  enlarged  lat 
erally,  and  the  spinal  cord  shorter  and  thicker 
ftt  the  origins  of  the  nerves  of  the  limbs.     In 
the  frogs  the  eyes  are  large  and  prominent,  in 
the  salamanders  comparatively  small,  and  in 
the  caecilia  scarcely  visible ;  in  all  they  resem 
ble  those  of  fishes  in  the  flattened  anterior  sur 
face,  the  small  quantity  of  the  aqueous  humor, 
and  the  deptli  of  the  crystalline  lens ;  the  eyes 
of  the  frog  are  fully  developed,  and  provided 
with  lids.     In  the  lower  genera  and  in  the  tad 


pole  state,  the  organ  of  hearing  is  very  imper 
fect,  consisting  of  a  hollow  in  the  temporal 
bone,  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  the  sac  contain 
ing  the  cretaceous  body  on  which  the  nerve  is 
spread ;  there  is  no  drum  nor  tympanic  cavity ; 
the  organ  is  covered  by  the  skin,  without  any 
external  communication.     In  the  frog  the  ear 
is  more  complicated,  having   the  drum  with 
its  cavity  and  bones,  and  communicating  with 
the  mouth  by  a  Eustachian  tube.     The  sense 
of  smell  must  be  imperfect  in  the  amphibia ;  in 
the  lower  forms  the  nostrils  are  mere  cavities 
in  the  front  of  the  head,  with  no  communica 
tion  with  the  mouth,  as  in  fishes ;  in  the  higher 
orders  the  nose  communicates  with  the  mouth, 
but  in  them  the  apparatus  for  smelling  is  prob 
ably  less  sensitive  than  in  the  lower  forms,  the 
nose  being  more   connected  with  the  act  of 
breathing.     The  sense  of  taste  is  probably  also 
very  obtuse  ;  in  the  frogs  and  toads  the  tongue 
is  developed  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  being 
long,  with  the  anterior  half  free,  doubled  back 
on  itself,  and  capable  of  being  thrown  forward 
and  retracted  with  great  quickness,  serving  for 
the  seizure  of  the  insects  on  which  they  feed, 
and  for  conveying  them  instantly  to  the  back 
part  of  the  mouth.     The  amphibia  are  distin 
guished  from  reptiles  by  the  absence  of  all  scaly 
covering ;  a  naked  skin  characterizes  all,  from 
the  snake-like  concilia  to  the  fish-like  axolotl. 
The  skin  of  the  aquatic  genera  is  soft,  smooth, 
and  kept  constantly  moist  by  the  cutaneous  se 
cretions  ;  in  the  land  genera,  as  frogs  and  toads, 
the  glands  of  the  skin  secrete  a  thick  whitish 
fluid,  which  may  become  acrid  and  irritating, 
giving  rise  to  the  opinion  that  these  secretions 
are  poisonous  ;  in  the  salamander  the  fluid  thus 
poured  out  is  so  abundant,  and  so  suddenly  se 
creted  when  the  animal  is  irritated,  that  it  is 
i  quite  probable  that  even  the  effects  of  fire  may 
:  be  for  a  short  time  arrested  by  it — doubtless 
the  origin  of  the  well  known  fable  in  regard  to 
this  animal.     The  cuticle  is  frequently  shed ; 
that  of  the  aquatic  genera  being  washed  away  in 
shreds,  while  that  of  the  toads  is  divided  along 
I  the  median  line,  removed  by  the  contortions  of 
,  the  animal,  and  finally  swallowed  at  a  single 
gulp.     The  amphibia  breathe  by  the  skin  as 
well  as  by  the  lungs  and  gills ;  a  frog  will  live 
:  from  five  to  six  weeks  in  a  state  of  complete 
strangulation,  and  even  after  total  excision  of 
I  the  lungs ;  indeed,  the  pulmonary  respiration  is 
;  insufficient  to  support  life  in  these  animals  with 
out  the  assistance  of  the  skin.     The  medium 
through  which  the  blood  is  oxygenated,  wheth- 
'  er  lungs,  gills,   or  skin,  whether  in  air  or  in 
I  water,  is  always  a  modification  of  the  cutane- 
^  ous  surface ;  and,  as  in  frogs  the  same  surface 
!  is  capable  of  performing  both  aquatic  and  at- 
:  mospheric  respiration,  it  is  natural  to  infer  that 
lungs  and  gills  are  identical  in  structure.     The 
'  amphibia,  like  many  of  the  invertebrate  ani 
mals,  have  the  power  of  reproducing  parts  lost 
by  accident  or  design ;  the  common  water  sala 
mander  will  invariably  restore  the  limbs  which 
,  have  been  cut  oft"  for  experiment,  and  even  re- 


438 


AMPHICTYOXS 


AMPHILOCHUS 


peatedly;  the  common  land  salamander  also 
reproduces  its  tail,  which  it  so  easily  separates 
in  case  of  need.  Impregnation  is  effected  with 
out  sexual  congress,  except  in  the  land  salaman 
der  ;  in  the  order  anoura,  the  male  embraces 
the  female  with  great  tenacity,  and  impregnates 
the  eggs,  several  hundred  in  number,  as  they 
are  ejected  under  his  pressure;  in  the  tailed 
aquatic  species,  impregnation  takes  place  dur 
ing  the  instantaneous  apposition  of  the  cloacal 
openings  of  the  two  sexes.  The  testes  and 
ovaries  are  double,  and  symmetrically  arranged ; 
they  are  much  enlarged  at  the  breeding  season. 
When  the  young  are  ready  for  aquatic  life,  they 
burst  the  thin  membrane  of  the  egg,  and  come 
out  in  the  fish-like  form.  In  the  terrestrial 
salamander,  whose  habits  do  not  permit  this 
mode  of  development,  the  young  undergo  their 
metamorphosis  in  the  oviduct,  in  which  they 
pass  their  tadpole  state,  and  appear  without 
gills  when  they  are  ready  for  terrestrial  exist 
ence.  Like  the  viper,  the  salamander  is  ovo- 
viviparous.  In  the  pipa,  or  Surinam  toad,  the 
eggs,  instead  of  being  dropped  into  the  water, 
are  placed  by  the  male  'on  the  back  of  the 
female ;  here  they  are  attached  by  a  thick  mu 
cus,  and  the  skin  gradually  thickens  in  the  in 
tervals  so  as  to  form  a  cell  around  each  egg ;  in 
these  cells  the  young  undergo  their  metamor 
phosis,  and  come  from  them  perfect  animals. 
After  the  young  are  hatched  out,  the  cells  of 
the  female  disappear.  Like  many  of  the  sau 
rian  and  chelonian  reptiles,  some  of  the  am 
phibia  are  used  as  food.  The  delicacy  of  the 
frog's  thigh  is  well  known  to  the  epicure.  The 
Mexicans  consider  the  siredon  or  axolotl  very 
good  eating ;  and  it  is  quite  probable  that,  like 
the  reptile  iguana,  many  of  the  hideous  am 
phibia  are  wholesome  articles  of  food. 

AMPHICTYOjVS,  members  of  an  amphictyony, 
a  term  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  designate 
an  association  of  neighboring  tribes  or  cities 
for  the  observance  of  the  law  of  nations 
toward  each  other,  and  the  protection  and 
worship  of  some  deity,  whose  temple  was  sup 
posed  to  be  the  common  property  of  all.  The 
word  is  sometimes  derived  from  the  mythical 
hero  Amphictyon,  son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyr- 
rha,  but  is  properly  a  compound  from  a/u^i  and 
KTi^cj  or  KTIU,  signifying  "  dwellers  around  "  or 
"neighbors."  The  origin  of  these  associations 
is  enveloped  in  much  obscurity,  and  beyond  the 
fact  that  several  of  them  existed  in  Greece  at 
a  very  remote  period,  forming  as  it  were  the 
germ  of  one  of  the  strongest  bonds  of  union  by 
which  the  Greek  tribes  were  held  together,  we 
know  nothing  of  the  circumstances  of  their 
formation.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  con 
federations  was  that  known  as  the  amphicty- 
onic  council,  which  from  small  beginnings  rose 
to  great  importance,  on  account  of  the  wealth 
and  magnificence  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  of  which  it  was  the  special  guardian. 
It  was  composed  of  12  tribes,  variously  de 
scribed  by  the  authorities,  but  generally  sup 
posed  to  comprise  the  lonians,  Dolopians,  Thes- 


|  salians,  (EtEeans,  Magnetes,  Malians,  Phthian 
i  Achaeans,  Dorians,  Phocians  (including  the  Del- 
j  phians),  Locrians,  Boeotians,  and  Perrheebians, 
i  all  of  whom  originally  dwelt  in  and  around 
I  Thessaly  and  were  of  equal  importance,  although 
j  subsequently  we  find  them  distributed  over  all 
!  parts  of  Greece.     Some  became  utterly  insig 
nificant  or  extinct,  and  the  fact  of  the  Dorians 
'  standing  on  an  equality  w^ith  the  Dolopians  or 
s  Malians  shows  that  the  council  must  have  ex- 
i  isted  before  the  Dorian  conquest  of  the  Pelo 
ponnesus.     The  council  met  twice  a  year,  in 
!  the  spring  at  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi, 
!  and  in  the  autumn  at  that  of  Ceres  at  Anthela, 
near   Thermopylae    and   was   represented    by 
|  two  classes  of  deputies  from  each  tribe,  the 
1  hieromnemons  and   the  pylagorse,  whence   it 
i  has  been   supposed  that  two   amphictyonies, 
|  organized   for    the   worship    of    two   distinct 
deities,  were  subsequently  merged  in  one.     The 
12  tribes  had  equal  rights  at  the  meetings  of 
the  council,  and  each  was  entitled  to  two  votes, 
to  be  given  by  its  deputies.     The  objects  of  the 
confederation  are  best  described  in  the  following 
oath  which  each  of  its  members  was  obliged  to 
take:   "We  will  not  destroy  any  amphictyonic 
town,  nor  cut  it  off  from  running  water  in  war 
j  or  peace ;  if  any  shall  do  so,  we  will  march 
"  against  him  and  destroy  his  city.     If  any  one 
shall  plunder  the  property  of  the  god,  or  shall 
be  cognizant  thereof,  or  shall  take  treacherous 
counsel  against  the  things  in  his  temple  at  Del 
phi,  we  will  punish  him  with  foot  and  hand 
and  voice,  and  by  every  means  in  our  power." 
Notwithstanding  the  humane  and  wise  objects 
of  the  council,  it  engaged  in  two  sanguinary 
wars  against  some  of  its  own  members,  called 
the  first  and  second  sacred  wars,  and  finally 
lent  itself  to  the  ambitious  purposes  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  who  in  the  name  of  the  league 
|  excited  a  third  war  in  338  B.  C.,  in  which  the 
j  liberties  of  Greece  were  extinguished  at  the 
battle  of  Chasronea.     The  first  of  these  wars, 
which  began  in  595  B.  C.  and  lasted  till  585, 
was    declared   against    the    Phocian    city   of 
Crissa,   on  account  of  injuries  inflicted  upon 
j  persons  visiting  the  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi, 
I  and  resulted  in  the  total  destruction  of  the  city. 
|  The  second  sacred  war,  from  355  to  346  B.  C., 
:  originating  in  a  charge  against  the  Phocians  of 
taking  into  cultivation  a  tract  of  land  belonging 
to  the  Delphic  temple,  was  carried  on  with  such 
j  vindictiveness  that  nearly  every  Phocian  town 
!  was    destroyed.     Philip   of  Macedon,    having 
j  entered  the  struggle  at  the  solicitations  of  the 
Thessalians,  decided  the  war  in  their  favor,  and 
|  thus  gained  his  fatal  ascendancy  in  the  affairs 
of  Greece.     The  Phocians  were  ejected  from 
the  league  at  the  close  of  the  war,  but  were 
subsequently  readmitted.     The  duration  of  the 
amphictyonic  council  is  not  precisely  known, 
but  it  survived  the  independence  of  Greece. 

AMPHILOCHUS,  a  legendary  hero  of  Greece, 
!  the  son  of  Ainphiaraus  and  Eriphyle,  and 
;  brother  of  Alcmaeon.  He  took  part  in  the 
I  war  of  the  epigoni  against  Thebes,  aided  his 


AMPHION 


AMPHITHEATRE 


439 


brother  in  the  murder  of  their  mother  (see 
ALCM.EON),  and  subsequently  joined  the  expe 
dition  against  Troy.  He  was  celebrated  for 
his  prophetic  gifts,  and  had  an  oracle  at  Mallus 
in  Cilicia  (a  city  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Amphilochus  and  Mopsus),  which  was  esteemed 
the  most  truthful  of  all  oracles ;  and  at  Athens, 
Oropus,  and  Sparta  he  shared  in  the  divine 
honors  paid  to  Amphiaraus. 

AMPIIIOX,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of 
Zeus  and  Antiope,  the  wife  of  Lycus,  king  of 
Thebes.  He  and  his  brother  Zethus  were  ex 
posed  on  Mount  Cithseron,  but  were  found  and 
brought  up  by  shepherds.  Mercury,  or  accord 
ing  to  others  Apollo  or  the  muses,  gave  a  lyre 
to  Amphion,  who  from  that  moment  devoted 
himself  altogether  to  song  and  music.  To 
avenge  the  wrongs  of  their  mother,  the  brothers 
undertook  an  expedition  against  Thebes,  which 
they  captured  and  fortified,  slaying  both  Lycus 
and  his  new  wife  Dirce.  They  then  built  a 
wall  around  the  town,  Amphion  playing  on  his 
lyre,  and  the  stones  moving  in  obedience  to  its 
notes  whither  they  were  wanted  till  it  \vas 
iinished.  Amphion  married  Xiobe,  by  whom 
he  had  many  sons  and  daughters,  all  of  whom 
were  killed  by  Apollo. 

A3IPHIPOLIS  (now  Jenikeui),  a  city  of  ancient 
Macedonia,  on  the  Strymon  (now  Struma,  or 
Kara  Su),  near  its  mouth.  It  was  originally 
called  Ennea  Hodoi  (Xine  Ways),  and  held  by 
the  Thracian  Edonians,  and  received  its  his 
torical  name  from  an  Athenian  colony  which 
occupied  it  in  437  B.  C.  It  was  besieged  by 
the  Lacedaemonians  under  Brasidas  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  and  compelled  to  sur 
render  to  them  (424).  Later  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  under  the 
Romans  it  was  the  capital  of  a  Macedonian 
district.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  called  Po- 
polia.  There  are  few  remains  of  the  town. 

AMPHISBJEXA  (Gr.  anQtcpaiva,  an  animal  that 
can  move  or  walk  in  both  directions),  the 
name  of  a  genus  of  saurians.  The  head  is  so 
small  and  the  tail  so  thick  and  short  that  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other  at 
first  sight ;  and  this  peculiarity  of  form,  in  ad 
dition  to  the  animal's  habit  of  proceeding  with 
equal  facility  either  backward  or  forward,  has 
given  rise  to  the  popular  belief  in  Brazil  and 
other  parts  of  South  America,  where  the  am- 
phisbrena  most  abounds,  that  it  possesses  two 
heads,  one  at  each  extremity.  These  saurians 
are  distinguished  from  others  by  their  nearly 
uniform  thickness  of  body  from  the  head  to 
the  extremity  of  the  tail,  by  their  small  mouths 
and  extremely  diminutive  eyes,  remarkably 
short  tails,  and  numerous  rings  of  small  square 
scales,  completely  surrounding  the  body  and 
the  tail.  The  jaws  are  furnished  with  a  single 
row  of  small  conical  teeth,  few  in  number  and 
distant  from  each  other,  and  the  palate  is 
toothless.  These  reptiles  are  also  destitute  of 
fangs,  and  are  therefore  harmless.  They  live 
mostly  on  ants  and  other  small  insects,  and  in 
habit  ant  hills  and  barrows  which  they  make 


for  themselves  under  ground.  The  genus  am- 
phisboBna  contains  only  a  few  species,  confined 
to  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  other  tropical  parts  of 
the  American  continent.  The  A.fuliginosa  is 


Amphisbaena    fuliginosa  (Sooty  Amphisbaena). 

the  best  known  species.  It  is  found  in  the 
hotter  regions  of  South  America,  and  does  not 
!  inhabit  Ceylon  or  any  part  of  the  East  Indies, 
i  as  Linnaeus  and  Lacepede  were  led  to  believe, 
i  on  the  authority  of  Seba.  The  general  color 
j  of  this  animal  is  a  deep  brown,  varied  with 
I  shades  of  white,  more  or  less  clear,  accord- 
'  ing  to  the  season  of  casting  the  old  and  ac- 
j  quiring  the  new  external  coat  or  "skin."  It 
I  grows  to  the  length  of  18  inches  or  2  feet,  the 
'  tail  measuring  only  one  inch  or  thereabouts. 
!  The  body,  about  as  thick  as  the  wrist  of  a 
j  child  of  16  years,  is  surrounded  by  upward  of 
200  rings,  and  the  tail  by  25  or  30.  The  eyes, 
I  exceedingly  diminutive,  are  covered  by  a  meni- 
j  brane  which  almost  conceals  them;  and  this 
'  has  given  rise  to  the  popular  opinion  that  the 
I  amphisbaena  has  no  eyes. 

AMPHITHEATRE,  with  the  Romans,  an  open 

elliptical  building,  with  an  elliptical  space  in 

I  the  centre  called  the  arena,  from  the  low  wall 

surrounding  which  .rose   tiers   of  seats,   sup- 

i  ported  on  arches,  receding  to  near  the  summit 

i  of  the  outer  wall.     These  buildings  were  used 

for  public  games  or  combats  between  men  or 

beasts,  and  in  later  times  also  for  exhibitions 

of  mimic  sea  fights,  and  of  crocodiles  and  other 

amphibious  animals,  by  filling  the  arena  with 

i  water.     The  arena  was  so  called  because  sand 

j  (Lat.  arena]  was  usually  employed  to  give  a 

I  firm  footing  and  to  dry  up  the  blood.     The 

wall  around  the  arena  varied  in  height  from  8 

I  to  18  feet.     On  a  level  with  its  top  spread  the 

j  first  platform,  where  the  chairs  of  the  more 

honored   spectators  were  placed.     From  the 

top  of  the  wall  that  formed  the  back  of  this 

space  rose  the  first  tier  of  seats,  reaching  to  an- 

i  other  platform  with  another  wall  at  its  back, 

and  so  on  to  the  top.     The  box  (suggestus  or 


440 


AMPHITHEATRE 


cubiculutri)  of  the  chief  magistrate  or  emperor 
was  on  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  first  platform 
(podium),  as  was  that  of  the  vestal  virgins.  A 
raised  seat  on  the  same  was  also  assigned  to 
the  giver  (editor)  of  the  games.  At  each  end 
of  the  arena  was  a  large  door  for  the  entrance 
and  exit  of  men  and  beasts.  The  latter  were 
kept  in  dens  under  the  platforms  and  seats,  and 
were  sometimes  forced  upon  the  arena  through 
small  doors  in  the  side  of  the  wall  surround 
ing  it.  Sometimes  also,  if  not  always,  there 
were  vast  substructions  beneath  the  floor  of 
the  arena  containing  dens  from  which  the 
animals  might  be  suddenly  sent  up  through 
trap  doors.  Excavations  in  the  amphitheatre 
at  Pozzuoli  have  shown  most  clearly  these  ar 
rangements.  On  the  top  of  the  wall  of  the 
arena  was  a  railing  of  bronze  or  iron  to  protect 
tho§e  who  sat  on  the  first  platform  from  any 
sudden  spring  of  the  wild  beasts.  As  a  further 


|  defence,  ditches  called  euripi  sometimes  sur- 

j  rounded  the  arena.     An  awning   (velarium), 

supported  by  ropes  and   pulleys  from   strong 

|  masts  set  in  stone  sockets  around  the  top  of 

!  the  building,  appears  to  have  been  sometimes 

i  extended  over  the  spectators.     When  the  wea- 

|  ther  did  not  permit  the  velarium  to  be  spread, 

1  broad-brimmed  hats  or  a  sort  of  parasols  were 

!  used.     The  first  amphitheatre  in  Rome  seems 

I  to  have  been  that  of  M.  Curio,  described  by 

Pliny.     It  consisted  of  two  wooden  theatres 

made  to  revolve  on  pivots,  in  such  a  manner 

j  that  they  could  by  means  of  windlasses  and 

I  machinery  be  turned  round  face  to  face,  so  as 

to  form  one  building.     Gladiatorial  shows  were 

first  exhibited  in  the  forum,  and  combats  of 

j  wild  beasts  in  the  circus ;  and  it  appears  that 

|  the  ancient  custom  was  still  preserved  till  the 

I  dictatorship  of  Julius  Cassar,  who  built  a  wood- 

i  en  theatre  in  the  Campus  Martius  for  the  pur- 


Amphitheatre  at  Verona. 


pose  of  exhibiting  hunts  of  wild  beasts.  Most 
of  the  early  amphitheatres  were  merely  tem 
porary  and  made  of  wood;  such  as  the  one 
built  by  Nero  at  Rome,  and  that  erected  by 
Atilius  at  Fidenoe  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
which  gave  way  during  the  games  and  killed 
or  injured  50,000  persons.  The  first  stone  am 
phitheatre  was  built  by  Statilius  Taurus,  at  the 
desire  of  Augustus.  This  building,  which  stood 
in  the  Campus  Martius  near  the  Circus  Ago- 
nalis^  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
and  it  has  therefore  been  supposed  that  only 
the  external  walls  were  of  stone,  and  that  the 
seats  and  other  parts  of  the  interior  were  of 
timber.  A  second  amphitheatre  was  com 
menced  by  Caligula;  but  by  far  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  was  the  Flavian  amphitheatre, 
usually  called  the  Colosseum,  which  was  begun 
by  Vespasian  and  finished,  by  his  son  Titus,  j 


who  dedicated  it  A.  D.  80,  on  which  occasion, 
according  to  Eutropius,  5,000,  and  according  to 
Dion,  9,000  beasts  were  destroyed.  The  fol 
lowing  table  has  been  compiled  to  show  the 
proportions  of  some  of  the  chief  amphitheatres: 


- 

of 

2 

1 

.2 

£ 
<! 

1 

.0" 

JS 

•s  . 

j- 

g_ 

PLACES. 

1 

c 

1* 

1 

1 

] 

Borne  (Colosseum)  . 
Verona  

615 
513 

510 
410 

281 
246* 

176 
147 

164 
100 

SO-100,OCO 
22,000 

508 

436 

Pozzuoli  

480 

3S2 

336 

138 

25,000 

Aries  

459 

338 

316 

130 

65* 

25,000 

45!) 

378 

437 

332 

70 

17-93  000 

Pompeii  
Poitiers  

430 
426 

335 
375 

198 
264 

107 
210 

10-20,000 

Pola  

336 

292 

75 

AMPHITRITE 


AMPUTATIOX 


During  the  middle  ages,  the  amphitheatres 
were  used  as  castles  or  as  quarries,  according 
to  the  exigencies  of  the  times ;  but,  in  spite  of 
all  assaults  of  man  or  time,  their  ruins  are 
among  the  most  stupendous  monuments  of  Ro 
man  antiquity. 

AMPHITRITE,  a  nereid  or  oceanid,  the  wife  of 
Neptune  and  goddess  of  the  sea,  mother  of 
Triton,  Rhode  or  Rhodes,  and  Benthesicyme. 
Jealous  of  Scylla,  she  threw  some  magic  herbs 
Into  the  well  in  which  her  rival  was  accustomed 
to  bathe,  and  thus  transformed  her  into  a  mon 
ster  with  six  heads  and  twelve  feet.  In  an 
cient  works  of  art  Amphitrite  is  always  dis 
tinguished  from  Aphrodite  by  a  net  which 
keeps  her  hair  in  order,  and  by  the  claws  of  a 
crab  on  her  forehead. 

AMPHITRYON,  in  Greek  legends,  a  son  of 
Aleaeus  and  Hipponome.  Having  accidentally 
killed  his  uncle  Electryon,  he  was  expelled 
from  Mycenae,  and  forced  to  take  refuge  in 
Thebes.  To  win  the  hand  of  Alcmena,  he  un 
dertook  an  expedition  against  Pterelaus  and  the 
Taphians,  whose  lands  he  seized  and  divided 
among  his  friends.  He  was  subsequently  mar 
ried  to  Alcmena,  and  became  by  her  the  father 
of  Iphicles.  He  was  killed  in  a  war  which  he 
and  Hercules  were  carrying  on  against  Erginus, 
king  of  the  Minyans.  His  tomb  was  standing 
at  Thebes  in  the  time  of  Pausanias. 

AMPHORA  (Gr.  a/u^opevc;,  from  a//0/,  on  both 
sides,  and  depeiv,  to  carry),  a  large  two-handled 


Greek    and    Eoman    Amphorae.     From   Specimens    in    the 
British  Museum. 

vase,  commonly  made  of  earthenware,  of  va 
rious  forms,  but  generally  tall  and  narrow,  with 
a  contracted  neck,  and  ending  nearly  in  a  point. 
It  was  used  by  the  ancients  to  hold  wine,  oil, 
the  ashes  of  the  dead,  &c. ;  and  some  have  been 
found  in  excavating  that  had  been  used  as 
coffins  by  dividing  them  in  half  lengthwise, 
putting  in  the  body,  and  joining  the  parts. — The 
amphora  was  also  a  liquid  measure  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  equivalent  to  about  nine 
gallons  with  the  former  and  six  with  the  latter. 


AMPULLA,  a  Roman  vessel,  like  a  bottle,  used 
for  holding  wine,  oil,  or  water.     The  ampulla 
Rhemensis  (la  sainte  ampoule)  was  a  glass  flask 
filled  with  holy  oil,  which,   according  to  tra 
dition,  was   brought  down  from  heaven  by  a 
|  dove  at  the  time  of  the  coronation  of  Clovis, 
at   Rheims,   in   496.     From   the    9th  century, 
if  not   before,  down  to   Louis  XVI. ,    all   the 
kings   of    France   were  anointed  with  the  oil 
contained  in  the  sacred  ampulla.     During  the 
revolution   the   ampulla   was   broken   and  its 
,  fragments  thrown  away.     A  pious  person  pre- 
•  served  one  of  the  pieces,  and  after  the  restora- 
:  tion  of  the  Bourbons  it  was  delivered   to  the 
archbishop  of  Rheims,  with  a  little  of  the  ori 
ginal  oil,   as  was  asserted.      Charles  X.  was 
anointed  from  it,  and  the  oil  then  failed. 

AMPUTATION  (Lat.  amputare,  to  cut  off),  a 
surgical  operation  by  which  a  limb  or  portion 
of  a  limb,  or  a  naturally  projecting  part  of  the 
body,  is  removed.  The  cutting  away  of  a  tu 
mor  is  spoken  of  as  an  extirpation  or  excision. 
!  Amputation  is  required  where  the  part  is  in 
jured  or  diseased  to  such  an  extent  as  to  ren 
der  it  useless  and  inconvenient,  or  a  source  of 
danger  to  life  if  it  be  retained.  For  many  cen- 
|  turies  an  operation  of  extreme  danger  in  itself, 
and  performed  only  in  the  most  urgent  cases, 
surgical  advance  has  rendered  it  one  of  little 
risk,  though  of  late  years  there  has  been  a  ten 
dency  to  curtail  its  sphere  by  improvements  in 
other  departments  of  the  science.  It  was  at  first 
performed  by  a  division  of  all  the  parts  at  the 
same  level,  and  only  through  a  joint.  About 
the  1st  century  the  practice  of  amputating  be 
tween  the  joints  was  introduced,  and  also  the 
very  important  principle  of  dividing  the  bone 
at  a  higher  level  than  the  soft  parts,  that  the 
cut  surfaces  of  these  latter  may  be  joined 
together  over  the  bone  and  unite  in  that  po 
sition.  Formerly  the  great  source  of  danger 
w^as  the  haemorrhage  which  took  place  during 
and  after  the  operation ;  to  prevent  which  the 
parts  were  divided  with  red-hot  knives,  or  the 
cut  surfaces  treated  with  heated  irons  or  boil 
ing  liquids,  in  order  to  produce  a  charring  of 
the  tissues  and  plugging  of  the  mouths  of  the 
vessels.  A  band  encircling  the  limb,  to  restrain 
the  bleeding  during  the  operation,  was  used  as 
early  as  the  1st  century,  but  its  permanent  ar 
rest  was  for  a  long  time  effected  only  by  the 
means  already  mentioned.  The  band,  applied 
ignorantly,  failed  of  its  complete  purpose,  and 
the  inevitable  separation  of  the  eschars  pro- 
i  duced  by  hot  bodies  in  many  cases  opened 
;  afresh  the  vessels,  and  haemorrhage  and  death 
I  were  the  result.  The  use  of  the  ligature  in 
;  amputation,  especially  as  its  proper  application 
was  developed,  rendered  the  operation  com 
paratively  safe.  The  honor  of  its  introduction 
i  is  probably  due  to  Ambroise  Pare  in  the  16th 
1  century.  If  the  ligature  was  employed  in  these 
cases  by  Celsus,  it  fell  into  immediate  dis 
use  ;  and  even  the  teachings  of  Pare  and 
I  his  school  were  unable  for  many  years  to 
bring  it  into  general  favor.  The  invention 


442 


AMPUTATION 


AMRU'L-KAIS 


of  the  tourniquet  by  Morel  and  its  per 
fection  by  Petit,  in  the  17th  and  18th  cen 
turies,  still  further  diminished  the  dangers. 
When  it  is  done  for  a  disease,  it  is  spoken  of  as 
a  pathological  amputation ;  when  for  an  injury,  , 
it  is  named  "primary"  or  "secondary,"  accord-  | 
ing  as  it  is  performed  before  or  after  the  occur 
rence  of  the  inflammation  which  is  induced  by 
the  violence  done  to  the  part.  During  the  in 
flammatory  period  the  operation  is  contra-indi 
cated  except  for  some  very  urgent  reason,  The 
deaths  following  primary  amputations  are  some-  ! 
what  fewer  in  number  than  those  after  second 
ary,  except  in  the  case  of  the  thigh.  Where  \ 
done  for  disease,  the  mortality  is  very  much  ! 
less.  No  rule  in  surgery  is  better  established 
than  that  the  death  rate  increases  as  we  ap 
proach  the  trunk.  An  amputation  of  the  leg 
is  less  dangerous  than  of  the  thigh,  and  that  ; 
through  the  lower  part  of  the  thigh  less  than 
through  its  upper  part.  Moreover,  an  amputa 
tion  through  the  upper  extremity  is  less  grave 
than  one  through  a  corresponding  part  of  the  . 
lower  extremity. — In  performing  amputation,  | 
the  patient  is  placed  under  the  influence  of  an 
anaesthetic,  which  by  its  abolition  of  pain  and 
much  of  the  terror  diminishes  the  shock  to  his 
system,  and  enables  the  surgeon  to  operate 
more  carefully  and  on  a  part  deprived  of  mo 
tion.  The  circulation  through  the  main  artery 
is  arrested  by  pressure  with  the  finger  or  the 
tourniquet.  The  skin  and  muscles  are  then  cut 
by  a  series  of  sweeps  of  the  knife  round  the 
circumference  of  the  limb,  the  parts  being 
drawn  toward  the  trunk  by  an  assistant  as 
each  one  is  completed.  In  this  way,  as  the 
bone  is  approached,  the  parts  are  divided  at  a 
higher  and  higher  level.  The  bone  is  then 
sawed,  the  sharp  edges  or  corners  being  rounded 
off  so  as  not  to  press  upon  the  part.  The  chief 
arteries  are  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  close 
their  open  extremities.  This  may  be  done  by 
grasping  the  end  with  the  forceps  and  twisting 
it  several  times,  which  is  called  torsion;  or 
by  pressure  with  a  needle  passed  through  trie 
muscles  and  over  or  through  the  vessel,  called 
acupressure ;  or,  most  usually,  by  tying  it  with 
a  ligature,  which  consists  of  a  well  waxed  string 
of  silk  or  other  material.  The  tourniquet  is 
then  removed,  and  the  small  vessels  which 
bleed  are  treated  in  the  same  way,  provided 
the  contact  with  the  air  does  not  cause  them 
to  contract.  The  soft  parts  are  then  drawn 
over  the  end  of  the  bone  and  stitched  together. 
The  method  of  cutting  the  soft  parts  described 
above  is  known  as  the  circular.  What  is  called 
the  flap  operation  may  be  performed  by  trans 
fixion,  cutting  from  within  outward,  or  by  cut 
ting  from  without  inward.  In  either  case  a 
single  or  a  double  flap  may  be  made.  This  lat 
ter  process  may  be  rendered  intelligible  by 
taking  a  circular  piece  of  paper  and  folding  it 
along  one  of  its  diameters.  The  centre  of  the 
circle  would  represent  the  situation  of  the  end 
of  the  bone,  and  the  circumference  the  mar 
gins  of  the  skin  which  are  stitched  together. 


!  If  the  cut  surfaces  grow  together  at  once,  there 
is  said  to  be  primary  union.     This  result  is  but 
'  seldom  attained,  at  least  throughout,  and  as  a 
:  rule  the  union  is  secondary,  in  which  case  sup- 
.  puration  takes  place,  and  granulations  spring 
I  up  which  grow  together  and  fill  up  the  wound. 
— For  the  accidents  which  may  occur  after  am 
putation,  see  GANGKEXE,  H^EMOKEHAGE,  NECRO 
SIS,  OSTEO-MYELITIS,  and  TETAXUS. 

AMRITSIR,  or  I'niritsir,  a  town  of  the  Punjaub, 
Hindostan,  between  the  Ravee  and  the  Beas, 
an  affluent  of  the  Sutlej,  36  m.  E.  of  Lahore ; 
pop.  about  130,000.  There  is  in  the  town  an 
extensive  tank,  built,  or  rather  restored,  in 
158X,  by  Ram  Das,  the  4th  Guru  or  holy  man 
of  the  Sikhs,  the  name  of  which — Amritsir, 
the  pool  of  immortality — was  in  the  course  of 
time  transferred  to  the  whole  town.  In  the 
centre  of  the  pool  is  a  temple  sacred  to  Govind 
Singh,  the  last  of  the  Gurus.  Amritsir  is  a 
place  of  considerable  trade,  one  of  the  commer 
cial  depots  of  X.  W.  India.  It  is  an  open  town, 
but  Runjeet  Singh  built  a  fort  there  in  1809. 

AMRl  IBi\  EL-AAS,  one  of  Mohammed's  early 
proselytes,  died  in  663.  He  belonged  to  the 
Koreishites,  and  in  early  life  was  furiously  op 
posed  to  Mohammed,  ridiculing  him  in  epigrams 
!  and  satirical  verses,  and  even  attacking  those 
of  the  new  faith  who  had  settled  in  Abyssinia. 
At  last,  however,  he  was  converted,  and  his  zeal 
in  behalf  of  his  new  faith  was  as  uncompromising 
as  his  opposition  had  been.  The  first  two  succes 
sors  of  the  prophet,  Abu  Bekr  and  Omar,  were 
chiefly  indebted  to  his  valor  for  the  conquest 
of  Syria.  He  carried  his  conquering  arms  into 
Egypt,  and,  at  the  head  of  only  4,000  men,  took 
Pelusium  and  founded  Old  Cairo.  He  soon  laid 
siege  to  Alexandria,  and  distinguished  himself 
as  much  by  his  personal  bravery  as  by  his  skill 
and  conduct  as  a  general.  He  was  present  in 
the  assault,  and  in  an  attack  on  the  citadel  was 
taken  prisoner  with  a  faithful  slave.  Brought 
before  the  commander  of  the  fortress,  his 
slave,  striking  him  in  the  face,  ordered  him  to 
be  silent  in  the  presence  of  his  betters ;  and 
this  device  saved  his  life  by  leading  his  con 
querors  to  suppose  him  a  person  of  no  rank. 
He  was  sent  back  to  the  Mohammedan  camp, 
with  a  proposition  for  a  truce.  This  was  re 
fused,  and  the  city  was  taken  with  a  loss  to 
the  Arabs  of  23,000  men.  Amru  spared  the 
city,  but  the  orders  of  Omar  subsequently 
caused  the  conflagration  of  the  library.  Amru 
became  emir  of  Egypt,  and  his  firm  govern 
ment  conciliated  the  inhabitants.  He  pro 
jected  a  canal  for  uniting  the  waters  of  the 
Nile  with  the  head  of  the  Red  sea.  Having- 
been  recalled  by  Caliph  Othman,  the  Alexan 
drians  in  his  absence  revolted,  and  surrendered 
the  city  to  the  Greeks.  Amru  returned,  and 
once  more  reduced  the  city  and  spared  the 
inhabitants.  The  caliph  Moawiyah  owed  hi* 
accession  to  Amru,  who  declared  for  him  in 
preference  to  his  rival  Ali. 

AMRU'L-KAIS,  or  Amrulcais,  an  Arabian  poet, 
author  of  one  of  the  seven  Afoallacahs,  poems. 


AMSDORF 


AMSTERDAM 


of  tlie  pagan  pre-Mohammedan  era,  which 
were  suspended  to  the  Caaba,  whence  their 
name  (pi.  MoaUacat,  suspended).  He  was  an 
opponent  of  Mohammed,  and  wrote  satirical 
verses  against  him.  Lette  published  the  3Ioal- 
lacah  at  Ley  den  in  Arabic,  and  Sir  Wil 
liam  Jones  the  English  translation  (London, 
1782).  The  poem  is  purely  imaginative.  It 
was  republished,  together  with  other  produc 
tions  of  the  poet,  by  Baron  MacGuckin  ISlane 
(Paris,  1857),  and  also  by  Arnold,  in  the  Sep- 
tem  MoaUacdt  (Leipsic,  1850). 

AMSDORF,  Aikolaus  von,  a  German  reformer, 
bishop  of  Naumburg,  born  near  "Wurzen,  Sax 
ony,  Dec.  3,  1483,  died  at  Eisenach,  May  14, 
1565.  He  was  educated  for  the  church,  and 
early  acquired  distinction  in  theology.  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  confidant  of  Luther, 
and  attended  him  in  some  of  his  early  trials  as 
a  reformer.  He  was  a  sort  of  apostle  of  the 
reformation,  going  to  Magdeburg  (1524),  to 
Goslar  (1528  and  1531),  and  to  the  principality 
of  Grubenhagen  (1534),  as  the  expounder  and 
defender  of  the  principles  of  the  reformation. 
He  was  fond  of  controversy,  and  this  peculiar 
ity  more  than  once  involved  him  in  personal 
difficulties  with  his  friends.  He  contended 
that  good  works  were  not  only  not  necessary, 
but  prejudicial  to  salvation.  In  the  attempt 
to  secure  concord  between  the  Lutherans  and 
the  Zwinglians  (1536),  Amsdorf  violently  op 
posed  the  movement,  probably  on  account  of 
his  personal  hostility  to  Melanchthon.  In  1542 
he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Naumburg,  and 
was  consecrated  by  Luther,  who  boasted  of 
the  uncanonical  manner  in  which  the  service 
had  been  performed,  as  he  himself  says, 
"without  suet,  lard,  tar,  grease,  or  coals." 
This  involved  him  in  a  contest  with  Von  Pflugk, 
who  had  been  regularly  appointed  by  the 
chapter  to  the  same  office.  Amsdorf  was  a 
violent  opponent  of  the  Augsburg  Interim,  and 
was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  adiaphoristic 
controversy. 

AMSLER,  Samuel,  one  of  the  greatest  German 
engravers,  born  at  Schinznach,  Switzerland, 
Dec.  17,  1791,  died  in  Munich,  May  18,  1849. 
He  passed  several  years  in  Rome,  and  in  1829 
was  appointed  professor  of  engraving  in  the 
academy  of  Munich.  He  made  a  great  num 
ber  of  fine  engravings  from  Michel  Angelo, 
Raphael,  Schwanthaler,  Thorwaldsen,  Kaul- 
bach,  Overbeck,  and  other  artists. 

AMSTEL,  a  small  river  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
the  province  of  North  Holland,  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Drecht  and  Mydrecht.  It  passes 
through  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  entering  it  on 
the  S.  E.,  and,  after  a  winding  northerly  course 
of  10  miles,  uniting  with  the  Y. 

AMSTERDAM,  the  largest  city  of  Holland, 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  and 
of  the  province  of  North  Holland,  situated  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Y,  an  inlet  or  arm  of  the 
Zuyder-Zee,  where  that  is  joined  by  the  river 
Amstel,  10  m.  E.  of  Haarlem  and  31  m.  N.  N. 
E.  of  the  Hague ;  lat.  52°  22'  N.,  Ion.  4°  53'  E. ; 


!  pop.  in  1870,   281,805,   mostly  of  the  Dutch 
;  Reformed  church,  and  including  about  60,000 
I  Catholics,  36,000  Lutherans,  4,000  Anabaptists, 
I  1,000  Remonstrants,  28,000  German  and  about 
!  3,000  Portuguese  Jews.     It  is  one  of  the  most 
i  remarkable   cities    in    the    world,    resembling 
i  Venice  in  the  intermixture  of  land  and  water, 
but  much  larger  than  Venice,  and  the  canals, 
I  being  lined  with  quays,  present  scenes  of  ani 
mation  and  enterprise.     At  the  beginning  of 
:  the   13th  century  it  was  but  a  small  fishing 
;  village,  subject  to  the  lords  of  Amstel.    It  was 
i  constituted  a  town  in  the  middle  of  that  cen 
tury;  was  taken  possession  of  by  "William  III., 
'  count  of  Holland,  in  1296 ;  fortified  in  1482 ; 
I  was  for  a  long  time   strongly   Catholic  (the 
|  Protestant  citizens  having  been  driven  out  by 
the  duke  of  Alva),  and  joined  the  confederation 
of  the  United  Provinces  in  1578.     Free  tolera- 
I  tion  was  now  granted  to  all  sects  and  religious 

•  beliefs,  and  with  additional  privileges  granted 
|  to  it  in  1581  by  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  the 

!  ruin  of  its  rival  city  Antwerp  by  the  closing 
1  of  the  Scheldt  in  1648,  it  soon  reached  a  high- 
!  ly  prosperous  state,  and  has  since  advanced 
|  with  but  few  interruptions,  owing  chiefly  to 
I  wars  with  England,  till  it  is  at.  present  one  of 
i  the  wealthiest  cities  in  the  world.     The  form 
!  of  the  city  is  that  of  a  crescent,  the  arms  pro 
jecting  into  the  Y,  and  thus  forming  the  port. 
j  The  enormous  dams  thrown  up  since  1851  re 
sist  the  influx  of  the  sea  into  the  canals,  and 
are  provided  with  floodgates  of  the  strongest 
i  construction  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  high 
j  tides.     They  form  the  east  and  west  docks, 
I  capable  of  holding  1,000  vessels.   The  principal 
I  mouth  of  the  Amstel  divides  the  city  into  two 
i  parts.    The  land  side  was  formerly  surrounded 
by  walls,  now  replaced  by  a  ditch  30  yards 
j  wide  lined  with  trees,  which  make  a  pleasant 
|  promenade.     Some  of  the  bastions  are  now 
occupied   by  windmills,  the  city  relying  for 
'  defence  against  attacks  chiefly  upon  the  facility 
with  which  the  surrounding  flat  country  can 
be  flooded  from  the  sea.     Amsterdam  stands 
upon  flat,   soft,  marshy  ground.     The  houses 
are  built  upon  piles  driven  through  this  surface 
soil  to  the  depth  of  40  to  50  feet  into  a  subsoil 
I  of  clay  or  sand.     The  canals  by  which  the  city 
is  intersected,  and  on  which  all  heavy  freights 
j  are  transported,  divide  it  into  90  islands,  and 
I  are  crossed  by  about  300  bridges.     The  city  is 
|  about  10  miles  in  circumference.  There  are  eight 

•  iron  gates,  each  named  after  the  town  toward 
j  which  it  opens.     The  older  portion  of  the  city 

is  irregularly  built,  and  many  of  the  streets  are 
j  narrow  and  the  houses  poor.  The  newer  por- 
I  tions  are  very  handsome.  The  streets  run  in 
parallels  along  the  former  walls,  and  are  con 
sequently  semicircular.  In  the  centre  of  each 
is  a  canal,  lined  with  clean  paved  quays,  which 
are  planted  with  trees.  Three  streets  in  this 
portion  of  the  city  are  especially  noteworthy 
for  their  length  and  breadth,  and  the  elegance 
of  the  buildings  which  line  them.  These  are 
the  Heeren,  Keizers,  and  Prinsen  grachten. 


444 


AMSTERDAM 


Each  is  about  2  miles  long  and  220  feet  broad. 
As  with  other  streets,  through  the  centre  of 
each  of  these  runs  a  canal.  The  principal  shops 
of  Amsterdam  are  in  the  Kalver  straat,  the 
Nieuwedijk,  and  the  Warmoes  straat.  The  bulk 
of  tile  Jews  live  in  true  Ghetto  style  in  the 
poorer  grachten,  or  water  streets,  which  are 
lively,  particularly  in  the  evening,  but  over 
crowded  and  dirty.  The  houses  of  Amsterdam 
are  built  of  brick,  four,  five,  and  six  stories  high, 
standing  with  their  gables  to  the  street ;  they 
are  mostly  entered  by  flights  of  steps  in  front, 
and  are  surmounted  by  forked  chimney  stacks. 
Many  of  the  poorer  people  live  in  basements  or 
cellars.  Others  live  constantly  upon  the  water, 
in  apartments  built  upon  the  upper  decks  of 
their  trading  vessels.  The  most  magnificent 
public  edifice  is  the  palace,  formerly  the  city 
hall.  It  is  built  of  stone,  was  begun  in  1648, 


and  completed  in  1655  ;  rests  upon  13,659  piles, 
driven  TO  ft.  into  the  ground ;  and  is  celebrated 
for  its  great  hall  or  ball  room,  which  is  111  ft. 
long,  52  ft.  wide,  and  90  ft.  high,  lined  through 
out  with  white  Italian  marble,  and  for  its 
magnificent  chime  of  bells,  playing  automati 
cally  every  hour.  The  next  most  remarkable 
building  is  the  Nieuwe  Kerk  (new  church), 
lighted  by  75  windows,  many  of  which  are 
beautifully  painted.  It  contains  the  tomb  of 
Admiral  de  liuyter.  The  judiciary  hall, 
opened  in  1836,  is  among  the  finest  struc 
tures  in  the  city.  Other  buildings  are  the 
new  town  hall  and  the  new  exchange,  founded 
in  1845  ;  the  arsenal,  built  on  the  island  of 
Kattenburg;  and  the  Oude  Kerk  (old  church), 
i  founded  in  the  14th  century,  which  con- 
|  tains  the  tombs  of  many  of  the  Dutch  admi- 
i  rals,  and  an  organ  said  to  be  second  only 


The  Palace  of  Amsterdam. 


to  that  of  Haarlem.  Among  the  more  recent 
fine  public  buildings  is  the  palace  of  industry, 
established  in  1864.  Churches  are  numerous. 
The  Calvinists  have  10,  the  Catholics  16,  and 
the  evangelical  Lutherans  2,  one  of  which  with 
surroundings  is  represented  in  our  engraving. 
Various  other  denominations  have  several 
churches.  Amsterdam  has  a  great  number 
of  excellent  charitable  institutions,  there  being 
upward  of  40  under  the  charge  of  particular 
denominations,  and  others  belonging  to  the 
city.  There  are  also  various  excellent  educa 
tional  institutions,  some  denominational  in 
their  character,  others  general.  The  Athence- 
iim  Illmtre  has  professorships  of  art,  law, 
medicine,  and  theology,  a  school  of  anatomy,  a 
botanic  garden,  and  a  free  library.  The  city 
Latin  school  is  a  fine  institution.  There  are 
besides  medical  and  theological  schools.  The 


j  royal  academy  of  fine  arts  was  founded  in  1820. 
|  There  is  a  music  school,  a  naval  school,  a  royal 
Dutch  institution  for   science,  literature,   and 
fine  arts,   and  another  private   scientific  and 
j  artistic  association,  called  Felix  Meritis,  which 
is  patronized   with   great  liberality,   has  400 
members,  and  is  in  a  very  flourishing  condi 
tion.     Finally,  there  is  a  museum  of  pictures, 
founded  in  1798,  containing  a  very  large  col 
lection   of  the  works  of  Dutch  masters,   and 
a  remarkable  collection  of  prints,  contained  in 
i  upward  of  200  portfolios.     The  city  is  governed 
by  a  senate  or  council  elected  by  the  people,  and 
j  a  burgomaster  appointed  by  the  king. — Amster- 
!  dam  is  more  noted  as  a  trading  than  as  a  manu- 
j  facturing  town,  though  it  has  numerous  manu- 
!  factories  of  tobacco,  soap,  oil,  cordage,  canvas, 
j  steam  engines  and  machinery,  &c.  There  are  also 
!  refineries  of  sugar  and  salt,  glass  works,  brew- 


AMUCK 


AMURATII 


445 


eries,  and  distilleries;  and  ship-building  is  ex 
tensively  carried  on.  The  entrances  and  clear 
ances  of  vessels  in  1868  were  about  3,000,  with 
850,000  tonnage ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  Holland,  which  amounted  in 
1868  to  an  aggregate  value  of  about  $150,000,- 
000,  passes  thjrough  the  port  of  Amsterdam. 
The  chief  articles  of  export  are  butter  and 
cheese ;  other  exports  consist  of  products  of 
the  rich  Dutch  colonies,  refined  and  raw 
sugar,  coffee,  spices,  tin,  oil,  dyes,  colors,  fruit, 
vegetables,  and  flowers.  The  exports  to  Ger 
many  and  England  are  the  most  prominent. 
By  the  Amstel,  the  Zuyder-Zee,  and  various 
canals,  Amsterdam  has  water  communication 
with  all  parts  of  Holland ;  and  its  railroad  con 
nections  are  also  very  extensive.  The  Zuyder- 
Zee,  formerly  the  entrance  to  the  port,  long 
since  became  too  shallow  for  the  navigation  of 
ocean  vessels,  and  a  canal  called  the  Nieuwe 
Diep  was  built,  admitting  large  ships,  and 
connecting  Amsterdam  with  the  North  sea  at 
the  Helder.  The  navigation  of  this  long  ship 
canal,  with  its  large  locks  shutting  out  the 
ocean  tides,  having  been  found  inconvenient 
and  expensive,  a  colossal  plan  has  been  formed 
and  nearly  executed  of  connecting  the  harbor 
and  docks  by  a  short  cut  through  the  isthmus 
of  Xorth  Holland,  digging  a  ship  canal  through 
the  immense  sand  hills  protecting  Holland  at 
its  western  shore  against  the  North  sea.  This 
canal,  with  its  breakwater  extending  far  out 
into  the  sea,  will  be  second  only  in  magnitude 
to  the  Suez  canal.  A  part  of  the  machinery 
that  was  used  there  has  been  transported  to 
Amsterdam,  and  is  employed  in  its  construc 
tion.  At  the  same  time  the  Zuyder-Zee  is  to 
be  made  dry,  and  the  inlet  or  arm,  the  Y,  on 
which  the  city  is  situated,  converted  into  dry 
land.  Upon  this  a  union  railroad  depot  is  to 
be  constructed,  where  all  the  railroads  will 
meet,  and  also  the  ocean  vessels  in  the  sur 
rounding  canals  and  docks. 

AMUCK  (Javanese,  amoak,  to  kill).  The  run 
ning  amuck  is  a  Malay  custom.  The  natives 
by  a  long-continued  and  excessive  use  of  opium 
at  length  have  their  features  sharpened,  their 
skin  drawn  over  their  bones  like  parchment, 
and  become  entirely  and  ferociously  mad. 
Armed  with  their  formidable  creese  or  dirk- 
knife,  they  rush  in  frenzy  from  their  houses, 
sometimes  naked,  and  leaping  along  the  crowd 
ed  streets,  stab,  bite,  and  curse  every  one  who 
chances  to  be  in  their  path.  As  soon  as  a  per 
son  is  seen  in  this  state  everybody  in  terror 
proclaims  the  news,  and  the  cry  of  "Amuck" 
rouses  the  population  like  the  cry  of  "Fire" 
or  "Mad  dog"  in  western  cities.  Every  man 
snatches  the  first  weapon  that  comes  to  hand, 
and  follows  the  path  of  the  common  enemy. 
Long  spears  are,  however,  the  favorite  and 
more  common  weapon,  and  with  these  they 
pen  the  wretched  maniac  into  a  corner,  and 
lance  him  to  death  as  they  would  a  tiger. 
Scores  of  persons  are  sometimes  killed  by  one 
of  these  madmen  before  he  can  be  checked. 


AMULET  (Ar.  hamalat,  a  thing  worn),  a  pre 
servative  against  occult  and  mischievous  intiu- 
I  ences.     Amulets  are  made  of  various  substan- 
!  ces,  and  were  first  known,  it  is  believed,  among 
the  Arabs.    The  early  Christians  made  amulets 
of  the  supposed  wood  of  the  cross,  or  of  ribbons 
j  with  a  text  of  Scripture  written  on  them,  and 
to  this  day  the  Roman  Catholics  call  their  lit- 
,  tie  relics,  &c.,  amulets.     The  idea  that  an  amu 
let  carried  about  the  person  has  the  power  both 
!  of  repelling  and  healing  diseases  still  prevails 
in  the  mind  of  many  persons.     Even  the  cele- 
j  brated  Robert  Boyle  (who   flourished  in  the 
',  latter  half  of  the  17th  century)  does  not  hesi- 
itate  to  declare  that  he  once  experienced  the 
!  efficacy  of  such  an  amulet  in  his  own  case. 
The  anodyne  necklace,  made  of  beads  from  the 
I  roots  of  white  briony,  which  is  sometimes  hung^ 
1  around  the  neck  of  an  infant  for  teething  pur- 
|  poses,  is  an  instance  of  the  still  surviving  confi- 
|  dence  in  the  medical  virtue  of  amulets.     Many 
I  other  examples  might  be  given. 

AMURATH,  or  Murad,   the   name  of    several 
'  Turkish  sultans.    I.  Born  in  1326,  died  June  15, 
!  1389.      He    succeeded  his   father   Orkhan  in 
i  1359  in  the  government  of  the  Turkish  domin- 
|  ions  in  Asia.     The  first  act  of  his  government 
I  was  to  put  down  an  insurrection  in  Galatia, 
I  after  which  he  turned    his  attention  and  his 
I  arms  to  Europe.     Here  he  overran  the  coun- 
!  try  as  far  as  the  Balkan,  and  took  Adrianople 
!  (1361),  where  he  fixed  his  residence  for  a  time, 
beautifying  the  city  by  the  construction  of  a 
mosque  and  other  public  buildings.     In  1365  a 
|  treaty  of   peace  was  concluded   between  the 
;  Ottomans  and  the  republic  of  Ragusa,  on  the 
|  Adriatic,  which  put  itself  under  the  protection 
j  of  Amu  rath.     Pope  Urban  V.,  alarmed  by  the 
progress  of  the  Ottomans,  preached  a  crusade 
against    them,    but    the   Turks   surprised    the 
|  Christian  forces  by  night  near  Adrianople  and 
cut  them  to  pieces  (1368).     The  peace  which 
[  Amurath  had  concluded  with  the  Greeks,  and 
i  which  had  been  observed  by  him,  being  thus 
broken,  he  continued  the  war  for  several  cam- 
|  paigns  without  any  decided  results,  and  went 
|  to  Asia  in  1371.     Soon  returning  to  Europe, 
he  vanquished  the  princes  of  Servia  and  Bul 
garia,    and  settled  at  Adrianople.      During  a 
peace    of  six   years   he   employed   himself   in 
organizing  his  army,  and  formed  the  corps  of 
spahis,  instituting  a  system  of  military  fiefs  as 
the  reward   of  their  services.     In  this  there 
j  was  considerable  analogy  with  the  feudal  sys- 
I  tern,  and  possibly  he  was  assisted  by  renegade 
i  Christians  in  his  plans.     The  Greek  emperor, 
;  John  Palaaologus,  seeing  himself  unable  to  cope 
with  the  new  power  arrayed  against  him,  en- 
!  tered  into  friendly  alliance  with  Amurath,  and 
'•  sent  his  son  Theodore  to  his  court  to  learn  the 
art  of  war.     The  sons  of  the  two  emperors 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  their  fathers, 
and  levied  an  army.     Amurath  advanced  alone 
I  to  the  ranks  of  his  rebellious  son  and  ordered 
'  the  soldiers  to  return  to  their  duty.     Unable 
!  to  resist  the  mandate  of  their  terrible  ruler, 


446 


AMUKATH 


the  men  obeyed,  and  Amurath  put  his  son 
Saudji  to  death  (1375).  In  Asia  Minor  he  had 
to  contend  with  several  insurrections.  Lazarus, 
prince  of  Servia,  in  conjunction  with  Sisman, 
prince  of  Bulgaria,  Amurath's  father-in-law, 
renewed  the  effort  for  independence,  and  dur 
ing  Amurath's  absence  in  Asia  gained  several 
advantages  over  his  generals  in  Europe.  The 
arrival  of  Amurath,  however,  turned  the  tide 
of  victory,  and  at  length  lie  took  Sisman  ' 
prisoner,  whom  he  deposed  and  confined.  Laz-  ' 
arus,  however,  continued  his  resistance,  and 
the  armies  met  on  the  high  plains  of  Kosovo,  | 
between  Xovi  Bazar  and  Pristina.  Amurath, 
under  the  influence  of  a  dream  that  he  had  i 
been  assassinated,  was  at  first  unwilling  to  j 
liazard  an  engagement,  especially  as  his  troops 
were  far  inferior  in  numbers  to  the  Servians.  • 
But  the  counsels  of  his  son,  the  fiery  Bajazet,  ; 
prevailed,  and  the  signal  for  the  engagement 
was  given.  After  a  bloody  contest  the  Servians 
were  totally  defeated  at  all  points,  and  Lazarus 
himself  was  taken  prisoner.  Amurath  examined 
the  field  after  the  battle,  and  while  congratu 
lating  his  attendants  upon  the  victory  was 
struck  by  the  hand  of  a  wounded  Servian. 
The  wound  was  mortal,  and  Amurath's  dream 
was  accomplished.  The  Servian  fell  under  the 
l>lows  of  the  janizaries,  but  sold  his  life  dearly. 
He  proved  to  be  Milosh  Kobilovitch,  son-in-law 
of  Lazarus.  Before  expiring,  Amurath,  who 
is  otherwise  renowned  as  equally  generous  and 
wise,  ordered  the  execution  of  Lazarus.  II. 
Born  about  1404,  died  Feb.  9,  1451.  He  was 
the  son  of  Mohammed  1.,  and  in  1421  succeeded 
liis  father  on  the  throne.  He  at  once  concluded 
an  armistice  for  five  years  with  Sigismund, 
king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  emperor 
of  Germany.  Manuel,  the  Greek  emperor,  re 
fused  to  conclude  a  peace  unless  Amurath  gave 
his  two  brothers  as  hostages,  failing  which  he 
threatened  to  set  at  liberty  Mustapha,  son  of 
Bajazet  Ilderim,  the  legitimate  successor  to  the 
throne.  Amurath  refused,  and  the  Greek  ad 
miral,  Demetrius  Lascaris,  was  at  once  sent  to 
land  Mustapha  near  Gallipoli,  to  which  Deme 
trius  laid  siege.  Mustapha  himself  advanced 
toward  Adrianople  with  a  constantly  increasing 
army,  and  encountered  Amurath's  troops  under 
Bajazet  Pasha,  who  laid  down  their  arms  on 
his  making  himself  known  to  them,  and  Ba 
jazet  was  taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death. 
Mustapha,  however,  was  soon  afterward  be 
trayed  to  Amurath  and  executed.  Manuel, 
now  alarmed  for  himself,  sent  an  embassy  to 
the  sultan  to  settle  terms  of  peace.  Amurath, 
however,  was  not  to  be  appeased.  He  appeared 
with  a  powerful  force  before  Constantinople  in 
1423,  and  increased  his  army  by  a  proclamation 
of  his  intention  to  abandon  the  city  and  all  the 
booty  to  the  assailants.  The  assault  was  at  length 
made,  and  the  city  was  in  deadly  peril,  when, 
according  to  Greek  writers,  a  beautiful  virgin 
dressed  in  a  white  robe  appeared  in  mid  air,  and 
threw  the  Mohammedan  army  into  such  a  panic 
that  Amurath  was  obliged  to  retire.  On  the 


death  of  Manuel  (1425)  a  treaty  was  concluded 
with  John  Palseologus,  his  successor,  by  which 
the  Greeks  consented  to  pay  tribute  to  Amurath, 
and  surrendered  several  towns  on  the  Black 
sea  and  on  the  Strymon.     The  treaties  of  peace 
with  Wallachia  and  the   emperor   Sigismund 
were  also  renewed.     In  1429  Amurath  made 
himself  master  of  Thessalonica,  and  in  1431  of 
Janina.      Notwithstanding   the   armistice   be 
tween  Amurath  and  Sigismund,  their  friendship 
was  only  superficial ;    and  Ainurath,  who  had 
suppressed  the  revolts  of  Caramania  and  Servia, 
and  made  satisfactory  arrangements  with  other 
provinces  of  his  growing  empire,  turned  his  at 
tention  to   the  politics  of  central  Europe,  and 
endeavored  to  influence  the  election  of  Casimir, 
son  of  the  king  of  Poland,  as  king  of  Bohe- 
|  mia.     Failing  in  this,  he  laid  siege  to  Belgrade 
:  (1439),  which  was  defended  by  the  Hungarian 
|  warrior,    John   Hunyady.     Amurath   was  re- 
I  pulsed,  and  the  Ottoman  arms  now  sustained 
a  long  series  of  reverses  from  the  invincible 
Hunyady.     Amurath  at  last  purchased  a   10 
|  years'  truce  of  the  Hungarians  by  great  sacri- 
|  fices.     The  death  of  his  son  Aladdin,  to  whom 
i  Amurath  was  tenderly  attached,  now  plunged 
j  him  into  such  distress  of  mind  that  he  abdicated 
|  in  favor  of  his  son  Mohammed,  who  was  only 
I  14  years  of  age  (1442),  and  retired  to  Magnesia, 
|  in  Asia  Minor.     The  Christians,  in  the  belief 
i  that  their  opportunity  had  now  arrived,  broke 
I  the  solemn  peace,  for  which  the  papal  legate 
!  gave  them   absolution,    and  poured  into   the 
!  Turkish  dominions  under  the  command  of  La- 
|  dislas,  king  of  Poland  and  Hungary,  and  his 
general,    Hunyady.      Amurath    was    recalled 
I  from  Magnesia,  and  forced  to  take  the  command 
of  the  army.     Hoisting  the  treaty  at  the  end 
|  of  a  lance,  he  encountered  the  Christians  (1444) 
at  Varna,  on  the  Black  sea.     In   a  personal 
j  contest  he  dismounted  Ladislas,  whose  head 
I  was  cut  off  and  displayed  on  a  lance  to  his  sol 
diers.     Affrighted  at  the  sight  they  fled,  not- 
|  withstanding  the  efforts  of  Hunyady  to  restore 
'  the  battle.     Again  Amurath  sought  retirement, 
!  and  was  again  called  out  to  put  down  a  revolt 
of  the  janizaries.     Hopeless  of  gratifying  his 
wish  for    ease,    he   marched    against   Greece. 
After  subduing  the  Morea,  and  putting  it  to 
tribute,  he  encountered  stubborn  resistance  in 
\  Albania  from    the    heroic    George    Castriota 
(Scanderbeg),  who,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
|  Venetians,  was  able  to  postpone  for  a  time  the 
i  fall  of  his  native  country.     A  new  irruption  of 
I  Hunyady  into  Servia  compelled  Amurath  to 
|  retire   from   Greece,   and   a  battle  was  again 
fought  on  the  plains  of  Kosovo,  in  October, 
j  1448,  in  which  the   Hungarian    army,  after  a 
desperate  defence  of  their  intrenched  camp  for 
three  days,  was  entirely  routed  with  prodigious 
loss.     Amurath  did  not  long  survive  this  crown 
ing   victory,   dying   suddenly  of  apoplexy,   on 
an    island    near    Adrianople.      III.    Born    in 
|  1545,  succeeded  his  father,  Selim  II.,  in  1574, 
i  died  Jan.  17,  1595.     His  first  act  was  to  put 
i  his  five  brothers  to  the  bowstring.     His  reign 


AMUSSAT 


AMYLENE 


is  signalized  in  Turkish  history  by  the  arrogance 
with  which  the  Turks  treated  the  representa 
tives  of  the  European  powers.  The  ambassa 
dors  were  compelled  to  observances  of  etiquette 
degrading  to  their  sovereigns,  and  the  agents 
of  the  embassies  were  subjected  to  personal  in 
dignity,  the  dragoman  of  France  having  been 
compelled  to  embrace  Islamism.  In  the  reign 
of  Amurath  III.  the  plague  ravaged  Turkey 
and  Italy.  The  war  with  Austria  was  con 
tinued,  and  a  war  which  had  commenced  with 
Persia  was  terminated  in  1590  by  a  treaty 
which  secured  to  the  Porte  the  possession  of 
Luristan,  Georgia,  Shirvan,  Tabriz,  and  part 
of  Azerbaijan.  A  depreciation  of  the  coinage 
resulted  in  a  revolt  of  the  janizaries,  who  de 
manded  the  heads  of  two  officers  of  state, 
whom  they  charged  with  having  been  the  au 
thors  of  the  depreciation.  This  revolt  extended 
itself  throughout  the  Turkish  empire,  and  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  disorder  and  insubordi 
nation  which  rendered  the  janizaries  so  cele 
brated.  The  war  with  Austria  continued  with 
varying  success  until  the  end  of  his  reign.  IV. 
Born  in  1611,  succeeded  his  uncle  Mustapha, 
Sept,  1,  1623,  at  the  age  of  12,  died  Feb.  8, 
1640.  At  the  commencement  of  his  reign  the 
empire  was  in  a  state  of  the  most  deplorable 
disorder.  The  provinces  were  rent  by  insur 
rections  and  revolts ;  the  capital  convulsed  by 
the  constant  mutinies  of  the  janizaries,  who 
were  not  to  be  pacified,  save  by  an  increase  of 
pay  or  by  the  abandonment  of  some  unfortu 
nate  vizier  to  their  brutality  ;  war  was  desolat 
ing  the  frontiers  of  the  empire.  Assuming  the 
sceptre  at  so  early  an  age,  Amurath  had  little 
power  to  amend  the  state  of  his  kingdom,  but 
with  experience  came  a  vigor  which  was  des 
tined  to  make  the  hardiest  tremble.  In  1638 
he  commenced  the  siege  of  Bagdad,  which  had 
long  resisted  the  efforts  of  the  ablest  Turkish 
generals.  On  Dec.  24  the  assault  was  made, 
and  the  city  of  the  caliphs  passed  from  the  Per 
sians  to  the  Turks.  The  garrison  of  the  citadel 
capitulated,  but  not  evacuating  the  city  at  the 
hour  promised,  30,000  Persians  were  massacred. 
Although  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign  Amurath 
had  promulgated  strict  laws  against  the  use  of 
wine,  he  afterward  abandoned  himself  to  the 
most  outrageous  drunkenness ;  and  his  fits  of 
delirious  rage  while  intoxicated  were  so  terri 
ble  that  his  people,  his  soldiers,  and  ministers 
all  dreaded  to  enter  his  presence. 

AMI  SSAT,  Jean  Znlema,  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  St.  Maixent,  department  of  Deux-Sevres, 
Nov.  21,  1796,  died  May  14,  1856.  He  com 
menced  his  career  as  a  sub-assistant  surgeon  in 
the  French  army,  and  afterward  became  assis 
tant  surgeon  at  the  hospital  of  La  Salpetriere, 
under  Esquirol,  and  prosector  at  the  faculty  of 
medicine  of  Paris.  He  invented  and  improved 
as  many  as  30  different  surgical  instruments, 
and  was  the  first  to  show  the  importance  of 
twisting  a  bleeding  artery  to  arrest  the  hem 
orrhage,  and  also  to  point  out  the  danger  of 
phlebitis  from  the  admission  of  air  into  the  veins 


during  an  operation.  His  most  important  works 
are  :  Recherches  sur  le  systeme  nerveux  (1825) ; 
Tables  synoptiques  de  la  lithotripsie  et  de  la 
cystotomie  hypogastrique  (1832) ;  Recherches  sur 
V introduction  de  Pair  dans  les  veines  (1832). 

AMYGDALOID,  a  rock  containing  almond- 
shaped  cavities.  The  term  is  for  the  most  part 
limited  to  rocks  of  the  trap  variety.  The  ve 
sicular  cavities  in  these,  as  in  the  lavas,  are  the 
result  of  the  escape  of  gases,  as  the  rocks 
cooled  down  from  a  melted  state.  Subsequent 
ly  to  their  formation  the  cavities  have  generally 
become  filled  with  some  mineral,  as  calcareous 
spar,  quartz,  agate,  chlorite,  or  a  zeolite. 

AMYL  (Gr.  d/avW,  starch),  C5Hn,  the  radical 
of  amylic  alcohol  or  potato  spirit,  a  colorless 
liquid,  with  a  somewhat  aromatic  odor,  pre 
pared  by  Frankland  in  1849  by  heating  the 
iodide  of  amyl  with  an  amalgam  of  zinc  in 
sealed  tubes  for  some  hours  at  a  temperature 
of  from  320°  to  356°  F.  It  also  occurs  as  an 
incidental  product  in  the  distillation  of  coal. 
As  it  doubles  its  molecular  constitution  when 
ever  attempts  are  made  to  isolate  it,  the  liquid 
described  by  Frankland  is  now  commonly 
called  diamyl,  and  the  formula  written  (C5 
Hi i)2.  Amyl,  or  rather  diamyl,  has  the  spe 
cific  gravity  of  0'7T  at  60°  F.,  boils  at  311°  F. ; 
becomes  thick  at  22°  F.,  but  does  not  freeze ; 
takes  fire  when  heated  and  burns  with  a  smoky 
flame ;  mixes  in  all  proportions  with  alcohol, 
but  not  with  water ;  is  not  acted  upon  by  fum 
ing  sulphuric  acid,  but  slowly  attacked  by 
nitric  and  nitro-sulphuric  acid,  and  decom 
posed  after  long  digestion  with  pentachloride 
of  phosphorus.  Amyl  by  itself  has  no  use  in 
the  arts,  but  is  interesting  to  the  scientific 
chemist  on  account  of  the  great  number  of 
substitution  products  that  have  been  derived 
from  it. — Nitrate  of  amyl  is  an  inflammable 
liquid,  lighter  than  water,  and  having  an 
odor  like  very  ripe  pears.  It  produces  in 
man,  when  inhaled  in  the  dose  of  three  or  four 
drops,  a  sudden  and  violent  acceleration  of 
the  pulse,  with  a  peculiar  flushing  of  the  face. 
In  animals  it  is  capable  of  producing  death.  It 
may  be  regarded  as  a  powerful  general  seda 
tive,  the  peculiar  action  on  man  being  due  to 
a  rapid  relaxation  of  the  muscular  walls  of  the 
arterioles,  giving  rise  to  a  suddenly  diminished 
pressure  of  the  blood  in  the  arteries  and  heart. 
Its  therapeutic  applications  are  not  yet  exten 
sive,  but  it  has  been  used  with  good  effect  in 
angina  pectoris,  and  some  other  diseases  of  a 
supposed  spasmodic  character. 

AMYLEXE,  a  transparent,  colorless,  thin  liquid, 
with  the  odor  of  decaying  cabbage,  boiling  at 
102°  F.,  vapor  density  2-43,  sp.  gr.  6-65.  ft  is 
produced  by  the  dehydration  of  amylic  alcohol 
by  sulphuric  acid  or  phosphoric  acid.  It  was 
discovered  in  1844  by  M.  Balard,  by  heating  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  with  amylic  alcohol 
or  fusel  oil,  and  in  a  compound  of  5  atoms  of 
carbon  with  10  of  hydrogen.  In  its  prepara 
tion  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution  of  chlo 
ride  of  zinc  is  heated  to  266°  F.  with  an  equal 


AMYNTAS 


ANABAPTISTS 


volume  of  amylic  alcohol,  and  the  product  dis 
tilled  from  a  water  bath  over  caustic  potash 
and  repeatedly  rectified.  It  is  very  volatile, 
mixes  with  alcohol  and  ether,  burns  with  a 
beautiful  white  flame,  combines  directly  and 
energetically  with  bromine,  the  hydracids,  and 
chloride  of  sulphur,  and  its  vapor  is  rapidly 
absorbed  by  sulphuric  anhydride  and  per- 
chloride  of  antimony.  Amylene  is  the  third 
homologue  of  olefiant  gas  or  ethylene,  and  like 
the  latter  is  the  starting  point  of  a  multitude 
of  compounds  which  are  derived  from  it  by 
addition,  substitution,  or  subtraction.  An  at 
tempt  was  made  to  substitute  it  for  chloroform 
as  an  anaesthetic  in  surgical  operations ;  but 
this  use  has  been  abandoned,  as  its  employment 
has  in  a  few  cases  led  to  fatal  results. 

AMYNTAS,  the  name  of  three  Macedonian 
kings.  L  The  son  and  successor  of  Alcetas, 
reigned  from  537  to  about  498  B.  0.  During  his 
reign  Megabazus,  the  general  of  Darius,  sent 
ambassadors  to  demand  frcwn  Macedonia  earth 
and  water,  the  tokens  of  submission.  The  weak 
Amyntas  gave  them  at  once.  He  even  invited 
the  Persian  envoys  to  a  magnificent  banquet, 
and  when,  heated  with  wine,  they  brutally 
ordered  him  to  give  up  to  them  his  wives  and 
daughters,  he  would  have  had  the  baseness  to 
obey ;  but  his  son  Alexander  disguised  as 
women  several  pages  of  the  court,  who,  when 
brought  to  the  Persians,  murdered  them  with 
their  daggers.  II.  Nephew  of  Perdiccas  II., 
died  in  309  B.  C.  He  actually  inherited  only 
Upper  Macedonia,  but  after  contesting  the  sov 
ereignty  of  the  whole  country  first  with  his 
brother,  who  defeated  him  with  the  aid  of 
foreign  allies,  and  afterward  with  the  usurper 
Pausanias,  he  became  king  of  all  Macedonia  in 
393.  He  was  again  driven  from  his  throne  by 
Argfeus,  son  of  Pausanias,  and  only  recovered 
it  with  the  help  of  the  Thessalians.  He  en 
tered  into  a  lasting  alliance  with  Sparta.  III. 
Grandson  of  the  preceding,  succeeded,  when 

g3t  an  infant,  his  father  Perdiccas  III.,  360 
.  C.,  but  was  in  the  following  year  deposed 
by  his  uncle  Philip  II.,  and  put  to  death  on  the 
accession  of  the  latter's  son,  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  charged  him  with  conspiring  against 
his  life  (336). 

A3IYOT,  Jacques,  a  French  author,  bishop  of 
Auxerre,  born  at  Melun,  Oct.  30,  1513,  died 
at  Auxerre,  Feb.  6,  1593.  After  many  arduous 
struggles  with  poverty  and  obscurity,  he  suc 
ceeded  in  acquiring  some  reputation  as  a 
teacher ;  and  through  the  patronage  of  the  sis 
ter  of  Francis  I.,  Margaret  of  Berry,  he  was 
made  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  uni 
versity  of  Paris.  Subsequently  he  obtained 
the  abbacy  of  Bellozane,  and  visited  Rome  to 
gather  materials  for  the  translation  of  Plutarch 
and  other  Greek  writers,  and  took  part  in  the 
council  of  Trent.  On  his  return  to  France  he 
became  tutor  of  Henry  II.'s  two  younger  sons, 
the  future  kings  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III., 
under  the  former  of  whom  he  was  raised  to 
the  offices  of  grand  almoner  and  curator  of  the 


Paris  university,  and  ultimately  to  the  bishop 
ric  of  Auxerre.     The  most  celebrated  of  hist 
'  works,  which  chiefly  consist  of  translations,  is 
I  the  version  of  Plutarch. 

AMYRAUT,  Moise,  a  French  Calvinist  theolo- 
!  gian,  born  in  1596,  died  in  July,  1664,  at  Bour- 
|  gueil,  in  the  province  of  Anjou.     He  was  edu- 
!  cated  at  Saumur,  where  he  was  afterward  a 
I  professor  of  divinity.     By  his  talents  and  mod- 
'  eration  he  soon  acquired  reputation  and  influ- 
|  ence.     In  1631  he  attended  the  synod  of  Cha- 
i  renton,  and  was  commissioned  to  present  to  the 
!  king  a  remonstrance  against  the  infraction  of 
i  the   edicts   of  pacification.     In  fulfilling  this 
i  mission  he   procured   the    abrogation  of  the 
i  humiliating  requirement  that  Protestant  depu- 
j  ties  should  address  the  king  only  on  their  knees. 
He  endeavored  to  bring  about  a  complete  union 
between     the   various     Protestant     churches, 
which  he  advocated  especially  in  a  Latin  tract, 
De  Secessione  ab  Ecclesia  Romano.,  deque  Pace 
inter  Evangelicos  in  Negotio  Religionis  insti- 
tuenda.     The  favor  and  respect  with  which  he 
was  treated  by  the  heads  of  the  French  govern 
ment,  Richelieu   and  Mazarin,  are   to  be  as 
cribed  to  his  opinions  concerning  the  power  of 
princes ;  he  publicly  maintained  on  several  oc 
casions  the  doctrine  of  implicit  obedience  to  the 
!  sovereign    authority.      Among  his  numerous 
I  writings,  now  nearly  forgotten,  though  popu- 
|  lar  in  their  time,  are  treatises   on   Christian 
i  morals,  on  the  natural  laws  of  marriage,  against 
indifferentism,  and  against  the  Millenarists. 

ANA,  as  a  prefix,  a  Greek  word   signifying 
over  again,  against,  and  the  like.     Its  use  is 
i  exemplified  in  Anabaptist,    anachronism,    and 
analysis.     As  a  suffix,  it  is  the  Latin  termina 
tion  of  the  neuter  plural  of  an  adjective  of  three 
|  terminations;  thus  Ciceroniana  would  be  the 
I  matters  of  any  sort  appertaining  to  Cicero.     In 
the  literature  of  the  modern  European  nations, 
it  alludes  to  the  collections  of  the  sayings  or 
|  anecdotes  of  celebrated  wits.     The  first  collec- 
i  tion  of  this  kind  was  the  Scaligeriana,  pub- 
|  lished  at  the  Hague  in  1666,  by  Vossius,  in 
Latin.     The  next  of  the  ana  was  the  Perroni- 
I  ana,  in  French,  being  notes  of  the  conversa 
tions  of  Cardinal  Duperron(1669).    Menagiana 
and  Thuana  are  also  celebrated  collections  in 
French.     French  literature  of  the  17th  century 
•  is  particularly  rich  in  this  department.     The 
ana  mania  lasted  about  half  a  century.    In  Eng 
lish,   the  "Walpoliana"  is  the  best.     German 
literature  is  not  rich  in  personal  memoirs  ;  the 
Taiibmaniana  is  the  most  famous,  and  we  have 
I  also   the  MelanchthopAana.     In  England,  the 
i  records  of  the  prize  ring  are  called  "Fistiana" 
|  and  "Boxiana."     American  literature  does  not 
!  much  affect  this  species  of  title. 

ANABAPTISTS  (Gr.  ava^a^ricrrjq,  a  rebaptizer), 
:  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  all  those  sects  of 
;  modern  times  of  which  rebaptism  has  been  a 
I  distinguishing  mark.  The  justice  of  the  appel- 
!  lation  has  never  been  acknowledged  by  those  to 
I  whom  it  has  been  applied.  In  receiving  con- 
i  verts  to  their  communion,  they  administered 


ANABAPTISTS 


449 


baptism,  not  as  repeating  the  sacred  rite,  but  as 
a  valid  baptism,  in  place  of  one  which  was  im 
perfect  or  void.  Thus,  the  Baptists  repel  the 
name  Anabaptists,  not,  as  some  suppose,  for 
the  mere  purpose  of  repudiating  an  alleged 
connection  with  the  fanatics  of  the  reforma 
tion,  but  because  it  does  not  represent  correct 
ly  their  practice.  They  baptize,  as  they  allege, 
according  to  the  original  institution  of  the  rite, 
and  there-fore  claim  to  be  Baptists;  they  never 
repeat  baptism  in  the  case  of  any  who,  in  their 
judgment,  have  been  so  baptized ;  and  they 
therefore  deny  that  they  are  Anabaptists.  It 
may  be  doubted  whether  the  word,  as  now 
applied  to  Baptists,  is  not  always  intended  as 
a  reproach  ;  certainly  it  should  be  excluded  in 
that  application  from  respectable  modern  liter 
ature,  as  giving  an  unnecessary  otfence. — The 
title  belongs  historically  to  large  classes  of  peo 
ple  who  sprung  up  in  various  countries  of 
Europe  during  the  period  of  the  reformation. 
Though  applied  to  them  against  their  remon 
strances,  it  has  become  fixed  in  literature  as  a 
historical  term,  and  is  too  convenient  for  prac 
tical  purposes  to  be  expelled  by  any  considera 
tions  of  critical  justice.  Whether  these  vari 
ous  classes  agreed  or  not  in  things  more  essen 
tial  ;  whether  they  were  furious  and  fanatical, 
or  gentle  and  pious ;  whether  setting  up  mock 
kingdoms  by  force  of  arms,  or  conscientiously 
abstaining  from  the  use  of  arms  altogether, 
they  were  alike  in  the  visible  thing  of  repeat 
ing  baptism,  and  hence  were  designated  by  a 
common  name,  and  too  often  visited  with  com 
mon  penalties  and  maledictions.  It  is  the  busi 
ness  of  the  historian  to  discriminate  between 
these  classes,  to  look  beyond  names  for  histor 
ical  facts,  and  to  redeem  from  the  reproach  of 
many  generations  great  numbers  of  people 
whose  faith  was  in  essential  harmony  with  the 
faith  of  Protestantism,  whose  lives  were  pure, 
and  whose  deaths  were  a  rare  and  honorable 
martyrdom.  In  this  historical  discrimination 
something  has  been  already  effected.  Illustra 
tions  generally  accessible  may  be  found  in 
Burners  "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Eng 
land,"  Brandt's  "  History  of  the  Reformation 
in  the  Netherlands,"  Mosheim's  "Institutes  of 
Ecclesiastical  History,"  and  especially  in  the 
"Dutch  Marty rology,"  published  by  the  Ilan- 
serd  Knollys  society,  London,  under  the  edi 
torial  care  of  Edward  B.  Underbill. — Precisely 
when  or  where  the  Anabaptists  of  the  refor 
mation  period  first  appeared,  whether  in  Ger 
many  or  Switzerland,  it  is  difficult  if  not  im 
possible  to  determine.  They  sprung  up  like 
rank  vegetation,  under  sudden  and  refreshing 
rains,  after  drought  and  sterility.  The  solu 
tion  of  the  problem  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  seeds  were  in  the  soil.  The  better  classes 
uf  them  claimed  a  descent  from  the  Waldenses, 
the  Wycliffites,  and  the  Hussites,  who  had 
struggled1  for  a  church  separated  from  the 
world  and  distinguished  by  the  holiness  of  its 
members.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  ideas 
like  these  must  have  been  working  'in  the 
VOL.  i.— 29 


minds  of  multitudes  in  various  countries. 
When,  therefore,  the  reformation  came,  open 
ing  the  Bible  to  the  people,  announcing  its 
revelations  as  the  highest  law,  and  inviting  the 
human  mind  to  freedom  of  thought,  these  prin 
ciples  acquired  sudden  and  prodigious  force. 
Ardent  minds,  bent  in  the  direction  of  a  prim 
itive  Christianity,  and  of  a  social  order  corre 
sponding  thereto,  were  dissatisfied  with  the 
partial  reformation  which  contented  Luther 
and  Zwingli,  and  demanded  more.  This  de 
mand,  sharpened  by  discussion,  became  a  pop 
ular  movement,  and,  pushed  to  its  last  develop 
ment,  took  the  opposite  directions,  on  the  one 
hand,  of  a  wild,  ungovernable,  and  licentious 
fanaticism,  subversive  of  all  social  order,  and  on 
the  other,  of  a  mystical  though  sincere  and  gen 
uine  piety,  characterized  by  some  harmless  ec 
centricities  of  faith  and  by  separation  from  the 
world.  These  parties,  so  diverse  in  character 
and  tendencies,  went  under  the  common  name 
of  Anabaptists,  because  they  were  distinguished 
by  the  common,  visible  badge  of  rebaptism. — 
The  usual  references  in  illustration  of  the  charac 
ter  of  the  furious  Anabaptists  are  the  following : 
In  1521  they  made  their  appearance  at  Zwick 
au,  and,  accepting  as  their  leader  Thomas 
Miinzer,  took  part  in  the  peasants'  war,  and 
shared  its  sanguinary  results.  Munzer  and  his 
associates  are  represented  as  having  claimed  a 
divine  commission  not  only  to  establish  a  com 
munity  of  holy  persons,  but  also  to  extirpate 
magistrates  by  the  sword.  He  excited  his  fol 
lowers  to  revolt  against  the  civil  authorities, 
and  assured  them  of  the  immediate  deliver 
ance  of  Christendom  from  the  grievous  oppres 
sions  of  its  rulers.  They  were  totally  defeated, 
May  15,  1525,  near  Miihlhausen,  and  the 
leaders  were  put  to  death.  Itinerant  prophets 
still,  however,  spread  the  principles  of  the 
sect.  They  declaimed  against  the  wickedness 
of  the  times,  and  demanded  a  community  of 
saints,  without  distinction  of  rank  or  office. 
They  claimed  an  internal  light,  which  was  of 
more  value  than  learning  in  interpreting  divine 
revelation.  No  Christian  might  exercise  the 
functions  of  a  magistrate  or  take  an  oath. 
Property  was  to  be  shared  in  common  among 
the  faithful.  In  1533  they  began  to  concen 
trate  their  operations  at  Minister.  John  Mat 
thias  of  Haarlem  and  John  Boccold  of  Ley- 
den  were  their  leaders.  They  had  gained 
over  to  their  cause  Rothmann,  the  preacher 
who  introduced  the  reformation  into  that 
city,  and  Knipperdolling,  a  leading  citi 
zen.  Seizing  the  arsenal  and  the  senate  house, 
they  placed  Matthias  at  the  head  of  aifairs,  and 
his  authority  became  arbitrary  and  complete. 
The  inhabitants  were  trained  to  military  duty, 
the  fortifications  were  strengthened,  and  tjie 
faithful  were  invited  to  come  from  every  quarter 
to  aid  the  struggles  and  share  the  triumphs  of 
Mount  Zion,  from  which  they  were  to  proceed 
to  the  conquest  of  the  world.  Count  Waldeck, 
prince  and  bishop  of  Miinster,  surrounded  the 
city  with  an  army.  Matthias  sallied  out  and 


4:50 


ANABAPTISTS 


1   ANABAS  SOANDENS 


gained  signal  advantages.  His  fanaticism  rose 
with  his  success,  and,  issuing  forth  again  with 
only  30  followers  relying  on  their  spiritual  pre 
tensions,  was  with  all  of  them  put  to  death. 
John  Boccold  was  now  raised  to  the  throne  of 
David,  in  ohedience  to  divine  commands  made 
known  in  visions.  He  wore  a  crown,  clothed 
himself  in  purple,  coined  money,  and  appointed 
judges.  But  the  fanaticism,  when  it  had 
reached  the  height  of  spiritual  folly,  passed  hy 
an  easy  transition  to  license  and  sensuality.  The 
obligations  of  matrimony  were  declared  invasive 
of  spiritual  liberty,  and  freedom  of  divorce  and 
licentiousness  followed.  King  John  himself 
multiplied  his  wives,  honoring,  however,  one 
of  them  only  as  his  queen.  The  example  of  the 
monarch  was  not  lost  upon  the  people,  and  the 
name  of  Minister  during  the  reign  of  the  Ana 
baptists  has  passed  to  history  as  the  synonyme 
of  unbridled  and  indecent  lust.  The  city  was 
taken  June  24,  1535,  after  a  brave  defence,  in 
which  Rothmann  was  slain.  John  Boccold,  arid 
Knipperdolling  and  Krechting,  leading  associ 
ates,  were  tortured  with  red-hot  pincers,  and 
then  hung  up  in  iron  cages,  which  are  still  pre 
served  in  Miinster.  Thus  in  15  months  per 
ished  the  kingdom  of  the  Anabaptists.  Even 
now,  however,  the  delusion  did  not  cease. 
It  subsided  indeed  into  its  more  spiritual  char 
acter,  and  its  excesses  were  chietly  individual 
and  local.  But  the  fanaticism  of  this  class  of 
Anabaptists  remained  the  reproach  of  the  re 
formation,  and  the  terror  of  civil  society. — 
There  was  another  class  of  Anabaptists,  widely 
different  from  those  who  have  been  described. 
In  some  instances,  undoubtedly,  when  the  for- 
'mer  class  fell  back  upon  their  purely  spiritual 
views,  the  two  parties  coalesced.  Brandt  re 
fers  to  an  instance  in  which  the  moderate 
were  brought  into  difficulty  by  being  found 
in  such  association  with  the  fanatical.  The 
distinction,  however,  is  real,  and  may  be  traced. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  rejection  of 
infant  baptism  during  the  reformation  was 
found  among  the  unlearned  only.  Melanch- 
thon,  Zwingli,  and  (Ecolampadius  were  all 
troubled  by  the  questions  which  arose  respect 
ing  the  adjustment  of  this  rite  to  the  personal 
faith  required  by  Protestantism.  Some  of  those 
who  became  leaders  of  the  Anabaptists  were 
the  associates  and  equals  of  these  reformers. 
Mantz,  G rebel,  and  Ilubmeyer  were  men  of 
learning — the  last  of  great  genius  and  elo 
quence.  Mantz  had  been  the  friend  and  fel 
low  student  of  Z^yingli,  and  was  an  early  mar 
tyr  in  the  cause  of  the  Anabaptists,  Zwingli 
himself  pronouncing  his  sentence  in  the  words, 
"  Qui  iterum  mergit,  mergatnr"  The  persecu 
tion  of  such  men  and  their  followers  in  Swit 
zerland  shocked  the  moderate  of  all  parties. 
In  expressing  his  views  of  this  persecution, 
Erasmus  pays  a  tribute  to  the  character  of  the 
sufferers  in  these  words:  UA  people  against 
whom  there  is  very  little  to  be  said,  and  con 
cerning  whom  we  are  assured  there  are  many 
who  have  been  reformed  from  the  worst  to  the 


best  lives;    and  though,  perhaps,   they  may 
foolishly  err  in  certain  opinions,  yet  have  they 
never  stormed  towns  nor  churches,  nor  entered 
into  any  combinations  against  the  authority  of 
the  magistrate,  nor  driven  anybody  from  his 
government  or  estate."      These  people,  so  per 
secuted,  demanded  a  church  composed  of  spir 
itual  persons,  introduced  into  it  by  a  voluntary 
baptism.     They  demanded  likewise  the  separa 
tion  of  the  church  from  the  state,  and  the  non 
interference  of  the  magistrate  in  matters  of  re 
ligion.      Anabaptists   of  the  same  class  were 
found  in  the  Netherlands  in  large   numbers. 
The  record  of  their  sufferings,  their  martyrs 
multiplied  by  thousands,  furnishes  a  melancholy 
and  affecting  chapter  in  human  history.      Wil 
liam  of  Orange,  founder  of  the  Dutch  republic, 
was  sustained  in  the  gloomiest  hours  of  his 
struggles  by  their  sympathy  and  aid,  and  has 
left  his  testimony  to  their  loyalty,  industry,  and 
virtue.      That  great   prince,    however  impor 
tuned,  steadfastly  refused  to  persecute  them. 
The  same  class  were  found  in  England  during 
i  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  Burnet  declares 
I  that  books,  not  flames,  were  used  in  reply  to 
i  their  arguments. — One  of  the  doctrinal  peculi- 
I  arities  of  the  Anabaptists,  which  seems  to  have 
|  been  almost  universal  among  them,  related  to 
I  the   origin    of  the   human   nature    of  Christ. 
I  They  denied  that  he  took  his  flesh  of  Mary,  ex 
plaining  his  incarnation  by  a  higher  miracle. 
I  Doubts  have  arisen,  on  the  one   hand,  as  to 
I  whether  they  believed  in  the  reality  of  his  human 
i  nature,  and  on  the  other,  as  to  whether  they 
believed   him   to   be   a   divine    person.      The 
records  of  the  examination  of  some  of  them 
|  before  the  courts  ought  to  remove  all  questions 
I  of  this  kind.      They  believed  fully  in  his  com- 
i  plete  humanity,  and  their  answers  show  that 
their  questionings  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  his 
human  nature  did  not  necessarily  imply  any 
departure  from  the  common  views  of  his  divin 
ity.     Menno  Simonis  became  their  chief  leader, 
and  the  instrument  of  their  organization  into 
a   recognized   body  of  Protestant   Christians. 
Mennonites  and  Anabaptists  have  from  his  time 
j  been  interchangeable  terms,  and  the  communi 
ties  so  called  have  descended  to  the  present  age. 
[  (See  MENNO  SIMONIS,  and  MENNONITES.) 

MABAS  SCANDENS  (Cuv.),  an  acanthopte- 
rygious  fish,  of  the  family  of  lalyrinthilran- 
chidce,  and  the  only  species  of  the  genus.  This 
family,  which  has  been  known  from  remote 
antiquity,  is  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  struc 
ture  of  some  of  the  pharyngeal  bones  and  for 
the  serrations  of  the  gill  covers.  The  palate 
is  toothless;  the  jaw  teeth  are  villiform,  the 
outer  ones  the  strongest;  the  lower  is  tooth 
less  in  front,  but  far  back  among  the  three  supe 
rior  pharyngeal  s  the  teeth  are  crowded,  conical, 
and  large.  The  head  is  round  and  wide,  and 
its  scales,  as  well  as  those  of  the  body,  are 
large,  hard,  and  strong  ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
are  of  nearly  equal  height;  the  branchiostegal 
rays  are  six.  The  inferior  and  three  posterior  up 
per  pharyngcals  are  of  the  usual  form,  and  provi- 


ANABASIS 


ANACONDA 


451 


ded  with  teeth ;  but  the  two  other  upper  pharyn- 
geals  on  each  side  are  dilated  into  thin  and  con 
voluted  lamime,  capable  of  retaining  a  considera 
ble  amount  of  water;  this  labyrinth  communi 
cates  with  tbe  gills  by  a  small  opening  which  ! 
may  be  entirely  closed.     The  water  enters  this 
cavity  every  time  the  fish  opens  its  mouth,  and 
may  be  retained  for  a  considerable  period.     A  j 
fish  dies  out  of  water,  not  from  immediate  want  j 
of  oxygen,  but  because  the  gills  become  dry  i 
and  improper  for  its  transmission.     The  anabas  j 
can  live  many  hours  and  perhaps  days  on  the  | 
land,  as  the  water  contained  in  its  pharyngeal  i 
receptacle  trickles  slowly  over  the  gills  and  j 
keeps  them  moist  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  i 
which  leaves  the  rivers  and  pools,  and  crawls  j 
by  means  of  its  fins  and  tail  considerable  dis-  | 
tances.     Another  peculiarity  of  this  fish  is  the  j 
number  of  sharp  spines  which  project  from  the  i 
edge  of  the  operculum  and  suboperculum,  the  ! 
latter  being  uncommonly  movable.    The  specific  j 
name  is  derived  from  its  alleged  habit  of  climb-  I 
ing  trees,  which   it  is  said  to  do  by  fixing  its  | 
opercular  spines  in  the  bark,  flexing  its  tail,  and 
fastening  the  spines  of  the  anal  fin ;  then  de 
taching  the  head,  it  throws  itself  forward,  to 
recommence  the  planting  of  the  anal  spines.    It 
certainly  moves  on  land  in  this  way,  and  may 
perhaps  ascend  low  trees,  though  this  is  denied 
by  some  writers.     It  inhabits  the  streams  and 
pools  of  India  and  the  Indian  islands,  living 
principally  on  aquatic   insects ;    it   is  used  as 
food,  though  small  and  full  of  bones ;  it  grows 
from  6  to  10  inches  long.     It  is  brought  alive 
to  the  Calcutta  markets  from  a  distance  of  over 
150  miles;  from  its  being  found  at  a  great  dis-  ! 
tance  from  water,  the  natives  believe  that  it 
falls  from  the  heavens. 

ANABASIS,  a  Greek  word  signifying  originally  ; 
ascension,  then  a  campaign  or  march  from  a  \ 
lower  to  a  superior  region ;  for  example,  from  j 
the  shores  of  a  sea  to  the  interior  of  a  country. 
In  this  signification  the  word  forms  the  title  to 
two  historical  works  of  antiquity :  the  one,  by 
Xenophon,  describing  the  anabasis  or  campaign 
of  Cyrus  the  Younger  against  his  brother  Ar- 
taxerxes  II.,  and  the  celebrated  retreat  of  the 
10,000  Greeks,  auxiliaries  of  Cyrus,  from  the 
battlefield  of  Cunaxa,  where  that  prince  per 
ished,  to  the  shores  of   the  Euxine;  and  the 
other  by  Arrian,  relating  the  anabasis  or  cam 
paigns  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

ANABLEPS,  a  genus  of  soft-rayed  fishes  of  the 
carp  family  (cyprinidas),  so  named  because  the 
division  of  the  cornea  and  iris  by  transverse 
ligaments  gives  the  appearance  of  double  eyes, 
from  the  dumb-bell-shaped  pupil.  The  lens, 
retina,  and  vitreous  humor  are  single.  As  one  | 
half  of  each  eye  apparently  looks  upward  and  j 
the  other  half  downward,  they  have  been  pop 
ularly  called  four-eyed  fishes.  The  A.  Gronorii 
or  tetropJithalmus,  of  Surinam  and  Cuyuni 
rivers,  is  about  10  inches  long,  with  a  cylindri 
cal  body  and  strong  scales,  flattened  head,  and 
blunt  snout  with  the  upper  jaw  the  longer. 
This  genus  is  also  viviparous,  but  the  vascular 


adhesion  of  the  embryonic  membranes  is  rup 
tured  long  before  the  birth  of  the  young,  in 
stead  of  at  the  time  of  exclusion  as  in  mam 
mals  ;  the  gestation  is  almost  wholly  ovarian. 
(See  FISHES.) 

ANACHARSIS,  a  Scythian  philosopher  who 
made  his  appearance  at  Athens  in  the  early 
part  of  the  6th  century  B.  C.  He  became  very 
intimate  with  Solon,  and  was  so  esteemed  for 
his  virtue,  learning,  and  sagacity,  that  some 
ranked  him  among  the  seven  wise  men.  He 
was  made  a  citizen  of  Athens,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  even  initiated  into  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries.  According  to  Herodotus,  he  was 
killed  by  his  brother  after  his  return  to  his 
native  country.  Many  of  the  sayings  of  Ana- 
charsis  have  been  preserved  by  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius,  Athenaaus,  and  other  ancient  writers. 

AXACLETUS.  I.  A  saint  and  pope  of  the  Ro 
man  church,  according  to  some,  the  second  after 
St.  Peter,  and  a  martyr  under  Domitian  in  91 ; 
according  to  others,  martyred  about  109,  hav 
ing  succeeded  Clement  I.  as  the  fifth  bishop  of 
Rome.  II.  An  anti-pope,  whose  original  name 
was  Peter  de  Leon.  He  was  said  to  be  of  Jew 
ish  descent,  was  born  in  Italy,  and  educated  at 
the  university  of  Paris.  He  entered  the  order 
of  Cluny,  and  was  afterward  cardinal  and 
legate  of  Pope  Calixtus  II.  both  in  England 
and  France.  He  was  elected  pope  in  1130  by 
a  portion  of  the  cardinals  in  opposition  to  In 
nocent  II.,  and  was  sustained  by  the  Romans, 
Milanese,  and  Sicilians.  In  spite  of  the  arms 
of  the  emperor  Lothaire  and  the  opposition  of 
other  sovereigns  and  of  the  clergy  generally, 
Anacletus  maintained  himself  at  Rome  till  his 
death,  Jan.  7,  1138. 

AJVACONDA  (eunectes  murinus,  Wagler),  a  large 
serpent  of  .the  boa  family,  found  in  most  parts 
of  intertropical  America.  The  genus  boa,  which 
contains  the  large  American  serpents,  has  been 
made  to  include  many  species  which  do  not  be- 


Anaconda  (Eunectes  murinus). 

long  to  it,  among  others  the  anaconda ;  and  we 
find  accordingly  this  species  named  boa  scytale, 
boa  murina,  boa  gigas,  and  boa  aquatica,  by 
various  authors.  The  genus  eunectes  may  be 
distinguished  from  all  others  of  the  boa  family 
by  the  nostrils  opening  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
end  of  the  muzzle,  and  looking  directly  up 
ward  ;  this  peculiarity,  added  to  their  very 
small  size,  the  little  space  between  them,  and 


4:52 


ANACONDA 


AN/ESTHETICS 


their  crescentic  form,  which  allows  them  to  be 
completely  shut,  indicates  the  aquatic  habits 
which  we  know  characterize  the  anaconda. 
Other  generic  characters  are  the  three  plates 
which  surround  the  nostrils,  the  plates  which 
cover  the  anterior  half  of  the  top  of  the  head 
and  the  scales  which  cover  it  posteriorly,  the 
flat  and  smooth  scales  of  the  body,  and  the  un 
divided  plates  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail. 
The  head  is  comparative^  small,  conical,  very 
flat  below,  and  truncated  in  front ;  the  body  is 
considerably  larger  in  the  middle  than  at  either 
extremity ;  the  tail,  less  prehensile  than  in  the 
boas,  forms  about  one  sixth  of  the  total  length. 
The  eyes,  which  are  small,  are  so  placed  that 
the  animal  can  see  at  the  same  time  objects 
above  and  before  it,  a  provision  common  to  all 
water  serpents.  The  mouth  is  perfectly  straight, 
and  armed  with  strong  teeth  gradually  dimin 
ishing  in  size  in  the  four  series  ;  the  number  is 
16  on  each  side  in  each  jaw,  5  on  the  palate, 
and  10  on  the  pterygoid  bones.  The  scales  of 
the  body  are  lozenge-shaped,  and  nearly  of  the 
same  size,  except  those  of  the  sides,  which  are 
two  or  three  times  larger  than  the  rest ;  on  the 
trunk  there  are  about  60  longitudinal  and  375 
transverse  rows ;  on  the  tail  there  are  over  80 
transverse  and  about  36  longitudinal  rows. 
The  plates  or  scutellaB  of  the  abdominal  region 
are  very  narrow,  and  about  250  in  number, 
and  of  the  tail  from  60  to  73.  The  colors 
are  simpler  than  in  the  boas,  being  blackish 
green  above  in  the  adults,  and  olive  brown 
in  the  young ;  on  the  temples,  between  two 
lines  of  pure  black,  is  a  wide  yellow  band  ex 
tending  obliquely  from  the  eye  to  behind  the 
angle  of  the  mouth  ;  the  back  and  tail  present 
large  oval  disks  of  deep  black,  disposed  in  two 
series  alternating  with  each  other,  and  oc 
casionally  coalescing ;  along  each  side  is  a  single 
or  double  row  of  black  rings  contrasting  finely 
with  the  yellow  ground  color;  the  color  be 
neath  is  ochre  yellow  with  black  quadrangular 
spots,  isolated  or  confluent.  The  anaconda  is 
the  largest  serpent  of  America,  and  is  only 
equalled  in  size  by  some  of  the  pythons  of 
the  old  world ;  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  mu 
seums  20  feet  long,  and  it  probably  attains  a 
considerably  larger  size,  though  the  accounts 
of  travellers  are  generally  much  exaggerated  in 
this  respect.  The  Guianas  and  Brazil  are  the 
tavorite  and  perhaps  the  exclusive  resorts  of 
the  anaconda.  It  lives  mostly  in  the  water, 
and  is  fond  of  shallow  places,  where  it  remains 
with  all  but  the  head  submerged  watching  for 
its  prey ;  it  swims  rapidly,  in  an  eel-like  man 
ner,  and  can  pass  a  long  time  beneath  the  sur 
face  ;  it  is  occasionally  seen  floating  lazily  with 
the  current ;  it  is  also  in  the  habit  of  stretching 
itself  on  the  sand  or  on  the  rocks,  on  a  river's 
bank,  or  along  the  trunk  of  a  fallen  tree,  where 
it  lies  in  wait  for  animals  which  come  to  drink. 
Its  ordinary  food  consists  of  agoutis,  small  ro 
dents,  iguanas,  fish,  and  occasionally  a  monkey, 
sloth,  or  ant-eater ;  it  crushes  its  prey  in  its 
strong  folds,  and,  seizing  it  with  its  teeth,  swal 


lows  it  very  slowly,  head  first.  The  time  of 
impregnation  is  the  winter  months,  when  the 
natives  attack  it  Avith  guns,  arrows,  and  even 
clubs ;  it  is  sluggish  in  its  motions  on  land, 
and  timid,  and  not  at  all  feared  ;  it  is  very 
tenacious  of  life.  The  natives  use  the  skin  for 
shoes  and  bags,  the  fat  for  the  purposes  of  oil, 
and  the  flesh  for  food.  It  is  ovoviviparous. 
Only  one  species  of  the  genus  is  described. 

ANACREON,  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  Teos 
in  Ionia  about  561  B.  C.  When  that  city  was 
taken  by  the  Persians,  about  540  B.  C.,  he 
emigrated  to  Abdera  in  Thrace,  whence  he 
afterward  went  to  Samos,  and  spent  several 
years  at  the  court  of  Polyerates.  On  the 
death  of  Polyerates  he  was  invited  to  Athens 
by  the  tyrant  Ilipparchus,  who  sent  a  vessel  for 
him.  Here  he  formed  an  intimacy  with  Simo- 
nides  and  other  poets.  He  left  Athens  prob 
ably  on  the  murder  of  Ilipparchus  in  514,  and 
died  in  the  85th  year  of  his  age,  but  the  place 
of  his  death  is  uncertain.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  choked  by  a  grape  stone.  We  possess 
only  a' few  genuine  fragments  of  the  poems  of 
Anacreon.  His  favorite  themes  were  love  and 
wine ;  his  distinguishing  characteristics  licen 
tiousness,  gracefulness,  and  fervor.  The  best 
editions  are  by  Fischer  (8d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1793) 
and  Mehlom  (Glogau,  1825),  and  of  the  sepa 
rate  fragments  that  of  Bergk  (Leipsic,  1834). 

ANADYOMENE  (Gr.,  emerging),  a  surname 
given  to  a  picture  of  Venus  rising  from  the 
ocean.  Apelles  was  the  first  who  painted  her 
in  this  posture  as  she  rose  from  the  sea,  and 
was  drying  her  hair  with  her  hands.  This 
picture  was  bought  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
island  of  Cos,  and  put  in  their  temple  of  ^Escu- 
lapius.  The  emperor  Augustus  bought  it  of 
them  for  the  remission  of  100  talents  tribute, 
took  it  to  Rome,  and  placed  it  in  the  temple 
of  Venus  Genitrix.  In  Nero's  time  it  was 
nearly  washed  out,  and  was  repaired. 

ANADYR,  or  Anadir.  I.  An  extensive  gulf 
or  sea  of  Asia,  at  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  Sibe 
ria,  lying  between  Cape  St.  Thaddee  and  Cape 
Tchukotskoi,  of  late  years  much  resorted  to 
for  whales.  II.  A  river  of  Siberia,  having  its 
source  in  Lake  Yoanko  in  the  Stanovoi  moun 
tains,  about  lat.  66°  30'  N.,  Ion.  173°  E.  It 
traverses  the  central  portions  of  the  Tchuktchi 
country  in  N.  E.  Siberia,  flows  first  W.,  then 
E.,  and  after  a  course  of  about  500  m.  falls 
into  an  inlet  of  the  gulf  of  Anadyr.  The  coun 
try  through  which  it  passes  is  rocky  and  bar 
ren,  and  covered  with  snow  about  nine  months 
in  the  year. 

ANJ2MIA.  See  BEAIN,  DISEASES  or  THE,  and 
CHLOROSIS. 

ANAESTHETICS  (Gr.  av,  privative,  and  aladdvo- 
fiai,  I  feel),  substances  Avhich  can  produce  a 
general  or  partial  suspension  of  nervous  sensi 
bility.  In  the  common  acceptation  of  the 
term  should  be  included  all  drugs  which  have 
the  faculty  of  so  acting  upon  the  brain  that 
this  effect  can  be  caused ;  for  instance,  all  the 
forms  of  narcotics  and  diffusible  stimulants. 


ANESTHETICS 


453 


But  by  general  consent  this  title  is  now  con-  i 
lined  to  the  most  volatile  forms  of  chemical 
agents  which  can  produce  the  effect  when  in-  , 
haled  or  applied  externally,  and  the  effects  of  j 
which  are  transitory;  the  terms  narcotization  ' 
and  coma  being  applied  where  a  long-contin-  ; 
ued  effect  is  caused  by  other  agents.    The  gen-  ! 
eral  action  of  all  anaesthetic  agents  is  through 
the  medium  of  the  blood,  into  which  they  are  j 
taken  either  from  the  lungs,  the  stomach,  or  j 
by  the  skin,  and  carried  by  the  circulation  to 
the  brain,  where  they  produce  a  profound  but 
transient  state  of  intoxication.     Anaesthesia  is  ; 
said  to  be  either  general   Or   local:    general, 
when  all   power  of  sensibility  is   suspended; 
local,  when  only  a  particular  part  of  the  body  j 
is  affected,  the  brain  and  the  rest  of  the  system  ', 
remaining  as  ordinarily.  Loss  of  sensation  in  re 
stricted  portions  of  the  body  has  been  attempted 
in  various  ways,  as  by  long  pressure  upon  the  : 
nervous  trunks  leading  to  the  part,  first  put  in  i 
operation  by  Ambroise  Pare,  afterward  adopted 
by  Dr.  Moore,  about  1784;  the  application  of  >. 
carbonic  acid  gas,  recommended  by  Dr.  Hick-  i 
man  in  1828,  a  procedure  which  was  revived  ] 
by  the  late  Dr.  Simpson ;    the  application  of  j 
the  various  ethers,  especially  chloroform  ;  and  I 
by  a  true  freezing  of  the  part,  as  recommended  ; 
by  Dr.  James  Arnott  of  London,  who  employ 
ed  for  the  purpose  a  mixture  of  pounded  ice  | 
and  common  salt  enclosed  in  a  muslin  bag.  \ 
The  most  useful  method  has  been  found  to  be  j 
the  employment  of  ether  spray,  directed  in  a 
continuous  stream  upon  the  part  by  means  of  ; 
an  atomizing  apparatus.     Various  anaesthetic 
agents  have  been  employed  at  different  times 
— the  several  kinds  of  ethers,  nitric,  acetic,  '• 
sulphuric,  &c.,  protoxide  of  nitrogen  ("laugh 
ing  gas  "),  aldehyde,  olefiant  gas,  naphtha,  car-  j 
bu retted  hydrogen,  Dutch  liquid,  benzoin,  chlo-  ; 
roform,  and  amyleno,  a  substance  introduced  i 
by  Dr.  Snow  of  London  ;    but  none  of  them 
liave  proved  so  successful,  or  are  now  so  gen-  ! 
erally  used,  as  sulphuric  ether  and  chloroform,  j 
This  latter  substance  was  discovered  in  1831,  ; 
but  its  chemical  composition  was  not  accurately  j 
known  till  1834.     (See  CHLOROFORM.)     Its  use  j 
for  the  same  purpose  as  sulphuric  ether  was  ! 
first  proposed  by  Dr.  J.  Y.  Simpson  of  Edin 
burgh,  in  1847.     The  advantages  claimed  for  | 
it  over  ether  are  the  smallness  of  the  dose  re-  i 
< paired,  a  more  perfect  action,  less  depression 
when  the  heart  or  lungs  are  diseased,  a  more  ! 
rapid  effect,  less  disgust  to  the  patient  during 
inhalation,    absence   of    persistent    odor,    and  ! 
lastly,  that  it  is  cheaper.     But  as  unfortunately  j 
it  has  happened  that  several  deaths  have  oc-  j 
curred  from  its  use,  it  cannot  be  looked  upon  i 
as  so  safe  an  agent  as  ether,  from  the  use  of 
which,  no  matter  in  how  large  quantities  or 
how  carelessly,  not  one  death  has  yet  been  re-  | 
ported.     The  benumbing  of  the  nerves  of  sen-  | 
sation  by  the  administration  of  narcotic  drugs  | 
has  been  practised  for  many  years,  and,  as  rec-  j 
ords  show,  was  known  to  the  ancients ;   but  | 
with  the  exception  of  certain  traditions  as  re-  ! 


gards  the  use  in  the  East  of  tbe  mandrake  (atro- 
pa  mandragora)  and  hashish  (cannabis  Indicd) 
in  the  form  of  vapor  for  this  purpose,  we  have 
no  proofs  that  anaesthetic  inhalation  was  ever 
employed.  Richard  Pearson  recommended  the 
inhalation  of  sulphuric  ether  for  asthma,  &c.,  in 
1795  ;  and  in  1810  Nysten  described  an  instru 
ment  for  its  use.  In  Sir  Humphry  Davy's  "  Re 
searches  concerning  Nitrous  Oxide,"  published 
in  1800,  is  this  remark:  "As  nitrous  oxide  in 
its  extensive  operation  seems  capable  of  destroy 
ing  physical  pain,  it  will  probably  be  used  with 
advantage  during  surgical  operations  in  which 
no  great  effusion  of  blood  takes  place."  Dr.  J. 
C.  Warren  of  Boston  prescribed  ethereal  inha 
lation  for  the  relief  of  pulmonary  inflammation 
in  1805,  and  Mr.  Wesley  Smead  of  Cincinnati 
published  an  article  on  this  treatment  in  1822. 
The  power  of  the  ethers  to  produce  insensibil 
ity  was  mentioned  by  Godman  in  1822,  Mitch- 
ill  in  1832,  Prof.  Samuel  Jackson  in  1833,  and 
Wood  and  Bache  in  1833.  But  its  application 
as  an  agent  for  the  relief  of  pain  during  sur 
gical  operations  was  first  publicly  made  at  the 
Massachusetts  general  hospital  in  Boston,  Oct. 
16,  1846,  by  Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton  of  that  city, 
who  subsequently  secured  a  patent  for  the  use 
of  the  article  under  the  name  of  "letheon." 
On  Jan.  2  of  the  next  year  a  new  claimant 
for  the  discovery  came  before  the  public,  in  the 
person  of  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson  of  the  same 
city ;  and  still  later  the  same  claim  was  ad 
vanced  in  behalf  of  Dr.  Horace  Wells  of  Hart 
ford.  (See  JACKSOX,  MOETOX,  and  WELLS.) — The 
objects  gained  by  the  administration  of  anaes 
thetics  are  various,  according  as  we  have  to 
do  with  surgery,  midwifery,  or  medicine.  In 
surgery:  1.  A  protracted  and  careful  examina 
tion,  and  consequently  more  accurate  diagno 
sis,  can  be  made  in  many  cases  of  disease  and 
injury,  where  the  intense  pain  caused  by  the 
examination  prevents  the  manipulation  of  the 
surgeon,  as  in  fractures,  dislocations,  and  stone. 
2.  From  the  total  relaxation  which  the  mus 
cles  receive  under  a  full  dose,  the  reduction  of 
many  forms  of  dislocation,  hernias,  &c.,  is  facil 
itated.  3.  In  military  service,  under  its  influ 
ence,  men  can  be  removed  to  a  distance  where 
the  operation  can  be  conveniently  performed,  in 
stead  of  as  formerly  being  obliged  to  operate 
upon  the  field  of  battle  or  in  places  otherwise 
unfavorable.  4.  The  general  use  of  many 
forms  of  remedial  operation  is  extended,  which 
otherwise  are  attended  with  such  exquisite 
agony  that  they  were  rarely  resorted  to  unless 
from  most  extreme  necessity,  as  for  instance  the 
application  of  the  actual  cautery  and  moxas. 
5.  Many  operations  can  now  be  performed  for 
the  relief  of  long-continued  disease,  or  after 
injury,  which  before  would  have  been  haz 
ardous,  owing  to  the  depressed  or  feeble  state 
of  the  patient.  6.  Many  delicate  operations  can 
now  be  easily  performed  where  perfect  quiet 
is  demanded  of  the  patient,  and  which  can 
hardly  be  afforded  by  any  amount  of  exercise 
of  the  will,  as  in  operations  upon  the  eye,  dis- 


454: 


ANESTHETICS 


section  of  nerves,  or  the  taking  up  of  arte 
ries.  7.  Patients  will  now  apply  earlier  than 
heretofore  for  relief  in  surgical  diseases,  the 
dread  of  the  surgeon's  knife  often  having  in 
duced  them  to  postpone  it  until  the  case  be 
came  almost  hopeless.  8.  The  mortality  from 
operations  has  materially  decreased,  for  it  is 
well  known  that  pain  has  a  serious  tendency 
to  depress  the  nervous  system  and  produce 
death  from  exhaustion. — In  midwifery:  1.  In 
addition  to  preserving  the  mother  from  the  pain 
always  incident  to  parturition,  we  have  the 
power  of  preserving  her  strength  unimpaired 
when  the  labor  is  long  continued  or  especially 
severe.  2.  In  all  cases  of  instrumental  labor 
or  those  requiring  manual  assistance,  the  aid 
can  be  afforded  with  greater  ease  to  the  ac 
coucheur  and  more  safety  and  less  accompany 
ing  suffering  to  the  mother.  3.  Many  cases  in 
doubt  in  diagnosis  can  be  more  correctly  solved. 
4.  From  the  relaxation  of  the  muscular  fibres, 
the  exit  of  the  child  through  the  uterine  neck 
or  the  vaginal  passage,  when  they  are  rigid,  is 
facilitated.  5.  Anesthetics  have  the  power  of 
keeping  in  abeyance  and  reducing  the  violence 
of  one  of  the  worst  complications  of  labor, 
puerperal  convulsions.  6.  The  recovery  of 
the  patient  after  labor  is  assisted,  and  the 
chances  of  subsequent  dangers  lessened. — In 
medicine:  1.  As  a  relief  from  severe  or  ex 
hausting  pain  in  disease,  as  from  toothache, 
passage  of  calculi,  or  neuralgia.  2.  As  a  nar 
cotic  in  mania,  delirium  tremens,  excitement, 
or  wakefulness  from  any  cause.  3.  As  an  anti- 
spasmodic  for  cholera,  hysteria,  asthma,  convul 
sions,  &c.  They  have  also  been  employed  in 
the  treatment  of  many  inflammatory  diseases, 
fevers,  &c.  They  are  found  very  useful  in  the 
detection  of  feigned  diseases,  as  affected  paral 
ysis,  dumbness,  or  contraction  of  limbs.  They 
have  been  sometimes  employed  for  nefarious 
purposes  in  cases  of  violence,  where  a  strug 
gle  or  noise  was  feared. — The  first  effects  of  all 
anaesthetics,  or  when  they  are  taken  in  small 
quantities,  is  exhilarating  and  intoxicating  as 
from  any  diffusible  stimulant,  evidenced  by 
bursts  of  laughter,  hysterical  weeping,  or  loud 
unmeaning  talk.  When  long  continued  or  in 
large  doses,  there  ensues  a  general  feeling  of 
warmth,  extra  power,  and  excitement  gener 
ally,  first  felt  in  the  extremities,  soon  followed 
by  a  prickling  benumbed  sensation,  with  confu 
sion  of  ideas,  noises  in  the  ears,  usually  com 
pared  to  the  vibration  of  an  engine  from  one 
side  of  the  head  to  the  other,  and  flashes  of 
light  'before  the  eyes.  This  is  soon  followed 
by  loss  of  sensation  and  voluntary  motion,  and 
total  coma.  The  patient  is  generally  observed 
to  become  a  little  flushed  in  the  face,  the  veins 
of  the  forehead  turgid,  the  eyes  suffused  and 
staring  open,  and  the  pupils  dilated.  The  pulse 
is  generally  increased  at  the  commencement  of 
inhalation,  but  becomes  decreased  often  lower 
than  natural  when  the  system  is  fully  under  the 
influence,  which  is  the  time  chosen  for  the  per 
formance  of  all  great  surgical  operations.  The 


respiration,  which  is  slightly  quickened  at  first, 
becomes  slower  and  deeper  in  the  somnific  state. 
The  temperature  of  the  body  remains  generally 
of  the  ordinary  standard,  but  becomes  slightly 
reduced  when  the  influence  is  long  continued. 
The  effects  of  the  anaesthetic  generally  disap 
pear  soon  after  the  administration  is  discon 
tinued,  and  the  patient  returns  to  consciousness 
with  merely  a  slight  tendency  to  sleep  and 
dizziness,  and  with  no  recollection  of  anything 
which  has  happened  during  the  inhalation. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  recovery  is  attended 
with  nausea  or  vomiting,  which  most  often 
happens  when  the  drug  is  taken  on  a  full  stom 
ach  ;  for  this  reason  it  should  not  usually  be 
given  until  several  hours  after  a  meal  has  been 
eaten.  No  person  has  yet  been  found  to  with 
stand  the  influence,  but  the  effect  is  seen  much 
sooner  and  more  quietly  in  some  than  in  others. 
Anaesthetics  should  not  generally  be  used 
in  diseases  of  the  heart  or  brain,  or  when 
there  is  excessive  degeneration  of  the  lungs. 
When,  from  an  over-dose  or  the  inattention 
of  the  giver,  the  patient  seems  likely  to  sink, 
and  respiration  is  suspended,  the  vapor  should 
be  removed  from  the  mouth  at  once,  the  pa 
tient  laid  in  a  reclining  position,  free  access  of  air 
allowed,  cold  water  dashed  upon  the  chest  and 
face,  and,  if  necessary,  artificial  respiration 
made,  sinapisms  placed  on  the  feet,  and  galvan 
ism  used. — Many  instruments  have  been  devised 
for  inhalation,  but,  as  often  happens,  the  sim 
plest  means  is  usually  the  best.  The  most  ad 
visable  plan  for  administering  is  to  fold  a  coarse 
towel  into  the  form  of  a  small  cone,  and  place 
in  the  bottom  a  small  sponge  containing  the 
liquid.  At  the  commencement  the  sponge  should 
be  held  at  a  small  distance  from  the  mouth,  and 
the  patient  be  directed  to  inhale  by  deep  and 
long-continued  inspirations,  notwithstanding  the 
cough.  As  he  gets  more  and  more  under  the 
influence,  it  should  be  approached  to  the  face, 
but  it  is  imperatively  necessary  that  there  should 
be  a  free  admission  of  atmospheric  air.  Par 
ticular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  condi 
tion  of  the  pulse.  It  is  now  generally  conceded 
that  chloroform  is  much  more  dangerous  to  life 
than  ether.  Ether  should  therefore  be  cm- 
ployed  in  preference,  unless  special  circum 
stances  make  it  imperative  to  select  chloroform 
as  the  anesthetic  agent.  If  chloroform  be  used, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  its  vapor  is  hea 
vier  than  the  air,  and  consequently  sinks;  care 
should  also  be  taken  to  guard  the  skin  from  its 
irritating  properties  by  smearing  slightly  with 
oil  or  glycerine.  If  ether  be  used,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  have  any  lighted  candles  or  gas 
jets  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  patient,  as  the 
vapor  of  ether  is  exceedingly  inflammable,  and 
very  serious  consequences  might  result  i'rom  its 
accidentally  taking  fire.  The  ratio  of  power 
of  ether  and  chloroform  is  considered  as  about 
8  to  1  in  favor  of  the  latter,  this  producing  its 
effect  in  from  30  to  60  seconds,  the  former  on 
an  average  in  from  3  to  4  minutes.  The  dose 
of  chloroform  is  from  30  drops  to  1  oz. ;  that 


ANAGNI 


ANALYTICAL   GEOMETRY       455 


of  ether  is  of  almost  any  quantity,  as  much  as 
two  quarts  having  been  employed  in  some  long- 
continued  and  severe  operations. 

ANAG1VI  (anc.  Anaijnia),  a  town  of  Italy, 
about  40  in.  S.  E.  of  Rome;  pop.  about  7,500. 
Anagnia  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Latium,  the  capital  of  the  Ilernici,  and  an  early 
antagonist  of  Rome.  It  is  the  residence  of 
some  of  the  most  powerful  families  of  Italy, 
and  it  has  given  birth  to  several  Roman  pon 
tiffs,  among  others  to  Gregory  IX.,  Alexander 
IV.,  and  Boniface  VIII. 

ANAGRAM  (Gr.  avo,  backward,  and  y/wfy///a, 
letter),  the  transposition  of  the  letters  form 
ing  a  word  or  sentence  into  a  new  word  or 
sentence  having  some  bearing  upon  the  sub 
ject  of  the  former  one ;  as,  Honor  est  a  Nilo, 
formed  from  the  letters  in  the  name  of  Horatio 
Nelson.  To  make  a  true  anagram,  every  letter 
of  the  original  words  must  be  retained  in  the 
transposition,  and  no  new  one  must  be  added. 
In  ancient  times  anagrams  were  regarded  as 
prophetic,  or  as  embodying  a  direction  to  the 
man  on  whose  name  they  were  made;  it  is 
said  that  Pierre  de  St.  Louis  became  a  Carmel 
ite  monk  on  finding  that  his  name,  Ludovicus 
Bartelemi,  could  be  transposed  into  Carmelo 
se  devoir  et.  Satirical  anagrams  were  very 
common  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries;  Cam- 
den,  the  English  historian,  devoted  a  treatise 
to  them,  and  many  of  the  most  learned  men 
spent  their  leisure  in  making  them  upon  the 
names  of  their  contemporaries.  Perhaps  the 
best  anagram  ever  made  is  the  one  which  trans 
poses  Pontius  Pilate's  question  to  Christ — Quid 
est  verita*?  (What  is  the  truth?)— into  the 
answer,  E*t  xir  gni  adest  (It  is  the  man  who 
is  before  you).  The  following  are  a  few  excel 
lent  anagrams:  Arthur  Wellesley,  duke  of 
Wellington — ''Let  well-foiled  Gaul  secure  thy 
renown."  Napoleon  Bonaparte — "No,  appear 
not  at  Elba."  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte — 
•'Arouse,  Albion;  an  open  plot."  For  some 
curious  anagrams,  and  their  history,  see  the 
introduction  to  "Macaronic  Poetry,"  by  James 
Appleton  Morgan  (New  York,  1872). 

ANAHIAC,  an  aboriginal  name,  signifying,  in 
the  Nalmatl  or  ancient  Mexican  language,  by 
or  near  the  water ;  from  att,  water,  and  nahuac, 
near.  The  name  has  come  to  be  applied  spe 
cifically  to  the  valley,  or  rather  the  plateau  of 
the  city  of  Mexico,  although  in  the  early  writers 
we  find  references  to  several  Anahuacs;  as, 
for  instance,  Anahuac-Ayotlan  and  Anahuac- 
Xicalanco,  the  latter  applied  to  the  district 
around  the  lake  or  lagoon  of  Xicalanco  in 
Tabasco.  From  the  circumstance  of  their 
having  established  themselves  originally  around 
the  lakes  of  Clialco  and  Tezcuco,  the  tradi 
tional  tribes  of  Mexico  have  been  called  Ana- 
hualtecas,  people  living  by  the  water.  It  is 
alleged  that  these  tribes  came  from  some 
northern  region,  supposed  by  some  to  have 
been  from  Asia  by  way  of  Behring  strait,  and 
that  the  ruins  of  ancient  edifices,  known  as 
casas  grandes,  in  New  Mexico  and  Chihuahua, 


mark  the  path  of  their  migration.  It  is,  how 
ever,  known  to  critical  students  that  their 
original  seats,  figuratively  represented  as  seven 
caves,  were  somewhere  in  the  vicinity,  proba 
bly  on  some  of  the  islands,  of  Lake  Michoacan  ; 
and  that  when  they  reached  the  region  of 
Anahuac,  they  were  simple  barbarians,  clothed 
in  skins  and  living  by  the  chase.  Around  the 
lakes  of  Mexico,  however,  they  found  the 
feeble  remnants  of  a  people  far  advanced  in 
civilization,  agriculturists  and  architects — the 
Tulhuatecas,  a  name  corrupted  by  uncritical 
writers  into  Toltecs.  These  Tulhuatecas  were 
unable  to  resist  the  irruption  of  the  seven  war 
like  tribes,  but  gradually  taught  them  agricul 
ture  and  the  arts,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  Tezcucan  and  Mexican  empires,  in  which 
civilization  and  barbarism,  lofty  religious  pre 
cepts  and  the  most  cruel  rites,  were  incon 
gruously  mingled.  The  Anahualtecas  were 
precisely  the  people  better  known  as  Aztecs 
(see  AZTECS);  and  the  name  of  Anahuac  is 
now  only  understood  as  applying  to  the  plateau 
of  the  city  of  Mexico. — This  great  table  land 
comprises  three  fifths  of  the  territory  belong 
ing  to  the  Mexican  republic,  and  has  an  eleva 
tion  of  4,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  E.  and  W.  it  is  bounded  by  the  two 
great  chains  of  mountains  into  winch  the  Cor 
dillera  of  Central  America  io  subdivided  in 
its  northward  progress.  Out  of  this  plateau 
rise  many  lofty  mountains,  including  the  stu 
pendous  volcanoes  of  Jorullo  and  Popocatepetl, 
but  it  is  generally  level. 

ANAITIS,  or  Analiid,  an  oriental  goddess, 
anciently  worshipped  by  the  Lydians,  Arme 
nians,  Cappadocians,  and  Assyrians.  The  clas 
sical  writers  identify  her  sometimes  with  Di 
ana,  sometimes  with  Venus,  and  she  appears 
to  have  combined  the  attributes  of  both  these 
goddesses.  Her  temple  was  magnificent,  her 
statute  golden,  her  worship  most  lascivious. 

ANALYTICAL  GEOMETRY,  a  branch  of  mathe 
matical  science  which  consists  in  the  applica 
tion  of  algebra  to  geometry.  It  may  be  divided 
into  three  parts,  according  to  the  branch  of 
geometry  to  which  the  algebra  is  applied.  1. 
Applying  algebra  to  elementary  geometry,  it 
furnishes  means  for  the  easy  solution  of  the 
most  intricate  problems,  the  simplification  of 
demonstrations,  the  finding  of  constructions, 
the  discovery  of  new  propositions,  etc.  2.  The 
application  of  algebra  to  the  conic  sections  and 
other  curves  has  simplified  this  study  and  great 
ly  expanded  the  knowledge  of  the  higher  geom 
etry,  which  treats  of  other  curves  than  the 
circle.  3.  Its  application  to  the  system  of 
coordinates  in  space,  invented  by  Descartes, 
gave  birth  to  a  new  view  of  the  geometry  of 
space,  simplifying  and  expanding  largely  that 
branch  called  stereometry.  1st.  In  the  solution 
of  geometrical  problems  by  algebra  the  figures 
are  drawn  as  if  the  problem  was  solved,  and  if 
necessary,  such  additional  lines  as  may  establish 
known  relations  between  the  different  quan 
tities  ;  then  the  known  and  unknown  quantities 


456 


ANAM 


are  expressed  by  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and 
the  relation  between  them  are,  if  possible,  ex 
pressed  in  algebraic  formulas  or  equations ; 
these,  rightly  treated  after  the  rules  of  algebra, 
give  in  the  end  an  expression  in  known  quan 
tities  equivalent  to  the  unknown  quantities. 
The  results  indicate  the  solution,  either  a 
manner  of  construction  or  a  new  geometrical 
relation,  or  it  reveals  an  unknown  property  or 
theorem.  2d.  In  order  to  apply  algebra  to 
curved  lines  in  general,  use  is  made  of  the 
method  of  coordinates  invented  by  Descartes. 
It  consists  simply  in  accepting  two  lines  drawn 
through  one  point,  by  preference  perpendicular 
one  to  the  other,  and  defining  the  position  of 
any  point  by  its  distance  from  either  line  or 
coordinate ;  these  distances  are  respectively 
called  the  abscissa  and  ordinate,  and  customarily 
expressed  by  the  signs  #and  y.  Selecting  nowr 
such  a  point  successively  at  various  places  of 
an  arbitrary  line,  there  will  be  a  certain  rela 
tion  between  these  distances,  that  is,  between 
x  and  T/,  which  may  be  expressed  by  an  equa 
tion;  the  simplest  equation  is  y  =  ax,  or  y= 
ax  +  c,  which  is  an  equation  of  the  first  de 
gree,  and  the  equation  of  the  straight  line.  If 
the  line  is  a  parabola,  the  equation  will  be  of 
the  second  degree,  and  in  its  simplest  form  is 
y  —  a  x'\  or  y  =  ax~  +  c.  All  the  other  conic 
sections  can  be  expressed  by  equations  of  the 
second  degree.  Every  curved  line  has  in  this 
way  its  corresponding  equation  of  the  third, 
fourth,  or  some  other  higher  degree  ;  for  in 
stance,  the  so-called  cissoid  corresponds  to  the 
equation  if  =  (a  +  ;r)3  -=-  (a  —  x),  3d.  But  the 
grandest  application  of  this  ingenious  method 
of  expressing  positions  of  points  was  the  next 
step  made  by  Descartes  of  constructing  co 
ordinate  planes,  being  three  planes  inter 
secting  at  one  point,  by  preference  at  right 
angles,  forming  thus  a  trihedral  angle.  (See 
ANGLE.)  The  position  of  any  point  in  space 
is  thus  determined  by  its  distance  from  each 
of  these  three  planes  or  faces  of  the  angle. 
In  such  case  there  are  of  course  three  distances 
to  be  considered,  x,  ?/,  and  2,  requiring  two 
equations  to  determine  the  nature  of  a  line. 
For  instance,  y  =  ax  +  c  and  x  =  cz  +  d  is  the 
equation  for  a  straight  line  in  space,  while  y  — 
ax*  +  c  and  x  =  cz"  +  d  represents  the  equation 
of  a  parabolic  curve  of  double  curvature,  that 
is,  one  which  cannot  be  laid  on  a  plane  sur 
face,  but  a  parabola  drawn  on  a  parabolic  sur 
face.  Of  course  the  number  of  different  curved 
lines  is  as  infinite  as  the  number  of  different 
possible  equations.  This  part  of  analytical 
geometry  has  given  rise  to  the  foundation  of  a 
much  simpler  but  very  useful  and  practical 
branch,  by  the  great  French  mathematician 
Monge,  namely,  descriptive  geometry. 

ANAM,  or  Annam,  sometimes  called  from  one  of 
its  provinces  COCHIN  CHINA,  an  empire  occupy 
ing  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula,  between  lat.  8°  30'  and  23°  30'  N., 
and  Ion.  100°  and  109°  E.,  and  bounded  N".  by 
China,  E.  and  S.  by  the  China  sea,  "W.  by  Siam, 


and  N".  "W.  by  Burmah;  area  about  200,000  sq. 
in. ;  pop.  probably  about  15,000,000.  Before 
the  French  conquests  (1859-'62)  the  empire 
included  three  distinct  provinces  and- part  of  a 
fourth,  Cambodia.  long-King  or  Tonquin,  the 
largest  province,  occupies  the  northern  part 
and  borders  on  China;  Cochin  China  proper, 
or  Dang-Trong,  extends  southward  in  a  nar 
row  strip  along  the  eastern  coast ;  Tsiampa 
forms  a  continuation  of  this  strip  still  further 
south ;  while  that  portion  of  Cambodia  formerly 
belonging  to  Anam  extends  to  the  delta  of  the 


Cambodia  river.  Besides  these  provinces,  a 
portion  of  the  territory  occupying  the  moun 
tainous  centre  of  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula, 

;  and  inhabited  by  the  Laos  and  Moi  tribes — 

\  primitive  peoples  living  under  patriarchal  chiefs 
of  their  own — is  also  under  the  dominion  of 
Anam  ;  but  as  these  tribes  are  also  tributary  to 

\  Siam  and  other  countries,  and  as  they  profess 
allegiance  now  to  one,  now  to  another,  the 

\  extent  of  the  Anamese  dominion  is  indefinite. 

i  A  considerable  range   of  mountains    extends 


ANAM 


AKASTASIA 


through  the  whole  length  of  the  empire,  paral-  j 
lei  with  the  eastern  coast,  and  about  30  m.  dis-  | 
tant    from    it.      From    these    How   numerous  | 
rivers,  which,  though  generally  too  shallow  for  j 
easy  navigation,  thoroughly  irrigate  the  coun-  j 
try.      The  great    river  Mekong  or  Cambodia,  j 
emptying  into  the  China  sea  and  gulf  of  Siam  i 
by  many  mouths,  richly  fertilizes  that  part  of 
Cambodia  formerly  subject  to  Anam,  but  now 
under  French  rule  as  a  part  of  French  Cochin 
China.      Throughout    the    southern    part    of  | 
Anam,  but  especially  near  this  delta,  the  coun 
try  produces  great  abundance  of  rice,  sugar, 
spices,    and  tropical   fruits.      The    mountains 
supply    excellent     timber    for     ship-building,  j 
besides  ebony  and  other  valuable  woods.     The  | 
inhabitants  of  the  northeastern  coast  live  in  I 
great  part  from  the  product  of  the  fisheries. — 
The  Anamese  are  a  people  somewhat  akin  to  I 
the  Chinese  in  language  and  in  many  of  their  | 
most  important  customs ;  but  they  also  partake 
largely  of  the  Malay  characteristics,  and  evi 
dently  form  a  link  between  the  Mongolian  and 
Malay  races.     They  are  generally  quiet  and  in 
offensive,  indolent  and  fond  of  gayety.     They  i 
wear  their  hair  long  and  gathered  in  a  knot  on  j 
the  .top  of  the  head,  have  little  beard,  and  dress 
in  simple  frocks  and  wide  trousers  of  cotton  or  I 
silk.    Many  Chinese  merchants  live  among  them,  ; 
and  carry  on  commerce,  which  the  natives  neg-  I 
lect,  in  rice,  indigo,  and  silk.     The  last  the  Ana-  i 
mese  manufacture  with  considerable  skill,  but  I 
•they  have  few  other  industries.    Their  religion  is 
professedly  Buddhism,  and  the  higher  classes  j 
even  adopt  Confucianism ;  but  they  are  not  a  re-  i 
ligious  people.    The  social  customs  of  the  Ana-  j 
mese  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Chinese ;  ! 
but  though  the  women  are  much  oppressed, 
they  are  not  obliged  to  live  in  seclusion.     Wed 
dings  and  funerals  are  celebrated  with  great 
ceremony.    The  mountain  tribes  already  noticed 
claim  to  be  the  aborigines,  and  have  their  own 
religions  and  customs.     (See  LAOS.) — Anam  is  i 
governed  by  an  emperor  with  absolute  power ;  ! 
and  under  him  are  the  mandarins,  or  officials, 
forming  a  nobility  sharply  distinguished  from  ' 
the  body  of  the  people.   Embassies  are  annual-  j 
ly  sent  to  Peking,  but  Anam  no  longer  pays  ' 
tribute  to  the  Chinese  empire.     Mandarins  ap-  ! 
pointed  by  the  emperor  govern  the  provinces, 
and  control  the  standing  army,  which  is  com-  ; 
paratively  large.    The  capital  of  the  country  is 
Hue,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  | 
name. — The    early   history   of   Anam    is    in-  : 
volved  in  obscurity.     It  is  only  known  that 
frequent  wars  with   neighboring   powers   de-  j 
termined  its  boundaries,  and  that  the  empire 
was  formerly  entirely  subject   to  China.     In 
the  latter  half  of  the  13th  century  Marco  Polo 
visited  the  country.     The  Portuguese  were  the 
first   Europeans  who   actually   resided   there. 
In  the  17th  century,  when  Anam  was  in  its  | 
greatest    prosperity,    the    Jesuits    introduced 
Christianity,  and  propagated  it  with  such  ener 
gy  that  by  the  close  of  the  18th  century  French 
priests  had  converted  the  emperor,  Gya-Long,  | 


and  established  a  hierarchy  of  great  influence. 
The  succeeding  emperors,  however,  rejected 
its  doctrines  and  persecuted  priests  and  con 
verts.  The  present  emperor,  Tu-Duc,  has  es 
pecially  opposed  Christianity  ;  and  the  murder 
of  several  missionaries  between  1854  and  1858 
seemed  to  the  French  government  a  sufficient 
cause  for  revenge,  while  it  served  as  a  pretext 
for  the  acquirement  of  a  French  colony  in  the 
East.  In  1858  a  French  fleet,  assisted  by  sev 
eral  Spanish  vessels,  captured  Turon,  a  town 
near  the  capital,  Hue.  In  1859  the  French 
took  Saigon,  an  important  town  on  the  river 
Saigon.  After  an  obstinate  resistance  on  the 
part  of  the  Anamese,  who  succeeded  in  pro 
longing  the  war  for  four  years,  the  French, 
who  had  taken  many  towns  and  the  whole 
province  of  Saigon,  dictated  terms  of  peace  by 
which  they  became  possessors  of  that  province 
as  well  as  of  Bienhoa  and  Mytho ;  these  remain 
in  their  possession  and  form,  under  the  name 
of  Cochin  China,  the  only  important  French 
colony  in  the  East.  (See  Cocnix  CIIIXA.)  By 
the  treaty,  three  ports  in  Tonquin  were  opened, 
and  Christianity  was  permitted  throughout 
Anam.  An  insurrection  took  place  in  Decem 
ber,  1862,  but  it  was  quelled  by  the  French. 

ANAMBOE,  a  seaport  town  on  the  Gold  Coast 
of  Africa,  10  m.  E.  of  Cape  Coast  Castle;  pop. 
about  5,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  considerable 
trade,  and  formerly  had  a  large  traffic  in  slaves. 
The  British  fort  here  is  the  strongest  on  the 
coast.  The  exports  are  gold  dust,  ivory,  palm 
oil,  and  peanuts;  and  the  imports  are  silks, 
tobacco,  wines,  guns,  and  cutlery. 

ANANIAS,  the  name  of  three  persons  men 
tioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  I.  A  dis 
ciple  at  Jerusalem,  who,  having  sold  his  prop 
erty  for  the  common  cause,  conspired  with  his 
wife  Sapphira  to  give  in  a  part  of  the  price  and 
reserve  the  rest,  representing  that  he  gave  all. 
Peter  is  related  to  have  discovered  the  im 
pious  fraud  at  once,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
have  avenged  it  by  striking  both  the  deceivers 
dead.  II.  A  devout  man  who  dwelt  at  Da 
mascus,  and  who  is  recorded  to  have  been 
warned  in  a  vision  to  go  and  find  Paul,  and 
restore  him  to  sight,  after  he  had  been  struck 
blind  at  his  conversion.  According  to  tradi 
tion,  he  was  afterward  bishop  of  Damascus  and 
a  martyr.  III.  A  high  priest  before  whom 
Paul  was  brought  for  trial  at  Jerusalem,  and 
who  commanded  Paul  to  be  smitten  on  the 
mouth  (Acts  xxii.).  Paul  being  sent  from  this 
tribunal  to  Felix,  Ananias  among  others  went 
up  to  accuse  him  of  being  ua  pestilent  fellow 
and  a  mover  of  seditions,"  &e.  He  was,  ac 
cording  to  Josephus,  nominated  to  his  office  by 
Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  A.  D.  48,  sent  to  Rome 
in  52  to  answer  before  Claudius  a  charge  of 
oppression  brought  forward  by  the  Samaritans, 
at  a  later  period  deposed,  and  finally  assas 
sinated  at  the  beginning  of  the  Jewish  Avar. 

ANASTASIA,  the  name  of  several  saints  of  the 
Roman  and  Greek  churches.  I.  Auastasia  the 
Eider  was  a  martyr  of  the  time  of  Xero,  a  pupil 


458 


ANASTASIUS 


ANATHEMA 


of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  Her  festival  day  is 
April  15.  II.  Anastasia  the  lounger,  of  an 

eminent  Roman  family,  was  brought  up  in  the 
Christian  faith  by  her  mother  Flavia,  perse 
cuted  by  her  heathen  husband  Publius,  and 
finally  burned  in  Aquileia,  in  303.  Her  day  is 
Dec.  25.  III.  Auastasia,  the  daughter  of  an 
eminent  Greek  family  of  Constantinople,  at 
tracted  by  her  beauty  the  attention  of  the  em 
peror  Justinian.  She  resisted  his  dishonorable 
proposals  and  retired  to  Alexandria,  where  she 
lived  for  23  years  as  a  monk,  her  sex  remain 
ing  unknown  till  her  death  in  507.  Her  day  is 
March  10. 

ANASTASIUS,  the  name  of  four  popes.  I. 
Saint,  occupied  the  Roman  see  398-402.  He 
was  contemporary  with  Jerome,  Chrysostom, 
and  Augustine,  and  is  remarkable  for  having 
condemned  various  axioms  and  writings  of  Ori- 
gen.  Several  letters  by  him  are  extant.  II. 
Saint,  pope  from  490  to  498.  A  letter  from  him 
to  Clovis  on  his  conversion  and  some  frag 
ments  on  the  eastern  schism  are  preserved. 
III.  From  911  to  913.  His  rule  was  gentle, 
but  no  details  of  his  life  are  known.  IV.  From 
July  9,  1153,  to  Dec,  2,  1154.  He  had  pre 
viously  been  greatly  distinguished  as  governor 
of  Rome,  and  as  pope  favored  the  knights  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

ANASTASIUS,  the  name  of  two  emperors  of 
Constantinople.  I.  Surnamed  Dicorus,  born 
about  430,  died  in  518.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
lifeguard  (silentiarii)  of  the  emperor  Zeno,  on 
whose  death  in  491  he  was  proclaimed  emperor 
through  an  intrigue  with  the  empress  Ariadne, 
whom  he  soon  afterward  married.  Though 
more  than  00  years  of  age,  he  began  his  stormy 
reign  by  suppressing  with  great  ability  a  rebel 
lion  organized  against  him  by  Longinus,  Zeno's 
brother,  who  had  aspired  to  the  throne,  and  by 
two  other  natives  of  the  Isaurian  province, 
whose  names  were  also  Longinus.  Rebellions, 
plagues,  earthquakes,  and  a  severe  famine  filled 
the  next  years  of  his  reign  with  hardship  for 
the  people  and  difficulty  for  the  emperor;  and 
finally  the  Persians  under  their  king  Cabades 
invaded  the  empire  with  such  success,  that 
Anastasius  was  compelled  to  purchase  peace 
by  an  enormous  tribute  (505).  In  the  opening 
years  of  the  Gth  century  Anastasius  became  in 
volved  in  the  religious  disputes  of  the  time,  and 
was  anathematized  by  Pope  Symmachus  for 
favoring  the  Eutychian  heresy.  II.  Originally 
named  Artemius,  chosen  emperor  in  713  as 
successor  to  Philippicus,  whose  minister  he  had 
been.  He  began  his  reign  by  punishing  Rufus, 
the  traitor  who  had  deposed  Philippicus.  In 
715  he  undertook  an  expedition  against  the 
Arabs,  but  it  was  rendered  futile  by  the  mutiny 
of  many  of  the  sailors  of  his  fleet.  The  muti 
neers  proclaimed  as  emperor  one  Theodosius,  a 
government  official,  who  besieged  Constantino 
ple  and  Nicaea,  in  which  latter  place  Anastasius 
was  when  attacked.  The  latter  was  driven 
from  the  throne  (710),  and  retired  to  a  monas 
tery,  while  the  rebel  became  emperor  as  Theo 


dosius  III.  In  the  reign  of  Leo  III.  Anastasius 
endeavored  to  regain  the  throne,  but  was  de 
feated  and  put  to  death  (721). 

ANASTOMOSIS  (Or.  ava,  through,  and  cr6fia, 
mouth),  the  communication  or  inosculation  of 
different  blood  vessels  by  opening  one  into  the 
other.  In  the  arteries  it  is  comparatively  rare, 
as  these  vessels  divide  and  separate  from  each 
other,  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  the  blood 
to  different  organs.  Nevertheless,  it  always 
exists  in  certain  situations,  where  the  principal 
trunk  is  liable  to  compression,  and  where  this 
compression  would  have  the  effect  of  shutting 
off  all  nourishment  from  the  parts  beyond  were 
there  no  other  means  of  vascular  communica 
tion.  Thus  the  arterial  branches  situated  above 
and  below  the  principal  joints  anastomose  with 
each  other ;  and  if  the  main  artery  of  the  limb 
is  compressed  or  tied,  the  blood  still  finds  its 
way  to  the  parts  below  by  this  circuitous  route 
of  communication.  The  arteries  supplying  the 
intestines  also  communicate  freely  with  each 
other,  so  that  the  circulation  is  not  interrupted 
by  the  folding  or  bending  of  the  parts  upon 
each  other.  The  most  remarkable  instance  of 
arterial  anastomosis  is  that  at  the  base  of  the 
brain,  where  the  two  principal  arteries  entering 
the  skull  from  behind,  namely,  the  right  and 
left  vertebral,  unite  in  a  single  trunk,  which 
afterward  divides  and  sends  branches  forward 
on  each  side  to  inosculate  with  the  two  internal 
carotid  arteries,  which  themselves  afterward 
communicate  with  each  other  by  a  transverse 
anastomosis  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  brain. 
Thus  there  is  at  the  base  a  continuous  vascular 
circle  or  ring,  called  the  "circle  of  Willis,"  sup 
plied  with  blood  at  the  same  time  from  four 
different  arteries,  the  two  carotids  and  the  two 
vertebrals,  and  from  which  branches  are  sent 
off  to  the  various  parts  of  the  cerebral  sub 
stance.  In  the  veins  anastomosis  is  much  more 
frequent,  even  the  larger  veins  of  the  upper  and 
lower  limbs  seldom  continuing  far  in  their 
course  without  giving  and  receiving  branches  of 
communication  with  adjacent  veins.  Thus  a 
passage  for  the  blood  from  the  extremities  to 
ward  the  heart  is  constantly  kept  open,  notwith 
standing  the  compression  to  which  these  vessels 
are  liable  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  and 
accidental  pressure.  In  the  capillary  blood 
vessels,  finally,  anastomosis  is  abundant  and 
constant.  All  the  capillary  blood  vessels,  in 
fact,  inosculate  with  each  other  in  every  direc 
tion,  and  in  such  profusion  as  to  form  a  net 
work  or  plexus  of  minnto  vessels,  with  corre 
sponding  interspaces  or  islets  included  between 
the  meshes.  This  provides  for  a  continuous 
and  uniform  supply  of  blood  to  every  part  of 
the  organ,  and  brings  the  blood  into  close  con 
tact  with  the  substance  of  its  tissue. 

ANATA.     See  ANATHOTII. 

ANATHEMA  (Gr.  avd07^a,  from  avaridr^i,  I 
set  apart),  in  the  Greek  classics,  anything  set 
apart  as  an  offering  to  the  gods,  applied  to  the 
numerous  votive  gifts  which  were  suspended 
upon  the  walls  of  temples  or  exposed  upon 


ANATIIOTII 


ANATOMICAL   PREPARATIONS  459 


public  altars.  By  change  of  usage  it  after 
ward  became  the  name  of  anything  devoted  to 
the  infernal  gods,  anything  execrated  and  ex 
ecrable,  causing  the  abhorrence  of  men.  In 
this  sense  it  was  adopted  by  the  Christian 
church  as  the  synonyme  of  the  Hebrew  'herem, 
which  signifies  both  a  thing  devoted  to  God 
and  extermination,  and  which  was  used  by  the 
Jews  in  pronouncing  the  ban  of  excommuni 
cation.  The  Old  Testament  gives  many  exam 
ples  of  'herem  or  anathema.  Moses  pronounced 
the  anathema  against  those  Canaanitish  cities 
which  should  refuse  to  submit  to  the  Lord,  and 
Joshua  declared  everything  captured  in  Jericho 
'herem,  and  punished  Achan  for  violating  the 
ban.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is  used  in  the 
sense  of  "set  aside"  or  "accursed."  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  it  is  a  sentence  pro 
nounced  against  heretics  and  schismatics,  or 
against  those  who  wilfully  and  obstinately  per 
severe  in  a  course  of  conduct  which  the  church 
condemns.  It  implies  exclusion  from  the  com 
munion  and  society  of  the  faithful,  who  are 
taught  to  regard  the  object  of  this  ecclesiastical 
penalty  as  one  who  by  his  crimes  has  cut  him 
self  off  from  the  church  and  merited  the  flames 
of  hell.  The  anathema,  however,  is  not  sup 
posed  to  be  a  sentence  of  eternal  reprobation  ; 
it  is  a  temporal  punishment,  similar  in  its 
effects  to  excommunication.  Most  of  the  dog 
matical  decrees  of  the  church  close  with 
anathemas  against  all  who  presume  to  deny 
them.  Thus  the  council  of  Trent  employs  it 
against  such  as  deny  the  existence  of  purga 
tory,  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence,  &c. 

ANATHOTH,  a  town  of  ancient  Palestine,  the 
birthplace  of  Jeremiah,  about  4  in.  N.  of  Jeru 
salem.  It  was  in  the  possession  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin,  and  a  city  of  priests.  It  was 
once  a  considerable  place,  but  is,  according  to 
Robinson,  identical  with  the  present  Anata,  an 
insignificant  village.  Anata  is  in  the  top  of 
the  high  range  of  hills  north  of  Jerusalem,  and 
commands  a  prospect  of  the  Dead  sea.  It 
was  in  Anathoth  that  Jeremiah  bought  the 
field  (witnessed  by  Baruch),  as  a  symbol  of 
the  return  from  the  captivity. 

ANATOLIA.     See  ASIA  MIXOE. 

ANATOMICAL  PREPARATIONS,  the  skeleton 
and  other  portions  of  the  dead  body  preserved 
from  decomposition  by  various  artificial  meth 
ods,  for  the  use  of  medical  schools  or  science. 
The  soft  parts  are  usually  separated  from  the 
skeleton  by  long-continued  maceration  in  cold 
water,  or  by  steaming  or  boiling ;  the  bones 
are  bleached,  and  the  articulations  held  to 
gether  by  means  of  wires.  This  is  called  an 
artificial  skeleton,  and,  when  properly  pre 
pared,  may  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  time.  To 
preserve  the  natural  articulations  of  the  bones, 
the  soft  parts  must  be  removed  carefully  by 
dissection,  and  many  delicate  sections  and 
mechanical  adaptations  are  required  to  display 
the  internal  structure,  forms,  and  relative  pro 
portions  of  the  skeleton  and  its  component 
parts.  The  whole  body  of  an  animal,  or  any 


soft  portion  of  the  body,  such  as  the  heart  or 
the  intestines,  may  be  preserved  for  a  consid 
erable  time  in  alcohol  or  in  spirits  of  turpen 
tine  ;  and  such  preparations  are  very  useful  in 
the  study  of  comparative  anatomy.  Another 
method  of  anatomical  preparation  consists  of 
injecting  the  vessels  with  some  colored  sub 
stance  to  distend  them,  and  display  their  rami 
fications  in  the  organs,  that  the  shape  and 
course  and  relative  dimensions  of  the  vessels 
may  be  seen  with  ease.  By  means  of  a  large 
syringe  inserted  into  the  main  trunks  of  the 
arteries,  these  vessels  are  filled  with  a  soft 
colored  mass,  which  penetrates  into  the  small 
est  branches,  distends  them,  and  makes  them 
visible.  The  infused  substance  usually  con 
sists  of  a  mixture  of  soap,  pitch,  oil,  and  tur 
pentine,  to  which  is  added  a  coloring  sub 
stance  :  red  for  the  arteries,  blue  for  the  veins, 
and  white  for  the  absorbents  or  lymphatics. 
For  the  latter  vessels  quicksilver  is  preferred, 
on  account  of  its  extreme  divisibility. — Dried 
preparations  of  the  soft  parts,  such  as  muscles, 
nerves,  and  membranes,  are  preserved  by 
covering  them  with  a  protecting  coat  of  trans 
parent  varnish.  The  quicker  they  are  dried, 
the  better  for  this  mode  of  preparation  and 
conservation.  Spirits  of  wine,  distilled  with 
pepper  or  a  very  strong  pimento,  and  mixed 
with  muriatic  acid,  is  used  for  preserving  them. 
Washing  with  pyroligneous  acid  gives  firmness 
and  whiteness  to  these  anatomical  prepara 
tions.  Those  which  are  preserved  in  liquids 
are  usually  kept  in  bottles  of  transparent  glass, 
with  accurately  ground  stoppers,  to  prevent 
evaporation,  and  secure  them  against  the  de 
structive  influence  of  air,  moisture,  heat,  dust, 
and  insects. — Preparations  of  this  kind  are 
very  necessary  to  preserve  important  speci 
mens  of  normal  and  abnormal  development  in 
the  animal  economy,  but  they  are  difficult  to 
preserve  long  in  a  comparative  state  of  perfec 
tion.  Other  means  have  therefore  been  devised 
as  substitutes  for  common  use.  Instead  of 
anatomical  preparations  properly  so  called, 
anatomical  imitations  are  now  used  for  pur 
poses  of  general  instruction,  and  great  perfec 
tion  has  of  late  years  been  attained  in  the 
manufacture  of  these  works  of  art.  Imitations 
of  organic  form  and  structure  were  formerly 
made  in  wood,  as  those  of  the  abbe"  Fontana 
in  the  museum  at  Florence ;  or  in  wax,  as 
those  made  by  Laumonier  and  others  in  France 
and  Italy  ;  card-board,  as  by  Dr.  Ameline  of 
Caen  ;  or  in  lithographic  drawings,  woodcuts, 
colored  prints,  &c.  Drawings,  however  per 
fect,  are  not  sufficient  for  all  purposes ;  and 
though  the  anatomical  imitations  of  organs 
were  sometimes  mnde  with  rare  perfection  and 
beauty  in  wax,  they  were  too  expensive  for 
common  use,  and  could  neither  be  taken  to 
pieces  for  detailed  inspection,  nor  handled 
freely  without  risk  of  injury.  In  1825  Dr. 
Auzoux  of  France  conceived  the  idea  of  mak 
ing  imitations  of  all  the  organs  of  the  human 
body ;  not  only  of  their  general  external  form 


460 


ANATOMY 


and  appearance,  but  also  of  their  internal  and  ' 
minute  details.  For  this  purpose  lie  composed  j 
a  pasty  mixture  of  a  sort  of  papier  mache 
which  may  be  moulded  to  any  form  while 
liquid,  and  hardened  in  the  form  thus  given. 
Models  of  the  organs  were  made  in  all  their 
different  layers  and  proportions,  with  the  ves 
sels  and  the  nerves  in  each,  as  they  are  found 
in  nature ;  the  liquid  substance  was  then 
poured  upon  the  models  and  allowed  to  har 
den.  A  complete  manikin  of  the  human  body 
and  all  the  internal  organs  was  thus  formed, 
which  could  be  taken  to  pieces  and  put  to 
gether  again  at  will  and  with  the  greatest 
ease ;  each  part  being  colored  in  imitation  of 
nature,  and  labelled  with  a  number  or  the  real 
name,  by  which  it  could  be  recognized  at  any 
time,  either  in  or  out  of  its  natural  position  in 
the  manikin.  In  1830  this  art,  called  clastic 
anatomy  (Or.  A^aar<$f,  broken),  was  brought  to 
great  perfection ;  and  a  comparatively  fault 
less  model  of  the  human  body,  5  feet  G  inches 
in  height,  could  be  manufactured  and  sold  for 
$600.  This  was  still,  however,  too  expensive 
for  many  persons,  and  complete  manikins  of  a 
smaller  size  (3  feet  6  inches,  in  lieu  of  5  feet  6 
inches)  were  manufactured,  and  sold  for  $200 
each.  Each  manikin  contains  129  distinct 
pieces,  forming  different  layers  and  organs  or 
parts  of  organs. 

ANATOMY  (Gr.  avaro/ay,  dissection),  the  sci 
ence  which  treats  of  the  structure  of  organized 
bodies  as  learned  from  dissection.  During  the 
primitive  ages  of  the  world  anatomy  was  little 
cultivated  as  a  science,  and  hence  the  art  of 
surgery  was  undeveloped.  In  later  ages  reli 
gious  scruples  forbade  the  opening  of  the  human 
body  to  inspect  the  viscera ;  and  students  of 
anatomy  were  limited  to  the  dissection  of  ani 
mals,  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  internal  organs 
and  their  functions.  The  first  branch  of  this 
science  which  was  studied  from  nature  was 
therefore  animal  anatomy,  now  called  "  com 
parative  anatomy,"  from  the  fact  of  different 
types  of  the  animal  kingdom  differing  in  their 
internal  structure  as  much  as  in  their  external 
form.  Aristotle  was  the  first  to  give  accurate 
descriptions  of  the  internal  organs  of  different, 
species  of  animals,  and  for  many  centuries  after 
him  little  was  done  to  advance  the  science  by 
actual  dissection  and  observation.  Hippocrates 
had  some  accurate  views  of  osteology,  but  his 
descriptions  of  the  brain  and  the  heart, 
and  their  respective  functions,  show  that  he 
knew  little  of  anatomy.  The  first  important 
development  of  human  anatomy,  of  which  we 
have  any  authentic  record,  took  place  at  Alex 
andria  in  Egypt  during  the  reign  of  the  Ptole 
mies.  Erasistratus  of  Ceos  and  Herophilns  of 
Chalcedon  are  mentioned  by  Galen  as  eminent 
anatomists  of  the  Alexandrian  school ;  and 
Herophilns  is  said  to  have  obtained  permission 
to  open  and  inspect  the  bodies  of  living  crimi 
nals,  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  internal  organs  and 
their  modes  of  action.  The  writings  of  Celsus 
show  that  he  cultivated  anatomy,  but  the  next 


great  steps  in  advance  were  made  by  Claudius 
Galenus,  the  celebrated  physician  of  Pergamus. 
Galen  was  born  at  Pergamus,  A.  D.  130.  He 
collected  the  works  of  his  predecessors  and 
pursued  the  study  of  anatomy,  as  far  as  he  was 
able,  by  dissecting  animals.  He  first  showed 
that  arteries  in  the  living  animal  contain  blood, 
and  not  air  alone,  as  had  been  supposed  by 
Erasistratus ;  but  it  did  not  occur  to  him  to 
notice  the  circulatory  movement  of  the  blood 
in  the  vessels.  This  was  reserved  for  Harvey, 
many  centuries  later ;  before  which  time  the 
blood  was  supposed  to  move,  in  the  veins  as 
well  as  in  the  arteries,  from  within  outward. 
During  the  middle  ages  the  natural  sciences, 
neglected  by  the  Christians,  were  mainly  culti 
vated  by  the  Arabs ;  but,  as  the  Mohammedan 
religion  forbade  the  dissection  of  human  bodies, 
their  physicians  were  obliged  to  rely  on  the 
knowledge  transmitted  to  them  by  the  school  of 
Alexandria,  and  chiefly  on  the  works  of  Galen. 
Their  writings  add  little  or  nothing  to  the  sci 
ence  of  anatomy,  unless  it  be  the  names  of  cer 
tain  organs  translated  from  the  Greek  into  the 
Arabic,  arid  afterward  to  some  extent  adopted 
by  Italian  and  Spanish  writers  on  anatomy.  The 
spirit  of  religious  liberty  and  commercial  enter 
prise  revived  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  in  Italy  during  the  14th  century ;  and 
Mondino  da  Luzzi,  professor  of  anatomy  at  the 
university  of  Bologna,  first  publicly  dissected 
two  human  bodies  in  the  presence  of  medical 
students  in  1306  and  1315,  and  shortly  afterward 
published  a  description  of  the  organs  from  di 
rect  observation  and  dissection.  This,  with  the 
works  of  Galen,  served  as  a  text  book  for  the 
schools  till  the  16th  century,  when  the  study 
of  human  anatomy  from  actual  dissection  be 
came  general  in  the  medical  schools  of  Italy. 
From  this  time  forward  human  anatomy  has 
been  constantly  studied  from  actual  dissection 
and  observation,  in  those  countries  of  Europe 
where  religious  considerations  offered  least  re 
sistance  to  this  mode  of  proceeding.  First 
Italy,  then  Holland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Ger 
many,  France,  England,  and  America,  have 
furnished  names  of  eminence  in  the  cultivation 
and  advancement  of  the  science  of  anatomy ; 
but  popular  prejudices  have  hindered  the  free 
dissection  of  human  bodies  in  medical  school;-, 
until  a  very  recent  date,  in  many  states  of  Eu 
rope,  and  also  in  this  country.  Anatomy  is 
now  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of 
natural  science,  and  its  various  departments 
have  become  so  extensive  as  to  require  separate 
divisions  and  distinct  methods  of  analysis.  We 
have  thus  comparative  anatomy,  including 
every  type  of  animal  organization,  not  except 
ing  man,  as  one  of  the  types  of  the  animal 
kingdom  ;  and  human  anatomy  as  a  distinct 
branch  of  study,  in  connection  with  physiology, 
pathology,  surgery,  and  therapeutics.  These 
again  are  subdivided  into  distinct  branches, 
under  the  names  of  regional  or  surgical  anat 
omy,  descriptive  or  special  anatomy,  histolo- 
gical  or  general  anatomy,  and  microscopical  or 


ANATOMY 


461 


minute  anatomy. — Surgical  anatomy  treats  of 
the  relations  of  organs  to  each  other,  in  each 
region  of  the  body,  such  as  the  positions,  forms, 
dimensions,,  structure,  and  peculiarities  of 
nerves  and  vessels,  muscles,  glands,  and  mem 
branes,  in  the  head,  the  trunk,  and  the  limbs, 
a  proper  knowledge  of  which  is  necessary  to 
guide  the  surgeon  in  his  delicate  and  difficult 
operations.  He  must  know  where  to  cut  and 
what  to  jivoid  in  operating  on  the  living  body; 
for  the  life  of  the  patient  might  be  jeoparded 
if  the  surgeon  were  not  well  acquainted  with 
the  relative  anatomy  of  vital  organs.  Descrip 
tive  anatomy  treats  of  the  distinct  systems 
which  pervade  the  whole  frame,  or  perform 
a  certain  class  of  functions  in  the  organism ; 
such  as  the  bones  of  the  skeleton,  the  muscles, 
the  skin,  and  the  nerves  of  the  whole  body ; 
the  digestive  system ;  the  blood  vessels ;  the 
respiratory  organs ;  the  generative  and  the  uri 
nary  apparatus  ;  the  blood  and  the  secretions. 
General  anatomy  treats  of  the  different  tissues 
which  compose  the  special  organs  or  classes  of 
organs  in  different  parts  of  the  body ;  such  as 
the  three  distinct  coats  of  the  stomach,  i.  <?.,  the 
mucous  membrane,  the  muscular  coat,  and  the 
serous  membrane  or  peritoneal  covering ;  the 
areolar  or  connective  tissue,  found  between  the 
mucous  and  muscular  layers,  and  disseminated 
more  or  less  extensively  throughout  the  body. 
Minute  anatomy  investigates  the  elementary 
basis  of  organic  nature,  and  by  the  aid  of  chem 
istry  and  the  microscope  observes  and  analyzes 
the  atomic  and  cell  structure  of  the  tissues 
which  compose  the  organs  of  the  body;  the 
fluids  and  contents  are  also  subjected  to  this 
minute  analysis.  Animal  anatomy  was  scantily 
and  almost  exclusively  studied  by  the  ancients ; 
human  anatomy  was  fairly  commenced  by  the 
Italian  schools  of  the  14th,  loth,  and  16th  cen 
turies  ;  the  descriptive  branch  was  chiefly  cul 
tivated  throughout  Europe  until  the  end  of  the 
18th,  when  Bichat  instituted  and  almost  origi 
nated  the  systematic  study  of  general  anato 
my.  Microscopic  observations  had  been  made 
by  Malpighi  and  other  anatomists,  but  many 
of  the  great  discoveries  of  comparative  and 
general  anatomy  have  been  made  in  the  pres 
ent  age ;  and  the  systematic  study  and  de 
velopment  of  minute  anatomy  date  from  the 
improved  construction  of  the  compound  micro 
scope  in  1832,  before  which  time  it  was  impos 
sible  to  make  much  progress  in  this  most  im 
portant  branch  of  science.  Descriptive  or 
special  anatomy  is  limited  to  the  study  of  the 
parts  which  form  the  body  of  one  type  or  indi 
vidual,  or  of  the  two  sexes  of  one  species,  as 
man  and  woman.  It  does  not,  however,  ex 
clude  reference  to  age  and  difference  of  race. 
— The  organs  of  the  body  have  been  classed  in 
various  ways  by  different  anatomists,  and  most 
ly  according  to  the  nature  of  their  special 
structure  and  peculiarity  of  use  or  function. 
Bichat's  method,  slightly  modified,  is  most  in 
use,  and  is  perhaps  the  best.  By  this  the  or 
gans  are  classed  as  follows :  I.  Organs  pertaiu- 


!  ing  to  the  animal,  voluntary,  or  relational  func- 
:  tions.     II.  Organs  pertaining  to  the  nutritive 
functions.     III.   Organs  pertaining  to  genera 
tion,  or  the   reproductive   functions.     To   the 
I  first  class  belong  the  organs  of  locomotion,  in- 
j  nervation,  voice,  and  sensation.    1st.  The  skele- 
i  ton,  composed  of  bones,  cartilages,  ligaments, 
!  and  joints,  as  instruments  of  locomotion  and 
;  forming  the  subject  of  what  is  termed  oste- 
!  ology.     2d.    The   muscular   system,    composed 
''.  of  muscles,  tendons,  sheaths,  and  their  append- 
j  ages,  as  agents  of  locomotion,  forming  the  sub- 
!  ject   of  myology.     8d.    The   nervous   system, 
|  composed  of  medullary  white   substance  and 
!  gray  vesicular  matter,  enclosed  in  sheaths  of 
serous    and    fibrous    membrane,    forming    the 
brain,  spinal  cord,  ganglia,  and  nerves.     The 
special  study  of  the  structure  and  functions  of 
the  nervous  system  and  appendages  is  termed 
neurology.     4th.  The  vocal  organs,  as  an  appa 
ratus  of  relational  use  between  man  and  the 
external  world,  are  the  larynx  or  throat,  and 
the  mouth;  the  one  as  an  organ  of  the  voice, 
and  the  other  as  an  organ  of  articulation  or 
speech.     5th.  The  special  organs  of  sense  are 
distinguished  into  proper  and  common ;  taste, 
smell,  sight,  and  hearing  belong  to  the  former, 
I  and  touch,  the  sense  of  temperature,  and  the 
!  muscular  sense  of  resistance,  weight,  lassitude, 
I  &c.,  belong  to  the  latter.    The  mouth,  the  nose, 
!  the  eyes,  and  the  ears  are  special  organs,  but 
I  the  whole  external  surface  of  the  body  serves 
!  for  the  sense  of  touch  and  temperature,  while 
i  the  whole  internal  muscular  structure  seems  to 
i  be  affected  by  the  sense  of  lassitude,  and  the 
,  muscular   parts   of  the   trunk   and   limbs   are 
,  affected  by  the  sense  of  resistance  to  external 
i  weight  or  force. — To  the  second  class  of  organs, 
i  pertaining  to  the  functions  of  nutrition,  belong 
i  the  organs  of  digestion,  respiration,  circulation, 
|  secretion,  and   excretion.     1st.    The   digestive 
system   consists  of  the   alimentary   canal,  to 
gether  with  its  accessory  organs,  such  as  the 
i  salivary  glands,   the  liver,   and   the  pancreas. 
i  The  alimentary  canal,  consisting  of  its  succes- 
:  sive  portions,  namely,  the  mouth,  oesophagus, 
stomach,   small  intestine,    and  large   intestine, 
I  receives  the  food  and  accomplishes  its  digestion 
j  by  the  mechanical  operation  of  the  teeth  in 
|  mastication,  followed  by  the  modifying  action 
;  of  the  various  digestive  secretions.     2d.  The 
;  heart  is  the  centre  of  the  circulatory  system, 
I  which  consists  of  two  distinct  circuits,  called 
pulmonary   and    systemic.      From    the    right 
!  ventricle  of  the  heart  the  dark  impure  blood 
|  is  sent  through   the   pulmonary  arteries  into 
j  the   lungs,  where  the  minute  capillary  blood 
:  vessels  are  exposed  to  the  almost  direct  con- 
|  tact  of  the  air,  from  which  oxygen  is  absorbed 
I  to  vivify  the  blood,  giving  it  a  bright  scarlet 
;  red.    A  thin  membrane  intervenes  between  the 
|  air  in  the  lungs  and  the  blood,  but  this  does 
\  not  impede  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  the 
exhalation  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  one  to  give 
new  life  and   the  other  to  rid   the  blood  of 
|  poisonous  gas  and  effete  matter.     When  thus 


462 


ANATOMY 


purified  and  renovated  in  the  lungs,  the  blood 
returns  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  performing 
a  complete  circuit  in  the  region  of  the  heart 
and  lungs  alone,  for  this  sole  purpose.  It  is 
then  propelled  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart,  through  the  aorta  and  all  the  arteries  of 
the  whole  body,  into  every  organ,  for  the  pur 
pose  of  nutrition.  The  capillary  vessels  ramify 
minutely  in  every  organ,  and  the  tissues  of  the 
part  absorb  the  nutrient  portions  of  the  fluid, 
and  return  waste  matter  to  the  veins,  in  ex 
change  for  the  nutriment  brought  to  them  by 
the  arteries.  The  general  system  of  arteries 
carries  pure  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and 
the  general  system  of  veins  returns  impure 
blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body  back  into  the 
heart,  to  be  thence  sent  into  the  lungs  for  puri 
fication,  and  thus  keep  up  perpetual  circulation 
and  renovation,  od.  The  respiratory  organs 
are  the  larynx,  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  the 
bronchial  tubes,  and  air  vesicles  within  the 
lungs.  Their  function  is  to  breathe  in  new  sup 
plies  of  air  to  vivify  the  blood,  and  to  exhale 
carbonic  acid  and  other  vitiated  matters,  which 
are  poisonous  when  accumulated  in  too  large  a 
quantity.  4th.  The  kidneys  separate  from  the 
blood  the  elements  of  the  urine,  and  thus  rid 
the  system  of  another  kind  of  waste  matter, 
which  also  becomes  poisonous  if  allowed  to 
accumulate  within  the  vessels  that  contain  and 
circulate  the  vital  fluid.  When  in  the  bladder 
the  urine  is  not  dangerous,  because  no  longer 
mingled  with  the  blood,  unless  too  much  accu 
mulated  and  too  long  retained. — To  the  third 
class  of  organs  belong  the  reproductive  systems, 
male  and  female.  These  are  not  essential  to 
the  life  of  the  individual,  -as  they  may  be  ex 
tirpated  without  danger  even  to  the  health. — 
General  anatomy  treats  of  the  different  sorts 
of  tissue  composing  the  organs  of  the  body. 
Bichat  made  21  distinctions  of  animal  texture, 
but  later  anatomists  have  modified  his  method 
of  distinction.  It  will  suffice  here  to  say  that 
the  sheath  or  covering  membranes  of  bones, 
muscles,  nerves,  and  many  other  organs,  are 
formed  of  a  fibrous  kind  of  membrane,  much 
alike  in  texture  and  in  its  leading  properties, 
whether  it  be  the  periosteum  of  the  bones,  the 
fibrous  sheath  of  the  muscles,  the  neurilemma  of 
the  nerves,  or  the  tunica  albuginea  or  covering 
of  the  testicles,  the  ovaries,  &c.  Serous  mem 
brane  is  also  the  same  kind  of  tissue  in  every 
part  of  the  body,  although  called  arachnoid 
when  it  serves  as  a  covering  for  the  brain, 
pleura  as  a  covering  for  the  lungs,  and  peri 
toneum  as  a  covering  for  the  viscera  of  the 
abdomen,  and  a  lining  for  the  inner  walls  of 
the  trunk  below  the  chest.  The  leading  ele 
ments  of  structure  in  the  organs  of  the  body 
are  fibrous  tissue,  serous  membrane,  bony 
texture,  cartilaginous  texture,  fibro-cartilage, 
muscular  fibre  of  various  kinds,  striated  and 
non-striated,  glandular  tissue,  mucous  mem 
brane,  dermoid  tissue  or  skin,  cuticle  or 
epidermic  tissue  on  the  surface  of  skin  and 
mucous  membrane,  horny  tissue,  as  the  hair 


and  nails,  white  nervous  or  medullary  sub 
stance,  and  gray  nervous  or  ganglionic  or 
vesicular  matter ;  and  diseases  are  character 
ized  in  many  instances,  not  so  much  by  the 
particular  organ  affected  in  any  part  of  the 
body,  as  by  the  particular  tissue  affected  by 
disease  in  any  given  region. — Minute  anatomy 
goes  deeper  still  into  details,  and  with  the 
microscope  and  chemical  analysis  endeavors  to 
find  out  the  elementary  constitution  of  the 
tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body.  Thus  chemistry 
reveals  to  us  that  the  simple  elements  found  in 
the  tissues  are  oxygen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitro 
gen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  magnesium,  calcium, 
sodium,  potassium,  chlorine,  fluorine,  silicon, 
iron,  and  manganese,  with  perhaps  a  trace  of 
two  or  three  others.  The  compound  elements 
are  of  three  classes :  first,  substances  of  an  or 
ganic  nature  introduced  with  the  food,  or  formed 
in  the  processes  of  digestion  and  nutrition ;  sec 
ondly,  substances  resulting  from  the  waste  or 
disintegration  of  the  body ;  and  thirdly,  sub 
stances  of  inorganic  or  mineral  origin.  The  in 
organic  compound  substances  are  water,  chlo 
ride  of  sodium,  chloride  of  potassium,  fluoride 
of  calcium,  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  carbon 
ate  of  lime,  bicarbonate  of  lime,  carbonate  of 
magnesia,  carbonate  of  potassa,  bicarbonate 
of  potassa,  carbonate  of  soda,  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  sulphate  of  potassa,  sulphate  of  soda,  sul 
phate  of  lime,  basic  phosphate  of  lime  or  bone 
earth,  acid  phosphate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  mag 
nesia,  phosphate  of  potassa,  neutral  phosphate 
of  soda,  acid  phosphate  of  soda,  ammonia, 
and  phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia. 
The  compound  substances  resulting  from  waste 
of  the  human  body  are  principally  carbonic 
acid,  urea,  creatine,  creatinine,  urate  of  soda, 
and  urate  of  potassa,  The  substances  of  an 
organic  nature  related  to  the  nutrition  of  the 
body  are  the  uncrystallizable  albuminoid  mat 
ters,  such  as  albumen,  albuminose,  fibrine,  pan- 
creatine,  mucosine,  rnusculine,  globuline,  hema- 
tine,  biliverdine,  and  melanin e ;  crystallizable 
substances,  either  containing  nitrogen,  such  as 
glycocholate  and  taurocholate  of  soda,  or  des 
titute  of  nitrogen,  such  as  sugar  and  fat.  By 
microscopic  observation,  the  elementary  struc 
ture  of  the  tissues  is  found  to  consist  mostly  of 
minute  cells,  fibres,  tubes,  and  a  homogeneous 
or  granular  substratum.  Schwann  believed 
that  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  were  formed 
from  cells ;  but  subsequent  observation  shows 
that  although  many  tissues  retain  their  original 
cellular  structure  throughout  life,  and  many 
more  are  formed  from  cells  which  are  after 
ward  metamorphosed,  there  are  some  in  which 
no  other  cell  agency  is  employed  than  that 
which  occurs  in  the  elaboration  of  the  plastic 
material;  a  certain  structureless  lamella,  com 
monly  called  basement  membrane,  offers  no 
visible  traces  of  cell  structure,  but  rather  re 
sembles  the  filmy  tissue  of  which  the  walls  of 
minute  cells  themselves  are  formed.  It  is,  how 
ever,  generally  believed  that  minute  cells,  or 
other  analogous  or  derived  forms,  constitute 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


ANAXIMENES 


463 


the  elementary  organic  parts  of  nearly  every 
tissue,  and  tli.it  all  chemical  changes  occur  in 
them,  as  integral  elements  of  structure,  with 
out  altering  their  numbers  and  relative  posi 
tions  ;  that  these  minute  anatomical  elements, 
in  fact,  are  as  permanent  in  form  as  the  tissues 
and  the  organs  they  compose  ;  and  that  all 
growth  in  the  individual  organism  takes  place 
by  a  relative  enlargement  of  their  size,  and  not 
by  any  increase  of  their  number ;  so  that,  as 
the  organs  remain  the  same  in  form  and  num 
ber  in  the  adult  as  in  the  new-born  child,  the 
same  is  true  of  the  tissues  that  compose  the 
organs,  and  the  microscopic  cells  composing 
tissues.  The  principal  varieties  of  cells  now 
recognized  are  :  the  red  globules  of  the  blood, 
flattened,  circular  bodies,  homogeneous  in 
structure,  from  4n>W  to  ^oVo  °f  an  mcn  m 
diameter;  the  white  globules  of  the  blood, 
which  are  colorless  and  granular,  spherical  in 
form,  and  T^  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  scale- 
like  epithelial  and  epidermic  cells,  very  thin, 
pentagonal  or  hexagonal  in  shape,  with  a  round 
or  oval  nucleus  imbedded  in  their  substance ; 
columnar  and  ciliated  epithelium  cells,  lining 
certain  parts  of  the  alimentary  canal,  air  pas 
sages,  generative  organs,  and  ventricles  of  the 
brain  ;  glandular  epithelium  cells,  forming  the 
active  agents  of  secretion  in  the  glandular 
organs ;  and  the  nerve  cells  of  the  brain,  spinal 
cord,  and  ganglia.  The  fibres  are :  the  white 
fibres  of  areolar  tissue,  of  tendons,  fascia?,  and 
the  like  ;  the  yellow  elastic  fibres  of  elastic 
tissue;  the  compound  muscular  fibres;  and 
ultimate  nervous  filaments.  The  tubular  ele 
ments  are  the  capillary  blood  vessels  and  lym 
phatics,  and  the  straight  or  convoluted  tubules 
of  the  kidneys,  the  testicles,  and  some  of  the 
glandular  organs.  The  homogeneous  or  granu 
lar  substratum,  in  which  these  anatomical 
elements  are  imbedded,  varies  in  consistency 
and  composition  in  the  different  tissues. 

ANATOMY,  Comparative.  See  COMPARATIVE 
ANATOMY. 

ANAXAGORAS,  a  Grecian  philosopher,  born  at 
Clazomenie  in  Ionia,  about  500  B.  C.,  died  in 
428.  He  rejected  wealth  and  honors  that  he 
might  indulge  his  love  of  meditation  and  phi 
losophy.  From  Clazomeme  he  removed  to 
Athens,  where  he  lived  in  the  closest  intimacy 
with  Pericles,  and  also  numbered  among  his 
friends  or  pupils  several  of  the  most  distin 
guished  Athenians  of  that  period.  Anaxagoras 
is  generally  considered  the  first  of  the  Greeks 
who  conceived  of  God  as  a  Divine  Mind  (by 
him  termed  voi-q)  acting  upon  matter  with  con 
scious  intelligence  and  design.  He  taught  that 
the  sun  was  no  deity,  but  an  inanimate  fiery 
mass,  and  therefore  not  a  proper  object  of  wor 
ship  ;  and  that  the  miraculous  appearances  at 
sacrifices  were  explicable  by  natural  laws.  lie 
suggested  that  the  moon  shone  by  reflected 
light,  and  rightly  explained  solar  and  lunar 
eclipses.  His  attempt  to  account  for  these 
phenomena,  at  that  time  regarded  as  super 
natural,  on  natural  principles,  brought  him  into 


great  danger.  He  gave  moral  expositions  of 
the  myths  of  Homer,  and  explained  the  names 
of  the  gods  by  allegory.  As  a  penalty  for 
what  was  accounted  his  impiety,  he  was  con 
demned  to  die ;  but  through  the  influence  of 
Pericles  his  sentence  was  commuted  to  banish 
ment,  lie  retired  to  Lampsacus,  on  the  Hel 
lespont,  and  died  there  a  few  years  later  in 
poverty.  A  little  before  his  death  the  senate 
of  Lampsacus  sent  messengers  to  inquire  what 
commemoration  would  be  most  acceptable  to 
him ;  he  answered,  "  Let  all  the  boys  have  a 
play  day  on  the  anniversary  of  my  death !  " 
This  festival  was  called  Anaxagoreia,  and  was 
observed  for  centuries.  The  fragments  of  his 
works  have  been  collected  by  Schaubach  (Leip- 
sic,  1827),  and  by  Schorn  (Bonn,  1829). 

AXAXARCHIS,  a  Grecian  philosopher,  a  native 

of  Abdera  in  Thrace,  who  attended  Alexander 

the  Great  into  Asia,  and  succeeded  in  winning 

his  friendship  by  his  wit  and  servility.     After 

i  the  death  of  Alexander,  in  323  B.  C.,  Anaxar- 

j  chus,  while  returning  to  Greece,  is  said  to  have 

been  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Cyprus,  and 

pounded  to  death  in  a  mortar  by  order  of  Ni- 

cocreon,  one  of  the  princes  of  that  island,  whom 

I  he  had  offended. 

ANAXIMANDER,  a  Grecian  philosopher  of  the 
Ionian  school,  born  at  Miletus  in  610,  died 
about  547  B.  C.  He  is  said  to  have  led  a 
colony  to  Apollonia  in  Illyria,  and  many  won 
derful  deeds  and  inventions  are  ascribed  to 
him.  Grecian  philosophy  is  indebted  to  him 
for  the  word  apxfli  signifying  origin  or  prin 
ciple.  His  general  doctrine,  as  stated  by  an 
cient  writers,  concerning  the  origin  of  nature, 
was  that  the  first  principle  of  all  things  is  in 
finity  (rd  d7T£^oi;);  that  the  universe,  though 
variable  in  its  parts,  as  a  whole  is  fixed  and 
unchangeable ;  that  infinity  is  the  beginning  and 
end  of  all  things.  He  was  the  first  to  commit 
philosophical  doctrines  to  writing.  lie  wrote 
a  treatise  on  geometry,  and  made  calculations 
on  the  distances  and  size  of  the  heavenly  bod 
ies.  He  held  that  the  stars  are  globes  of  air 
and  fire  animated  by  divinity,  that  the  earth 
is  a  globe  fixed  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
and  that  the  sun  is  28  times  as  large  as  the 
earth.  He  was  the  first  to  compose  a  trea 
tise  on  geography,  and  also  prepared  a  chart 
of  such  portions  of  land  and  sea  as  he  was 
acquainted  with.  According  to  some,  he  in 
vented  the  sun  dial. 

AXAXIMEXES.  I.  A  Grecian  philosopher, 
born  at  Miletus,  flourished  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  6th  century  B.  C.  He  taught  that  the 
essence  of  all  things  is  air,  whence  all  things 
are  produced  by  condensation  and  rarefaction 
through  eternally  existing  motion ;  that  the 
sun  and  moon  are  fiery  bodies  of  a  flat,  circu 
lar  form;  that  the  stars  are  also  fiery  sub 
stances,  fastened  like  nails  in  a  crystalline 
sphere;  and  that  the  earth  is  a  tablet  resting 
on  air.  II.  A  native  of  Lampsacus,  a  historian 
and  rhetorician,  and  one  of  the  preceptors  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  He  wrote  a  history  of 


464: 


ANOAOH 


ANCHOR 


Alexander's  reign,  and  that  of  his  father 
Philip,  and  also  a  history  of  Greece. 

ANCACII,  a  N.  TV.  department  of  Pern,  be 
tween  the  Andes  and  the  Paciiic,  bounded  N. 
E.  by  the  Maraflon;  area,  about  18,000  sq.  in.  ; 
pop.  317,000.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  por 
tions  of  Peru,  producing  heavy  crops  of  cereals 
and  a  large  quantity  of  sugar,  and  in  some  parts 
cotton.  The  elevated  table  lands  are  made 
very  fertile  by  irrigation.  Excellent  marble 
is  quarried  and  valuable  minerals  abound.  The 
capital  is  Iluaras,  in  an  extensive,  beautiful,  and 
populous  valley  of  the  same  name.  Wood  here 
is  scarce,  and  its  place  is  supplied  with  champa, 
a  black  vegetable  matter  resembling  lignite. 
The  other  chief  cities  are  Iluaylas,  Santa,  Hua- 
ri,  Cajatambo,  Pomabamba,  and  Pallasca,  each 
the  capital  of  a  province  or  district  of  the 
same  name.  It  was  through  the  passes  of 
this  department  that  the  Colombian  army,  in 
the  war  of  independence,  made  its  astonish 
ing  march  into  Peru  to  attack  the  Spanish 
forces  at  Junin. 

ANCELOT.  I.  Jacques  Ar^no  Francois  Polycarpe, 
a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Havre,  Feb.  9, 
1794,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  7,  1854.  He  held 
an  office  in  the  ministry  of  the  marine,  which 
he  lost  after  the  revolution  of  1830,  as  well  as 
a  pension  granted  him  by  Louis  XVIII.  In 
1841  he  was  received  a  member  of  the  French 
academy.  His  first  tragedy,  Louis  IX.  (1819), 
had  great  success  from  its  adoption  by  the 
royalists  as  an  offset  against  Casimir  Dela- 
vigne's  Vepres  siciliennes.  After  retiring  from 
office  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  rapid 
production  of  vaudevilles  and  light  pieces  for 
the  minor  theatres.  lie  also  published  Six 
mois  en  Russie^in  prose  and  verse  (1826); 
Marie  de  Brabant,  a  poem  in  six  cantos;  and 
ISIIomme  du  monde,  a  melodramatic  romance, 
afterward  dramatized.  II.  Marguerite  Lonise 
Vir^inie  Chardon,  a  dramatist  and  novelist,  wife 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Dijon,  March  15, 
1792.  She  collaborated  largely  in  her  hus 
band's  lighter  works,  and  produced  several 
successful  comedies,  the  most  popular  of 
which  was  Marie,  ou  trois  epoques  (1836). 
Her  Theatre  complet  (4vols.,  1848)  comprises 
20  plays.  Her  most  popular  novels  have  passed 
through  many  editions.  She  also  cultivated 
painting,  and  in  1828  exhibited  Une  lecture  de 
M.  Ancelot,  a  picture  which  excited  much  at 
tention  from  its  portraits  of  nearly  all  the 
Parisian  litterateurs. 

ANCHISES,  a  legendary  Trojan  prince,  the 
father  of  ^Eneas.  He  was  related  to  the  fam 
ily  of  Priam,  and  was  king  of  Dardanus  in 
Troas.  Venus  was  enamored  of  him,  and, 
visiting  him  in  the  disguise  of  a  Phrygian  prin 
cess,  became  the  mother  of  ^Ericas.  Accord 
ing  to  Virgil,  Anchises  survived  the  capture 
of  Troy,  being  borne  from  the  burning  city  on 
the  shoulders  of  his  son,  and  died  in  Sicily 
shortly  after  the  arrival  of  JEneas  in  that 
island.  The  people  of  Egesta,  a  town  situated 
near  the  place  where  he  is  said  to  have  been 


buried,    erected   a   sanctuary   and    celebrated 
funeral  games  in  his  honor. 

ANCHOR  (Gr.  aynvpa,  Lat.  anchora,  Ger. 
Ariker\  a  metal  hook  of  suitable  form  and  of 
sufficient  weight  and  strength  to  enable  a  ship, 
by  means  of  a  chain  or  cable  attachment,  to 
lay  hold  of  the  bottom,  and  thus  remain  fixed 
in  any  desired  position.  The  form  of  the  an 
chor  has  undergone  but  slight  modification 
since  the  time  of  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian 
philosopher,  about  594  13.  C.  Before  him  an 
chors  with  one  arm  or  tooth  had  been  a  short 
time  in  use,  but  he  first  added  the  second.  The 
later  Greek  anchors  were  of  iron,  but  origi 
nally  they  consisted  of  large  wooden  pipes  filled 
with  melted  lead.  In  the  heroic  times  of 
Greece,  large  stones  were  sunk  into  the  water  by 
ropes  to  hold  the  ship ;  and  a  little  later  bags  of 
sand  and  baskets  filled  with  rocks  were  used. 
Every  ship  was  supplied  with  from  four 
to  eight  anchors.  The  largest  of  them  was 
termed  the  sacra,  and  was  only  used  in  times 
of  great  danger ;  hence  the  proverb,  sacram, 
anclwram  vohere,  to  fly  to  the  last  refuge. 
The  Chinese  anchors,  now  as  in  ancient  times, 
are  only  crooked  pieces  of  heavy  wood. — With 
the  exception  of  Spain  and  certain  of  the 
South  sea  islands,  where  copper  is  occasionally 
employed,  the  metal  used  in  the  construction  of 
anchors  is  the  best  of  wrought  iron.  The  form 
of  the  common  wrought-iron  anchor,  with  the 
manner  in  which  it  "  lays  hold "  of  the  sea 
bottom,  may  be  best  understood  by  a  refer- 


FIG.  1. — Common  Anchor. 

ence  to  fig.  1.     It  is  evident  from  the  direc 
tion  of  the  strain  that  any  forward  movement 
will   cause    the    lower   fiuke   and   arm   to   be 
buried  still  deeper  in  the  earth.     Anchors  are 
called  solid  or  ordinary  when   the   shank   and 
j  arms  are  wrought  into  a  body  ;  they  are  called 
portable  when  they  can  be  taken  to  pieces. 
!  Each  part  of  an  anchor  has  a  distinct  name. 
I  The  shank  or  the  central  part  of  the  instru- 
1  ment  is  a  round  or  octagonal  bar  of  iron  taper- 
!  ing  toward  one  end,  where  it  becomes  square  ; 
|  the  arms  are  two  curved  pieces  projecting  from 
i  the  heavy  end  of  the  shank  at  right  angles  with 
it,  and  in  opposite  directions;  the  stock  is  a 
i  transverse  beam,  of  wood  or  of  iron,  fastened 
I  to  the  square  end  of  the  shank  at  right  angles 
|  with  it  and  with  the  arms,  and  serves  to  cant 
the  anchor  when  the  arms  tall  on  the  bottom  in 


ANCHOR 


465 


a  horizontal  instead  of  a  vertical  position  ;  the 
square  is  the  square  end  of  the  shank,  which  at 
the  extreme  end,  just  beyond  the  place  where 
the  stock  is  fastened,  is  bored  through  for  attach 
ing  the  shackle  by  means  of  a  pin ;  the  shackle 
is    a   ring,  by  means  of    which   the   cable  or 
chain  is  attached  to  the  anchor ;  the  crown  is 
the  extreme  end  of  the  shank,  or  the  external 
part  of  the  arms,  on  which   the  anchor  falls 
when  let  go  in  a  vertical  position ;  the  palms  , 
or  flukes  are  parts  of  the  arms,  of  a  shield-like  | 
form,  which   are   near  their  extremities,   and  j 
constitute  the  holding  surface  of  the  anchor.  | 
The  angle  of  the  face  of  the  palm  with  the  ': 
shank  is  51°.    The  arms  extend  from  the  shank  j 
in  a  curve  the  outside  radius  of  which  is  35. 
That  part  of  each  arm  which  sustains  the  palm 
is  called  the  blade,  and  the  part  which  projects 
beyond  the  palm,  and  has  to  open  the  ground,  | 
is  named  the  point,  peak,  or  bill.     If  100  be 
taken   as    the   unit   of    length    for    both    the 
stock  and  shank,  then  40  will  represent  the 
average  length  of  each  arm  from  the  crown  to 
the  bill.     The  relative  weights  of  these  several 
parts   may  be   roughly  estimated   as   follows : 
The  shank,  -^  of  the   whole ;   each  arm,  T3ff ; 
two  palms,  -^ ;   stock,  I- ;  shackle,  jy.     When 
an  anchor  is  let  go  from  the  ship,  it  falls  ver 
tically  through  the  water,  and,  should  the  bot-  j 
torn  be  an  even  one,  the  crown  will  strike  first ;  j 
but  a  rocky  bed  may  compel  one  of  the  arms  ; 
to  receive  the  full  force  of  the  fall,  for  which  | 
reason  any  cross  section  of  an  arm  should  rep-  ! 
resent  an  ellipse,  with  the  line  of  its  greatest  j 
diameter  vertical  to  the  point  of  probable  con-  | 
tact,  thus  receiving  the  heaviest  strain  in  the  | 
direction    of    the    greatest    strength.      After  ! 
striking  the  ground  the  anchor  falls  sideways,  \ 
the  arms  lie  flat,  and  the  stock  rests  on  one  i 
end.     A  length  of  chain  proportional  to  the  I 
depth   of    water,  and  so   calculated  that  the  j 
hardest  pull  of  the  vessel  will  not  lift  it  en-  | 
tirely  from  the  ground,  is  permitted  to  run  out.  : 
The  action  of  the  current  or  of  the  wind  on  the  : 
vessel  soon  makes  her  exert  a  traction  on  the  ! 
chain,  and  this  lying  on  the  ground  pulls  down  | 
the  shackle,  bringing  the  stock  flat  on  the  bot-  •• 
torn,  and  the  arms  perpendicular  to   it ;    this 
is   called    canting  the     anchor.      The    longer  ; 
the  stock  and  the  shorter  the  arms,  the   less  i 
force  will  be  required  to  perform  this  opera-  ! 
tion ;  hence  in  all  anchors  the  stock  is  longer  ! 
than  the  arms.     After  canting,  the  anchor  will  ! 
be  dragged  or  will  hold.     Quick  holding  de-  • 
pends   on   the  sharpness  of  the   bill  and   the  ; 
angle   of    the    palm    with    the    ground.     For 
'•  weighing  anchor,"  the  chain  or  cable  is  taken 
in   by  aid  of  a   capstan,  till  the  bow  of  the  ' 
vessel  is  brought  over  the  shackle ;  here  an  in 
creased   pull   is  necessary  to  trip  it,  and  the 
anchor  is  raised  to  its   place.     The   property 
of  (pick  tripping  depends  on  the  curve  ot  the 
arm,  and  on  the  angle  of  the  palm ;  they  have 
to  be  such  that  when  the  shackle  is  pulled  up 
vertically,  the   bill  cuts  open  a  short  curved  ; 
circular  way  in  which  the  palm  and  arm  fol-  ! 
VOL.  i.— 30 


low.  When  the  palm  is  out,  the  ground  is 
torn  open  by  the  arm,  which  is  comparatively 
sharp,  and  acts  with  a  more  advantageous  lev 
erage  than  the  palm  would.  More  than  two 
thirds  of  the  ruptures  of  anchors  happen  in 
the  operation  of  weighing.  We  have  said  that 
the  arms  ought  to  be  thicker  in  the  dimension 
parallel  to  the  shank,  to  resist  shocks  against 
rocks.  The  same  is  necessary  to  resist  the 
strain  in  tripping.  The  shank  is  exactly  in  the 
same  circumstances,  and  has  to  be  thicker  in 
the  direction  of  the  arms,  and  to  decrease  in 
size  from  the  crown  to  the  square.  Though 
theory  indicates  rectangular  sections  as  best  for 
the  arms  and  shank,  they  are  in  practice  made 
round  or  oval,  or  at  least  the  angles  are  much 
rounded.  This  has  been  found  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  cables,  which  often  take  a 
turn  around  the  anchor  when  the  vessel  changes 
its  direction  with  the  tide  or  wind. — The  forg 
ing  of  an  anchor  requires  the  constant  super 
intendence  of  an  educated  engineer,  while  the 
workmen  should  be  chosen  with  an  eye  to  their 
skill  and  judgment,  as  well  as  muscular  strength. 
A  sufficient  number  of  wrought-iron  bars  made 
from  the  best  scrap  iron,  or  from  a  Welsh  mine 
iron,"  are  bound  together  by  iron  hoops,  form 
ing  the  faggot ;  this  is  placed  in  a  specially 
contrived  furnace,  where  it  is  brought  to  a 
white  or  welding  heat,  when  it  is  removed  by 
the  aid  of  a  crane  to  the  anvil,  and  subjected 
to  the  rapid  and  powerful  blows  of  the  stamp 
ing  hammer.  When  an  approximate  form  is 
thus  obtained,  the  finishing  is  done  by  heavy 
sledges  in  the  hands  of  the  anchor  smiths.  The 
arms  and  stock  may  be  forged  separately  and 
then  welded  together  at  the  crown,  or,  as  in  the 
process  patented  by  Mr.  Perrins  of  England, 
the  whole  may  be  built  up  by  the  welding  to 
gether  in  a  given  order  of  a  number  of  separate 
pieces,  so  adjusted  as  to  secure  the  greatest 
strength  in  the  direction  of  the  heaviest  strain. 
When  the  stock  is  of  wood,  it  consists  of  two 
beams,  generally  oak,  mortised  in  the  centre 
so  that  they  may  embrace  the  square,  upon 
which  they  are  firmly  bolted ;  the  middle 
thickness  should  be  one  twelfth  of  the  length, 
and  the  whole  should  taper  from  the  centre 
out,  the  diameter  of  the  end  being  about  one 
half  that  at  the  centre.  The  iron  stock,  which  is 
rapidly  replacing  that  of  wood,  is  a  simple  round 
bar  tipped  with  knobs,  which  prevent  its  en 
tering  the  ground,  and  with  one  end  bent  at 
right  angles.  This  passes  through  a  hole  in 
the  square  which  is  rounded  out  for  the  pur 
pose,  and  is  held  in  position  by  a  metal  ring 
or  shoulder  upon  one  side,  and  a  slit  and  key  on 
the  other;  by  removing  this  key,  the  whole 
stock  may  be  driven  through,  and  thus,  owing 
to  the  crook  upon  the  end,  be  doubled  down 
upon  the  shank,  rendering  it  much  more  com 
pact  and  portable. — So  important  is  the  quality 
of  strength  in  an  anchor,  that  all  modifications 
of  the  tried  and  approved  form,  or  any  im 
provements  that  have  the  appearance  of  sac 
rificing  strength  to  convenience  in  handling, 


ANCHOR 


or  even  gain  in  holding  power,  seem  to  have 
been  regarded  with  suspicion.  Hence  the  an 
chor  no\v  in  general  use  might  almost  have  been 
described  a  century 
ago.  In  1833  Lieut. 
Rodger  of  the  English 
navy  received  letters 
patent  for  an  improve 
ment  in  the  size  and 
form  of  the  palms, 
"having  found  hy  ex 
perience  that  anchors 
with  small  palms  will 
not  only  hold  better 
than  with  large  ones, 
but  that  the  arms  of 
the  anchor,  even  with 
out  palms,  have  been 
found  to  take  more  se 
cure  hold  of  the  ground 
than  anchors  of  the  old 
construction  of  similar 

weight    and     length." 
FIG.  2.-Admirnlty  Anchor.       He  fixed  llp(m  Qne  fifth 

of  the  length  of  the  arm  as  a  suitable  propor 
tion  for  the  length  or  the  depth  of  the  palm. 
The  palm  of  the  anchor,  instead  of  being  flat, 
presents  two  inclined  planes,  calculated  for 
cutting  the  sand  or  mud  instead  of  resisting 
perpendicularly.  The  Lenox,  Mitcheson,  and 
Aylen  anchors  are  all  improvements  on  the  old 
admiralty  pattern;  while  the  Isaac  anchor, 
an  American  invention,  has  a  flat  bar  of  iron 
passing  from  palm  to  palm,  in  addition  to 
which  two  other  bars  unite  the  ends  of  the 
stock  to  the  centre  of  the  shank,  intended 
to  prevent  the  fouling  of  the  cable.  A  novel 
and  in  many  respects  important  improve 
ment  is  that  of  the  Porter  anchor,  having 


five  ship  owners  appointed  by  the  lords  of  the 
admiralty  to  test  their  relative  merits.     The 
names  arc  arranged  alphabetically: 

if 

1 

tt 
.£ 

i- 

S 

tb 

(3 

1 

!! 

ANCHOR. 

8  « 

^  s 

"*  1 

•s 

1 

"S 

.£ 

l.f 

S 

•s 

!»? 

if1- 

g£ 

2  •= 

•3 

J2 

3 

11 

"i 

.5     OS  1  -.£ 

M                |  S 

fan 

<§     G- 

H 

E    !<5 

Admiralty  .          4 

5 

1      2       1 

4 

1        2 

2  ,  2 

Avlcn  

7 

4 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

2 

2  I  5 

Porter,  or  1 
Honiball    ( 

2 

0 

3 

4 

2 

1 

4       3 

5  i  3 

Isaac  1 

6 

4 

5       1 

1 

4       4       8,1 

Lenox  

6 

3 

2  ;  i 

2 

8 

2 

1   |     3,2 

Mitcheson  . 

1  rial 

1 

313 

2 

3 

2 

4  |  4 

Rodger  5 

2 

ill        2 

4 

2  i     1 

1   1  2 

Trotman...  .  1        3 

1 

3  i  3       4 

1 

4       3       5  |  5 

FIG.  8.— Trotman  Anchor- 

movable  flukes  or  arms;  this  anchor,  with 
certain  valuable  alterations,  is  represented 
above  as  the  "Trotman  anchor."  It  will  be 
readily  seen  that,  by  the  closing  of  the  upper* 
arm  against  the  shank,  the  chances  of  fouling 
are  greatly  decreased,  as  also  the  danger  of 
the  ship's  grounding  upon  her  anchor  in  shal 
low  water.  The  accompanying  table,  showing 
the  relative  order  in  which  the  several  anchors 
above  mentioned  stand  with  regard  to  each  of 
the  properties  essential  to  a  good  anchor,  was 
embodied  in  a  report  made  by  a  committee  of 


The  estimated  numerical  values  of  these  sev 
eral  anchors  are  as  follows :  Trotman,  1  '28 ; 
Rodger,  1-26;  Mitcheson,  1-20;  Lenox,  1-13; 
Porter,  1-09;  Aylen,  1-09;  Admiralty,  1,  stand 
ard;  Isaac,  0*73.  Notwithstanding  the  above 
favorable  report,  the  Trotman  anchor  has  not 
been  received  with  general  favor  by  ship  mas 
ters,  though  largely  used  by  the  merchant 
steamers. — In  general  service,  anchors  rank 
according  to  their  size  and  weight,  as  follows : 
bower,  sheet  or  stream,  and  kedge ;  and  a 
competent  authority  recommends  them  in  the 
following  order :  the  Lenox  and  Rodger  for 
boAver,  Mitcheson  for  sheet,  and  Trotman  for  a 
shore  anchor. — The  anchor  adopted  by  the 
United  States  navy  is  solid  with  an  iron  stock, 
and  as  a  rule  its  weight  is  proportionally  less 
than  the  English  standard,  our  officers  prefer 
ring  a  smaller  anchor  with  greater  length  of 
chain.  The  following  table  gives  the  relative 
size  of  chains  to  anchors  of  given  weight,  and 
is  compiled  from  the  navy  regulations  on  this 
subject  r 

Weight  of  anchor.  Size  of  chain. 

SOOOlbs 2TV  inches. 

6.000    "  .If!      " 

4,000    "   lT»ff       " 

2  000    "     1  iv-      " 

1,000    "  |2-      " 

The  following  is  a  reduced  table  of  "Lloyd's 
Regulations  for  the  Number  and  Weights  of 
Anchors  for  Merchant  Vessels  "  : 


,si|—  • 

Stream. 

Kedge. 

Bower, 

Wood 
Stock. 

Bower, 
Iron 
Stock. 

Stream. 

Kedge.    g  -g 

Tons,  i 

50  2 
100  2 
250  3 
500  3 
1  000  3 
1.600  3 
2.000  !  4 

1 

1 
1 
1 

-J 

1 

1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 

Cwt. 

3 

13 

23 
85 
43 
47 

Cwt 

4 
7 
15 
26 
41 
50 
54 

Cwt. 

n 

5°" 
9 
12 
14 
14 

Cwt.  |Cwt. 

6-f      81 
Si       4 
9         4£ 

In  addition  to  these  various  forms  of  com 
mon  anchors,  there  are  numerous  devices  de 
signed  for  special  service.  Among  these  are 
the  grapnel  and  mushroom  anchors  shown  in 
fig.  4.  The  former  is  adapted  for  securing 
light  craft,-  and  the  latter — a  solid  concave 


ANCHORET 


ANCHYLOSIS 


407 


metal  plate  vritli  central  shank — is  onlr  used 
where  permanent  anchorage  is  desired,  as  for 
light-ships,  buoys,  &c.  The  latest  novelty  is  an 


FIG.  4 — Grapnel  and  Mushroom  Anchors. 

anchor  with  an  elastic  shank.  The  principle 
of  having  a  spring  between  the  soil  and  the 
vessel  is  evidently  excellent,  as  it  is  certain 
that  without  the  natural  spring  formed  by  the 
curve  in  the  chain  it  could  never  withstand 
the  sudden  jerks  from  a  mass  of  several  hun 
dred  tons,  though  the  better  place  for  the 
spring  seems  to  be  on  board  rather  than  in  im 
mediate  contact  with  the  rough  sea  bottom. 

AXCHDRET,  Anchorite,  or  more  properly  Ana- 
cliorct  (Gr.  dra^w/w?-^),  a  person  retired  from 
society,  especially  one  who  has  withdrawn 
himself  with  the  specific  purpose  of  attaining  a 
higher  degree  of  spirituality.  The  term  is  par 
ticularly  applied  to  the  hermits  who  began  to 
appear  in  the  Christian  church  about  the  3d 
century,  living  in  solitude  generally  in  desert 
places,  and  not,  like  the  later  cenobites  or 
mdnks,  in  communities.  They  often  subjected 
themselves  to  extreme  penances  and  mortifica 
tions.  St.  Paul  the  Hermit,  St.  Simeon  Stylites, 
and  St.  Anthony  of  the  Desert  were  among  the 
most  celebrated  of  them,  Paul  being  reckoned 
the  earliest  of  the  solitaries.  After  the  in 
stitution  of  monasticism  they  gradually  dis 
appeared  in  the  West.  A  synod  in  092  ordained 
that  no  person  should  be  admitted  an  anchoret 
until  he  had  resided  three  years  in  a  monas 
tery.  Hermits  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  East, 
unconnected  with  any  convent.  Some  writers 
consider  Enoch,  Elijah,  John  the  Baptist,  and 
Jesus  to  have  been  anchorets.  The  Thera 
peutic  of  Egypt,  who  were  probably  derived 
from  the  Jewish  Essenes,  were  anchorets,  or 
at  least  ascetics.  The  same  is  true  to  a  degree 
of  the  Nazarites  of  the  Old  Testament,  But 
so  far  as  Christian  anchorets  are  concerned, 
they  must  be  referred  to  the  time  of  the  Decian 
persecution,  as  the  era  when  they  first  attained 
to  any  historic  consideration. 

AM'HOVY,  a  small  fish  of  the  genus  engraulh 
of  Cuvier,  the  peculiar  features  of  which  are 
the  opening  of  the  mouth  extending  behind  the 


Anchovy  (Engraulis   encrasicholus). 


eyes,  and  the  long  sharp  head  and  projecting 
upper  pw.    It  is  distinguished  from  tlio  sprat 
and  other  similar  fishes  by  its  very  short  anal 
fin,  and  the  dorsal  fin  being  immediately  above 
the  ventral.     Anchovies  enter  the  Mediterra 
nean  from  the  sea  in  enormous  shoals  in  the 
spring,  and  deposit  their  ova  along  the  shores 
in  May,  June,  and  July.     They  are  caught  like 
the  herring  with  nets  at  night,  with  the  use  of 
lights.     Gorgona,  a  small  island  west  of  Leg 
horn,  is  a  famous  place  for  the  fisheries,  arid  it 
gives  its  name  to  the  best  qualities  of  the  com 
mercial  article.     Other  important  fisheries  are 
!  along  the  coasts  of  Provence  and  Catalonia. 
,  As  the  fish  are  taken,  the  bodies,  separated 
\  from  the  heads  and   entrails,   are  salted  and 
":  packed  in  small  barrels,  and  in  this  state  are 
ready  for  exportation.     Sent  to  other  countries, 
|  they  are  there  repacked  in  bottles.     The  brine 
|  in  which  they  are  kept  is  reddened  with  ochre 
|  and  Venetian  red,   which  is   supposed  to  be 
:  done  for  the  purpose  of  concealing  the  other 
dirt.      Notwithstanding   their   impurities   and 
;  the  substitution  of  many  inferior  fish,  anchovies 

•  are  a  favorite  relish  at  the  breakfast  table  with 
many,  being  taken  out  of  the  bottles  and  eaten 

|  raw.  Anchovy  sauce  has  been  a  favorite  con- 
;  diment  from  the  time  of  the  Romans.  They 
'  called  it  garum,  and  prepared  it  as  it  is  now 
;  made,  which  is  by  bruising  and  boiling  the  fish 
!  over  a  slow  fire  with  melted  butter. 

ANCHYLOSIS  (Gr.  ayiti;7.uais,  a  bending),  that 

condition  of  a  joint  in  which  its  natural  mobil- 

I  ity  is  greatly  impaired  or  entirely  lost.     The  de- 

|  rivation  of  the  word  would  imply  that  the  joint 

•  is  bent,  but  it  is  used  to  designate  the  abnormal 
'  condition  in  any  position.     Anchylosis  may  be 

true  or  false.     In  the  former  the  material  which 
i  has  been  produced   by  the  diseased  process, 
and  which  prevents  the  proper  degree  of  mo 
tion,  is  bone;  in  the  latter  it  is  fibrous  tissue, 
'  or  the  muscles  which  surround  the  joint  are 
shortened  to  such  an  extent  as  to  curtail  move- 
,  rnent.     In   either   case   the   material   may  be 
|  between  those  surfaces  of  the  bones  which  help 
!  to  form  the  joint  (intra-articular),  or  may  lie 
i  chiefly   or    entirely   outside    (extra-articular). 
|  Anchylosis  is  usually  the  result  of  an  intiamma- 
|  tion  in  or  near  the  joints  affected,  though  it 
I  may  occur  in  cases  where  the  joint  has  been 
'  retained  in  a  fixed  position  for  a  considerable 
;  length  of  time,  the  disease  or  injury  being  in  a 
distant  part.     If  a  bone  be  broken,  it  must  be 
i  kept  fixed  in  order  that  it  may  unite ;  and  to 
;  effect  this  it  is  usually  necessary  to  render  the 
joint  above  and  that  "below  the  fractured  part 
:  immovable  until  union  has  taken  place.    During 
!  this  period,  if  proper  precaution   be  not  exer- 
'  cised,  the  joint  may  become  stiffened,  and  in 
i  this  case  it  is  almost  always  by  false  anchylo 
sis.     This  result  is  more  apt  to  occur  if  the 
fracture  be  very  near  to,  or  especially  if  it  im 
plicate,  the  articulation.     When  a  joint  is  in 
flamed,  the  immobility  necessary  to  cure  this 
condition,  and  still  more   the   not  infrequent 
partial  or  complete  destruction  of  those  struc- 


468 


ANCIENXE   LORETTE 


ANGOLA 


tures  which  form  it,  are  frequent  causes  of 
anchylosis.  This  result,  though  never  desirable, 
is  at  times  unavoidable,  and  the  most  favorable 
termination  that  can  be  expected. — The  treat 
ment  is  of  three  kinds,  preventive,  precaution 
ary,  and  remedial.  Anchylosis  may  be  pre 
vented  by  moving  the  joint  at  proper  times, 
the  parts  which  surround  it  being  in  this  way 
kept  from  contracting.  As  regards  precaution 
ary  treatment,  where  anchylosis  is  inevitable, 
the  surgeon  should  always  endeavor  to  place 
the  part  in  such  a  position  as  that  it  shall  be 
most  useful  to  the  patient ;  e.  </.,  a  nearly 
straight  position  for  the  knee,  a  bent  position 
for  the  elbow.  To  remedy  the  resulting  de 
formity  or  inconvenience,  the  contracted  parts 
may  be  stretched  gradually  by  proper  appara 
tus,  or  they  may  be  stretched  and  ruptured 
suddenly  ;  and  some  which  refuse  thus  to  yield 
may  in  appropriate  cases  be  divided  by  a  nar- 
row-bladed  knife  passed  subcutaneously.  The 
above  treatment  can  be  practised  only  where 
the  anchylosis  is  of  the  false  kind ;  if  it  be 
true,  a  portion  of  the  bone  at  or  near  the  joint 
may  be  removed,  and  the  parts  be  allowed  to 
stiti'en  in  a  more  convenient  position,  or  an 
attempt  may  be  made  to  form  a  new  joint  by 
keeping  up  motion.  Where  the  limb  is  useless 
and  inconvenient,  it  may  be  advisable  to  re 
move  it. 

ANCIEME  LORETTE,  a  village  of  Canada,  7  m. 
W.  S.  W.  of  Quebec ;  pop.  in  1871,  2,333.  It  is 
a  place  of  historical  interest,  as  the  refuge  of  a 
portion  of  the  Huron  Indians  after  they  were 
defeated  and  driven  from  the  E.  shore  of  Lake 
Huron,  about  1050.  There  are  now  about  250 
of  them,  chiefly  employed  in  making  moccasins 
and  snow  shoes. 

ANCILLON.  I.  Dayid,  a  French  Protestant 
divine,  born  in  Metz,  March  18,  1017,  died  in 
Berlin,  Sept.  3,  1092.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
lawyer,  and  received  his  first  education  at  a 
college  of  Jesuits,  who  endeavored  in  vain  to 
convert  him  to  Catholicism.  After  completing 
his  studies  at  Geneva,  he  was  pastor  at  Cha- 
renton,  and  afterward  at  Meaux  (1041-'53)  and 
at  Metz  (1053-'85).  On  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes  he  went  to  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  and  was  afterward  pastor  in  that  city, 
at  llanau,  and  in  Berlin.  He  wrote  Apolofjie 
de  Luther,  de  Zwingle,  de  Calvin  et  de  Beze 
(llanau,  1000),  and  several  other  small  works. 
II.  Charles,  a  French  author,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  Metz,  July  28,  1059,  died  in 
Berlin,  July  5,  1715.  He  graduated  as  a  law 
yer  in  Paris,  failed  to  obtain  from  Louis  XIV. 
the  exemption  of  the  Metz  Protestants  from 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  though 
the  persecutions  were  somewhat  relaxed,  and 
subsequently  joined  his  father  in  Berlin,  where 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg  placed  him  at  the 
head  of  the  French  refugees,  and  subsequently 
sent  him  as  minister  to  Switzerland.  After 
being  employed  (1095-'99)  by  the  landgrave  of 
Baden-Durlach,  the  king  of  Prussia  appoint 
ed  him  historiographer  and  chief  of  police. 


|  Among  his  works  are  Ilistoire  de  V  etaldissc- 
|  ment  des  Francais  refugies  dans  les  Etats  de 
Bmndebourg  (Berlin,   1090),   and  Ilistoire  de 
la  tie  de  Soliman  II.  (Rotterdam,  1700).     III. 
Lndwig   Friedrich,   grandson  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1740,   died  June  13,  1814. 
|  lie  was  pastor  of  the  French  community  in 
1  Berlin,  counsellor  of  the  upper  consistory,  and 
!  author  of  various  writings.     IV.  Johann  Peter 
!  Fricdrieli,  a  Prussian  statesman  and  historian, 
I  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin,  April  30, 
'  1707,  diud  there,  April  19,  1837.    After  gradu 
ating  at  the  university  of  Geneva,  he  was  ap 
pointed  pastor  of  the  French  church  in  Berlin 
(1790),  and  professor  of  history  in  the  military 
academy  (1792).     In  1793  he  travelled  through 
|  Switzerland  and  France.     In  1801  he  published 
!  Melanges  de  litterature  et  de  pJrilosophie.     Two 
years  later  followed  his  most  important  histor 
ical  work,  the  Tableau  des  revolutions  du  sys- 
teme  politique  de  V Europe  depuis  le  15"ie  siecle 
|  (afterward  translated  by  himself  into  German). 
This  was  followed  by  his  works  Ueber  Staats- 
wissenschaft  (1819),  Ueber  Glauben  und  Wissen 
in  der  Philosophic  (1824),  and  other  writings. 

ANCKARSTROEM,  or  Ankarsti  om,  Johan  Jakob, 
the  assassin  of  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden,  born 
about  1700,  executed  at  Stockholm,  April 
29,  1792.  The  son  of  a  superior  officer,  he 
became  a  page  at  tile  court  of  Gustavus,  and 
j  subsequently  ensign  in  the  royal  body  guard ; 
but  in  1783  he  withdrew  from  military  service, 
and  settled  into  country  life.  As  a  partisan  of 
the  old  aristocratic  party  he  vehemently  op 
posed  the  measures  of  the  king,  who  followed 
up  his  work,  begun  on  his  accession,  of  restrict 
ing  the  power  of  the  senate  and  the  nobility. 
He  became  implicated  in  the  seditious  move 
ments  of  the  island  of  Gothland,  and  was  tried 
for  treason  in  1790,  but  acquitted  for  want  of 
evidence.  The  same  year  he  engaged  in  a  con 
spiracy  with  General  Pechlin,  Count  Horn, 
Count  Ribbing,  Baron  Bjelke,  Colonel  Liljehorn, 
and  other  discontented  nobles,  to  kill  the  king ; 
and  on  casting  lots  who  should  execute  the 
deed,  the  choice  fell  upon  Anckarstroem.  On 
the  night  of  March  15,  1792,  at  a  masked  ball, 
he  shot  the  king,  inflicting  a  fatal  wound. 
Anckarstroem  was  at  once  arrested,  tried,  con 
victed,  and  sentenced,  first  to  be  ignominiously 
flogged,  and  then  to  die  on  the  scaffold.  He 
met  his  fate  with  great  firmness,  exulting  to  the 
last  in  the  righteousness  of  his  course,  and  re 
fusing  to  disclose  the  names  of  his  accomplices. 
AXCLAM.  See  ANKLAM. 
ANCONA.  I.  One  of  the  four  provinces  of  the 
|  department  of  the  Marches,  Italy,  bounded  E.  by 
I  the  Adriatic  and  traversed  by  branches  of  the 
j  Apennines,  with  fertile  valleys,  and  by  the  small 
rivers  Misa,  Esino,  and  Musonc;  area,  about 
740  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1872,  202,359.  Almost  the 
whole  province  is  under  cultivation.  It  is  rich 
in  cattle,  cereals,  hemp,  tobacco,  wine,  oil,  and 
fruit,  and  produces  some  silk.  II.  A  fortified 
city  and  free  port,  capital  of  the  above  prov 
ince,  on  the  Adriatic,  132  m.  N.  E.  of  Rome; 


ANCOXA 


ANORE 


469 


pop.  in  1872,  45,741,  including  about  5,000 
Jews  and  a  number  of  Greeks,  Levantines,  and 
Turks.  The  city  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  am 
phitheatre,  on  the  slope  of  two  hills  rising  from 
the  shores  of  the  Adriatic.  It  is  connected  by 
railways  and  steamers  with  all  parts  of  Europe 
and  the  East.  The  annual  arrivals  of  ships  are 
over  1,500,  besides  steamers.  The  chief  imports 
are  colonial  produce,  metals,  and  coals.  The 
principal  exports  are  corn,  hemp,  bacon,  sulphur, 
and  cotton.  The  coasting  trade  is  also  very 
active.  The  chief  manufactures  are  woollens, 
cotton,  silk  hats,  and  paper.  The  port  is  form 
ed  by  two  moles:  one,  built  by  Trajan,  is  2,000 
feet  "long,  100  feet  wide,  and  65  feet  above 
water,  and  is  spanned  by  the  famous  arch  of 
Trajan,  considered  the  finest  in  the  world  ;  the 
other  has  a  triumphal  arch  constructed  by 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.  from  the  designs  of  Vanvi- 
telli.  The  harbor,  defended  by  several  forts, 


had  fallen  into  decay  and  was  filling  up ;  but 
it  has  recently  been  dredged  and  is  now  rapidly 
improving.  Ancona,  notwithstanding  its  fine 
quay  and  a  beautiful  situation,  has  the  disagree 
able  appearance  of  a  Levantine  city,  with  dirty 
and  narrow  business  streets,  though  with  a 
number  of  good  residences  along  the  quay. 
The  cathedral,  situated  on  a  promontory,  has 
a  remarkable  porch,  a  cupola  reputed  to  be  the 
most  ancient  in  Italy,  and  fine  marble  pillars. 
!  The  churches  of  San  Domenico  and  San  Fran- 
j  cisco  contain  pictures  by  Titian  ;  and  there  are 
also  notable  pictures  in  the  other  churches, 
|  most  of  those  in  St.  Agostino  being  by  Lilio, 
I  known  as  Andrea  di  Ancona.  The  English 
residents  worship  in  the  Free  Church  of  Scot 
land  chapel. — The  city  is  believed  to  have  been 
founded  by  a  colony  of  Syracusans  in  the  time 
of  Dionysius  the  Elder.  Trajan  used  the  port 
as  a  military  station.  After  having  been  gov- 


Ancona,  with  the  Arch  of  Trajan. 


erned  by  Romans  and  Lombards,  and  devas 
tated  by  Saracens  on  several  occasions,  partic 
ularly  in  the  10th  century,  Ancona  remained 
for  a  considerable  period  independent  until 
1532,  when  Clement  VII.  annexed  it  to  the 
Papal  States.  In  1832  the  citadel  Avas  seized 
by  the  French  as  a  demonstration  against  the 
Austrians,  who  had  occupied  the  insurgent 
Marches;  but  the  papal  authorities  continued 
to  preside  over  the  civil  administration.  The 
French  occupation  lasted  till  1838.  In  1849 
the  city  surrendered  to  the  Austrians,  who 
evacuated  it  after  the  battle  of  Magenta,  fought 
June  4,  1859.  Gen.  Lamoriciere,  commander 
of  the  Papal  troops,  after  his  defeat  at  Castel- 
fidardo,  surrendered  here  to  the  Italians,  Sept. 
29,  1860.  Ancona  became  part  of  Victor 
EmanueFs  possessions  Dec.  17,  I860. 


ANCRE,  Concino  de'  Concini,  marshal  and  mar 
quis  d\  a  Florentine  adventurer  and  prime 
minister  of  France,  shot  in  Paris,  April  24, 
1617.  He  was  the  son  of  a  notary,  and  went 
to  France  in  1600  in  the  suite  of  the  bride  of 
Henry  IV.,  Maria  de'  Medici,  one  of  whose  at 
tendants,  Leonora  Dori  or  Galigai,  was  his 
wife.  With  the  aid  of  this  woman,  who  was 
the  daughter  of  Maria's  nurse,  he  soon  rose  to 
high  favor  at  court.  He  fomented  the  dis 
agreements  between  the  king  and  queen, 
and  when  the  latter  became  regent  on  Henry's 
death  he  was  recognized  as  the  prime  favorite 
of  the  palace.  lie  bought  the  marquisate  of 
Ancre,  and,  though  he  had  never  been  a  sol 
dier,  was  created  marshal  of  France.  The  re 
sentment  of  the  country  at  his  sudden  eleva- 
!  tion  and  his  insolence  was  aggravated  by  his 


470 


ANGUS  MAROIUS 


ANDAMAN  ISLANDS 


raising  an  army  of  7,000  men,  whom  he  kept 
at  his  own  disposal  and  his  own  expense.  Ap 
pointed  prime  minister  by  the  queen  regent,  he 
kept  the  young  king  Louis  XIII.  under  a  re 
straint  that  was  little  better  than  captivity; 
and  that  prince  before  he  was  17  years  old  gave 
his  assent  to  a  conspiracy  formed  by  his  favor 
ite,  I)e  Luynes  (a  man  whose  fortunes  the  mar 
shal  himself  had  made),  to  put  the  minister  to 
death.  The  murder  was  committed  before  the 
Louvre  by  L'Hopital-Vitry,  a  captain  of  the 
royal  guards,  Du  Ilallier,  and  Perray;  and 
Louis,  presenting  himself  afterward  at  the  win 
dow,  cried  out,  "  Thanks  to  you,  I  am  now 
king."  Vitry  was  made  marshal  of  France. 
The  body  of  the  murdered  man,  after  a  secret 
burial,  was  dug  up  by  the  mob,  dragged  to  the 
Pont  Neuf,  gibbeted,  and  torn  into  a  multitude 
of  pieces,  which  were  then  sold  to  the  infuriat 
ed  people.  His  widow,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  instrument  of  Richelieu's  for 
tunes,  was  accused  of  Judaism,  corruption,  and 
sorcery,  and  burned  on  the  Place  de  Greve, 
July  8,  1017.  She  displayed  great  firmness, 
and  declared  that  the  only  sorcery  she  had  em 
ployed  toward  the  queen  was  "the  power  of  a 
strong  mind  over  a  weak  one." 

ANCUS  MARCUS,  the  fourth  king  of  Rome, 
said  to  have  been  the  grandson  of  Numa,  and 
to  have  reigned  from  640  to  616  B.  C.  He  re 
vived  the  religious  ceremonies  which  his  grand 
father  had  established,  but  which  had  fallen 
into  desuetude.  He  waged  successful  wars 
against  the  Latins,  took  many  of  their  cities, 
and  transported  their  inhabitants  to  Rome.  He 
founded  a  colony  at  Ostia,  erected  a  fortress  on 
the  Janiculum,  and  caused  several  other  works 
to  be  constructed,  which  added  to  the  strength 
and  security  of  his  capital. 

ANCYRA  (now  Angora),  an  ancient  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  originally  in  Phrygia,  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Midas,  and  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  an  anchor  found  on  the  place  where 
it  stood.  It  was  enlarged  by  Augustus,  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Galatia, 
and  became  a  principal  depot  of  the  Romans 
for  the  productions  of  the  East.  A  copy  on 
marble  blocks,  erected  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Ancyra,  of  the  inscriptions  of  Augustus's 
Roman  bronze  tablets,  which  was  discovered 
by  Tournefort,  and  has  since  been  often  ex 
pounded  by  antiquaries,  is  known  under  the 
name  of  Monumentum  Ancyranum. 

ANDALUSIA  (Span.  Andalucia,  originally 
Vandaliisia,  from  the  Vandals  who  settled 
there  in  the  5th  century ;  in  antiquity,  Bwtica), 
the  most  southern  grand  division  of  Spain,  ly 
ing  between  lat.  36°  and  38°  40'  N.,  and  km.  1° 
30'  and  7°  30'  W. ;  area,  27,153  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1867,  3,200,944.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  E>tre- 
rnadura  and  New  Castile,  E.  by  Murcia,  W.  by 
Portugal,  S.  W.  by  the  Atlantic,  and  S. 
and  S.  E.  by  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  and  the 
Mediterranean.  Its  chief  river  is  the  Guadal 
quivir,  its  mountain  ranges  the  Sierra  Nevada 
in  the  south  and  Sierra  Morena  in  the  north. 


Mulhacen,  a  peak  of  the  former,  is  11,678  feet 
high.  The  climate  is  mild,  the  soil  generally 
fertile,  and  the  country  level  where  not  moun 
tainous.  The  vegetation  partakes  both  of  the 
European  and  African  character.  In  the  south 
cotton  and  sugar  cane  are  cultivated.  These, 
with  grain,  olives,  wines,  figs,  silk,  cochineal, 
wool,  and  a  fine  breed  of  horses,  are  its  chief 
products.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  an 
timony,  sulphur,  coal,  mercury,  vitriol,  serpen 
tine  marble,  and  alabaster  are  found.  The 
mines,  rich  in  antiquity,  are  now  much  neg 
lected.  The  country  is  parcelled  out  into  vast 
estates,  belonging  to  the  crown,  the  clergy,  and 
large  landed  proprietors.  Agriculture  is  in  a 
very  backward  state.  A  large  part  of  the 
plains  is  devoted  to  pasturage.  The  manufac 
tures,  once  important,  have  greatly  declined ; 
the  principal  are  those  of  Avoollens,  silk,  and 
leather.  The  chief  cities  are  Seville,  the  seat 
of  the  captain  general,  Cadiz,  Cordova,  Grana 
da,  Jaen,  Malaga,  Almeria,  and  Iluelva,  each  the 
capital  of  a  province  named  after  it.  The  chief 
ports  are  Cadiz  and  Gibraltar.  The  Andalu- 
sians  are  a  mixed  race,  descended  from  Phoe 
nicians,  Carthaginians,  Romans,  Goths,  Van 
dals,  and  Moors,  all  of  which  nations  are  con 
spicuous  in  the  checkered  history  of  the  country. 
Physically  they  retain  many  of  the  peculiarities 
of  the  last-named  people.  They  are  animated 
and  naturally  intelligent.  Trajan,  the  Senecas, 
and  Lucan  were  natives  of  Andalusia.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  the  flourishing  home  of  Mos 
lem  and  Jewish  learning ;  in  modern  times  it 
has  given  Spain  some  of  its  most  illustrious 
statesmen,  painters,  and  authors. 

ANDAMAN  ISLANDS,  a  long,  narrow  group  of 
small  islands  in  the  E.  part  of  the  bay  of  Ben 
gal,  in  Ion.  92°  50'  E.,  and  between  lat.  10° 
and  14°  N.,  about  150  in.  S.  by  W.  of  Cape  Ne- 
grais,  100  m.  N.  of  the  Nicobar  group,  and  350 
m.  W.  of  the  Tenasserim  coast ;  area,  about 
3,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,630.  They  include 
the  North,  Middle,  South,  and  Little  Andaman 
islands,  with  a  number  of  islets,  and  are  all 
densely  wooded,  producing  ship  timber  and  or 
namental  woods.  The  1,000  natives  are  a  di 
minutive  and  barbarous  people,  who  seem  to 
be  distinct  from  all  other  known  races,  and 
Avhose  language  has  no  apparent  affinity  with 
any  other  tongue  spoken  in  India  or  the  Indian 
islands.  They  are  seldom  more  than  five  feet 
in  height,  have  protuberant  bellies,  slender 
limbs,  woolly  hair,  thick  lips,  fiat  noses,  and 
small  red  eyes.  Their  color  is  a  deep  black. 
They  wear  no  clothing  except  a  thick  plaster 
of  mud,  intended  to  resist  the  attacks  of  in 
sects.  They  live  in  the  most  wretched  huts, 
subsist  by  fishing,  never  till  the  ground,  have 
no  implements  that  will  resist  fire,  paint  their 
heads  with  red  ochre,  will  hold  no  intercourse 
with  strangers,  and  are  supposed  to  worship 
the  sun  and  moon.  The  British  formed  a  set 
tlement  at  Port  Cornwallis  on  the  largest  of 
the  islands  in  1793,  with  the  purpose  of  making 
a  penal  colony  for  convicts  from  Bengal,  but 


ANDELYS 


ANDERSEN 


471 


abandoned  it  tlirce  years  later  on  account  of 
the  unhealthiuess  of  the  climate.  After  that 
the  group  was  seldom  visited  till  1858,  when 
Port  Blair  on  one  of  the  islands  was  selected  as 
a  penal  settlement.  Here,  on  Feb.  8,  1872,  the 
earl  of  Mayo,  viceroy  of  India,  was  assassinated 
by  a  Mohammedan  convict,  immediately  after 
landing  at  night  for  a  visit  of  inspection. 

ANDELYS,  Les,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de 
partment  of  Eure,  on  the  Seine,  18  m.  S.  S.  E. 
of  Rouen.  It  properly  consists  of  two  towns, 
Grand  Andely  on  the  Gambon  and  Petit  An- 
dely  on  the  Seine;  pop.  in  I860,  5,161.  It  is 
the"  birthplace  of  Turnebus  and  Poussin.  Near 
it  was  the  celebrated  fortress  Chateau  Gaillard, 
and  a  convent  founded  by  St.  Clotilde. 

ANDENNE,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
of  Namur,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Mouse, 
10  m.  E.  of  Xamur ;  pop.  in  I860,  6,278.  It 
has  a  convent  of  the  Beguines,  and  manufac 
tories  of  pipes  and  earthenware. 

ANDERLECHT,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  im 
mediate  vicinity  of  Brussels,  of  which  it  may 
be  regarded  as  a  suburb  ;  pop.  in  1866,  11,663. 
At  Anderlecht  Dumouriez  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians  on  Nov.  13,  1792. 

ANDERLOM.  I.  Pietre,  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Santa  Eufemia,  near  Brescia,  Oct.  12, 
1784,  died  in  Milan,  Oct.  13,  1849.  After  pre 
paratory  studies  under  his  father,  who  was 
himself  an  engraver,  he  entered  the  school  of 
Longhi  at  Milan,  of  which  he  subsequently  be 
came  director.  His  most  admired  pieces  are 
portraits  of  Da  Vinci,  Canova,  and  Peter  the 
Great;  his  "  Moses  with  the  Daughters  of  Je- 
thro,"  after  Poussin;  his  "Virgin,"  after  Ra 
phael;  and  his  masterpiece,  "  The  Woman  taken 
in  Adultery/'  after  Titian.  II.  Fanstino,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  an  engraver  of  Pa  via,  born  in 
1766,  died  Jan.  9,  1847.  Among  his  works  are 
a  portrait  of  Herder,  a  Magdalen  after  Correg- 
gio,  and  a  "Holy  Family"  after  Poussin. 

ANDERSEN,  Hans  Christian,  a  Danish  author, 
born  in  Odense,  April  2,  1805.  His  father  was 
a  shoemaker  in  needy  circumstances,  but  pos 
sessing  literary  taste.  Andersen's  scanty  edu 
cation  was  chiefly  acquired  at  a  charity  school. 
At  nine  years  of  age  he  lost  his  father,  and 
shortly  afterward  was  taken  into  the  house  of 
the  widow  of  a  clergyman,  where  he  was  en 
gaged  to  read  aloud  to  the  family.  After  a 
short  sojourn  in  a  manufactory,  where  he  was 
ill-treated  by  the  workmen,  whom  he  had 
amused  by  singing  and  reciting  to  them  pas 
sages  from  Holberg,  he  returned  home,  and  for 
a  while  led  an  inactive  life.  He  possessed  an 
agreeable  voice,  and  his  mother  was  advised  to 
send  him  to  the  theatre.  She  determined,  how 
ever,  to  make  a  tailor  of  him,  but  before  his  ap 
prenticeship  commenced  he  obtained  permis 
sion  to  go  to  Copenhagen  and  witness  the  per 
formance  of  a  play.  Accordingly,  in  1819  he 
found  himself  in  that  city  with  10  rix  dol 
lars  in  his  pocket,  and  sought  to  get  an  engage 
ment  at  the  theatre  in  some  humble  capacity. 
He  was  rejected  on  account  of  his  awkward- 


|  ness  and  ignorance,  but  soon  afterward  pre- 
i  sented  himself  to  Professor  Siboni,  director  of 
|  the  royal  conservatory,  who  received  him  with 
kindness,  and  caused  him  to  be  instructed  as  a 
i  singer  for  the  stage.  At  the  end  of  half  a  year 
|  his  voice,  which  was  in  the  transition  state,  failed 
him.  lie  then  applied  for  assistance  to  the  poet 
Guldberg,  the  brother  of  a  former  patron  in 
'  Odense,  by  whose  aid  he  was  enabled  to  strug- 
i  gle  on  for  a  few  years,  sometimes  employed  in 
!  the  theatre  and  sometimes  studying.  During 
!  this  period  he  wrote  some  tragedies  whicn 
:  excited  the  attention  of  Oehlenschlager  and 
others,  but  which  he  was  unable  to  have  pro- 
j  duced  upon  the  stage.  Councillor  Collin,  a 
I  benevolent  and  clear-sighted  man,  having  be- 
j  come  director  of  the  theatre,  procured  his 
'  admission  free  of  expense  into  one  of  the  gov- 
|  eminent  schools.  This  was  the  turning  point 
!  in  Andersen's  life;  he  embarked  in  this  new 
career  with  enthusiasm,  was  admitted  into  the 
j  royal  college  of  Copenhagen,  and  while  com- 
;  pleting  his  studies  there  produced  in  1829  his 
I  first  work  in  print,  entitled  "  A  Journey  on 
:  Foot  to  Amak,"  which  was  received  with  ex- 
I  traordinary  favor,  and  gained  him  the  acquaint- 
I  ance  of  some  of  the  most  influential  people  in 
I  Copenhagen.  Some  volumes  of  poems  which 
j  succeeded  increased  his  reputation.  Oehlen- 
!  schlager,  Ingemann,  and  other  friends  having 
|  procured  a  royal  stipend  to  enable  him  to 
j  travel,  in  1833  he  visited  Italy,  his  impres- 
I  sions  of  which  he  has  recorded  in  his  novel, 
!  "The  Improvisatore,"  which  stands  unrivalled 
|  as  a  picture  of  scenery  and  manners  in  southern 
[  Europe;  and  he  has  since  travelled  extensively 
|  throughout  Europe  and  the  East.  His  next 
i  novel,  "  O.  T.,"  describes  life  in  the  north,  and 
[  "  Only  a  Fiddler "  some  of  the  most  striking 
J  scenes  in  his  early  struggles.  Among  his  other 
j  works  are  "Fairy  Tales,"  "Picture  Book  with- 
j  out  Pictures,"  "  Travels  in  the  Ilartz  Moun- 
I  tains,"  "A  Poet's  Bazaar,"  "Ahasuerus," 
j  "New  Fairy  Tales,"  and  some  volumes  of 
I  poetry,  dramas,  fairy  comedies,  and  texts  for 
operas.  In  1846  he  visited  England,  where  he 
!  made  many  friends,  and  in  1841)  wrote  one  of 
j  his  longest  works,  "The  Two  Baronesses,"  in 
:  the  English  language.  His  works  reflect  his 
own  kindly  and  open  disposition,  and  are  mark 
ed  by  humor,  invention,  and  a  poet's  enthu 
siasm.  His  fairy  tales  for  children  have  been 
i  read  with  delight  in  every  modern  language. 
\  He  is  also  an  admirable  public  reader  of  his 
•  own  works,  enjoying  in  this  respect  in  Den 
mark  a  fame  equal  to  that  of  Dickens  in  Eng- 
i  land  and  America.  In  1845  he  received  a 
!  royal  annuity  which  placed  him  in  comfortable 
|  circumstances  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
|  The  series  of  translations  from  his  works  by 
!  Mary  Howitt  and  others  has  introduced  him 
!  to  a  large  circle  of  admirers  in  England  and 
i  America.  The  first  complete  edition  of  his 
I  works  in  English  was  published  in  1870-'71 
;  in  New  York,  in  10  vols.  8vo,  including  "The 
,  Story  of  My  Life,"  an  autobiography. 


472 


ANDERSON 


ANDERSON.  LAN.  W.  county  of  South  Car 
olina,  separated  from  Georgia  by  the  Savannah 
river,  hounded  N.  E.  by  the  Saluda  and  drained 
by  a  number  of  smaller  streams ;  area,  800  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  24,049,  of  whom  9,593  were 
colored.  The  Greenville  and  Columbia  and 
the  Blue  Ridge  railroads  traverse  the  county. 
The  surface  is  uneven ;  the  soil  fertile  and 
well  cultivated.  The  productions  in  1870 
were  77,169  bushels  of  wheat,  409,688  of  corn, 
34,213  of  oats,  18,225  of  sweet  potatoes, 
162,842  Ibs.  of  butter,  15,397  of  wool,  and  5,274 
bales  of  cotton ;  value  of  animals  slaughtered, 
$189,982.  There  were  984  white  and  309 
colored  children  attending  school.  Capital, 
Anderson.  II.  An  E.  central  county  of  Texas, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Trinity  river,  and  touching 
the  Neches  river  on  the  east;  area,  900  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  9,229,  of  whom  4,436  were  col 
ored.  About  two  thirds  of  the  county  is 
timbered.  The  surface  is  rolling  and  the  soil 
fertile.  In  1870  the  county  produced  177,285 
bushels  of  corn,  22,136  of  sweet  potatoes, 
4,016  bales  of  cotton,  and  49,381  Ibs.  of  butter. 
Iron  ore  is  abundant.  There  are  about  20 
churches  and  the  same  number  of  schools. 
Capital,  Palestine.  III.  A  N.  E.  county  of 
Tennessee,  traversed  by  Clinch  and  Powell's 
rivers;  area,  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,704, 
of  whom  928  were  colored.  On  its  northwest 
ern  border  is  Cumberland  mountain,  and  on 
the  southeast  rises  Chestnut  ridge,  between 
which  two  ranges  lies  a  deep  fertile  valley, 
well  watered  and  abundantly  stocked  with 
timber.  Coal  is  found  in  various  parts  of 
the  county.  At  Estabrook  are  salt  and  sul 
phur  springs.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  22,932  bushels  of  wheat,  202,664  of  corn, 
and  73,441  of  oats.  Capital,  Clinton.  IV.  A 
N.  central  county  of  Kentucky,  bounded  E.  by 
the  Kentucky  river,  and  intersected  by  Salt 
river;  area,  300  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,449,  of 
whom  698  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level 
or  gently  undulating;  the  soil  generally  pro 
ductive.  The  productions  in  1870  were  35,340 
bushels  of  wheat,  300,963  of  corn,  33,004  of 
oats,  19,539  of  rye,  15,165  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
18,425  of  wool,  and  112,341  of  butter.  Capi 
tal,  Lawrenceburg.  V.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Kan 
sas,  drained  by  Potawatamie  creek,  a  branch 
of  the  Osage  river;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  5,220.  The  productions  in  1870  were 
35,769  bushels  of  wheat,  206,989  of  corn, 
77,779  of  oats,  12,913  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  93,485 
of  butter.  Capital,  Garrett. 

ANDERSON,  ASexander,  the  first  wood  engraver 
in  America,  born  in  New  York,  April  21,  1775, 
died  in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  Jan.  17,  1870.  lie 
was  the  son  of  a  Scotch  printer,  who  just  be 
fore  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  published 
in  NewT  York  a  republican  newspaper,  "  The 
Constitutional  Gazette,"  so  strongly  opposing 
British  rule  that  when  Howe's  army  entered 
the  city  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Con 
necticut.  At  the  age  of  12  Anderson  made  his 
first  attempt  at  engraving  on  small  copper  and 


type-metal  plates,  having  obtained  his  only 
instruction  by  watching  jewellers  and  other 
workmen.  Among  his  early  engravings  were 
some  copies  of  anatomical  figures,  and  his  in 
terest  in  subjects  of  this  kind  induced  him  to 
begin  the  study  of  medicine.  He  took  his 
doctor's  degree  at  Columbia  college  in  1796, 
writing  an  able  thesis  on  u  Chronic  Mania," 
but  soon  began  to  devote  himself  to  art  studies, 
finding  his  first  regular  employment  in  the  illus 
tration  of  a  little  book,  "The  Looking-Glass 
for  the  Mind."  Hearing  of  the  method  of  Be 
wick,  the  English  engraver,  he  began  to  use 
boxwood  blocks,  though  for  some  years  em 
ploying  copper  in  the  greater  part  of  his  work. 
He  invented  his  own  tools  for  wood  engraving, 
since  none  existed  in  America  at  the  time  he 
began  the  experiment.  After  1812  lie  en 
graved  only  upon  wood,  and  attained  great 
skill.  He  illustrated  many  standard  works ; 
among  the  earliest  was  the  first  edition  of  Web 
ster's  spelling-book.  He  was  for  many  years 
employed  in  illustrating  the  American  tract 
society's  publications,  retiring  in  1865,  at  the 
age  of  90,  till  which  time  he  had  retained  his 
skill  and  mental  powers  almost  unimpaired. 

ANDERSON,  Sir  Edmund,  an  English  judge, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1540,  died  Aug.  1, 
1605.  He  was  made  chief  justice  of  the  com 
mon  pleas  in  1582,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  zeal  for  the  established  church  and  his 
harshness  toward  dissenters.  lie  was  one  of 
the  commissioners  for  the  trial  of  Mary  queen 
of  Scots,  and  afterward  of  Raleigh.  His  "Re 
ports  of  Cases  argued  and  adjudged  in  the 
time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  the  Common 
Bench  "  (fol.,  London,  1644),  and  "Resolutions 
and  Judgments  on  the  Cases  and  Matters  agi 
tated  in  all  the  Courts  of  Westminster  in  the 
latter  end  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  "" 
(4to,  London,  1655),  are  much  esteemed. 

ANDERSON,  James,  a  Scottish  antiquary  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Aug.  5,  1662,  died 
April  3,  1728.  In  1705  he  published  "An 
Essay  showing  that  the  Crown  of  Scotland  is 
Imperial  and  Independent,"  in  answer  to  a 
pamphlet  which  had  appeared  a  short  time 
before.  For  this  he  received  the  thanks  of 
the  Scottish  parliament,  besides  a  present  in 
money,  and  a  commission  to  collect  and  pub 
lish  ancient  documents  illustrative  of  the  na 
tional  independence.  Soon  after  the  union  of 
the  two  kingdoms  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  employed  himself  in  literary  labors 
and  in  endeavoring  to  obtain  a  recognition  of 
his  claims  on  the  government;  and  from  1715 
to  1717  he  was  postmaster  general  of  Scotland. 
He  published  "Collections  relating  to  the  His 
tory  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland  "  (4  vols. 
4to,  1727-'8).  His  "Royal  Genealogies,  .  .  . 
from  Adam  to  these  Times,"  appeared  after 
his  death  (1732),  as  also  his  great  work,  Selec- 
tus  Diplomatum  et  Numismatum  ScotioB  The 
saurus  (1739),  edited  by  Ruddiman. 

ANDERSON,  James,  a  Scottish  writer  on  agri 
culture,  political  economy,  and  natural  science. 


ANDERSON 


ANDERSONVILLE 


473 


born  at  Hermiston,  near  Edinburgh,  in  1739, 
died  Oct.  15,  1808.  At  tlie  age  of  15,  having 
lost  his  parents,  lie  assumed  the  charge  of  the 
paternal  farm,  and  he  was  still  very  young 
when  he  introduced  among  the  farmers  of  his 
neighborhood  the  two-horse  plough  without 
wheels.  In  1763  he  took  a  lease  of  1,300  acres 
of  nearly  wild  land  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  in 
1771  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Weekly 
Magazine "  a  series  of  essays  on  planting, 
which  were  in  1777  collected  and  published 
separately.  In  1780  he  received  from  the  uni 
versity  of  Aberdeen  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws, 
and  in  1783  removed  to  Edinburgh.  In  1784 
he  was  employed  by  the  government  to  make 
a  survey  of  the  Hebrides  and  the  western 
coast  of  Scotland,  with  a  view  to  the  improve 
ment  of  the  fisheries.  In  1791  he  established 
a  literary  and  scientific  periodical  called  the 
"Bee,"  designed  especially  for  the  young. 
Having  removed  to  the  neighborhood  of  Lon 
don  in  1797,  he  commenced  in  April,  1799,  a 
periodical  entitled  "Recreations  in  Agricul 
ture,"  which  continued  until  March,  1802,  and 
of  which  he  wrote  the  most  valuable  papers. 

ANDERSON,  Jolm,  a  Scottish  professor,  founder 
of  the  Andersonian  university  at  Glasgow, 
born  in  the  parish  of  Roseneath,  Dumbarton 
shire,  in  172(3,  died  Jan.  13,  1798.  In  1756  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  oriental  languages 
in  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1760  pro 
fessor  of  natural  philosophy.  He  established  a 
gratuitous  course  of  popular  scientific  lectures. 
By  his  will  he  directed  all  his  property  to  be 
applied  to  found  an  institution  for  the  educa 
tion  of  the  poorer  classes.  Though  this  insti 
tution  was  conducted  first  on  a  small  scale,  it 
has  since  increased  its  means  of  usefulness,  and 
now  has  14  professors  and  lecturers,  with 
courses  of  instruction  in  surgery,  chemistry, 
institutes  of  medicine,  materia  medico,  anat 
omy  and  physiology,  medical  jurisprudence, 
natural  philosophy,  botany,  the  classics,  and 
Hebrew,  French,  and  music.  In  1786  Dr.  An 
derson  published  "Institutes  of  Physic"  for 
popular  use,  which  passed  through  five  editions 
in  ten  years. 

ANDERSON,  Martin  Brewer,  LL.  D.,  an  Amer 
ican  educator,  born  in  Brunswick,  Me.,  Feb. 
12,  1815.  He  graduated  in  1840  at  Waterville 
college,  Me.,  where,  after  studying  about  a 
year  in  the  theological  seminary  at  Newton, 
Mass.,  he  became  a  tutor  of  Latin,  Greek,  and 
mathematics.  In  1843  he  was  appointed  pro 
fessor  of  rhetoric,  but  continued  to  give  in 
struction  in  Latin,  and  organized  and  taught 
a  course  of  modern  history.  In  1850  he  re 
signed  his  professorship,  and  became  proprietor 
and  editor  of  the  "New  York  Recorder,"  a 
weekly  Baptist  journal.  In  1853  he  was  called 
to  the  presidency  of  the  then  newly  founded  uni 
versity  of  Rochester,  which  position  he  still  holds 
(1872).  In  1868  he  was  offered  the  presidency 
of  Brown  university  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  but 
declined  to  accept  it.  He  has  preached  much, 
though  never  ordained  as  a  clergyman,  and 


|  has  contributed  literary  and  philosophical  arti 
cles  to  various  public  journals. 

ANDERSON,  Robert,  an  officer  of  the  U.  S. 
army,  born  at  "Soldiers'  Retreat,"  near  Louis 
ville,  Ky.,  June  14,  1805,  died  at  Nice,  France, 
Oct.  26,  1871.     He  graduated  at  AVest  Point  in 
1825,   entered  the  3d  artillery,  and  served  in 
the  "  Black  Hawk  war"  of  1832.     In  1835-'7 
he  was  instructor  of  artillery  at  West   Point, 
afterward  served  in  the  Florida  war,  and  in 
May,  1838,  became  assistant  adjutant  general 
on  the  staff  of  Gen.   Scott.     In  1841   he  re 
signed  this  appointment  on  his  promotion  to  a 
captaincy.    He  accompanied  Gen.  Scott  to  Mex 
ico  in  1847,    and   was   severely   wounded   at 
Molino  del  Rey.     In  1857  he  was  promoted  lo 
be  a  major  in  the  1st  artillery.     On  Nov.  20, 
1860,  he  assumed  command  in  Charleston  har 
bor,  S.  C.     On  the  night  of  Dec.  26,  expecting 
I  an  attack  by  the  authorities  of  South  Carolina, 
he  removed  his  small  garrison  from  Fort  Moul- 
trie  to  the  stronger  Fort  Sumter,  where  during 
the  next  3£  months  he  was  closely  invested  by 
j  the  confederate  troops.     On  April  13  he  cvac- 
'  uated  the  fort  after  a  bombardment  of  nearly 
36  hours,  during  which  he  lost  none  of  his  men 
by  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  marched  out  with  his 
70  men  with  the  honors  of  war  on  the  14th, 
1  and  sailed  the  next  day  for  New  York.      In 
I  May,  1861,  he  was  appointed  brigadier  general 
I  in  the  IT.  S.  army,  and  commander  of  the  de- 
;  partment  of  the  Cumberland,    but   in   conse- 
I  quence  of  failing  health  he  was  soon  relieved, 
1  and  afterward  breveted  major  general  in  the 
I  regular  army,  and   retired   from    service.     In 
|  1868  he  went  to  Europe  for  the  benefit  of  his 
health.     He  translated  and  adapted  from  the 
French  "  Instructions  for  Field  Artillery,  Horse 
and  Foot,  arranged  for  the  Service  of  the  U.  S. 
Army,"  and  "Evolutions  of  Field  Batteries  of 
Artillery,"  now  used  by  the  war  department. 

ANDERSONVILLE,  a   village   of  Sumter   co., 

:  Ga.,  on  the  Southwestern  railroad,   62  m.  S. 

!  of  Macon  ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,346.     It  was  during 

the  war  the  seat  of  a  Confederate  States  mili- 

;  tary  prison,  established  by  Capt.  W.  S.  Win- 

j  der,  Nov.  27,  1863,  at  which  time  the  popula- 

I  tion  of  the  neighborhood  did  not  exceed  20 

|  persons.     The  site  selected  was  a  pine  and  oak 

;  grove  of  about  22  acres,  on  the  side  of  a  hill 

of  red   clay,    1,600   feet    E.    of  the   railroad. 

!  Near  the  base  of  the  declivity  was  a  stream  of 

unwholesome  water  about  5  feet  wide  and  not 

j  more  than  6  inches  deep.     The  trees  were  cut 

I  down  and  the  enclosure  Avas  surrounded  by  a 

|  strong   stockade  15   or  18  feet   high.     It  was 

originally  a  parallelogram,  1,010  feet  long  by 

:  779  feet  wide,  but  in  the  summer  of  1864  its 

length  was  increased  to  1,620  feet.     At   the 

I  distance   of  120   feet,  surrounding   the   inner 

i  enclosure,  was  another  palisade  of  rough  pine 

logs,  and  between  the  two  were  sentry  boxes 

'  overlooking   the  interior.     A  cordon   of  con- 

!  nected   earthworks    mounted    with    17    guns, 

|  commanding  the  entire  prison,  surrounded  the 

;  outer   palisades.      A  wooden  railing  about  3 


ANDERSONVILLE 


feet  high  around  the  inside  of  the  stockade, 
and  at  an  average  distance  of  19  feet  from  it, 
constituted  the  "dead  line,"  prisoners  passing 
which  were  summarily  shot.  The  stream  above 
mentioned  passed  from  W.  to  E.  through  the 
enclosure,  and  furnished  the  only  water  for 
washing  accessible  to  the  prisoners.  Many 
acres  bordering  the  stream  on  either  side  were 
trodden  by  the  feet  of  the  prisoners  into  a 
deep  and  filthy  mire.  Deducting  the  quagmire 
thus  formed,  about  300  feet  wide,  and  the 
space  cut  oft'  by  the  "dead  line,"  the  remain 
ing  space  before  the  enlargement  comprised 
about  12  acres,  giving  to  each  prisoner  when 
the  number  reached  30,000  an  average  area  of 
about  17  square  feet.  A  small  shed,  covered 
but  not  enclosed,  furnished  the  only  protection 
from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  A  few 
wells  were  sunk  in  the  prison,  and  there  were 
also  a  few  springs.  A  second  enclosure,  925 
feet  long  and  400  feet  wide,  similar  to  the 
prison,  \\ras  constructed  in  June,  1864,  for  a 
hospital ;  with  the  exception  of  a  few  old 
tents,  it  contained  nothing  but  long  sheds 
made  of  poles,  with  roofs  of  pine  boughs  or 
planks,  and  without  sides.  The  bakery  was 
within  the  two  lines  of  palisades,  and  the  cook 
house  was  200  yards  outside.  On  the  high 
land  overlooking  the  prison  were  a  two-story 
building  for  the  confederate  officers  and  men, 
and  the  huts  for  the  guards,  who  numbered 
from  3,000  to  5,000.  Near  the  railroad  sta 
tion  a  stockade  measuring  195  by  108  feet  was 
constructed,  and  for  a  while  used  as  a  prison 
for  officers ;  but  they  were  subsequently  con 
fined  at  Macon.  Between  the  graveyard  and 
the  stockade  stood  a  small  hut  in  which 
riine  bloodhounds  were  kept.  The  graveyard 
was  situated  about  300  yards  K  W.  of  the 
stockade.  Trenches  varying  in  length  from  50 
to  100  yards  having  been  dug,  the  bodies  were 
laid  in  rows  of  100  to  300  and  covered  with 
earth.  At  the  head  of  each  body  a  wooden 
stake  was  planted  by  the  federal  soldiers  de 
tailed  to  bury  their  companions,  and  each 
stake  bore  a  number  corresponding  with  a  sim 
ilarly  numbered  name  upon  the  hospital  record. 
The  first  detachment  of  federal  prisoners  was 
received  at  the  Andersonville  prison  Feb.  15, 
1864.  Soon  afterward  John  IT.  "Winder,  a 
brigadier  general  in  the  confederate  army, 
assumed  command  of  the  post,  with  his  son, 
W.  S.  Winder,  as  adjutant.  The  superinten 
dence  and  management  of  the  prison  were 
assigned  to  Henry  Wirz,  a  Swiss  by  birth. 
The  following  exhibit  from  the  prison  records 
shows  the  number  and  mortality  of  prisoners : 

Total  number  received  at  prison 49.4^5 

Largest,  number  in  prison  at  one  time,  Aug.  9, 1864. .  83.006 
Total  number  of  deaths  as  shown  by  hospital  register .  12,402 

in  hospital 8,735 

u       in  stockade 3,727 

Percentage  of  deaths  to  whole  number  received 26 

to  number  admitted  to  hospital.         69f| 
Average  number  of  deaths  for  each  of  the  13  months .        958 
Largest  number  of  deaths  in  one  day.  Aug.  23,  1864.         97 

Cases  returned  from  hospital  to  stockade 3,409 

Total  number  of  escapes 323 


1 

DATE. 

S 

I 

i  i  15 
I  i 

*         '<     & 

irl 
5iti 

i"     I 
£  S-iH. 

IbGl.  March  4, 
April                           .     9 

603       282^ 

577       592  ....  1:16 
451       711  1     231:26 
367;    1.2031    40  1:22 
678     1,742     56  1  :  18 
693,    2.992     97  1:11 
218    2.700     90  1:3 
208    1,560'    50  1  :  2 
859!      485....;  1:2 
706       160  ....   1:29 
046       200!....  1:25 
!-51       149:  !l:39 
319       118!....  1:28 
51         32  ....   1  :  2 

12,926j_ 

number  of  dea 

Gun-shot  wounds.  .. 
Plenrisv  

6 
4 
4 
5 
9 
S 
13 
11 
3 
4 
2 
2 
3 

:hs  re- 

149 
109 

May  IS. 

June  26. 
July                                31 

August                           31 

September  8, 
October  4 
November                    i    1 

December  4 
1865  January  5 
February  i    5 
March  !    3 
April                

Principal  diseases  and 
suiting  therefrom  : 

Diarrhoea  3.952 

Scurvy  3.574 

Dysentery.                     .  1  648 

Bronchitis  93 
Rheumatism                         83 

Unknown                          1  268 

Anasarca  377 
Typhoid  fever  229 

Varioloid  63 
Gangrene  63 

Catarrh                           .       55 

Debility  198 
Intermittent  and  remit 
tent  fevers  177 

Ulcers  51 

Phthisis  36 

!  In  August,  1864,  Dr.  Joseph  Jones,  professor 
|  of  chemistry  in  the  medical  college  of  Georgia, 
under  the  direction  of  the  surgeon  general  of 
the  confederacy,  was  sent  to  Andersonville  to 
investigate  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  sick- 
j  ness  prevalent  there,  "for  the  benefit  of  the 
|  medical  department  of  the  Confederate  States 
'  armies.1"     The  order,  dated  at  Richmond,  Aug. 
|  6,  1864,  recited  that  "the  field  of  pathological 
I  investigation  afforded  by  the  large  collection  of 
I  federal  prisoners  in  Georgia  is  of  great  extent 
and  importance,  and  it  is  believed  that  results 
I  of  value  to  the  profession  may  be  obtained  by 
a  careful  investigation  of  the  effects  of   dis 
ease  upon  the  large  body  of  men  subjected  to 
i  a  decided  change  of  climate  and  the  circum 
stances  peculiar  to  prison  life."     Dr.  Jones  re 
ported  that  scurvy,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and 
hospital  gangrene  were  the  prevailing  diseases; 
|  that  there  were  few  cases  of  malarial  fever  and 
i  no  well  marked  cases  of  typhus  or  typhoid  fever. 
The  absence  of  the  different  forms  of  malarial 
i  fever  was  accounted  for  by  the  supposition  that 
i  the    artificial    atmosphere    of    the    stockade, 
j  crowded  densely  with  human  beings  and  load- 
|  ed  with  animal  exhalations,  was  unfavorable  to 
j  the  existence  and  action  of  the  malarial  poison. 
Subsequently,     at    the     suggestion    of     Gen. 
I  Winder,  an  investigation  was  made  by  Dr.  G. 
|  S.  Hopkins  and  Surgeon  IT.  E.  Watkins,  who 
reported  the  general   causes  of  diseases   and 
mortality  as  follows:   "1.  The  large   number 
of  prisoners  crowded  together.     2.  The  entire 
|  absence  of  all  vegetables  as  diet,  so  necessary 
as  a  preventive  of  scurvy.     3.  The  want  of 
barracks  to  shelter  the  prisoners  from  sun  and 
rain.     4.  The  inadequate  supply  of  wood  and 


ANDERSSEN 


ANDES 


475 


good  Welter.     5.  Badly  cooked  food.     C.  The 
filthy  condition  of  the   prisoners   and   prison 
generally.     7.  The   morbific   emanations  from 
the  branch  or  ravine  passing  through  the  pris 
on,  the  condition  of  which  cannot  be   better 
explained  than  by  naming  it  a  morass  of  human 
excrement  and  mud."     Early  in  May,  1864,  a  j 
report  upon  the  condition  of  the  prisoners  was  | 
made   by    the  confederate   surgeon  E.  J.  El-  | 
dridge,  pursuant  to  instructions  of  Gen.  Ilowell  j 
Cobb,  and  on  July  5  an  inspection  report  was  j 
submitted  by  Col.  Chandler  of  the  confederate  | 
war   department.     In  these  reports  the  sick-  j 
ness  and  mortality  of  the  prisoners  were  attrib-  j 
uted  to  the  bad  condition  of  the  prison  and  its  j 
management.     In  August,  1865,  a  special  mili 
tary  commission  was  convened  by  the  secre 
tary   of   war    to   try   Wirz.     The   indictment 
charged  him  with  injuring  the  health  and  de 
stroying  the  lives  of  soldiers  confined  as  pris 
oners  at  Anderson ville,  by  subjecting  them  to 
torture  and  great  suffering,  by  confining  them 
in     unhealthy    and     unwholesome     quarters, 
by  exposing  them  to  the  inclemency  of  the 
winter  and  the  dews  and  burning  sun  of  the  sum 
mer,  by  compelling  the  use  of  impure  water, 
and  by  furnishing  insufficient  and  unwholesome 
food ;  also  for  establishing  the  "  dead  line,"  and 
ordering  the  guard  to  shoot  down  any  prisoner 
attempting  to  cross  it;  for  keeping  and  using 
bloodhounds  to  hunt  down  prisoners  attempt-  j 
ing  to  escape ;  and  for  torturing  prisoners  by  j 
confining  them    within   the  "stocks."     Wirz,  j 
having  been  found  guilty  on  these  charges,  was 
hanged  Nov.  10,  1865.     After  the  close  of  the 
war  the   cemetery  at  Andersoriville    was   ar 
ranged   by  Col.  Moore  of  the  U.  S.  quarter 
master's  department,  pursuant  to  orders  from 
the  secretary  of  war.     The   stakes   were   re 
moved   and   neat   head    boards,    inscribed    in 
black  letters,  with  the  names  of  the  dead  were 
substituted.     The  bodies  in  the  trenches  were 
found  to  be  from  two  to  three  feet  below  the 
surface,  and  in  some  instances,  where  the  rain 
had  washed  away  the  earth,  but  a  few  inches. 
They  had  been  buried  without  coffins  or  the 
ordinary  clothing,  and  not  more  than  12  inches 
in  width  had  been  allowed  to  each  body.    With 
the  aid  of  the  hospital  record.  12,461  graves 
were  identified  and  marked  with  tablets  giving 
the  number,  name,  rank,  regiment,  company, 
and  date  of  death  of  each  person;  and  451 
graves  bore  the  inscription  "Unknown  U.  S. 
Soldier."     The  cemetery  was  carefully  laid  out  ! 
in  walks  and  adorned  with  trees. 

£VI)ERSSE\T,  Adolph,  a  German  chess  player,  ; 
born  in  Breslau,  July  6,  1818.    He  was  a  teach-  j 
er  of  mathematics,  acquired  in  Berlin  a  high 
reputation  as  a  chess  player,  and  attended  in 
1851  the  chess  tournament  in  London,  where 
he  defeated  Staunton  and  other  English  celeb-  ! 
rities.     In  December,  1858,  he  was  defeated  in  ! 
Paris  by  Paul   Morphy  ;  but   in  1862,  at  the  j 
second  London  chess  tournament,  he  obtained  j 
the  highest  prize.     He  is  the  author  of  many  j 
original  outlinss  of  games  and  of  writings  on 


the  theory  of  chess,  published  in  the  Leipsio 
Schachzeitung. 

ANDERSSON,  Carl  Johan,  a  Swedish  traveller, 
born  in  the  province  of  Wermland  in  1827,  died 
in  the  territory  of  the  Ovacuambi,  S.  W.  Africa, 
July  5,  1867.  lie  was  the  natural  son  of  Mr.  L. 
Lloyd,  an  English  sportsman  residing  in  Swe 
den.  In  1849  he  went  to  England,  and  the 
next  year  joined  Francis  Galton  in  a  journey  to 
the  territories  of  the  Damaras  and  the  Ovam- 
bos,  S.  W.  Africa.  He  continued  his  explora 
tions  alone  in  1853-'4,  and  published  after  his 
return  to  England  (1855)  "Lake  Ngami,  or  Ex 
plorations  and  Discoveries  during  Four  Years' 
Wanderings  in  the  Wilds  of  Southwestern 
Africa."  Revisiting  Africa  in  1856,  he  made  a 
second  journey  to  Lake  Ngami  (1858)  in  compa 
ny  with  Mr.  Green,  an  English  elephant  hunter, 
and  found  his  way  up  the  Okavango,  through 
the  territory  of  the  Ovambo,  one  of  the  princi 
pal  red  tribes  of  Herrevo  land,  which  had  never 
been  visited  by  a  European  excepting  by  the 
German  missionary  Hugo  Halm.  He  published 
in  London  in  1861  a  work  on  the  Okavango 
river.  Returning  to  Herrevo  land  by  way  of 
Walfish  bay  and  the  Zwachaub  river,  he  mar 
ried  Miss  Aitchison  of  Cape  Town,  and  devoted 
himself  at  Otjimbingue,  near  Ondongo,  to  agri 
culture  and  commerce.  During  the  war  with 
the  Damara  and  Namaqna  tribes  he  was  repeat 
edly  despoiled  by  the  latter,  and  finally  so  seri 
ously  wounded  that  he  had  to  be  removed  to 
Cape  Town.  During  his  illness  he  studied  or 
nithology  and  prepared  materials  for  an  illus 
trated  fauna  of  S.  W.  Africa.  Barely  recovered, 
he  set  out  again  in  May,  1866,  with  a  young 
Swede,  on  an  expedition  to  the  Cunene,  with  a 
view  of  establishing  commercial  intercourse 
with  the  Portuguese  settlements  X.  of  that 
river,  and  came  within  sight  of  the  long-sought 
stream  ;  but,  too  feeble  to  cross  it,  he  had  to 
retrace  his  steps  and  died  on  the  home  journey. 

AXDERSSOX,  Mis  Johan,  a  Swedish  botanist, 
born  Feb.  20,  1821.  He  made  a  voyage  round 
the  world  in  the  Swedish  frigate  Eugenie  in 
1851-'3,  and  published  Verldwm&eyling  (3  vols., 
Stockholm,  1853-'4).  He  also  wrote  on  Scan 
dinavian  botany.  Since  1856  he  has  been  pro 
fessor  at  Stockholm,  and  superintendent  of  the 
botanical  collection  of  the  academy  of  sciences. 

ANDES,  the  range  of  mountains  which  ex 
tends  along  the  northern  and  western  coasts  of 
South  America,  from  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  continent  to  the  Caribbean  sea.  It  is  the 
most  compact  mountain  system  in  the  world. 
Skirting  the  Pacific  shore  for  nearly  4,500 
m.,  with  a  mean  elevation  of  12,000  feet  and 
varying  in  breadth  from  40  to  350  m.,  it  covers 
with  its  base  a  surface  of  more  than  half  a  mil 
lion  square  miles.  Nowhere  else  docs  nature 
present  such  a  continuous,  well  defined,  and 
lofty  chain.  It  is  in  strong  contrast  with  the 
broken  and  straggling  systems  of  Europe  and 
North  America.  The  Himalayas  surpass  the 
Andes  in  extreme  altitude,  but  as  they  are 
situated  beyond  the  tropics  and  destitute  of 


476 


ANDES 


volcanoes,  they  do  not  present  that  inexhausti 
ble  variety  of  phenomena  which  characterizes 
the  latter.  Though  presenting  one  continuous 
axis,  the  Andean  range  consists  of  several  mem 
bers,  known  by  the  names  of  the  countries  in 
which  they  occur.  The  Patagonian  section  is 
a  single  narrow  range  of  moderate  elevation, 
but  ascending  in  several  points  (Mt.  Darwin, 
Mt.  Stokes,  and  the  volcanoes  of  Yanteles  and 
Minchinmadiva)  to  0,400  and  8,000  feet.  It 
begins  in  a  group  of  mountainous  islands,  the 
archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego ;  and,  indeed, 
the  western  side  throughout  its  whole  length 
is  penetrated  by  narrow  inlets  or  arms  of  the 
sea  and  bordered  by  a  series  of  rugged  islands. 
This  Pacific  side,  exposed  to  the  prevailing 
winds,  is  of  barren  rock;  but  the  eastern  slope 
is  covered  with  forests  of  beech  (fagus  bctu- 
loidc*),  which  reach  up  to  1,000  or  1,500  feet 
above  the  sea  level ;  and  beyond  this  succeeds  a 
belt  of  dwarfed  alpine  plants  and  peat  mosses, 
which  continues  to  the  height  of  3,500  or  4,000 
feet,  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  Almost  every 
arm  of  the  sea,  says  Darwin,  which  penetrates 
to  the  interior  higher  chain,  not  only  in  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  but  on  the  coast  for  650  m.  north 
ward,  is  terminated  by  tremendous  and  aston 
ishing  glaciers.  Great  masses  of  ice  frequently 
fall  from  these  icy  cliffs,  and  the  crash  rever 
berates  like  the  broadside  of  a  man-of-war 
through  the  lonely  channels.  The  glacier  fur 
thest  from  the  pole  which  conies  down  to  the 
sea,  surveyed  during  the  voyages  of  the  Ad 
venture  and  Beagle,  is  in  lat.  46°  50'  S.,  in 
the  gulf  of  Penas. — As  the  Andes  enter  Chili 
they  begin  to  recede  from  the  ocean,  and  a  fer 
tile  belt  of  country  intervenes,  which  in  lat. 
36°  is  about  100  m.  wide.  They  still  form  one 
immense  ridge,  but  they  gain  in  height  and 
breadth.  Though  in  mean  elevation  they  are 
inferior  to  the  Andes  of  the  north,  they  yet 
contain  the  gigantic  Aconcagua,  the  culminat 
ing  point  of  the  whole  system,  and  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  new  world.  It  is  frequently 
called  a  volcano,  but  it  shows  no  trace  of  mod 
ern  igneous  origin,  although  it  is  porphyritic. 
Its  height  was  computed  by  Capt.  Beechey  from 
its  angle  of  elevation  at  Valparaiso  to  be  23,910 
feet ;  but  the  more  exact  measurement  of  M. 
Pissis  makes  it  22,422.  Other  Chilian  peaks 
are  Tupungato,  Antuco,  Villarica,  Chilian,  May- 
pu,  and  Osorno,  some  of  which,  if  not  all,  are 
volcanic.  The  snow  line  in  the  latitude  of 
Valparaiso  is  about  15,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
"To  this  line,'1  Darwin  observes,  "the  even 
summits  of  the  range  seemed  quite  parallel. 
Only  at  long  intervals  a  group  of  points  or  a 
single  cone  showed  where  a  volcano  had  ex 
isted  or  does  now  exist.  Hence  the  range  re 
sembled  a  great  solid  wall,  surmounted  here 
and  there  by  a  tower,  and  making  a  most  per 
fect  barrier  to  the  country." — The  Bolivian 
Andes  extend  from  about  lat.  24°  to  15°  S.  For 
some  distance  there  is  but  one  undivided  range 
as  in  Chili,  between  which  and  the  Paciiic  is 
the  vast  desert  of  Atacama,  doubtless  the  bed 


of  an  ancient  sea.  At  the  mountain  knot  of  Al- 
turas  de  los  Lipes,  lat.  22°,  the  chain  separates 
into  two  great  longitudinal  ridges,  called  the 
Cordillera  of  the  coast  and  the  Cordillera  Real, 
which  enclose  the  wonderful  table  land  of  Des- 
aguadero,  the  Thibet  of  the  new  world.  This 
high  valley,  elevated  13,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
extends  500  m.  in  length  and  from  30  to  60  in 
breadth  along  the  top  of  the  Andes.  It  is  so  com 
pletely  walled  in  that  the  streams  have  no  appa 
rent  outlet,  but  meet  in  Lake  Titicaca.  The  sur 
face  of  this  lake  is  12,846  feet  above  the  Pacific. 
It  is  the  largest  fresh-water  accumulation  in 
South  America,  covering  4,600  sq.  m.  and  having 
a  depth  of  at  least  120  fathoms.  The  Rio  Des- 
aguadero  connects  it  with  the  Laguna  Aullagas, 
180  in.  S.,  which  is  about  50  feet  lower  than 
Titicaca.  The  valley  enjoys  a  temperate  cli 
mate,  but  it  is  treeless  and  cultivation  is  limit 
ed.  Yet  large  cities  have  flourished  at  this 
altitude.  Potosi,  fajried  for  its  silver  mines  and 
for  being  the  most  elevated  city  on  the  globe, 
two  centuries  ago  contained  150,000  inhabi 
tants.  Its  altitude  is  13,330  feet.  The  cecro 
on  which  it  is  situated  is  honeycombed  by  min 
ing  operations,  over  5,000  loca-minas  being  vis 
ible.  To  the  N.  E.  of  it  is  Chuquisaca  or  Sucre, 
the  capital  of  Bolivia,  in  the  midst  of  cultivated 
fields.  La  Paz,  a  few  leagues  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  Lake  Titicaca,  is  situated  in  a  que- 
bmda,  or  ravine,  620  feet  below  the  lake,  and 
still  over  12,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  water 
that  flows  through  the  quebrada  of  La  Paz 
winds  around  the  volcano  of  Illimani,  and,  flow 
ing  northward  and  uniting  with  other  branches, 
becomes  with  them  one  of  the  great  tributaries 
of  the  Amazon.  Nine  fine  bridges  cross  this 
ravine  in  the  city.  The  Cordilleras  run  parallel 
to  each  other,  from  200  to  300  m.  distant;  the 
eastern  range  has  a  mean  elevation  of  13,500 
feet,  and  the  western  14,800.  They  arc  united 
at  various  points  by  enormous  transverse  moun 
tain  dikes  or  knots.  The  highest  summits  in 
the  coast  range  are  Bahama,  22, 350  feet;  Pa- 
rinacota  and  Gualatieri,  22,000  each;  Poma- 
rape,  21,000;  and  the  active  volcano  Arequipa, 
20,300.  The  loftiest  peak  in  the  Cordillera 
Real  is  that  of  Sorata,  21,286  feet;  and  near 
by  is  its  rival,  Illimani,  only  100  feet  lower. 
The  Pacific  slope  of  this  section  of  the  Andes 
is  sandy  and  barren.  In  a  day's  journey  into 
the  interior  from  the  port  of  Iquique  in  Peru, 
not  a  sign  of  vegetation  is  met  with  except 
lichens  strewed  loosely  upon  the  sand  with  no 
thing  to  attach  them  to  the  surface ;  nor  is  t^e 
solitude  of  the  desert  interrupted  by  any  living 
thing,  bird,  beast,  or  insect,  save  the  occasional 
train  of  cargo  mules  between  the  coast  and  the 
nitrate  of  soda  mines,  and  the  vultures  that 
hover  over  them,  or  settle  down  to  feed  upon 
their  prey  broken  down  and  left  behind.  The 
salts  of  noda  (common  salt,  and  the  nitrate 
with  some  sulphate;  are  intermixed  with  the 
sand,  forming  hard  incrustations,  which,  though 
highly  attractive  of  moisture,  find  in  this  dry 
climate  not  enough  of  it  to  cause  them  to  de- 


ANDES 


477 


liquesce.     Where   worked,    at    a  distance   of 
about  40  m.  from  the  coast,  they  are  in  a  hard 
stratum,  between  2  and-]  feet  thick,  found  just 
beneath  the  surface,  and  extending  along  the  j 
margin  of  a  great  basin  or  plain  for  150  miles.  I 
—The  Bolivian  plateau  terminates  in  the  knot  j 
of  Vilcaftota,  where  the  Cordilleras  unite,  but  ! 
again  diverge  as  they  traverse  Peru,  and  at  the  | 
same  time  change  from  a  meridional  to  a  north-  | 
westerly  course.     They  stand  'over  100  miles 
apart,  and  bound  the  diversified  plain  of  Cuzco,  | 
a  populous  and  fertile  region.     Though  under  j 
the  burning  sun  of  the  tropics,  this  region,  the  j 
territory  of  the  ancient  incas  of  Peru,  enjoys 
the  climate  and  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone. 
Through  the  range  of  the  mountain  valleys, 
extending  from  Potosi  in  Bolivia  in  a  north-  j 
westerly  direction,  taking  in  the  lakes  of  Au- 
Ilagas  and  Titicaca,  and  the  river  Desaguadero,  j 
which   connects  them,    and   reaching   beyond  j 
Cuzco,  are  still  to  be  found  the  ruined  works  : 
of  the  ancient  inhabitants,  the  evidences  of  j 
their  high  degree  of  civilization.     These  are  ! 
the  wonderful  roads  which  Ilumboldt  in  his 
Vties  des   Cordillercs  speaks  of  as  among  the 
most  useful  and  stupendous  works  ever  executed  ] 
by  man.    They  passed  over  the  snowy  summits 
of  the  sierras,  through  the  mountains  by  tun 
nels  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  over  the  precipices 
by  steps,  and  the  awful  quelradas  (or  chasms)  ; 
and   rivers   by  solid   masonry,   or  by  bridges 
swung  by  osier  ropes.     With  the  same   bold 
engineering,  their  aqueducts  for  irrigating  the 
dry  soil  of  the  valleys  brought  water  for  hun-  | 
dreds   of  miles  from  distant  sources   in   the  I 
mountains.     In  these  valleys,  the  grains  of  the 
temperate  latitudes,  as  wheat  and  barley,  are  ! 
still  cultivated ;    and   as  the  table   land  de-  \ 
scends  toward  the  north,  sugar  cane  and  other 
tropical  plants  appear,  but  the  main  ridge  of  i 
the  Andes  still  towers  to  great  heights  between  ' 
these   interior   valleys   and  the  Pacific  coast.  \ 
The  highest  known  pass  is  from  Lima  in  lat.  | 
12°  to  Tarma  and  Pasco ;  it  crosses  the  ridge 
at  an  elevation  of  15,760  feet.     The  rain  clouds  ' 
swept  on  from  the  N.  E.  are  intercepted  on  the  ; 
eastern  slopes,  and  the  drainage  is  all  back  to 
ward  the  Atlantic,  whence  the  abundant  waters  ' 
have  been  brought  by  the  trade  winds.     The 
strip  of  land  20  to  50  m.  wide  along  the  coast 
is  singularly  dry ;  no  rains  reach  it  from  over 
the  mountains,  and  the  vapors  raised  along  the 
Paoitic  are  driven  by  the  prevailing  winds  from 
its  shores.    The  high  table  lands  of  Pasco,  about 
lat.  11°  S.,  are  famous  as  the  highest  points  of 
the  Andes  occupied  by  man.    Here  are  worked 
some  of  the  richest  silver  mines  of  Peru,  at  an  ; 
elevation  of  14,000  feet,   and, only  1,500  feet 
below    the   line    of    perpetual    snow.      From 
this  point  for  400  m.  northward,  to  the  Andes 
of  Quito,  the  mountains  decline  in  height,  and  j 
no   peak  for  more  than  7°  S.  of  the  equator  ' 
reaches  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.    The  Andes 
crowd  more  closely  on  the  coast,  so  that  the  | 
rains  that  swell  the  sources  of  the  Amazon  ' 
full  within  sight  of  the  Pacific ;  yet  they  spread 


in  parallel  -N.  and  S.  ridges  over  a  vast  width 
of  country,  and  between  the  different  ranges 
the  great  branches  of  the  Amazon,  as  the 
Maraflon,  ths  Iluallaga,  and  the  Ucayali,  find 
their  way  in  a  northerly  direction  to  enter  at 
right  angles  the  main  river  bound  on  its  eastern 
course.  The  valleys  of  these  rivers  afford 
convenient  situations  for  roads,  and  they  are 
connected  with  the  coast  by  various  passes  over 
the  western  summits ;  one  of  the  principal  of 
these  is  the  road  from  Truxillo,  in  lat.  8°  S.  on 
the  coast,  to  Caxamarca  in  the  valley  of  the 
Maranon,  over  a  summit  of  11,600  feet  eleva 
tion.  Thence  the  road  continues  northward 
to  Chachapoyas,  and  from  this  place  over  the 
central  ridge  of  the  Andes  to  Moyobamba  and 
Tarapoto  on  the  Iluallaga.  All  this  fine  region 
of  the  Andes,  with  its  numerous  towns  and 
rich  mines,  is  occupied  principally  by  Indians. 
Farming  and  mining  are  almost  their  only  em 
ployments.  Except  silver,  products  of  the 
mountains  hardly  pay  for  transportation ;  the 
most  important  are  the  bark  of  the  cinchona 
tree,  which  abounds  in  the  forests  on  the  east 
ern  ranges,  and  the  sarsaparilla,  which  is  very 
common  in  the  densely  wooded  plains  of  the 
rivers  east  of  the  mountains.  North  of  the 
silver  mines  of  Pasco,  the  Peruvian  Andes  may 
be  said  to  consist  of  three  Cordilleras,  known 
as  the  western,  central,  and  eastern,  of  which 
the  first  is  the  highest,  and  is  separated  from 
the  Pacific  by  an  arid  desert  50  m.  in  breadth. 
The  summit  of  the  Andes  of  Peru  is  the 
Nevado  de  Sasacuanca,  17,900  feet.  While 
the  snow  line  in  Bolivia,  according  to  Pent- 
land,  is  at  17,000  feet,  in  Peru  it  descends 
to  15,500. — Following  these  ranges,  we  find 
them  decreasing  in  altitude  till  they  terminate 
in  the  knot  of  Loja,  one  of  the  lowest  parts  of 
the  chain.  Here  begins  the  most  magnificent 
series  of  volcanoes  in  the  world — the  Andes 
of  Quito.  Two  cordilleras,  running  nearly  due 
N".,  enclose  the  beautiful  table  hind  of  Quito, 
200  m.  long  by  30  wide.  This  table  land  is 
divided  by  the  transverse  ridges  of  Assuay  and 
Tiopullo  into  the  three  basins  of  Cuenca,  Am- 
bato,  and  Quito,  having  the  mean  altitude  and 
temperature  of  7,500,  8,000,  and  9,500  feet, 
and  62°,  61°,  and  59°,  respectively.  The  Alto 
de  Tiupullo,  or  Chisinche,  forms  the  watershed 
between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic,  the  waters 
of  the  Quito  valley  flowing  W.  by  the  Esme- 
raldas,  and  those  of  Ambato  reaching  the  Ama 
zon  by  the  Pastaza.  The  eastern  or  Royal 
Cordillera  contains  the  ever-active  volcano  of 
Sangai,  17,120  feet;  ruined  Altar,  17,400; 
the  perfect  cone  of  Tunguragua,  16,579,  silent 
since  1780;  the  Llanganate  mountains,  rich  in 
gold;  Cotopaxi,  18,862  feet — "  the  most  beau 
tiful  and  most  terrible  of  volcanoes ;  "  the 
extinct  Antisana,  19,279 ;  square-topped  Ca- 
yambi,  standing  exactly  on  the  equator,  19,358  ; 
and  Imbabura,  which  in  1691  poured  forth  a 
vast  quantity  of  mud  and  thousands  of  fishes 
(pimelodes  cyclopuni).  In  the  coast  range  are 
Chimborazo,  with  its  untrodden  dome,  21,420 


478 


ANDES 


feet  above  the  sen;  Caraguirazo,  about  18,000; 
Iliniza,  17,370;  and  Pichincha,  15,827 — the 
only  active  volcano  in  this  cordillcra,  and 
having  the  deepest  crater  on  the  globe.  The 
snow  limit  at  the  equator  is  15,800  feet.  One 
degree  north  of  the  equator  is  the  volcanic  knot 
of  Los  Pastes,  where  the  cordilleras  unite, 
again  to  diverge  as  they  enter  Colombia. 
There  the  Andes  spread  out  "like  the  graceful 
branches  of  the  palm  tree."  The  coast  range, 
la  Cordillcra  de  la  Costa,  divides  the  valley  of 
the  Cauca  from  the  Pacific,  and  finally  merges 
in  the  low  mountains  of  Darien.  About  120  m. 
N.  of  the  equator,  the  other  cordillera  sepa 
rates  into  two  chains,  of  which  the  eastern 
most,  Surna  Paz,  runs  by  Lake  Maracaibo  and 
terminates  near  Caracas  on  the  Caribbean  sea. 
The  central  chain  of  Quindiu  divides  the  Cauca 
and  Magdalena,  and  culminates  in  the  volcanic 
Tolima,  18,270  feet,  the  highest  peak  in  the 
new  world  N.  of  the  line,  and  situated  further 
from  the  sea  (120  m.)  than  any  other  active 
volcano. — In  general,  the  Andes  present  a 
steep  slope  toward  the  Pacific,  and  descend 
gradually  into  the  vast  plains  of  the  east.  In 
Ecuador,  the  western  slope  (according  to  Prof. 
Orton)  is  225  feet  per  mile,  and  the  eastern  125 
feet.  In  Chili,  says  Darwin,  the  descent  on 
the  E.  side  of  the  cordillera  is  much  shorter 
or  steeper  than  on  the  Pacific  side.  Besides 
the  longitudinal  valleys  between  the  cordille 
ras  already  mentioned,  there  are  innumerable 
valleys  of  erosion  on  the  sides  of  the  Andes  in 
keeping  with  their  colossal  size.  The  gigantic 
mountain  chain,  throughout  its  entire  length, 
forms  a  great  barrier  to  the  interchange  of  life 
and  commerce  between  the  eastern  and  west 
ern  sides  of  the  continent.  No  river  crosses 
it,  and  even  the  separate  cordilleras  are  bro 
ken  at  few  points.  The  passes  are  wild  paths, 
narrow,  steep,  rugged,  and  often  running  along 
the  edge  of  precipices.  Man  has  done  little 
to  improve  them,  except  in  the  elevated  plains 
of  Peru,  where  the  incas  laid  out  four  grand 
roads  from  their  favorite  capital,  Cuzco,  which 
rival  the  similar  works  of  the  old  Romans. 


Chirnborazo,  14,250  feet,  and  Papallacta.  The 
maritime  chain  in  New  Granada,  though  low, 
has  but  few  and  ( "iifficult  passes.  From  Tr  uxillo 
to  Popayan  a  great  commercial  road  for  mules 
runs  longitudinally  along  the  Andes.  The 
finest  carriage  ways  in  western  South  America 
are  in  the  Quito  valley. — There  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  vegetation,  the  quadru 
peds,  and  to  some  degree  the  birds  and  insects 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes  and  those  on 
the  western.  This  fact  accords  with  geolo 
gical  history;  for  these  mountains,  says  Dar 
win,  have  existed  as  a  great  barrier  since  the 
present  races  of  animals  have  appeared;  and 
therefore,  unless  we  suppose  the  same  species 
to  have  been  created  in  two  different  places, 
we  ought  not  to  expect  any  closer  similarity 
between  the  organic  beings  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  Andes  than  on  the  opposite  shores 
of  the  ocean.  The  characteristic  forms  of  ani 
mal  life  on  the  Andes  are  llamas,  vicunas,  al 
pacas,  condors,  and  humming-birds;  nearly  all 
the  domesticated  animals  are  importations. 
The  puma,  jaguar,  peccary,  deer,  opossum,  mon 
key,  squirrel,  weasel,  and  a  small  black  bear 
abound  in  the  lower  altitudes.  The  population 
of  the  Pacific  states,  consisting  of  Indians 
(Aymard  in  the  southern  and  Quichua  in  the 
northern  half)  and  Spanish  Americans,  is  main 
ly  gathered  in  the  high  valleys.  Near  Ocu- 
ruro  in  Peru  is  the  little  post  hut  of  Rumi- 
huasi,  on  a  wild,  forbidding  height  420  feet 
higher  than  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc — the 
loftiest  habitation  in  the  world. — Ascending 
the  equatorial  Andes,  we  find  every  variety  of 
climate  arranged  in  zones  according  to  the  al 
titude,  and  characterized  by  floral  life.  From 
the  bananas  and  palms  on  the  steaming  low 
lands,  we  pass  in  succession  tree  ferns,  cincho 
na,  polylqm  (the  last  of  the  trees),  heaths, 
gentians  and  geraniums,  paja  (the  long  wiry 
grass  of  the  paramos),  and  lichens.  The  most 
prominent  flowers  in  the  Quito  valley  belong 
to  the  composite?,  lalnata>,  leguminosce,  and 
gentianacece.  The  Andes  pass  from  the  hot 
climates  of  the  equatorial  regions  through  the 


The  least  elevation  of  these  passes  is  rarely  less  i  southern  temperate  zone  nearly  to  its  extreme 
than  twice  the  height  of  Mount  Washington.  |  verge.     At  their  termination,  in  hit.  56°  S.,  the 

climate  is  indeed  more  boisterous  and  wintry 


If  it  docs  not  reach  above  the  extreme  limits 
of  vegetation,  it  is  a  favorable  pass.  Frequently 
they  lead  through  the  regions  of  perpetual 
snow,  and  during  the  winter  months  are  en 
tirely  closed.  In  Chili  there  are  eight  of  these 
passes,  S.  of  lat.  32°  S.,  of  which  the  chief  are 
the  Uspallata  and  Portillo,  leading  from  Val 
paraiso  to  Mendoza,  and  reaching  the  altitude 
of  12,450  feet.  There  are  six  passes  in  Bolivia, 
of  which  the  best  is  by  Cochabamba  leading  to 
the  Mam  ore;  its  highest  point  is  15,000  feet. 
Peru  may  be  crossed  by  three  paths :  from 
Lima  to  Mayro,  via  Cerro  Pasco  and  Iluanuco ; 
from  Lima  to  Tingo  Maria,  via  Iluanuco;  and 
fromTruxillo  to  Moyobamba,  via  Chachapoyas. 
One  leading  from  Lima  to  Tarma  and  Pasco  is 
15,700  feet  high,  the  highest  pass  in  the  Andes. 
Ecuador  is  generally  crossed  via  the  A  renal  on 


^ 

than  that  just  over  the  limit  of  the  frigid  zone 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  In  the  summer 
season,  at  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  warmth  is  in 
sufficient  to  lift  the  line  of  perpetual  snow 
higher  than  3,500  or  4,000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  while  in  Norway  for  such  a  climate 
one  must  go  from  11  to  14  degrees  further  from 
the  equator.  As  the  Andes  toward  the  north 
spread  out  into  broader  masses,  and  stretch  up 
ward  to  higher  elevations,  they  carry  with 
them  through  the  tropics  the  cold  temperature 
of  their  southern  termination.  But  the  moun 
tains  are  not  only  the  regulators  of  the  climate, 
they  are  also  the  great  condensers,  lifted  up 
into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere  to 
catch  the  abundant  moisture  distilled  by  the 
trade  winds,  and  to  shed  it  in  copious  streams 


ANDES 


479 


from  the  eastern  slopes  on  which  it  is  precipi 
tated,  eastward  toward  the  Atlantic,  feeding 
the  great  i  ivcrs  of  the  continent,  and  spreading 
fertility  along  their  paths. — Glaciers  are  rare, 
being  found  only  in  the  narrow  ravines  of  the 
southern  section.  The  volcanoes  of  the  Andes, 
51  in  number,  are  remarkable  for  their  continu 
ity,  in  scattered  groups,  from  the  western  coast 
of  Patagonia,  in  lat.  43°  28'  S.,  to  the  northern 
limits  of  the  Andes  a  few  degrees  from  the 
equator;  and  even  into  Central  America  the 
continuation  of  this  volcanic  belt  may  be  traced 
in  the  cordillems  of  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua, 
Honduras,  and  Mexico.  The  most  southern 
group  extends  from  Yanteles,  opposite  the  island 
of  Chiloe,  to  Coquimbo,  in  lat.  30°.  There  is 
then  a  space  of  more  than  eight  degrees  of 
latitude  with  no  volcano  known  to  have  been 
in  action,  to  which  succeeds  the  range  of  vol 
canoes  of  Bolivia  and  Peru,  the  extent  of  which 
is  from  lat.  21°  to  15°  S.  Thence  to  the  vol 
canoes  of  Quito  is  a  district  of  fourteen  degrees 
of  latitude,  little  known  and  thinly  populated. 
No  volcanoes  are  spoken  of  in  it,  but  they  may 
be  there  and  have  escaped  the  observation  of 
civilized  man.  The  volcanoes  of  Quito  extend 
from  100  m.  S.  of  the  equator  to  130  m.  N.  of  it ; 
and  from  their  northern  termination  it  is  about 
six  degrees  further  to  the  southern  termination 
of  the  volcanoes  of  Central  America.  They  are 
not  only  remarkable  for  the  long  line  of  coun 
try  they  spread  over,  but  also  for  the  great 
height  of  many  of  the  peaks,  and  their  extreme 
ly  destructive  character.  The  products  of  an 
eruption  are  usually  water,  mud,  ashes,  and 
fragments  of  pumice,  trachyte,  and  porphyry. 
But  the  volcanoes  of  the  Andes  are  singularly 
exempt  from  floods  of  lava.  From  high  up  the 
flanks  of  Antuco  in  Chili,  the  summit  of  which 
rises  16,000  feet  above  the  sea,  immense  cur 
rents  of  lava  flowed  in  1828 ;  but  this  is  a  rare 
occurrence,  the  matters  usually  ejected  being 
vapors  and  scoria?.  The  outbursts  of  the  vol 
canoes  are  closely  connected  with  the  frequent 
and  disastrous  earthquakes  of  this  region. 
These  commotions  appear  to  extend  under  the 
whole  range  of  the  Andes,  and  even  far  out 
under  the  ocean.  So  frequent  are  they  that 
M.  Boussingault  is  of  opinion  that  a  full  regis 
ter  of  them  would  show  that  they  are  inces 
sant. — The  geological  structure  of  the  Andes 
shows  that  the  chain  was  slowly  upheaved  in 
mass  from  the  sea,  and  has  since  undergone 
three  subsidem-cs.  Indeed,  there  are  evidences 
that  the  Andes  are  now  subsiding  again,  for 
successive  measurements  indicate  a  lower  ele 
vation.  (See  ''American  Journal  of  Science,1' 
October,  1871,  p.  2(37.)  In  the  pass  of  Uspa- 
llata,  the  two  parallel  ridges,  based  on  the  an 
cient  porphyries,  are  capped,  the  range  next  the 
coast  with  black  clay  slates  containing  the 
grypheas,  ammonites,  and  other  fossil  shells  of 
Jurassic  and  cretaceous  age,  and  altered  by  in 
trusion  of  the  igneous  rocks ;  while  the  eastern 
range  is  covered  with  still  later  formations,  as 
sandstones  and  conglomerates  made  up  of  the 


1  fragments  of  the  rocks  of  the  western  range,  and 
I  bearing  all  the  appearance  of  the  tertiary  strata 
found  along  the  Pacific  coast.   These  later  for 
mations  also  are  intermingled  with  trap  rocks 
|  and  volcanic  tuffs,  and  altered  by  contact  with 
;  the  granitic  rocks,  which  since  the  deposition 
of  the  sedimentary  rocks  have  intruded  among 
.  the  strata.      The  metallic  veins  from  the  gran 
ite  also  penetrate    them,   and    veins  of    gold 
have  been  worked  in  close  proximity  to  fossil 
trunks  of  trees,  found  by  Darwin  standing  im- 
>  bedded  in  the  stratified  rocks.     The  Andes  ap 
pear  throughout  their  length  to  carry  a  similar 
geological  structure,  which  is  made  manifest 
j  as  well  by  a  similarity  of  mineral  productions 
j  as  by  the  reports  of  those  naturalists  who  have 
!  ascended  the  summits ;  granitic  and  porphyritic 
rocks  form  the  lower  portion,  and  on  these  rest 
immense  formations  of  mica  slate,  gneiss,  and 
,  quartz  rock.     Upon  the  very  summits  are  found 
i  the  tertiary  strata,  which,  like  the  same  forma- 
|  tion  extending  along  the  Pacific  coast,  are  pro 
ductive  in  beds  of  bituminous  coal,  and  the  va- 
j  riety  called  brown  coal,  at  intervals  from  Pata- 
I  goniato  Panama.    Beds  of  this  coal  are  worked 
in  Chili  for  the  use  of  steamships;    and  in  the 
I  mining  region  of  Pasco  in  Peru,  in  the  irame- 
i  diate  vicinity  of  its  celebrated  silver  mines,  and 
|  at  an  elevation  of  over  14,000  feet,  coal  prob 
ably  of  the  same  age  is  found  in  abundance. 
!  The  quality  of  such  coal  is  not  likely  to  be  as 
1  good  as  of  the  bituminous  coals  of  the  true 
coal  formation,  but  our  data  are  very  imperfect 
|  on  this  point,  as  also  whether  the  real  carbonif 
erous  rocks  are  found  at  all  in  South  America. 
•  The  secondary  rocks  generally  cover  the  gran- 
i  ite  in  the  mountains  of  Venezuela,   but  thin 
'  away  toward  the  equator ;    and  in  the  plains 
of    the    Rio     Negro    Humboldt    noticed    the 
!  bare  granite  in  patches  of  10,000  square  yards 
forming   the   level    surface.      Mines  of  silver 
I  have   frequently  been   alluded   to  in   describ- 
|  ing  different  localities  along  the  Andes.     Near 
:  the  equator  and  N.  of  it  they  are  not  produc- 
I  tive ;  but  in  Peru  and  Bolivia  they  are  prob- 
j  ably  unsurpassed  in  richness  by  any  mines  of 
I  this  metal  in  the  world.      The  mines  of  cinna- 
\  bar  of  Huanca  Velica,  in  southern  Peru,  have 
in  former  times  produced  very  large  quantities 
of  mercury,  and  the  same  ore  is  also  found  near 
Tarma  in  the  valley  of  the  Jauja  river,  and 
i  in   the   equatorial  Andes,  N.  "W.  of  Cuenca; 
I  platinum  is  met  with  in  small  grains  in  the  al- 
|  luvium  near  the  Pacific  coast  of  New  Granada. 
i  Gold  is  found  in  the  silver  veins  of  Peru,  and 
j  is  worked  in  veins  in  Chili.     In  Bolivia  it  is 
i  washed  from  the  deposits  along  the  streams. 
i  Lead  ores  are  common  with  those  of  silver, 
!  but  are  not  regarded  as  of  much  value.      The 
',  copper  mines  of  Chili  are  very  productive  in 
I  the  rich  oxides  and  carbonates  of  this  met;il. 
1  Many  cargoes  of  these  valuable  ores  are  ship- 
i  ped  every  year  to  Swansea  in  Wales  to  mix 
i  with  the  lean  ores  of  Cornwall ;    and  our  own 
copper-smelting  establishments  along  the  coast 
receive    occasional    supplies    from    the    same 


480 


•ANDLAW 


ANDORRA 


source.  The  production  of  Chili,  and  of  Peru 
also,  in  these  ores  might  be  largely  increased, 
were  there  better  facilities  for  getting  the 
ores  to  the  coast,  or  were  there  convenient 
supplies  of  fuel  for  converting  them  into  pro 
ducts  more  economical  for  shipment.  The 
nitrate  of  soda  mines  of  Peru  have  already  been 
noticed.  The  finest  gem  of  the  Andes  is  the  eme 
rald,  the  Tunca  mines  near  Bogota  furnishing 
nearly  all  in  the  market. — The  name  Andes,  ac 
cording  to  Garcilasso,  is  derived  from  Anti,  the 
name  of  an  ancient  province  E.  of  Cuzco.  Others 
think  it  may  have  come  from  the  aboriginal 
word  anta,  copper,  this  metal  being  so  abun 
dantly  distributed  through  the  mountains. 
Col.  Tod,  in  his  work  on  Rajasthan.  notices 
that  the  northern  Hindoos  apply  the  name 
Andes  to  the  Himalaya  mountains.  But  Ilum- 
boldt  says  there  are  no  means  of  interpreting 
it  by  connecting  it  with  any  signification  or 
idea ;  if  such  connection  exist,  it  is  buried  in 
the  obscurity  of  the  past. — See  "  The  Narrative 
of  the  Ten  Years'  Voyage  of  II.  M.  Ships  Ad 
venture  and  Beagle,"  by  Captain  King,  Cap 
tain  Fitzroy,  and  Charles  Darwin  (London, 
1839);  Darwin's  "Geological  Observations  on 
South  America"  (London,  1846);  "The  U.  S. 
Naval  Astronomical  Expedition  to  the  South 
ern  Hemisphere  during  the  years  1849,  '50, 
'51,  52,"  by  Lieut.  J.  M.  Gilliss  and  others 
(Philadelphia,  1856),  especially  vol.  ii.,  on  "The 
Andes — Minerals,  Animals,  Plants,  and  Fos 
sils;  "  and  "The  Andes  and  the  Amazon,"  by 
J.  Orton  (New  York,  1870). 

AJVDLAW,  Franz  Xaver  von,  a  German  diplo 
matist,  born  at  Freiburg,  Baden,  Oct.  6,  1799. 
He  served  in  the  foreign  office  and  diplomatic 
service  of  Baden,  and  was  for  many  years 
ambassador  at  Vienna  retiring  in  1856.  He 
wrote  Erinnerungsblatter  aits  den  Popieren 
eines  Diplomaten  (Frankfort,  1857),  and  Mein 
Tagebuch,  embracing  the  years  1811-'61  (2 
vols.,  Frankfort,  1862).  Among  his  other  prin 
cipal  works  is  Die  Frauen  in  der  GeschicJite  (2 
vols.,  Mentz,  1861). 

AXDOCIDES,  an  Athenian  orator,  born  in  467 
B.  C.  Accused  in  415  of  aiding  Alcibiades  in 
profaning  the  mysteries  'and  mutilating  the 
Ilerma3,  he  was  banished  after  revealing  the 
names  of  four  of  the  guilty  parties,  who  were 
then  executed.  On  the  establishment  in  411 
of  the  government  of  the  400,  he  returned 
to  Athens,  but  was  imprisoned  on  a  charge 
of  rendering  some  service  to  their  demo- 
cratical  opponents  at  Samos.  Escaping  soon 
after,  he  fled  to  Cyprus,  where  he  remained  till 
another  revolution  at  Athens  encouraged  him 
to  go  thither  once  more  to  solicit  the  restora 
tion  of  his  rights.  He  was  unsuccessful,  and 
had  to  retire  a  third  time  into  banishment.  On 
the  overthrow  of  the  tyranny  of  the  thirty  in 
403  he  was,  however,  permitted  to  return,  and 
for  sevsral  years  he  enjoyed  much  of  his  former 
consideration  and  influence;  but  having  been 
convicted  of  illegal  conduct  during  an  embassy 
to  Sparta,  he  was  a  fourth  time  driven  into  ex- 


j  ile,  where  he  died  at  an  advanced  age.  There 
are  three  orations  of  Andocidcs  extant  in  de 
fence  of  himself,  besides  one  against  Alcibiades, 
which  is,  however,  considered  spurious.  His 
style  is  simple  and  unadorned.  The  best  edi 
tion  of  these  orations  is  that  of  Baiter  and 

I  Sauppe  (Zurich,  1838). 

ANDORRA,  a  small  republic  situated  between 

i  the  French  town  of  Foix,  in  the  department  of 
Ariege,  and  the  Spanish  town  of  Urgel,  in  the 
province  of  Lerida,  in  valleys  shut  in  on  all 
sides  by  the  Pyrenees,  excepting  on  the  south 
along  the  Balira  and  its  affluents ;  area,  200 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated  at  about  12,000.  It  is 
divided  into  6  communes.  The  capital,  of 
the  same  name,  is  in  lat.  42°  30'  N.,  Ion. 
1°  30'  E.,  30  m.  S.  of  Foix  and  12  m.  N.  of 
Urgel;  pop.  about  800.  The  other  principal 
places  are  Ordino,  San  Julian,  Encam,  Canillo, 
Masana,  and  the  beautifully  situated  springs 
of  Escaldas,  which  French  speculators  have 
sought  to  convert  into  a  fashionable  watering 
and  gambling  place.  The  chief  products  are  to 
bacco,  grapes,  and  timber.  Game  abounds.  Ce 
reals  are  imported  from  France.  There  is  some 
traffic  in  wood,  iron,  and  wool,  but  the  princi 
pal  occupation  is  cattle  raising. — The  Andor- 
rans,  having  assisted  Charlemagne  against  the 
Moors,  were  rewarded  with  the  privilege  of 
self-government,  the  emperor  only  reserving  to 
his  crown  some  feudal  claims,  which  were  ce 
ded  in  819  by  Louis  le  Debonriaire  to  the  bishop 
of  Urgel.  The  counts  of  Foix  and  subsequently 
Henry  IV.  reasserted  these  claims,  but  they 
were  relinquished  during  the  French  revolu 
tion,  and  partly  restored  in  1806  at  the  request 
of  the  people  of  Andorra.  The  republic  con 
tinues  to  maintain  its  independence  under  the 
suzerainty  of  France  and  the  authority  of  the 
bishop  of  Urgel.  The  executive  power  is  held 
by  the  president  or  first  syndic  of  the  general 
council,  assisted  by  a  second  syndic,  both 
elected  for  four  years  by  its  24  members,  who 
are  themselves  elected  for  the  same  term  by 
four  heads  of  families  of  each  commune.  Jus 
tice  is  administered  by  two  viguiers  or  primary 
magistrates,  respectively  appointed  by  the 
French  government  and  by  the  bishop  of  Urgel, 
who  also  alternately  name  a  civil  magistrate. 
The  republic  pays  a  biennial  tribute  of  960  francs 
to  France  and  one  of  891  francs  in  the  inter 
vening  years  to  the  bishop  of  Urgel.  The  An- 
dorrans  are  a  fine,  vigorous  race,  who  boast  of 
their  poverty  as  preserving  their  freedom,  and 
are  very  proud  of  their  ancient  institutions. 
Every  man  from  16  to  60  is  trained  as  a  sol 
dier.  They  are  illiterate,  and  so  incommunica 
tive  that  in  Catalonia  to  assume  ignorance  is 
called  to  play  the  Andorran.  They  are,  how- 

j  ever,  kindly  and  hospitable,  marry  chiefly 
among  themselves,  and  the  principal  families 

!  are  all  related  to  each  other.     They  speak  a 

i  Catalonian  dialect.     The  bishop  of  Urgel  is  the 

;  sole  dispenser  of  ecclesiastical  patronage  for 
four  months,  his  appointments  being  subject  to 
papal  ratification  during  the  rest  of  the  year. — 


ANDOVER 


ANDRADA   E   SYLVA 


481 


See  Baquer's  TTistoria  de  lc.  republica  de  An 
dorra  (Barcelona,  184-9);  Ziegler's  Reise  in 
Spanie.n  (Leipsic,  1852) ;  and  Bayard  Taylor's 
"By- Ways  of  Europe"  (New  York,  1869). 

ANDOVER,  a  market  town  of  Hampshire, 
England,  20  m.  N.  of  Southampton ;  pop.  in 
1871,  5,501.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Andeafaran  (ferry  over  the  river 
Ande).  Andover  has  a  large  malt  trade  and 
an  extensive  traffic  in  timber  with  Ports 
mouth.  The  fair  which  is  annually  held  at 
Weyhill  near  Andover  was  formerly  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  Europe. 

ANDOVER,  a  town  of  Essex  county,  Mass.,  on 
the  Merrimack  and  Shawsheen  rivers.  21  m. 
N.  of  Boston ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,873.  The  village 
is  pleasantly  situated  in  an  elevated  and  healthy 
district,  and  has  railroad  connection  with  Bos 
ton,  Lawrence,  Lowell,  Salem,  and  Newbury- 
port.  The  chief  importance  of  the  town  is  de 
rived  from  its  literary  institutions.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Phillips  academy,  founded  in  1780  by 
the  munificence  of  John  and  Samuel  Phillips, 
who  were  sons  of  a  clergyman  of  Andover  and 
graduates  of  Harvard  college.  The  former  was 
prominent  in  the  politics  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  the  latter  was  lieutenant  governor  of  Mas 
sachusetts.  Its  funds  are  large,  and  it  has  a 
complete  chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus, 
and  libraries  containing  2,500  volumes.  There 
are  8  instructors,  and  154  students  in  the  classi 
cal  and  74  in  the  English  department.  The 
Andover  theological  seminary,  an  offshoot  of 
Phillips  academy  and  under  the  same  trustees, 
was  founded  in  1807,  with  the  object  of  ''pro 
viding  for  the  church  a  learned,  orthodox,  and 
pious  ministry."  Its  early  donors  were  Samuel 
Abbot,  a  merchant  of  Boston,  Moses  Brown 
and  William  Bartlett,  merchants  of  Newbury- 
port,  and  John  and  Phoebe  Phillips  of  Andover. 
The  whole  amount  it  has  received  is  not  less 
than  $400,000.  It  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Congregationalists,  but  is  open  to  Protestants 
of  all  denominations.  It  has  5  professors, 
generally  more  than  100  students,  and  a  library 
of  30,000  volumes.  In  18^0  the  number  of  grad 
uates  was  1,018.  Its  course  of  studies  occu 
pies  three  years.  Tuition  and  room  rent  are 
free  to  all,  and  additional  aid  is  given  to  a  por 
tion  of  the  students.  The  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra," 
a  leading  organ  of  New  England  theology, 
edited  by  the  professors,  is  published  as  a 
quarterly  at  Andover.  The  Abbot  female 
academy,  established  here  in  1829,  is  a  flour 
ishing  institution,  designed  especially  for  the 
education  of  female  teachers.  The" buildings 
of  these  institutions  are  of  brick,  and  stand 
near  together  on  an  eminence  commanding  a 
fine  prospect.  There  are  generally  from  400 
to  500  students  in  all  the  institutions.  Ando 
ver  contains  also  a  bank  and  8  churches,  5  of 
which  are  Congregational,  1  Episcopal,  1  Meth 
odist,  and  1  Baptist.  In  1865  there  were  4 
factories  for  the  manufacture  of  tow  and  flax, 
employing  100  males  and  150  females  ;  5  wool 
len  mills,  with  24  sets  of  machinery,  employing 
VOL.  i. — 31 


212  males  and  188  females;  a  file  factory  with 
350  hands ;  and  an  establishment  for  the  man 
ufacture  of  steel,  employing  100  hands. 

ANDRADA,  Antonio  d',  a  Portuguese  missiona 
ry,  born  about  1580,  died  in  Goa,  Aug.  20,  1633. 
He  entered  the  society  of  Jesus  at  Coimbra  in 
1596,  joined  the  East  Indian  mission,  arrived 
at  Goa  in  1600,  and  was  appointed  superior  of 
one  of  the  houses  of  the  society.  Hearing  that 
vestiges  of  Christianity  existed  in  Thibet,  ho 
set  out,  disguised  as  a  Mongolian,  to  visit  that 
country  in  1601,  and  reached  Caparanga,  the 
military  capital,  where  it  is  said  he  built  a 
church  in  honor  of  the  Virgin.  He  made  a 
second  journey  to  Thibet  in  1625-'6,  and  was 
again  most  favorably  received.  Returning  to 
the  Portuguese  settlement,  he  was  appointed 
provincial  of  Goa  and  deputy  of  the  inquisition. 
His  Novo  descobrimento  do  Grdo  Catayo,  ou 
dos  Iteynos  de  Tibet  (Lisbon,  1626),  was  trans 
lated  into  Italian,  and  from  that  language  into 
French  (new  ed.,  1795). 

ANDRADA  E  SYLVA,  Bonifacio  Joze  d',  a  Bra 
zilian  statesman  and  naturalist,  born  in  Santos, 
June  13,  1765,  died  near  Rio  de  Janeiro,  April 

6,  1838.     Under  the  patronage  of  the  Lisbon 
royal  academy  he  was  enabled  to  travel  in  Eu 
rope,  studying  in  Paris  under  Lavoisier,  at  the 
mining  school  of  Freiberg  under  Werner,  and 
at  Pavia  under  Volta.    In  1800  he  became  pro 
fessor  of  metallurgy  and  geognosy  at  Coimbra, 
and  soon  afterward  general  intendant  of  the 
Portuguese  mines.     He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  construction  of  canals  and  public  works, 
and  in  1812  he  was  named  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Lisbon  academy  of  sciences.     He   re 
turned  to  Brazil  in  1819,  and  became  one  of 
the  champions  of  national  independence.     As 
vice  president  of  the  provincial  junta  (Dec.  24, 
1821)  he  urged  Dom  Pedro  I.  to  remain   in 
Brazil,  became  his  minister  of  the  interior  (Jan. 
16,  1822),  was  removed  from  his  office  Oct.  25, 
but  reinstated  Oct.  30,  at  the  request  of  the 
people,  and  was  finally  displaced  July  17,  1823, 
on  account  of  his  liberalism.    In  the  constituent 
assembly  his  opposition  became  so  bitter  that 
after  its  dissolution  (Nov.  12,  1823)  he  was  ar 
rested  and  banished  to  France,  and  lived  in  Bor 
deaux  till  1829,  when  he  was  permitted  to  re 
turn  to  Brazil.    Dom  Pedro  I.  abdicating  April 

7,  1831,  in  favor  of  Dom  Pedro  II.,  selected 
Andrada  as  the  hitter's  guardian  and  tutor.    In 
1833  he  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  intriguing  for 
the  restoration  of  Dom  Pedro  I.     Although  ac 
quitted,  he  was  deprived  of  his  position  and 
restrained  of  his  liberty.    He  wrote  on  mineral 
ogy,  and  is  the  author  of  Poesias  d"1  America 
Ely  sea  (Bordeaux,  1825). — His  brothers,  ANTO 
NIO  CARLO  and  MARTIM  FRAXCISCO  D' ANDRA 
DA,  were    associated   with    Brazilian   politics 
and  shared  his  fate.     The  latter  (born  in  San 
tos  in  1776,  died  there  Feb.  23,  1844)  left  two 
sons :  JOZE  BONIFACIO,  author  of  Rosas  e  gouos 
(Sao  Paulo,   1849) ;    and   MARTIM  FRANCISCO, 
author  of  Lagrimas  e  sorrisos  (Rio,  1847),  andl 
of  the  drama  Januario  Garcia  (1849). 


482 


ANDRAL 


ANDRE 


ANDRAL,  Gabriel,  a  French  physician,  horn  in 
Paris,  Nov.  6,  1797.  His  father,  Guillaume, 
was  a  memher  of  the  academy  and  chief  physi 
cian  to  the  French  army  in  Italy  and  to  Murat, 
and  afterward  to  Louis  XVIII.  Through  the 
influence  of  his  father-in-law,  Royer-Collard, 
and  also  by  his  fame  as  the  author  of  the  Cli- 
nique  medicale  (4  vols.  8vo,  1824- '0),  he  was 
appointed  in  1827  professor  of  hygiene  in  the 
faculty  of  Paris,  and  in  1830  was  promoted 
to  the  chair  of  internal  pathology.  In  1839  lie 
succeeded  .Broussais  as  professor  of  pathology 
and  general  therapeutics.  In  conjunction  with 
Gavarret  and  Delafond  he  published  researches 
Sur  les  modifications  de  proportion  de  quelques 
principes  du  sang.  His  Precis  cPanatomie  pa- 
thologique  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1829),  Cours  de  pa- 
thologiquc  interne  (3  vols.,  1830),  and  Essai 
(Vhematologie  pathologique  (1843)  have  been 
translated  into  foreign  languages. 

ANDRASSY,  Gyula  (Julius),  count,  a  Hungarian 
statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Zemplen, 
March  8,  1823.  His  ancestors  were  known 
from  the  llth  century  in  Bosnia,  and  from  the 
16th  in  Hungary,  where  they  acquired  vast 
estates  with  the  rank  of  count.  The  Italian 
branch  of  the  same  stock,  the  margraves  d'An- 
drassy  and  chevaliers  de  Rivalto,  have  been 
extinct  since  1793.  The  head  of  the  senior 
Hungarian  branch,  Count  CHARLES,  the  father 
of  Count  Julius  (born  in  Gomor  in  1792,  died 
in  Brussels  in  1845),  was  an  opposition  member 
of  the  diets  of  1839-'40  and  1843-'4,  and  wrote 
in  German  "  Outlines  of  a  Possible  Reform  in 
Hungary."  Count  Julius  was  a  member  of  the 
Presburg  diet  of  1847-'8,  lord  lieutenant  of  the 
county  of  Zemplen,  led  the  militia  against  the 
Austrians,  went  as  Hungarian  ambassador  to 
Constantino] >le,  and  from  1849  to  1857  was  an 
exile  in  France  and  England.  He  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  diet  of  1861,  vice  president  of  the 
diet  of  1865-'6,  and  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  "the  common  relations  of  the  Austrian 
empire."  After  the  accession  of  the  Beust 
ministry,  Oct.  30,  1866,  and  the  recognition  of 
Hungarian  sovereignty  under  a  dual  Austro- 
Ilungarian.  empire,  Count  Andnissy  was,  at 
Deak's  demand,  appointed  Hungarian  prime 
minister  of  the  empire,  Feb.  17,  1867.  He  also 
acted  as  minister  for  the  national  defence,  pop 
ularized  his  administration  by  selecting  several 
of  its  members  from  outside  the  ranks  of  the 
aristocracy,  carried  out  the  measures  broached 
by  the  committee  of  1865-'6,  under  the  guidance 
of  Deiik,  in  support  of  the  sovereign  rights  of 
Hungary,  and  instituted  various  financial,  mili 
tary,  and  judicial  reforms.  Sympathizing  with 
France  during  the  Franco-German  war,  he  yet 
insisted  upon  neutrality.  He  approved  the 
overthrow  of  the  papal  temporal  power,  and 
was  rather  antagonistic  to  Russia  in  the  east 
ern  question,  until  he  succeeded  Count  Beust 
(Nov.  9,  1871)  as  foreign  minister  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  empire,  when  he  seemed  disposed 
to  eschew  all  external  complications,  and  bent 
on  the  preservation  of  peace. 


ANDRE,  Johann  Anton,  a  German  composer, 
born  at  Offenbach,  near  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
Oct.  6,  1775,  died  there,  April  5,  1842.  His 
father  was  Johann  Andre,  founder  of  the  cele 
brated  musical  establishment,  which  still  con 
tinues  to  prosper  at  Offenbach,  and  which  under 
his  son's  direction  attained  a  high  degree  of  ce 
lebrity,  especially  by  his  purchase  of  the  com 
positions  left  by  Mozart.  His  own  compositions 
comprised  over  100  pieces  of  all  sorts  of  music, 
and  at  the  time  of  their  publication  were  popu 
lar  in  southern  Germany,  although  they  are  at 
present  almost  forgotten.  He  wrote  a  Lehr- 
buch  der  Tonkumt  (Offenbach,  2  vols.,  1832- 
'43,  the  last  part  by  his  pupil  Heinrich  Henkel), 
and  published  Mozart's  diary,  and  some  original 
pieces  of  that  composer. 

ANDRE,  John,  a  British  officer,  born  in  London 
in  1751,  executed  at  Tappan,  Rockland  co.,  N. 
Y.,  Oct.  2, 1780.  At  18  years  of  age  he  embarked 
in  a  mercantile  career,  but  being  disappointed 
in  a  love  affair  he  entered  the  army,  and  in  the 
autumn  of  1775  was  taken  prisoner  by  Gen. 
Montgomery  in  Canada.  He  afterward  became 
aide-de-camp  successively  to  Gen.  Grey  and  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  the  latter  of  whom  in  1779 
caused  him  to  be  promoted  to  the  rank  of  ma 
jor,  and  appointed  adjutant  general  of  the 
British  army  in  North  America.  In  this  ca 
pacity  he  soon  became  engaged  in  a  secret 
correspondence  with  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold  of 
the  continental  army,  the  object  of  which  was 
the  betrayal  of  the  American  cause  to  the 
British  commander-in-chief.  Early  in  August, 
1780,  Arnold  assumed  command  of  West  Point 
on  the  Hudson  river,  then  the  strongest  and 
most  important  post  in  the  United  States,  and 
considered  the  key  of  communication  between 
the  eastern  and  southern  states.  In  further 
ance  of  his  treasonable  designs  he  proposed  to 
Clinton,  whose  headquarters  were  then  in  New 
York,  to  deliver  this  fortress  into  his  hands, 
and  with  a  view  of  perfecting  arrangements 
for  that  purpose  demanded  a  personal  inter 
view  with  Andre".  The  latter  accordingly  re 
paired  on  Sept,  20  to  Dobbs  Ferry,  on  the 
Hudson,  and  failing  to  meet  Arnold  there, 
went  on  board  the  British  sloop-of-war  Vul 
ture,  which  was  anchored  in  the  river  near 
that  place.  On  the  night  of  the  21st  he  went 
ashore  at  a  point  about  6  m.  S.  of  Stony  Point 
and  had  an  interview  with  Arnold,  which  was 
prolonged  into  the  morning  of  the  22d.  On 
departing  for  West  Point  Arnold  gave  him  a 
passport,  authorizing  John  Anderson  (the  name 
assumed  by  Andre)  to  pass  the  American  lines 
to  White  Plains  or  below,  if  he  chose;  and 
also  six  papers  in  his  own  handwriting  which 
would  enable  the  British  general  to  direct  his 
attacks  against  West  Point  with  almost  ab 
solute  certainty  of  success.  These,  at  Arnold's 
suggestion,  Andre  concealed  between  the  soles 
of  his  feet  and  his  stockings.  Andre  had  fully 
expected  to  return  to  New  York  on  board  the 
Vulture;  but  finding  this  impossible,  he  re 
luctantly  crossed  the  river  to  Verplanck's 


ANDREA 


ANDRE.E 


4S3 


Point,  accompanied  by  one  Joshua  Smith,  at  j 
whose  house  the  interview  with  Arnold  had  j 
taken  place,  and  prepared  to  journey  on  horse-  j 
back  to  New  York.  Previous  to  this  he  had, 
contrary  to  the  positive  instructions  of  Clin 
ton,  exchanged  his  uniform  of  a  British  officer  j 
for  a  disguise.  He  passed  the  night  of  the  22d  j 
with  Smith  at  a  place  called  Miller's,  and  early  | 
on  the  succeeding  morning  was  again  in  the  ! 
Kiddle.  Near  Pine's  bridge  Smith  left  him,  ] 
and  he  proceeded  on  his  way  alone,  taking  j 
the  Tarrytown  road  through  what  was  then  | 
known  as  the  "neutral  ground,"  a  region  j 
devastated  by  marauding  parties  from  both  j 
armies.  Between  11  and  12  o'clock,  when  | 
within  half  a  mile  of  Tarrytown,  he  was  chal-  j 
lenged  by  three  men,  John  Paulding,  David  ; 
Williams,"  and  Isaac  Van  Wart,  to  whom  he  j 
incautiously  replied  that  he  belonged  to  the 
"lower"  or  British  party.  His  captors,  who 
were  Americans,  immediately  searched  his 
person  and  discovered  the  treasonable  papers.  | 
Rejecting  his  offers  of  pecuniary  reward,  they  I 
conveyed  him  to  the  nearest  military  station  I 
at  North  Castle.  lie  was  thence  taken  to  Tap-  j 
pan,  the  headquarters  of  the  American  army,  | 
and  tried  as  a  spy  before  a  board  of  officers  ! 
consisting  of  six  major  generals  and  eight  brig-  i 
adiers,  by  whom  he  was  found  guilty  and  sen-  ; 
foenced  to  death.  Every  effort  was  made  by  i 
Clinton  to  save  him,  and  every  fair  opportunity  :, 
allowed  by  Washington,  but  his  offence  under  j 
military  law  was  unpardonable.  His  request 
that  he  might  be  shot  could  not  under  the 
circumstances  be  granted,  and  he  was  hanged  : 
as  a  spy,  in  the  full  uniform  of  a  British  officer, 
and  in  the  presence  of  a  large  detachment  of 
troops  and  an  immense  concourse  of  people,  I 
whom  he  bade  witness  that  he  died  like  a  j 
brave  man.  During  the  brief  period  of  his  j 
captivity  he  endeared  himself  to  all  who  came  ! 
in  contact  with  him  by  his  sweetness  of  dis-  ! 
position  and  the  charm  of  his  conversation  and  ! 
manners.  His  fate  was  lamented  not  less  sin-  ; 
cerely  by  American  officers  than  by  his  own  j 
countrymen.  Its  justice,  notwithstanding  the  | 
exasperation  which  it  originally  provoked  in  ! 
England,  is  now  generally  conceded.  In  1821  : 
Andre's  remains  were  removed  to  England,  j 
and  are  now  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey  ! 
beneath  a  costly  monument  of  marble. 

AXDUEA,  Girolamo  d\  a  Roman  cardinal,  born  ! 
in  Naples,  April  12, 1812,  died  in  Rome,  May  15, 
1808.     He  was  a  member  of  an  old  patrician  ! 
family,  and  was  intrusted  by  Pius  IX.  with  im 
portant  diplomatic  and  ecclesiastical  functions,  j 
For  some  time  he  displayed  great  zeal  in  behalf 
of  the  papal  government,  and  was  made  car 
dinal  in  1852.     Subsequently  he  became  hostile 
to  the  Roman  see  and  showed  a  leaning  toward 
the  party  of  Italian  unity.  He  was  at  first  treated  • 
with  forbearance,  but  in  1865  an  investigation  ; 
was  ordered  into  his  conduct,  and  he  was  re-  ! 
moved   from   his   bishopric  of  Sabina,  and  in 
18G7  ordered  to  leave  Naples,  where  he  was  ' 
then    residing,  and   present  himself  at  Rome. 


After  some  hesitation  he  obeyed,  and  was  sub 
jected  to  certain  ecclesiastical  penalties,  with 
out  being  permanently  deprived  of  his  digni 
ties.  He  did  not  long  survive  his  disgrace, 
and  died  very  suddenly. 

AXDREA  PISANO,an  Italian  sculptor  and  archi 
tect,  born  in  Pisa  in  1270,  died  in  Florence  in 
1 345.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  depart  from  the 
Gothic  style  in  art.  After  having  been  em 
ployed  at  the  cathedral  of  Pisa,  in  the  execution 
of  the  bronzes  at  Perugia,  and  of  some  small 
figures  in  marble  for  Santa  Maria  al  Ponte  at 
Pisa,  he  was  invited  to  assist  in  completing  the 
facade  of  the  cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore  of  Florence.  He  also  executed  a  mar 
ble  statue  of  Boniface  VIII.,  and  statues  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  for  the  same  church, 
which  were  much  admired.  After  having 
spent  some  time  at  A'enice,  where  he  made 
several  small  statues  for  the  front  of  St.  Mark's, 
he  returned  to  Florence,  and  after  the  death  of 
Arnolfo  di  Lapo  was  placed  in  charge  of  all  the 
public  works.  He  executed  the  bronze  relievi 
for  the  gates  of  the  baptistery,  which  gained 
for  him  great  fame  and  the  honorary  citizen 
ship  of  the  republic.  The  subject  is  the  life  of 
St.  John,  and  the  incidents  are  represented  in 
22  compartments.  He  designed  the  castle  of 
Scarperia,  the  arsenal  of  Venice,  and  the  church 
of  San  Giovanni  at  Pistoia.  By  order  of  the 
adventurer  called  the  duke  of  Athens,  who  in 
1342  made  himself  by  a  coup-cFetat  master  of 
Florence,  he  fortified  and  enlarged  the  ducal 
palace,  ornamented  the  city  wall  with  towers 
and  magnificent  gates,  and  designed  a  small 
citadel. 

ANDREA  DEL  SARTO.     See  SARTO. 

AM)REE.  I.  Jakob,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Waiblingen  in  Wurtemberg,  March  25, 
1528,  died  June  7,  1590.  He  studied  at  Stutt 
gart  and  Tubingen,  and  was  ordained  a  pastor 
in  the  former  town  in  1540.  In  1557  he  be 
came  preacher  to  the  court  of  Duke  Christo 
pher  of  Wurtemberg,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  the  diets  of  Ratisbon  and  Frankfort.  In 
1562  he  \vas  appointed  professor  of  theology 
and '  chancellor  of  the  university  at  Tubingen, 
and  provost  of  the  church  of  St.  George,  and 
from  this  time  took  an  important  part  in  the 
movements  and  discussions  of  the  Protestant 
church.  He  was  particularly  influential  in  se 
curing  the  adoption  of  the  Formula  Concordim 
as  the  common  profession  of  faith  of  the  t\vo 
Protestant  parties.  II.  Joliann  Valentin,  a  volu 
minous  German  author,  grandson  of  the  preced 
ing,  born  at  Herrenberg,  Aug.  17,  1586,  died 
in  Stuttgart,  June  27,  1654.  After  travelling 
over  Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  France, 
he  filled  various  ecclesiastical  positions,  and  for 
some  time  officiated  at  the  chapel  of  the  duke 
of  Wurtemberg.  His  Mythologia  Christiana  and 
some  of  his  other  Latin  works,  have  been  partly 
translated  into  German  by  Herder  and  Sonntag ; 
and  his  Civ  is  Chrutianus,  sire  Peregrini  quon 
dam  errantis  Restitutiones  (Strasburg,  1619), 
was  translated  into  French  under  the  title  of 


484 


ANDREW 


ANDREW 


Le  sage,  Citoyen  (Geneva,  1622).    He  published 
in  1033  a  work  advocating  republican  Christi 
anity  in  Germany.     His  German  writing's  in 
clude  several  poems;  among  others,  Christlich  \ 
Genial  (Tubingen,  1(512),  which  is  highly  praised  i 
by  Herder,  who  declares  that  Andreas  boldly  ! 
announced  truths  in  the  17th  century  which 
no  one  would  dare  to  express  in  the  18th.     lie 
first  made  known  the  order  of  Rosicrucians  in  ; 
two  or  three  publications,  and  is  regarded  by 
some  as  its  founder  or    inventor ;    but  this   is 
denied  by  Herder.     (See  ROSICEUCIANS.)     His  | 
autobiography,  in  Latin,  was  published  at  Ber-  j 
lin  in  1849. 

ANDREI*],  Lanrentins,  or  Lars  Andersson,  a 
Swedish  scholar,  born  in  1482,  died  at  Streng- 
nas,  April  29,  1552.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and 
upon  his  return  to  Sweden  was  appointed  arch 
deacon  of  the  cathedral  at  Upsal.  Gustavus 
Vasa  made  him  his  chancellor,  and  requested 
him  to  undertake  the  translation  of  the  New 
Testament.  In  1540  he  was  accused  of  having 
concealed  his  knowledge  of  a  conspiracy  against 
the  life  of  the  king,  and  was  condemned  to 
death,  but  finally  escaped  by  the  payment  of 
heavy  fines.  From  that  time  he  lived  retired 
in  Strengnas.  His  translation  of  the  New  Tes 
tament,  which  was  the  first  version  in  Swedish, 
was  published  in  folio  in  1526. 

ANDREANI,  Andrea,  an  Italian  painter  and  en 
graver,  surnamed  II  Mantuano,  born  in  Man 
tua  about  1540,  died  in  Rome  in  1623.  He  de 
voted  himself  principally  to  wood  engraving, 
and  exerted  a  marked  influence  upon  the  devel 
opment  of  that  branch  of  art.  His  cuts  are 
printed  in  chiaroscuro,  and  his  works  have 
often  been  confounded  with  those  of  Altdorfer, 
from  his  using  a  similar  monogram.  Two  of 
his  best  prints  are  after  Titian's  "Deluge"  and 
"Pharaoh's  Host  destroyed  in  the  Red  sea." 

ANDREANOV  ISLANDS.  See  ALEUTIAN  ISL 
ANDS. 

ANDREE,  Karl  Theodor,  a  German  geographer, 
born  in  Brunswick,  Oct.  20,  1808.  His  studies 
at  Jena  were  interrupted  by  his  trial  (1838)  for 
revolutionary  proceedings,  and  being  acquitted, 
he  thenceforward  connected  himself  with  jour 
nalism.  Since  1801  he  lias  been  editor  of  the 
Globus,  a  geographical  and  ethnographical  pub 
lication  at  Hildburghausen.  His  works,  chiefly 
relating  to  the  American  continent,  include, 
besides  his  copious  contributions  to  the  Bruns 
wick  periodical  Westland  (5  vols.,  1851-'3), 
Nordamerika  in  geographischen  imd  ge- 
echichtlichen  Umrisscn  (2d  ed.,  Brunswick, 
1854);  Buenos  Ay  res  und  die  argentinische 
RepuNik  (Leipsic,  1856) ;  Geogmphische  Wan- 
derungen  (2  vols.,  Dresden,  1859) ;  and  Abes- 
sinien  (1871).  He  is  also  the  author  of  For- 
schungsreisen  in  Arabienvnd  Ostafrika (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1860-'61) ;  and  of  Geographic  des  Welt- 
handeh  (vol.  i.,  Stuttgart,  1863). 

ANDREINI.     I.  Francesco,  an  Italian  comedian 
of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,   chief  of  the 
celebrated  troupe  called  /  Gclosi.    He  published  j 
Le    bravure    del    capitan   Spavento   (Venice,  ! 


1609),  Bagionamenti  fantastici  (1612),  and 
two  theatrical  pieces  in  verse  (Kill).  II. 
Isabella,  wife  of  the  preceding,  a  comic  actress 
and  an  author,  born  in  Padua  in  1562,  died  in 
Lyons  in  1604.  She  acquired  great  fame  not 
only  by  her  acting  both  in  Italy  and  France, 
but  by  her  varied  accomplishments  and  learn 
ing,  and  her  irreproachable  character.  Medals 
were  struck  in  her  honor  with  the  legend, 
JEternafama.  Her  writings  both  in  prose  and 
verse  are  numerous,  nearly  all  relating  to  love. 
III.  Giovanni  Battista,  son  of  the  preceding,  a 
comedian  and  poet,  born  in  Florence  in  1578, 
died  in  Paris  about  1050.  Besides  three  long 
and  several  shorter  poems,  he  was  the  author 
of  18  dramas,  from  one  of  which,  a  "sacred 
representation"  entitled  Adamo,  Milton  has 
been  supposed  to  have  borrowed  the  plot  of 
"Paradise  Lost."  There  is,  however,  little  re 
semblance  between  the  two  works. 

ANDREOSSI,  Antoinc  Francois,  count  d',  a 
French  general  and  savant,  born  at  Castelnau- 
dary,  March  6,  1761,  died  at  Montauban,  Sept. 
10,  1828.  He  entered  the  artillery  at  an  early 
age,  and  served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  and 
in  Egypt,  where  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
work  of  the  scientific  commission.  lie  was 
one  of  the  few  selected  by  Bonaparte  to  ac 
company  him  on  his  return  to  France,  aided 
him  powerfully  in  seizing  the  government,  and 
was  made  inspector  general  of  artillery  and 
engineering.  After  the  treaty  of  Amiens  he 
was  ambassador  to  London  in  1809,  governor  of 
Vienna,  and  afterward  ambassador  to  Constan 
tinople  till  the  restoration.  He  again  engaged 
in  politics  during  the  Hundred  Days  (1815),  was 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat  with  the 
foreign  armies  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and 
thenceforth  devoted  himself  to  scientific  pur 
suits.  He  made  ^important  contributions  to  the 
Memoir es  sur  VEgypte. 

ANDRES,  Juan,  a  Spanish  scholar,  born  of  a 
noble  family  at  Planes  in  Valencia,  Feb.  15, 
1740,  died  in  Rome,  Jan.  17,  1817.  lie  early  en 
tered  the  society  of  the  Jesuits,  and  on  their  ex 
pulsion  from  Spain  in  1767  was  removed  with 
his  companions  first  to  Corsica,  and  then  to 
Ferrara,  where  he  taught  philosophy ;  but  the 
Jesuit  college  there  was  soon  suppressed  by  the 
pope,  and  he  afterward  resided  chiefly  at  Man 
tua  and  Parma,  In  1776  he  published  in  Ital 
ian  Saggio  della  filosofia  di  Galileo,  expound 
ing  with  fairness  the  system  of  that  philoso 
pher.  His  principal  work  is  DelV  originc,  de"1 
progressi  e  dcllo  stato  attuale  d?ogni  lettera- 
tura  (7  vols.  4to,  Parma,  l782-'99;  4th  ed., 
23  vols.  8vo,  Pisa,  1821).  lie  became  blind  in 
1815  and  retired  to  Rome,  but  continued  his 
scientific  and  literary  pursuits  till  his  death. 

ANDREW,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Missouri,  sepa 
rated  from  Kansas  by  the  Missouri  river,  and 
intersected  by  the  Platte  and  several  other 
streams;  area,  425  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,137, 
of  whom  401  were  colored.  It  has  railroad 
communication  with  St.  Joseph.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  and  well  adapted  to  grain,  tobacco, 


ANDREW 


485 


hemp,  and  pasturage.  In  1870  the  county 
produced  107,325  bushels  of  wheat,  1,086,375 
of  corn,  178,332  of  oats,  102,967  of  potatoes, 
187, (563  Ibs.  of  butter,  31,825  of  wool,  and  5,941 
of  tobacco ;  value  of  animals  slaughtered, 
$463,582.  Capital,  Savannah. 

ANDREW,  the  name  of  three  Hungarian  kings 
of  the  family  of  Arpad,  the  founder  of  the 
Magyar  monarchy. — Andrew  I.,  a  cousin  of  St. 
Stephen,  who  introduced  Christianity  among 
his  subjects,  and  successor  of  Aba  Samuel.  In 
1046,  in  order  to  win  partisans  to  his  claims 
to  the  crown,  he  allowed  a  persecution  of  the 
Christians,  lie  warred  more  or  less  success 
fully  against  Henry  III.,  emperor  of  Germany, 
against  his  o\vn  brother  Bela,  supported  by 
Boleslas  II.,  king  of  Poland,  was  defeated  by 
the  Poles  and  the  Hungarian  malcontents,  and 
died  soon  after,  in  10(51. — Andrew  II.,  called  the 
Hierosolymitan,  ascended  the  throne  in  1205, 
in  a  civil  war  against  his  own  nephew,  Ladislas 
III.,  and  died  after  a  checkered  reign  of  30 

S.*ars.  (See  HUXGAEY.) — His  third  wife  was 
eatrice  d'Este,  who  returned  to  Italy,  and  gave 
birth  there  to  a  posthumous  son  named  Stephen, 
who  married  a  rich  Venetian  lady,  Tomasina 
Morosini,  the  mother  of  Andrew  311.,  called  the 
Venetian.  lie  succeeded  Ladislas  IV.  in  1290, 
and  was  obliged  to  defend  his  crown  against 
the  pretensions  of  Pope  Nicholas  IV.  and  the 
emperor  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  both  of  whom 
claimed  it  as  their  special  fief,  as  well  as  against 
Charles  Martel,  the  son  of  the  king  of  Naples, 
who  was  by  his  mother  a  descendant  of  the 
house  of  Arpad.  Andrew  was  victorious,  but 
the  dissatisfied  magnates  raised  up  a  new  pre 
tender  in  the  person  of  Charles  Robert,  son  of 
Martel;  and  Andrew  died  in  1301,  disgusted 
and  mortified  by  the  rebellion.  With  him  the 
lineage  of  Arpad  ended. 

ANDREW,  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
born  at  Bethsaida.  The  name  of  his  father 
was  Jonas.  He  was  a  disciple  of  John  the 
Baptist,  and  the  first  called  of  the  disciples  of 
Jesus  Christ,  to  whom  he  brought  his  brother 
Simon,  afterward  called  Peter,  and  is  hence 
called  by  some  of  the  fathers  "the  rock  before 
the  rock."  Of  his  apostolic  labors  nothing  is 
said  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  According 
to  Origen,  he  preached  in  Scythia.  St.  Jerome 
says  that  he  preached  also  in  Achaia,  and 
other  ancient  writers  say  also  in  Sogdiana, 
Colchis,  Argos,  and  Epirus.  He  is  the  princi 
pal  patron  of  Scotland.  Tradition  reports  that 
he  was  crucified  at  Patrre,  now  Patras,  in 
Achaia,  on  a  cross  of  this  form,  x  (crux  de- 
cussata\  hence  called  St.  Andrew's  cross. 

ANDREW,  James  Osgood,  I).  D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  one  of  the  bishops  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  South,  born  in  Wilkes  county, 
Ga.,  May  3,  1794,  died  in  Mobile,  Ala.,  March 
2,  1871.  At  the  age  of  18  he  was  licensed  to 
preach,  and  in  December,  1812,  he  was  received 
into  the  South  Carolina  conference.  At  the 
general  conference  of  1832  he  was  elected  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church.  His  sec 


ond  wife  being  the  owner  of  slaves,  the  north 
ern  delegates  to  the  general  conference  of  1844 
judged  that  "this  would  greatly  embarrass  the 
exercise  of  his  office  as  an  itinerant  general 
superintendent,  if  not  in  some  places  entirely 
prevent  it."  Accordingly,  the  majority  of  the 
body  resolved  "that  it  is  the  sense  of  this  gen 
eral  conference  that  he  should  desist  from  the 
exercise  of  this  office  so  long  as  this  impedi 
ment  remains."  The  southern  delegates,  con 
sidering  this  a  virtual  suspension  from  the 
episcopal  office,  and  therefore  extra-judicial 
and  unconstitutional,  entered  their  protest. 
The  result  was  an  amicable  division  of  the 
church  into  two  independent  jurisdictions,  with 
an  equitable  apportionment  of  the  church 
property.  The  southern  division,  under  the 
name  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church 
South,  held  a  general  conference  at  Petersburg, 
Va.,  in  May,  1846,  at  which  time  Bishop  Soule, 
senior  bishop  of  the  M.  E.  church,  and  Bishop 
Andrew  gave  in  their  adherence  to  the  church 
South.  Bishop  Andrew  continued  to  exercise 
his  episcopal  functions  till  18G8,  when  he  re 
tired  from  active  duty  on  account  of  age.  His 
volumes  of  "Miscellanies"  and  on  "Family 
Government"  have  been  widely  circulated. 

ANDREW,  Jolni  Albion,  21st  governor  of  Mas 
sachusetts  since  the  adoption  of  the  constitu 
tion  of  1780,  born  in  Windham,  Me.,  May  31, 
1818,  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  30,  1867. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college,  Me.,  in  1837, 
and  immediately  afterward  commenced  the 
study  of  law  in  Boston,  where  in  1840  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  During  the  next  20  years 
he  practised  his  profession  in  that  city,  his 
most  conspicuous  efforts  being  called  forth  by 
causes  arising  under  the  fugitive  slave  law  of 
1850;  and  in  1858,  having  during  the  previous 
ten  years  been  closely  identified  with  the  anti- 
slavery  party  of  Massachusetts,  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  state  legislature  from  Boston. 
In  1860  he  was  a  member  of  the  republican 
convention  which  nominated  Mr.  Lincoln  for 
the  presidency,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected 
governor  of  Massachusetts  by  the  largest  pop 
ular  vote  ever  cast  for  any  candidate.  Antici 
pating  the  conflict  between  the  government  and 
the  seceding  states,  he  early  took  measures  to 
place  the  militia  of  Massachusetts  on  a  footing 
of  efficiency;  and  within  a  week  after  the  presi 
dent's  proclamation  of  April  15,  1861,  he  de 
spatched  five  regiments  of  infantry,  a  battalion 
of  riflemen,  and  a  battery  of  artillery  to  the 
assistance  of  the  government.  He  subsequently 
took  an  active  part  in  raising  and  equipping 
the  Massachusetts  contingent  of  three  years' 
volunteers.  He  was  reflected  governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1861,  and  made  frequent 
visits  to  Washington  and  other  places  to  con 
fer  with  public  men  on  national  affairs.  lie 
took  part  in  the  conference  held  by  the  gov 
ernors  of  the  loyal  states  a'  Altoona,  Penn., 
in  September,  1862,  and  prepared  the  address 
which  they  subsequently  presented  to  the  presi 
dent.  He  presided  at  the  first  national  LTnita- 


480 


ANDREWS 


ANDROCLUS 


rian  convention  in  1805.     Tie  retired  from  the  I 
office  of  governor  in  January,    180(5,   having 
positively  declined  a  fifth   reelection,   and   re 
sumed  the  practice  of  the  law.     He  afterward 
also  declined  an  offer  of  the  presidency  of  An-  j 
tioch  college,  Ohio. 

ANDREWS,  James  Pettit,  an  English  historian,  ! 
born  near  New  bury,  Berkshire,  in  1737,  died 
in  London,  Aug.  0,  1797.     His  most  important 
work  (which  he  did  not  live  to  complete)  was 
his  "  History  of  Great  Britain,  connected  with  I 
the  Chronology  of  Europe."     The  part  publish-  j 
ed  commences  with  Caesar's  invasion  and  ends 
with  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.     The  plan 
of  the  work  is  peculiar,  a  portion  of  the  history 
of  England   occupying   one   page,    while   the  ! 
synchronous  portion  of  the  history  of  Europe  ' 
is  placed  on  the  page  opposite.     He  also  wrote 
a  continuation  of  Henry's  "History  of  Britain  " 
to  the  accession  of  James  I.  (1790),  and  an 
amusing  collection  of  "Anecdotes"  (1789). 

ANDREWS,  Lancelot,  an  English  scholar  and 
prelate,  born  in  London  in  1555,  died  in  Win 
chester  house,  Sept.  25,  102G.     He  was  a  fa 
vorite  of  James   I.,  who   made   him   his   lord  j 
almoner,  and  successively  bishop  of  Chichester,  | 
Ely,  and  Winchester,  and  a  privy  councillor;  j 
and  he  was  one  of  the  authors  of  King  James's  j 
translation   of    the  Scriptures.      His    Tortura 
Torti,  a  large  4to  volume  (1009),  was  an  an-  I 
swer    to   Bellarmine's    attack    upon    James's  j 
"Defence  of  the  Right  of  Kings."     His  other 
principal   works   are  his    "XCVI    Sermons," 
"Lectures  on  the  Ten   Commandments,"  and 
"  Posthumous  and  Orphan  Lectures,"  all  pub 
lished   after   his  death.     His  Prceccs  Prirata 
(1674)  is  a  collection  of  passages  from  the  Bible 
and  the  fathers  in  Greek  and  Latin,  still  much 
used  in  the  English  translation  ("Manual  of 
Private  Devotions  and  Meditations  for  Every 
Day  in  the  Year  ").     His  style,  though  much  | 
admired  in  his  own  day,  is  quaint,  affected,  and 
overloaded  with  imagery.     He  had  high   no 
tions  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  which  brought 
him  into  conflict  with  the  puritans.     He  was 
generally  esteemed,  however,  as  a  pious,  chari 
table,  upright,  and  munificent  prelate. 

MDRIA,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  Neapoli 
tan  province  of  Bari,  situated  in  a  tine  plain, 
32  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Bari ;  pop.  in  1871,  34,084. 
It  has  a  royal  college,  a  small  Gothic  palace, 
and  a  superb  cathedral.  The  favorite  hunting 
seat  of  Frederick  II.,  Castel  del  Monte,  about 
12  m.  from  the  town,  is  still  an  imposing 
structure.  In  1799  Andria  was  nearly  de 
stroyed  by  the  bombardment  of  the  French, 
after  a  gallant  defence. 

AXDRIEl'X,  Francois  Gnillaumc  Jean  Stanislas,  a 
French  author,  born  in  Strasburg,  May  0,  1759, 
died  in  Paris,  May  10,  1833.  lie  studied  law, 
and  distinguished  himself  as  the  advocate  of 
the  Abbe  Mulot  in  the  affair  of  the  diamond 
necklace.  He  welcomed  the  revolution  with 
enthusiasm,  but  on  the  fall  of  the  Girondists 
was  obliged  to  hide  himself.  On  May  23,  1794, 
he  returned  to  Paris  and  began  to  study  Eng 


lish  literature,  and  several  of  his  pieces  from 
this  time  show  traces  of  his  familiarity  with 
Swift,  Addison,  and  Steele.  In  1795  he  was 
made  judge  of  the  court  of  cassation,  was 
admitted  into  the  newly  organized  national 
institute,  and  was  awarded  a  pension  of  2,000 
francs  by  the  convention.  In  April,  1798,  he 
was  chosen  by  the  moderate  party  one  of  their 
candidates  to  the  council  of  500.  After  the 
18th  Brumaire  he  was  appointed  by  the  con 
sulate  a  member,  and  afterward  secretary  and 
president  of  the  tribunate  ;  but  the  first  consul 
removed  him  in  September,  1802.  After  hav 
ing  declined  the  office  of  censor,  offered  to 
him  by  Fouche,  with  8,000  francs  salary,  he 
accepted  that  of  librarian  to  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
with  6,000  francs,  a  post  which  he  held  for  ten 
years.  In  1802  he  wrote  for  the  theatre  Lou- 
vois,  of  which  his  friend  Picard  was  the  direc 
tor,  Ifelvetivs,  ou  la  vengeance  dhm  sage.  After 
the  death  of  this  philosopher,  he  was  one  of 
the  habitues  of  the  famous  salon  of  Madame 
Helvetius  at  Auteuil.  In  1814  he  was  elevated 
to  the  professorship  of  French  literature  in  the 
college  of  France.  The  romantic  school  of 
literature  was  the  object  of  his  unsparing 
attacks.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Decades  philosopliiques  et  litteraires  (1794- 
1807).  Among  his  more  remarkable  contribu 
tions  to  the  French  stage  are  Les  Etonrdis, 
performed  with  brilliant  success  in  1787;  Le 
tresor  (1804) ;  Holier e  arcc  ses  amis  (1804) ;  La 
comedienne  (1810) ;  and  his  tragedy  of  Brutus 
(1830).  His  complete  works  were  published 
in  4  vols.,  1817-'23,  and  in  6  vbls.,  1828. 

ANimiSClS,  or  Psendo  Philip,  a  native  of 
Adramyttium,  of  humble  origin,  who  in  154  B.  C. 
assumed  the  name  of  Philip,  proclaiming  him 
self  the  natural  son  of  Perseus,  the  last  king 
of  Macedon,  whom  he  strikingly  resembled. 
He  applied  for  help  to  Demetrius  Soter, 
brother-in-law  of  Perseus,  who  delivered  him 
to  the  Romans.  Escaping  from  Home  to 
Thrace,  he  raised  an  army,  and  drove  the  Ro 
mans  out  of  Macedonia  and  Thessaly  (149), 
but  was  checked  at  Thcrmopylas  and  driven 
back  by  Scipio  Nasica.  He  soon  afterward 
defeated  and  slew  the  Roman  pr.Ttor  Juventius, 
took  the  title  of  king  of  Macedon,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  Carthage.  In  148  he  was 
twice  defeated  by  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  (who 
was  hence  surnamed  Macedonicus),  fled  to  the 
Thracian  king  Byzas,  was  by  him  delivered  to 
the  Romans,  and,  after  gracing  the  triumph  of 
Metellus  at  Rome,  was  executed  by  order  of 
the  senate  in  140. 

AOROCLUS,  a  Roman  slave  of  the  early  part 
of  the  first  century,  of  whom  Aulus  Gellius 
says  that  having  fled  from  the  tyranny  of  his 
master  and  been  recaptured,  he  was  sentenced 
to  be  devoured  by  wild  beasts  in  the  circus ; 
but  a  lion  which  had  been  let  loose  upon 
him  recognized  him  as  a  man  who  had  once 
relieved  it  of  a  thorn  in  its  foot,  and  immedi 
ately  began  to  caress  him.  The  emperor  or 
dered  Androclus  to  be  pardoned,  and  presented 


AXDROIDES 


ANDRONICUS 


•1ST 


with  the  lion,  which  he  used  afterward  to  lead 
about  Koine. 

ANDROIDES.     See  AUTOMATON. 

ANDROMACHE,  the  daughter  of  Eetion,  king 
of  Cilioian  Thebe  and  wife  of  Hector,  hy  whom 
she  had  a  son  named  Scamandrius  or  Astyanax. 
She  lost  her  father  and  her  seven  brothers  at 
the  capture  of  Thebe,  her  husband  in  the 
defence  of  Troy,  and  her  son  on  the  fall  of  the 
latter  city,  when  she  became  the  prize  of 
Pyrrhus,  the  son  of  Achilles,  to  whom  she 
bore  three  sons,  Molossus,  Pielius,  and  Perga- 
mus.  On  the  death  of  Pyrrhus  she  became  the 
wife  of  llelenus,  brother  of  Hector  and  ruler 
of  Chaonia,  a  part  of  Epirus,  by  whom  she  had 
a  son  called  Cestrinns. 

AJVDROMEDA,  a  mythical  princess,  daughter 
of  Cepheus  the  Ethiopian  king  and  Cassiopea. 
Her  mother  having  boasted  that  the  beauty  of 
her  daughter  surpassed  that  of  the  nereids, 
the  latter  prevailed  on  Neptune  to  afflict  the 
country  with  a  deluge  and  a  sea  monster.  The 
oracle  of  Ammon  promised  that  if  Andromeda 
was  surrendered  to  the  monster,  Ethiopia 
should  be  released.  The  princess  was  chained 
to  a  rock  by  the  shore,  and  rescued  by  Perseus, 
who  slew  the  monster  and  married  Andro 
meda.  Phineus,  to  whom  she  had  previously 
been  promised,  attempted  during  the  celebra 
tion  of  the  nuptials  to  slay  Perseus  and  carry 
otf  the  bride,  but  was  himself  killed  with  all 
his  associates.  After  her  death,  Andromeda 
was  translated  to  the  firmament  and  placed 
among  the  stars. 

ANDRONItTS,  the  name  of  four  emperors  of 
Constantinople. — Andronicns  I.  (oninemis,  grand 
son  of  Alexis  I.,  born  in  1110,  died  Sept.  12, 
1185.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  martial 
ability,  dissolute  conduct,  and  romantic  adven 
tures.  In  his  youth  he  served  against  the 
Turks,  was  for  some  time  a  prisoner,  and  was 
afterward  appointed  to  the  military  command 
of  Cilicia.  He  besieged  Mopsuestia,  and  though 
his  campaign  was  unsuccessful,  he  was  rewarded 
by  his  cousin  the  emperor  Manuel  with  new  hon 
ors.  He  engaged  in  a  treasonable  correspon 
dence  with  the  king  of  Hungary,  and  was  im 
prisoned  twelve  years  in  a  tower  of  the  palace. 
Escaping  after  two  unsuccessful  attempts,  he 
reached  Kiev  in  Russia,  persuaded  the  grand 
duke  Yaroslav  to  form  an  alliance  with  Manuel 
against  the  Hungarians,  and  for  this  was  par 
doned,  but  was  afterward  exiled  to  a  command 
on  the  Cilician  frontier.  At  the  head  of  a  band 
of  adventurers,  he  undertook  the  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  and,  after  roving  laAvlessly  through 
Persia  and  Turkey,  at  length  fixed  his  residence 
at  (Enoe,  a  city  of  Pontus.  On  the  death  of 
Manuel  the  populace  called  him  to  the  purple. 
He  put  to  death  the  son  and  widow  of  Manuel 
(1183),  but  was  strict  in  dispensing  justice 
among  the  people.  A  popular  rising  in  favor 
of  his  kinsman  Isaac  Angelus  put  an  end  to 
his  career,  and  he  was  murdered  by  the 
populace  with  slow  tortures.— Andronicus  II. 
Palaeologus,  the  Elder,  born  in  1258,  died  Feb. 


13,   1332.      He   was  crowned  emperor  in  his 
15th  year,  and  held  the  title  nine  years  as  the 
|  colleague,  and  from  1282  to  1328  as  the  suc- 
|  cessor   of   his   father   Michael.      In  his  reign 
I  Osman,  the  founder  of  the  Ottoman  empire, 
i  effected  the  conquest  of  Bithynia,  and  advanced 
|  within  sight  of  Constantinople.      Andronicus 
invited   for   his   assistance    from   the    west   a 
multitude  of  Catalans,  who  defeated  the  Turks 
in    two    great    battles,    but    were    themselves 
driven  out  only  after  great  trouble.     His  own 
|  grandson,   Andronicus  III.,  compelled  him  to 
abdicate  in  1328,  and  shut  him  up  in  a  mon 
astery,  where  he  died  four  years  afterward. — 
Andronicns  III.  Palseologns,  the  Younger,  grand 
son    of    the    preceding,    born    in    1296,    died 
|  June  15,  1341.     He  revolted  against  his  grarid- 
!  father  in  1321,  was  made  his  colleague  in  1325, 
•  but  again  revolted  and  deposed  him  in  1328. 
I  He     reconquered    Chios    from    the    Genoese 
!  (1329),   and  took  Epirus  from  the  Albanians 
I  (1337).     In   1333  the  Turks  took  Nicaea  and 
j  made  it  their  capital,  and  Andronicus  joined 
the  fruitless  alliance  of  the  western  powers 
I  against  them.     He  was  also  at  war  with  the 
!  Catalans  in  Greece,  and  more  successfully  with 
i  the  Bulgarians,  Kiptchak  Tartars,  and  Servians. 
I  His  internal  administration  was  moderate  and 
!  conciliatory.     He  left  the  empire  and  his  infant 
|  heir  John  under  the  guardianship  of  John  Can- 
!  tacuzenus. — Andronicns  IV.  Palseologos,  grandson 
I  of  the  preceding,  governed  the  empire  in  the 
!  absence  of  his  father  John  VI.,  afterward  con- 
}  spired  with  the  son  of  the  sultan  Murad  to 
i  murder  their   fathers,   and  was  captured  and 
partially  blinded.     Escaping  from  a  long  im- 
j  prisonment   by   the   aid   of   the   Genoese,   he 
i  brought  about  a  division  of  the  empire  between 
I  his  father  and    himself,    Androriicus  making 
j  Selymbria  his   capital.      The   dates  of   these 
I  events  are  very  uncertain.     On  the  death  of 
i  John  VI.  in  1391,  Andronicus  gave  way  to  his 
brother  Manuel  II.,  and  died  a  monk. 

ANDRONKl  S.  I.  Livins,  the  most  ancient  of  the 
|  Latin  poets,  died  about  221  B.  C.     He  was  an 
I  Italian  Greek,  whom  the  fortune  of  war  had 
j  thrown  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,   and 
<  made  the  slave  of  M.  Livius  Salinator.     His 
:  master  gave  him  his  liberty,  and  with  it  his 
'  own  name  of  Livius.     Andronicus  then  settled 
i  in  Rome,  acquired  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
I  Latin  language,  and  became  a  voluminous  writer 
j  of  dramatic  and  other  poetry.     But  few  frag- 
j  ments  of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us,  of 
which  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Diintzer  (Ber 
lin,  1835).     Cicero  considered  them  not  worth 
reading.     Horace  avows  that   he  would  have 
contemplated   their   destruction    with    regret 
II.  Of  Rhodes,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher  who 
I  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  1st  century  B.  C. 
j  He  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  the  editor  of  Aris- 
!  totle's  works,  to  which  he  gave  that  arrange- 
|  ment  which  is  to  a  great  extent  retained  in  the 
present  editions,     lie  wrote  a  general  work  on 
Aristotle,   which   contained  a  complete   cata 
logue   of  his  writings,  and   commentaries  on 


488 


ANDROS 


ANDUJAR 


some  of  his  physical,  metaphysical,  and  logical 
treatises,  all  of  which  have  perished. 

AADROS,  an  island  of  Greece,  in  the  archipel 
ago,  the  northernmost  of  the  Cyclades,  21  by 
8  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,074.  It  is  mountainous, 
but  has  many  fertile  valleys,  yielding  wine, 
oil,  silk,  oranges,  citrons,  &c.  Andro,  or  Cas 
tro,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  a  shallow  har 
bor  on  the  E.  coast;  pop.  5,000.  The  Andri- 
ans  submitted  to  the  Persians  in  the  invasion 
of  Greece  by  Xerxes,  and  subsequently,  after 
some  resistance,  to  the  Athenians.  Still  later, 
the  island  was  successively  annexed  to  Mace- 
don,  Pergamus,  and  Koine. 

AJNDROS,  an  island  of  the  Bahamas,  giving 
name  to  a  small  group  of  islands  which  are 
but  thinly  inhabited,  and  the  passages  between 
which  are  intricate  and  difficult.  The  main 
island,  20  m.  "W.  of  New  Providence,  is  of 
irregular  shape,  65  m.  long  and  45  m.  wide. 
It  is  chiefly  composed  of  salt-water  marshes 
and  fresh-water  swamps,  in  which  there  are  a 
few  elevated  oases  bearing  excellent  cedar  tim 
ber.  It  has  a  population  of  about  800,  nearly 
all  colored,  a  school,  and  the  privilege  of  send 
ing  one  member  to  the  Bahamas  assembly. 

ANDROS,  Sir  Edmund,  an  English  colonial 
governor,  born  in  London,  Dec.  6,  1637,  died 
there,  Feb.  24,  1714.  lie  was  brought  up  at 
court,  his  father  being  an  officer  of  the  royal 
household.  lie  was  a  major  in  Prince  Ru 
pert's  dragoons,  and  in  1674  succeeded  his 
father  as  bailiff  of  Guernsey.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  commissioned  governor  of  New 
York,  and  received  its  surrender  by  the  Dutch 
after  their  brief  repossession  of  it.  He  admin 
istered  its  affairs  in  the  interest  of  the  duke  of 
York,  was  involved  in  controversies  with  the 
surrounding  colonies  and  with  the  French  in 
Canada  by  his  extensive  claims  to  jurisdic 
tion,  and  in  1680  seized  the  government  of 
East  Jersey,  deposing  Philip  Carteret.  He 
was  recalled  to  England  in  1681,  cleared  him 
self  of  several  charges  preferred  against  him, 
and  retired  to  Guernsey.  New  England  hav 
ing  been  consolidated,  Andros  was  appointed 
its  governor  general  in  1686,  under  instructions 
which,  while  establishing  religions  toleration, 
forbade  all  printing,  and  authorized  him  to 
appoint  and  remove  his  own  council,  and  with 
their  consent  to  enact  laws,  levy  taxes,  and 
control  the  militia.  Carrying  out  these  in 
structions  in  a  despotic  manner,  his  govern 
ment  soon  became  very  odious  to  the  colonists. 
Connecticut  having  held  out  against  him,  he 
appeared  in  the  council  chamber  at  Hartford 
with  an  armed  guard  in  October,  1687,  and 
demanded  the  surrender  of  its  charter,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  prevented  by  its  sudden 
removal  and  concealment  in  a  hollow  tree 
afterward  celebrated  as  the  charter  oak.  Con 
temporary  documents,  however,  seem  to  prove 
that  no  such  event  occurred,  that  Andros  really 
possessed  himself  of  the  original  charter,  and 
that  a  duplicate  had  been  concealed  some  time 
previously.  (See  Brodhead's  "History  of  New 


York,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  472-'3.)  In  1688  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  were  added  to  his  juris 
diction,  and  Francis  Nicholson  was  appointed 
lieutenant  governor  there.  On  the  news  of 
the  revolution  in  England,  the  people  of  Bos 
ton  imprisoned  Andros  and  several  of  his 
officers,  April  18,  1689,  and  the  New  England 
colonies  restored  their  former  governments, 
while  Jacob  Leisler  usurped  authority  in  New 
York.  (See  LEISLEE.)  In  July  he  was  sent  to 
England  by  order  of  King  William,  with  a 
committee  of  accusers,  but  was  acquitted  with 
out  a  formal  trial.  In  1692  he  was  made  gov 
ernor  of  Virginia,  where  he  made  himself  com 
paratively  popular,  but  was  removed  in  1698 
through  the  influence  of  Commissary  Blair. 
In  1704-'6  he  was  governor  of  Guernsey.  In 
1691  Andros  published  a  narrative  of  his  pro 
ceedings  in  New  England,  which  was  repub- 
lished  in  1773. 

ANDROSCOGGIN,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Maine ; 
area,  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  35,866.  It  has  a 
fertile  soil,  and  in  agriculture  ranks  among  the 
foremost  in  the  state.  The  productions  in  1870 
were  7,800  bushels  of  wheat,  72,344  of  corn, 
20,404  of  barley,  96,413  of  oats,  371,391  of  po 
tatoes,  48,605  Ibs.  of  wool,  559,213  of  butter, 
179,858  of  cheese,  and  50,787  tons  of  hay. 
The  county  has  fine  water  power  at  Lewiston, 
produced  by  the  junction  of  the  Androscoggin 
and  Little  Androscoggin  rivers,  and  there  are 
numerous  manufacturing  establishments.  The 
Portland  branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railroad, 
and  the  Maine  Central  and  other  lines,  traverse 
the  county.  In  1870  there  were  8,182  children 
attending  school.  Capital,  Auburn. 

ANDROSCOGGIN,  or  Ameriscoggiu,  a  river  of 
New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  It  is  formed  in 
Coos  county,  N.  II.,  near  the  Maine  boundary, 
by  the  union  of  the  Margalloway  river  with  the 
outlet  of  Umbagog  lake,  flows  S.  to  the  AVhite 
mountains,  and  making  a  sharp  bend  to  the  E. 
about  lat.  44°  20',  enters  the  state  of  Maine,  and 
joins  the  Kennebec  river  at  Merry  Meeting  bay, 
about  18  m.  above  the  entrance  of  that  river 
into  the  ocean.  Its  length  is  157  m.,  66  of 
which  are  in  New  Hampshire. 

ANDRYANA,  Alexandre,  a  French  champion  of 
Italy,  born  in  1797,  died  in  January,  1863.  lie 
was  an  officer  of  the  French  army  till  1814, 
and  subsequently  joining  the  Italian  revolu 
tionists,  he  became  a  fellow  prisoner  of  Silvio 
Pellico  in  the  fortress  of  Spielberg,  and  wrote 
graphic  Memoires  cT-un  prisonnier  d'etat  (2 
vols.,  Paris,  1837-'8;  4th  ed.,  1862).  He  took 
part  in  the  French  revolution  of  1848,  and  in 
1859  was  commissary  general  to  the  army  of 
occupation  in  Lombardy. 

ANDUJAR,  or  Andnxar,  a  town  of  Spain,  in 
Andalusia,  province  of  Jaen,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  Morena,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Guadalquivir,  50  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Cordova; 
pop.  about  13,000.  It  is  a  comparatively 
wealthy  and  very  industrious  place,  its  indus 
try  consisting  chiefly  in  alcarrazas,  a  peculiar 
kind  of  jars  made  of  red  and  white  clay  found 


ANEGADA 


ANEMOMETER 


489 


in  the  neighborhood,  and  highly  esteemed  for 
the  power  of  keeping  water  cool  in  hot 
weather.  The  vicinity  furnishes  an  extraor 
dinary  abundance  of  wheat,  barley,  oil,  wine, 
and  honey.  The  town  contains  several  mon 
asteries.  It  is  supposed  to  be  near  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Illiturgis  or  Forum  Julium.  The 
capitulation  of  Baylen,  so  called  from  the 
neighboring  place  of  that  name,  which  was  the 
opening  of  the  French  disasters  in  the  Peninsu 
lar  war,  was  signed  in  Andujar  in  July,  1808, 
after  severe  lighting  around  the  town. 

ASEGADA,  a  British  West  Indian  island,  the 
northernmost  of  the  Virgin  group  and  of  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  18  m.  N.  of  Virgin  Gorda; 
length  10  m.,  greatest  breadth  4i  m.  It  has 
but  few  inhabitants,  who  produce  some  cotton 
and  food,  and  large  quantities  of  salt  from  salt 
ponds.  There  is  abundance  of  fresh  water. 
Numerous  shipwrecks  occur,  especially  on  a 
reef  extending  S.  E.  and  S.  from  the  E.  end  of 
the  island. 

ANEL,  Dominiqne,  a  French  surgeon,  born  in 
Toulouse  about  Io79,  died  about  1730.  He 
acquired  great  fame  by  his  invention  of  the 
probe  and  syringe  still  known  by  his  name, 
and  is  also  celebrated  for  his  successful  treat 
ment  of  aneurism  and  fistula  lachrymalis,  upon 
which  he  published  treatises.  At  the  begin 
ning  of  the  18th  century  he  served  as  surgeon 
in  the  Austrian  army,  and  in  1710  established 
himself  at  Genoa. 

ANEMOMETER  (Gr.  aveuoe,  wind,  and  [terpov, 
measure),  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
force  of  the  wind.  Attention  was  first  given 
to  this  subject  by  Dr.  Croune  in  1667,  and  in 
struments  were  contrived  by  him  and  by  Wol- 
fius  and  others  in  the  last  century.  These  have 
all  given  place,  however,  to  recent  inventions 
of  more  perfect  construction.  The  first  at 
tempts  were  to  measure  the  force  of  the  wind 
by  its  pressure  upon  a  vertical  plane,  kept  in 
position  by  a  spring  or  by  a  weight  suspended 
by  a  cord  wound  around  a  conical  spiral  axis, 
which  weight  the  wind  would  raise  more  or 
less  according  to  the  degree  of  pressure  on  the 
vertical  plane.  A  bag  of  air  opening  into  a 
glass  tube  which  was  shaped  like  the  letter  U, 
and  contained  a  fluid  which  by  compression  of 
the  bag  was  forced  down  one  leg  and  up  the 
other,  was  another  contrivance  for  the  same 
purpose.  Another  form  of  it  was  to  dispense 
with  the  bag  and  turn  one  extremity  of  the 
tube  against  the  wind,  expanding  it  to  a  funnel 
shape,  so  that  the  wind  might  blow  directly 
into  it  and  press  upon  the  surface  of  the  fluid, 
The  tube  was  drawn  out  to  a  small  diameter  in 
the  curve  at  the  bottom,  so  as  to  check  the 
sudden  fluctuations  caused  by  irregular  blasts 
of  wind.  By  means  of  this  simple  instrument, 
Dr.  Lind,  who  invented  it,  ascertained  the 
force  of  the  wind  at  different  velocities  by  the 
height  of  the  column  of  water  raised  by  it.  A 
gentle  breeze,  moving  at  the  rate  of  nearly  four 
miles  an  hour,  raises  a  column  of  water  ^  of 
an  inch,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  pressure  of 


!  2^  ounces  upon  a  square  foot.  A  high  wind 
i  moving  32iV  miles  per  hour  raises  the  column  1 
inch,  with  a  pressure  of  nearly  5^  pounds  on 
I  the  square  foot.  A  column  of  3  inches  indicates 
a  pressure  of  15^-  pounds,  and  a  velocity  ex 
ceeding  56J  miles  an  hour.  At  9  inches  the 
wind  is  a  violent  hurricane  moving  97^  miles 
an  hour,  and  exerting  a  pressure  on  the  square 
foot  of  46f-  pounds.  The  atmospheric  pressure 
being  a  little  over  2,000  pounds  on  the  square 
foot,  or  equal  to  a  column  of  water  33  feet 
high,  the  greatest  force  exerted  by  the  wind  is 
feeble  in  comparison  with  this. — A  more  com 
plicated  apparatus  was  invented  by  Dr.  Whew- 
ell,  and  another  by  Mr.  Osier,  both  of  which 
have  been  used  in  England  at  the  meteoro 
logical  observatories  and  government  institu 
tions.  Both  are  self-registering,  and  deter 
mine  the  force  of  the  wind  by  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  a  windmill  fly,  the  axis  of  which 
by  perpetual  screws  and  toothed  wheels  is 
connected  with  the  registering  pencil.  In 
TYhewell's  instrument  the  windmill  with  its 
wheels  and  vane  is  on  a  horizontal  plate,  which 
revolves  on  the  top  of  a  vertical  cylinder. 
The  pencil  is  attached  to  a  little  block  of  wood 
or  nut,  through  which  passes  a  screw  from  the 
horizontal  plate  above  to  a  circular  rim  below 
the  cylinder,  all  which  revolves  around  the 
cylinder  as  the  wind  changes.  A  straight  rod 
also  goes  through  the  pencil  block  or  nut,  up 
and  down  which  it  slides  as  the  screw  turns. 
According  as  the  wind  blows  gently  or 
strongly,  this  screw  turns  slowly  or  fast,  and 
carries  the  pencil  down  the  cylinder  at  a  pro 
portional  rate.  Its  point  reaches  the  surface  of 
the  cylinder  and  marks  upon  it  its  position,  and 
as  the  frame  turns  with  the  change  of  direction 
of  the  wind,  the  course  of  the  wind  is  registered 
upon  the  face  of  the  cylinder.  For  this  pur 
pose  it  is  divided  by  vertical  lines  into  16  or  32 
equal  parts  corresponding  to  the  points  of  the 
compass.  This  instrument  is  deficient  in  not 
recording  the  time  during  which  each  wind 
blows,  nor  the  times  of  its  changes,  nor  its  force 
at  any  particular  moment.  It  merely  gives  the 
order  of  the  changes,  and  the  entire  quantity 
that  blows  from  each  point.  This  is  known  by 
the  vertical  length  of  the  pencil  mark  in  each 
division  of  the  cylinders  corresponding  to  the 
courses.  It  is  defective  also  by  the  friction  of 
its  machinery.  Osier's  instrument,  constructed 
on  similar  principles,  is  more  complicated  than 
Whewell's.  Its  register  is  divided  by  lines  into 
spaces,  which  represent  the  24  hours  of  the 
the  day,  and  in  these  spaces  pencils  inscribe 
lines,  one  of  which  indicates  the  direction,  an 
other  the  pressure,  of  the  wind,  and  a  third, 
connected  with  a  rain  gauge,  the  quantity  of 
rain  which  has  fallen  at  every  hour.  The  re 
gister  moves  along  by  clockwork  under  the 
pencils,  and  at  the  meteorological  observatory 
at  Greenwich  a  new  one  is  employed  every 
day.  In  the  royal  exchange  in  London  one  of 
these  instruments  is  in  use  with  a  register  made 
to  last  a  week.  By  the  lines  inscribed  on  the 


490 


ANEMONE 


register  the  integral  or  quantity  of  the  wind 
can  be  calculated  that  has  blown  to  each  point 
of  the  compass  during  the  periods  of  the  obser 
vations;  and  thence  the  resultant,  or  average 
etfect  of  all  the  winds. — The  instrument  now 
in  use  in  the  I'nited  States  olh'ce  for  weather 
reports  is  liob'mson's  anemometer,  which  con 
sists  of  four  horizontal  arms  (see  figure)  radiat 


ing  from  a  central  point,  at  which  is  a  vertical 
axis  of  revolution.  A  hollow  hemispherical 
cup  is  attached  to  each  arm  in  such  manner 
that  when  the  wind  is  pressing  upon  the  con 
cave  side  of  a  cup  on  one  arm,  the  cup  on  the 
opposite  arm  presents  its  convex  side  toward 
the  wind.  The  wind  exerts  more  pressure 
on  the  concave  side  than  on  the  convex,  and 
hence  causes  the  arms  to  revolve.  The  rate  of 
revolution  per  minute  gives  the  velocity  of  the 
wind.  Each  instrument  has  to  be  tested  by 
placing  it  upon  a  moving  body  on  a  calm  day. 
In  this  way  it  is  easily  found  what  the  number 
of  revolutions  is  which  the  instrument  will 
give  for  any  velocity ;  it  is  then  placed  upon  a 
high  building,  and  its  axis  attached  to  a  re 
cording  apparatus  similar  to  that  described 
above. — Biram's  anemometer  is  an  instrument 
for  measuring  and  registering  the  quantities  of 
air  which  circulate  through  the  passages  of 
mines.  It  was  invented  in  consequence  of  the 
recommendation  of  a  committee  appointed  by 
the  British  house  of  commons,  that  the  use  of 
such  an  instrument  should  be  adopted  as  a 
precaution  against  the  explosions  in  coal  mines. 
It  is  a  disk  of  a  foot  diameter,  made  to  revolve 
when  placed  in  a  current  of  air,  and  furnished 
with  registering  wheels  like  those  upon  a  gas 
meter.  Any  want  of  attention  on  the  part  of 
those  having  charge  of  supplying  the  required 
current  of  fresh  air  is  thus  readily  detected. 

ANEMONE  (Gr.  av£/wc,  wind,  as  many  species 
grow  in  elevated  windy  places),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  family  of  ranunculacew,  Jussieu. 
The  leaves  of  the  stem  are  generally  ternate, 
forming  an  involucre  which  is  more  or  less  dis 
tant  from  the  flower;  the  calyx  corolla-like, 
with  from  5  to  15  colored  petals,  longer  than 
the  stamens;  carpels  numerous,  ending  in  per 
sistent  styles.  About  60  species  are  cultivated 
on  account  of  their  beauty,  succeeding  best  in 
light  loamy  soils.  They  are  propagated  by  di 
vision,  offsets,  and  seeds;  the  greenhouse  species 
from  cuttings  in  light  loam  under  glass.  The 
colors  of  the  flowers  predominate  in  the  follow 
ing  order  one  over  the  other :  white,  yellow, 


blue,  reddish  white,  purple,  red,  striped,  whit 
ish,  creamy  violet.  Their  recommendations  for 
a  place  in  the  garden  are :  a  line  dense  foliage 


_ 
Anemone  Ilortensis. 

of  beautiful  green  color ;  involucre  green,  and 
distant  about  ^  from  the  flower  ;  stem  straight, 
light;  flowers  globose,  petals  large,  rounded, 
with  an  unguis  (nail)  of  different  color.  The 
native  countries  of  the  species  are,  in  order  of 
prevalence,  Europe,  especially  the  south,  North 
America,  Siberia,  the  rest  of  Asia,  South  Amer 
ica,  South  Africa.  The  most  valued  are :  The 
A.  Itortensis  and  stcllata,  often  flowering  the 
second  year,  easily  doubled  by  culture ;  flower 
ing  from  mid -April  to  the  end  of  May.  A. 
pavonina,  of  Europe ;  root  tuberous ;  flowers 
purple ;  attains  a  foot  in  height ;  a  variety  is 
crimson  with  green  centre.  A.  ranvnculoides, 
of  Europe,  about  6  inches  high.  A.  apen- 
nina ;  leaves  biternate;  many  narrow,  blue 
petals.  A.  narcissi  folia,  of  Switzerland;  10 
inches ;  umbellated  purplish  and  yellow.  A. 
viti folia,  of  Nepaul,  japonica,  and  elegans  (also 
from  Japan),  recommend  themselves  by  their 
strong  and  tall  frame  (l-£-  to  3  feet),  and  by  the 
beauty  of  their  floAvers.  A .  capensis  or  arlorea  ; 
stem  woody,  though  but  7  inches  high  ;  flowers 
reddish  outside,  white  inside.  A.  pulsatilla, 
common  in  Europe;  10  inches  high ;  flowers 
large  violet;  foliage  hairy.  A.  coronaria,  of 
Asia  Minor ;  hard  to  be  raised  from  seed  in  this 
country. — A  new  genus  has  been  separated 
from  the  anemone,  under  the  name  of  hepatica, 
to  which  belongs  the  beautiful  species  common 
ly  called  anemone  that  adorns  our  forests  in 
early  spring;  leaves  leathery,  dark  green  on 
the  upper  side,  liver-brown  on  the  lower; 
flowers  numerous,  of  all  shades  of  white  and 
bluish  purple.  Both  are  allied  to  the  clematids, 
hellebores,  aetseas,  and  crowfoots,  writh  which 
they  form  the  41  genera  of  ranunculacem.  The 
hepatica  was  employed  of  old  in  liver  com 
plaints,  from  the  belief  in  its  sympathy  with 


ANEMOSCOPE 


ANEURISM 


491 


that  oman.     Pulsatilla  is  a  much  used  remedy  i 
in  the  homoeopathic  materia  medica. 

AXEMOSCt)PK(Gr.  drt-,uof,  wind,  and  aito~dv,  to  , 
look),  a  wind  indicator,  or  weathercock.  The  j 
term  is,  however,  only  applied  when  the  ' 
weathercock  is  attached  to  a  spindle  which  : 
passes  from  the  vane  into  an  apartment  below,  : 
and  there  by  an  index  upon  a  compass  dial  in-  ; 
dicates  in  what  direction  the  wind  blows.  For 
expressing  this  direction  the  plan  has  been  j 
adopted  of  dividing  the  great  circle  of  the  hori-  ; 
zon  into  32  parts  of  11°  15'  each,  and  calling 
the  directions  of  the  wind  successively:  X.,  N.  j 
by  E.,  N.  X.  E.,  X.  E.  by  X.,  X.  E.,  N.  E.  by  i 
E.,  E.  X.  E.,  E.  by  X.,  E.,  E.  by  S.,  E.  S.  E.,  ! 
S.  E.  by  E.,  S.  E.,  S.  E.  by  S.,  S.  S.  E.,  S.  by  j 
E.,  S.,  S.  by  W.,  S.  S.  W.,  S.  W.  by  S.,  S.  W.,  | 
S.  W.  bv  W.,  W.  S.  W.,  W.  by  S.,  W.,  W.  by  I 
X.,  W.  X.  W.,  X.  W.  by  W.,  X.  W.,  X.  W.  by  1 
X.,  X.  X.  W.,  X.  by  W.,  X.  The  latest  im-  ; 
provement  of  the  anemoscope  is  to  attach  a  ; 
recording  clockwork  to  the  dial  plate,  so  that  ''• 
not  only  the  direction  of  the  wind,  but  the  ! 
time  that  it  blows  in  any  direction,  is  perma-  | 
nently  recorded.  Such  an  arrangement  is  now  ' 
in  operation  at  the  meteorological  observatory  ; 
in  the  Central  Park,  Xew  York. 

A\ERIO.  I.  Felice,  an  Italian  musician,  born  j 
in  Rome  about  1560,  died  about  1630.  In 
1594  he  succeeded  Palestrina  as  composer  of  | 
the  pontifical  chapel.  A  great  number  of  his  i 
compositions  have  been  published,  and  his  un-  j 
published  pieces  have  been  preserved  in  the  \ 
archives  of  the  basilica  of  the  Vatican  and  in  ! 
the  pontifical  chapel.  II.  Giovanni  Francesco, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Rome  about 
1567,  was  for  many  yenrs  chapel  master  of  the  • 
king  of  Poland  and  of  the  cathedral  of  Verona,  j 
and  subsequently  a  teacher  of  music  at  the  Ro-  j 
man  seminary.  He  was  one  of  the  first  Italian  j 
composers  who  made  use  of  quavers,  semi-qua-  i 
vers,  and  demi-semi-qoavers.  Many  of  his  | 
musical  compositions  have  been  published. 

ANEROID.     See  BAROMETER. 

AXEURIN,  a  Welsh  bard,  who  was  the  leader 
of  the  mediaeval  Britons  in  the  battle  of  Cat- 
traeth,  and  who  celebrated  in  heroic  verse  the 
deeds  of  that  day.  His  work  is  still  preserved 
in  the  literature  of  Wales.  He  died  about  570. 
It  is  supposed  that  this  poet  was  either  identi 
cal  with  or  the  brother  of  the  historian  Gildas.  ; 

AXEl'RISM  (Gr.  avevpvajj.6^  a  widening  or  ex-  i 
tension),  a  term  used  in  surgery  to  signify  a  ! 
vascular  tumor  or  enlargement,  arising  from  | 
the  morbid  distention  of  an  artery  It  is  much  I 
more  common  in  some  arteries  than  others,  but  i 
any  artery  of  the  body  is  liable  to  it.  The  cor-  I 
responding  disease  and  enlargement  of  a  vein  is  ! 
termed  varix.  An  artery  is  composed  of  three  ! 
coats  or  membranes  which  form  the  walls  of  a  i 
strong,  elastic,  and  distensible  tube.  In  a  | 
healthy  state,  the  tube  maintains  a  certain  di-  i 
ameter  under  the  ordinary  impulse  of  the  blood  ;  j 
but  when  the  walls  of  an  artery  become  dis-  j 
eased,  they  yield  before  the  constant  pressure  j 
of  the  circulating  fluid,  causing  the  diseased  • 


part  to  form  a  bag  or  tumor.  This  bag  en 
larges  as  the  diseased  walls  distend ;  and  the 
inner  and  middle  coats,  being  less  resisting  than 
the  outer,  especially  in  a  diseased  state,  give 
way  and  burst,  leaving  the  outer  coat  alone  to 
form  the  walls  of  the  aneurismal  tumor.  This 
admits  of  a  considerable  amount  of  distention ; 
but  it  eventually  bursts,  and  then  the  unre 
strained  current  gushes  out  with  violence,  and 
the  patient  dies  from  loss  of  blood.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  dense  cellular  sheath  of  the  arte 
ry,  though  very  distensible,  is  strong  enough  to 
retain  the  blood  for  a  time  after  the  rupture  of 
the  proper  walls  of  the  artery,  and  the  aneuris 
mal  sac  may  thus  be  very  much  enlarged,  and 
not  give  rise  to  fatal  haemorrhage.  At  times, 
in  fact,  this  external  sac  allows  the  ruptured 
walls  within  to  partially  collapse  ;  the  current 
fiows  as  usual ;  the  blood  in  the  external  sac 
coagulates  and  forms  a  clot  around  the  ruptured 
part  beneath;  the  clot  increases  from  its  stag 
nant  state  outside  the  current,  and  eventually 
plugs  up  even  the  ruptured  parts,  extending 
into  the  diseased  artery  and  plugging  up  the 
tube,  thus  forcing  the  current  to  flow  more 
abundantly  through  collateral  channels,  enlarg 
ing  the  walls  of  neighboring  arteries,  and  form 
ing  a  spontaneous  cure  for  the  original  disease. 
This  is  a  very  rare  occurrence.  The  tumor 
usually  enlarges  by  degrees,  pressing  upon  the 
nerves  and  tissues  near  it,  and  causing  pain  as 
well  as  absorption  of  the  sofb  or  bony  struc 
tures  against  which  it  presses.  An  aneurismal 
tumor  always  pulsates  strongly,  and  can  gen 
erally  be  distinguished  from  all  other  tumors 
by  this  characteristic  feature.  It  sometimes 
happens,  however,  that  an  artery  pulsating  be 
neath  an  abscess  or  an  ordinary  tumor  causes 
the  latter  to  simulate  to  some  extent  this  pul 
sating  character,  and  hence  arise  at  times 
errors  of  diagnosis  of  a  serious  character ;  real 
aneurisms  have  been  mistaken  for  abscesses 
lying  upon  a  pulsating  artery,  and  when 
opened  under  this  impression  to  let  out  pus,  the 
blood  has  gushed  out  from  an  aneurismal  tu 
mor,  and  the  error  has  proved  fatal.  Ruysch 
relates  that  a  friend  of  his  opened  a  tumor  near 
the  heel,  not  suspecting  it  to  be  an  aneurism, 
and  the  haemorrhage,  though  stopped  at  last, 
placed  the  life  of  the  patient  in  great  danger. 
Boerhaave  was  consulted  by  a  patient  on  a 
swelling  of  the  knee,  and,  suspecting  it  to  be 
an  aneurism,  cautioned  him  against  having  it 
opened ;  but  it  was  opened  by  another  person, 
and  the  man  died  on  the  spot.  It  is  said  that 
Ferrand,  the  head  surgeon  of  the  Hotel  Dieu  in 
Paris,  mistook  an  axillary  aneurism  for  an  ab 
scess,  plunged  his  bistoury  into  the  swelling, 
and  killed  the  patient.  Such  mistakes,  how 
ever,  can  hardly  happen  now,  as  all  the  best 
works  on  surgery  give  ample  instructions  on 
the  means  of  diagnosis  in  this  and  other  impor 
tant  diseases. — The  cure  of  aneurism  consists 
in  the  obliteration  of  the  diseased  portion  of 
the  artery,  by  passing  a  ligature  around  the 
sound  portion  of  the  vessel  at  some  distance 


492 


ANFOSSI 


ANGEL   FISH 


above  the  locality  of  the  tnmor.  The  merit  of 
this  method  of  cure  is  due  to  the  celebrated 
John  Hunter,  who,  observing  that  the  old 
practice  of  passing  the  ligature  upon  the  artery 
immediately  above  the  tumor  often  failed,  was 
led  to  think  that  the  arterial  walls,  being  dis 
eased  near  the  tumor,  could  not  sustain  the 
process  of  inflammation  necessary  to  cause  the 
tissues  to  adhere;  and  consequently  he  under 
took  to  tie  the  femoral  artery  in  a  case  of  pop 
liteal  aneurism,  and  was  perfectly  successful. 
Since  then  his  method  has  been  universally 
adopted.  Recently  many  attempts  have  been 
made,  some  of  them  with  considerable  success, 
to  produce  a  similar  resi  It,  either  by  continu 
ous  pressure  over  the  artery  kept  up  for  a  day 
or  two,  or  by  a  ligature  applied  temporarily  to 
the  artery  and  withdrawn  as  soon  as  coagula 
tion  has  taken  place  in  the  aneurism  and  the 
neighboring  portion  of  the  artery.  By  what 
ever  means  this  is  accomplished,  the  flow  of 
blood  is  stopped  in  the  large  vessels  below  the 
ligature ;  but  the  secondary  vessels  communi 
cate  with  each  other  so  abundantly  in  all  parts 
of  the  limb,  by  what  is  called  anastomosis, 
that  the  blood  soon  flnds  its  way  through  these 
smaller  channels,  and  enlarges  them  by  slow 
degrees  to  suit  the  wants  of  nutrition. 

ANFOSSI,  Pasqaalc,  an  Italian  composer, 
born  in  Naples  in  1729,  died  in  Rome  in  1797. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Sacchini  and  Piccini,  the 
latter  of  whom  in  1771  procured  him  an  en 
gagement  in  Rome.  His  first  successes  were 
in  1773,  with  the  opera  L' Incognita  persegui- 
tata,  and  several  others  immediately  succeed 
ing.  His  serious  opera  ISOlimpiade  having 
failed,  he  went  to  Venice,  and  in  1780  to  Paris, 
where  his  Incognita  perseguitata,  with  a 
French  libretto,  was  riot  well  received.  In 
1783  he  was  manager  of  the  Italian  opera  in 
London,  and  in  1787  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  enjoyed  henceforth  uninterrupted  popu 
larity.  Of  his  works,  which  are  now  little 
known,  the  best  are  LSararo,  II  curioso  indis- 
creto,  and  /  viaggiatori  felici. 

ANGARA,  a  river  of  (Siberia,  which  enters 
Lake  Baikal  at  its  N.  extremity,  under  the 
name  of  Upper  Angara,  leaves  it  near  the  S.  W. 
end  as  the  Lower  Angara  or  Upper  Tunguska, 
flows  past  Irkutsk,  pursues  a  N.  and  W.  course 
for  about  750  m.,  until  it  is  joined  by  the  river 
Tchadobet,  continues  in  a  westerly  direction 
about  250  m.  further,  and  empties  into  the 
Yenisei,  E.  of  Yeniseisk. 

ANGEL  (Gr.  Aj'yeAof,  a  messenger),  a  name 
given  in  Jewish  and  Christian  theology  to 
certain  spiritual  beings  endowed  with  super 
human  powers  of  intelligence  and  of  will. 
They  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  as 
well  as  the  New  Testament  as  immediate  in 
struments  of  Divine  Providence.  In  Scrip 
ture,  however,  the  original  word  not  unfre- 
quently  has  its  primary  signification  of  mes 
senger,  even  where  rendered  angel  in  the 
Vulgate  and  the  English  version.  They  are 
regarded  as  pure  spirits  in  whose  existence 


there  is  nothing  material.     They  often  appear 
in  the  Scriptures  with  bodies  and  in  the  human 
form;  but  it  was  in  the  early  church  and  still 
is   a   matter   of   theological    dispute  whether 
these  bodies  and  this  form  were  only  assumed 
by  them  for  a  time  for  the  special  purpose  of 
conversing  with  men.     Besides  these  good  an 
gels,  the  church  recognizes  a  class  of  ki  fallen 
angels,11  who  left  their  first  estate  and  are  now 
u  angels  of  the  devil."     The  second  council  of 
Constantinople,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Ori- 
gen,  declared  that  there  are  different  classes 
of  angels;  and  since  Dionysius  the  Areopagite 
|  the  opinion  that  there  are  nine  classes  of  an- 
!  gels  has  become  prevalent  in  the  Catholic  and 
|  eastern  churches.     It  was  a  common  opinion 
!  among  the  fathers  of  the  early  Christian  church 
that  every  individual  is  under  the  care  of  a 
particular  angel  who  is  assigned  to  him  as  a 
I  guardian  ;  but  Protestant  theology  finds  noth 
ing  in  the  Bible  to  support  this  notion.     While 
the   older    Protestant    churches,    in   general, 
i  agree  in  the  doctrine  of  the  angels  with  the 
I  Catholic  and  eastern  churches,  they  reject  as 
I  unbiblical  the  opinion  of  the  latter  that  it  is 
i  good  and  useful  to  ask   the  good  angels  for 
|  their  protection,  aid,  and  intercession,  and  to 
1  venerate  their  images.     According  to  the  crit- 
!  ical  school  of  Protestant  theology,  the  belief 
I  in  angels  was  foreign  to  the  early  religion  of 
!  the  Jews,  and  derived  from  the  Persians  about 
i  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity.      Sev- 
!  eral  prominent  Protestant  theologians  of  mod- 
!  ern  times,  like  Schleiermacher  and  Ilase,  deny 
I  the  existence  of  angels  altogether,  regarding 
|  them  as  creatures  of  Biblical  poetry;  others,  like 
I  Martensen  and  Rothe,  endeavor  to  establish  the 
|  doctrine  on  a  new  speculative  basis  ;  while  Swe- 
|  denborg  and  his  followers  regard  the  angels  of 
1  the  Bible  and  all  spiritual  creatures  as  disembod- 
i  ied  human  beings,  who  have  at  some  time  ex- 
|  isted  in  the  flesh  in  this  or  some  other  world. 
|  (See  NEW  JERUSALEM  CHURCH.)   Pictures  of  the 
I  angels  were  expressly  allowed  by  the  second 
|  council  of  Nice.     They  are  usually  represented 
|  in  the  human  form,  in  the  male  sex,  as  beauti- 
i  ful  youths ;  the  rapidity  with  which  they  are 
|  supposed  to  carry  out  the  commands  of  God  is 
i  symbolized  by  wings,  flowing  garments,   and 
I  naked   feet ;  harps  and  other  musical  instru- 
|  merits  which  are  placed  in  their  hands  are  in- 
!  tended  to  indicate  that  they  incessantly  sing 
]  the  praise  of  God. 

ANGEL  (in  French  ange  d'or,  angelot,  angclot- 
tus,  angelw\  a  coin  so  named  from  the  figure  of 


AXGEL   FISH 


ANGELL 


493 


the  archingel  Michael  and  the  dragon  stamped 
on  one  side  of  it.  It  was  originally  a  French 
coin,  first  struck  in  1340,  with  the  French 
arms  on  the  obverse.  It  was  introduced  into 
England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  and 
called  angel.  Its  value  was  then  6s.  8d. ; 
under  Henry  VIII.  it  was  raised  to  8s.,  and 
under  Charles  I.  to  10s.,  after  which  its  coin 
age  ceased. 

AXGEL  FISH,  the  common  name  of  the  squa- 
tina  angclm  (Dum.),  a  representative  of  the 
family  of  squatinidoB,  intermediate  between 
the  sharks  and  rays.  The  body  is  flattened 
above  and  below,  and  discoid  in  shape  on  ac 
count  of  the  broad  pectorals  and  ventrals,  as 
in  rays;  the  mouth  is  very  wide  and  at  the 
end  of  the  snout ;  the  eyes  small  and  on  the 
dorsal  aspect,  with  the  large  spout  holes  behind 
them ;  the  head  rounded  anteriorly ;  the  pec 
torals  separated  from  the  head  by  a  furrow 
in  which  are  the  long  and  closely  approxi 
mated  gill  openings ;  two  dorsals,  both  on  the 
tail,  further  back  than  the  ventrals ;  tail  keeled 
on  the  sides,  and  the  caudal  nearly  or  quite 
symmetrical ;  male  claspers  small ;  scales  con 
ical,  with  a  terminal  point;  teeth  conical, 
irregular,  with  interspaces.  It  is  the  only 
genus  of  the  family,  and  this,  the  best  known 
species,  is  called  shark  ray  from  its  appear 
ance,  angel  fish  from  the  resemblance  of  the 
expanded  pectorals  to  wings,  monk  fish  from 


Angel  Fish  (Sqimtina   angelus). 

its  rounded  head  seeming  to  he  enveloped  in  a 
cowl,  and  fiddle  fish  from  its  general  shape. 
It  attains  a  length  of  7  or  8  feet,  and  is  rough 
and  mottled  with  brown  and  bluish  gray 
above,  smooth  and  dirty  white  below;  the 
lighter  pectorals  are  bordered  with  brown,  the 
nostrils  covered  by  a  ciliated  membrane,  and 
along  the  back  is  a  row  of  spines.  It  is  not  un 
common  in  the  European  seas,  and  in  the  Medi 
terranean,  where  it  was  known  to  Aristotle, 
in  whose  time,  as  now,  the  rough  skin  was 
used  to  polish  wood.  It  is  gregarious,  fierce 
and  dangerous  to  approach,  hideous,  very  vo 
racious,  swimming  near  the  bottom,  and  feed 
ing  on  flat  fishes  and  other  species  living  in  the 
mud  and  sand.  The  young  are  produced  alive 
in  June.  The  flesh  is  white,  coarse,  and  taste- 


:  less,  though  formerly  esteemed  as  food.  A 
I  species  has  been  described  on  the  American 
I  coast  as  the  8.  Dumerili  (Lesueur). 

ANGELI,  I  Hippo,  an  Italian  painter,  born  in 
|  Rome,  lived  in  his  youth  in  Naples,  whence  he 
I  is  sometimes  called  the  Neapolitan,  and  died 
|  in  Florence  about  1645.  lie  excelled  in  land- 
I  scape  painting,  and  was  one  of  the  tirst  to  ob- 
i  serve  the  strict  rules  of  perspective  in  works 
!  of  that  class.  His  works  a:-e  rare  and  dear. 

ANGELICO,  Fra,  the  familiar  appellation  of 
!  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  early  Italian 
!  painters,  born  at  Mugello,  Tuscany,  in  1387, 
!  died  in  Rome  about  1455.  At  the  age  of  20 
I  he  entered  the  monastery  at  San  Domenico, 
I  near  Fiesole,  where  he  took  the  cloistral  name 
'  of  Giovanni  da  Fiesole.  Previous  to  this 
;  time,  according  to  Vasari,  he  had  borne  the 
|  name  of  Giovanni  Guido  di  Mugello,  and  ac- 
\  cording  to  others  that  of  Santi  Tosini.  Here 
;  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  the 
I  devout  discharge  of  his  religious  duties  and  the 
|  pursuit  of  his  art.  From  the  beauty  of  his 
|  angels  and  glorified  saints  he  was  called  by  his 
|  countrymen  il  beato  (the  blessed)  and  angelico 
\  ('the  angelic).  He  painted  only  sacred  subjects, 
|  would  never  accept  money  for  his  pictures, 
|  and  never  commenced  them  without  prayer. 
|  He  visited  Rome  at  the  command  of  Nicholas 
j  V.  to  decorate  the  papal  chapel.  The  pope 
I  offered  to  make  him  archbishop  of  Florence,  a 
|  dignity  which  his  humility  would  not  permit 
|  him  to  accept,  but  which  he  succeeded  in  pro- 
i  curing  for  a  brother  monk.  lie  painted  fres- 
j  coes  in  his  own  monastery  and  in  the  church 
|  of  Santa  Maria  Xoveila  at  Florence,  and  nu- 
I  merous  easel  pictures,  of  which  the  Louvre  pos- 
i  sessesanoble  specimen,  the  "  Coronation  of  the 
;  Virgin."  In  many  details  of  art  he  was  excelled 
I  by  his  contemporaries ;  but,  in  the  language  of 
I  Mrs.  Jameson,  uthe  expression  of  ecstatic  faith 
|  and  hope,  or  serene  contemplation,  1ms  never 
!  been  placed  before  us  as  in  his  pictures." 

ANGELINA,  an  E.  county  of  Texas,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  Angelina  river,  and  S.  W.  by  the 
jNeches;  area,  1,059  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870, 
i  3,985.  of  whom  742  were  colored.  The  county 
I  abounds  in  heavy  timber,  oak.  pine,  beech, 
j  holly,  hickory,  magnolia,  sweet  gum,  sugar 
!  maple,  ash,  sassafras,  cane  brakes,  cypress, 
|  mulberry,  &c.  The  soil  is  black,  and  in  the 
i  bottoms  sandy.  Corn,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  rice, 
I  and  tobacco  are  the  principal  products.  Large 
'  numbers  of  hogs  are  raised  and  sent  to  market. 
'  There  are  two  steam  saw  mills,  hut  no  other 
|  manufactories.  Petroleum  is  abundant.  Cap- 
!  ital,  Homer. 

ANGELL,  Joseph  R.,  an  American  writer  on 

law,  born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  April  30,  1794, 

died  in  Boston,  May  1,  1857.     He  graduated  at 

i  Brown  university  in  1813,  edited  the  "United 

!  States  Law   Intelligencer  and   Review"  from 

i  1828  to  1831,  and  was  for  several  years  reporter 

'  of  the  decisions  of  the  supreme  court  of  Rhode 

!  Island.     He  published  treatises,  between   1824 

:  and  1854,  on  the  "Common  Law  in  relation  to 


ANGELN 


ANGILBERT 


Water  Courses,"  the  "Right  of  Property  in 
Tide  Waters,"  the  "Law  of  Private  Corpora 
tions,"  the  "Limitation  of  Actions,"  the  u  Lia 
bilities  and  Rights  of  Common  Carriers,"  and 
the  "  Law  of  Fire  and  Life  Insurance."  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  employed  in  preparing 
a  treatise  on  the  "Law  of  Highways,"  which 
was  completed  by  Thomas  Duri'ee.  Lord 
Brougham  esteemed  his  work  on  the  "  Limi 
tation  of  Actions"  very  highly. 

ANGELN,  or  An«?len  (Lat.  A  nglia  Minor  ;  Dan. 
Angel),  a  district  about  300  sq.  m.  in  extent,  in 
Schleswig,  bordering  on  the  Baltic  and  the 
bay  of  Flensburg.  It  is  the  only  territory  on 
the  continent  which  has  preserved  the  name  of 
the  tribe  of  Angles.  The  present  inhabitants 
are  distinguished  for  bodily  strength,  industry, 
and  morality. 

ANGELO,  Michel.     See  BUONAROTTI. 

ANGELUS  DOMINI,  a  short  form  of  prayer 
which  Catholics  are  accustomed  to  recite  in 
honor  of  the  incarnation,  at  sunrise,  noon,  and 
sunset,  at  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  called  the  An- 
gelus  bell.  This  custom  originated  with  the 
ringing  of  the  bells  on  the  eve  of  festivals.  Pope 
John  XXII.  (K527)  ordered  that  at  the  ringing 
of  the  bells  on  these  occasions  all  the  faithful 
should  rec'ite  three  Ave  Marias.  The  council 
of  Lavaur  (1368)  ordered  that  the  bell  should 
be  rung  also  at  sunrise.  The  Angelus  at  noon 
is  attributed  by  some  to  Pope  Calixtus  III. 
(1456),  and  by  others  to  King  Louis  XL  (1472). 
Mabillon  thinks  that  the  Angelus  as  now  prac 
tised  is  of  French  origin,  and  became  general 
at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 

ANGELIS  SILESIUS,  whose  real  name  was 
JOIIANN  SCHEFFLER,  a  German  philosophical 
poet,  born  at  Breslau,  in  Silesia,  in  1624, 
died  there,  July  9,  1077.  After  receiving  a 
medical  degree,  he  travelled  through  Holland, 
became  court  physician  to  the  emperor  Fer 
dinand  III.,  embraced  in  1653  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  afterward  became  a  priest  and 
councillor  to  the  bishop  of  Breslau,  and  finally 
retired  to  a  cloister.  He  is  the  author  of  a  sys 
tem  kindred  to  that  of  the  mystic  pantheists 
Tauler  and  Bohme,  of  whose  writings  he  had 
been  a  student.  His  peculiar  faith  is  mainly 
expressed  in  poems,  of  which  he  published  col 
lections,  with  the  titles  of  "  The  Cherub's  Guide 
Book,"  "Spiritual  Pastorals,"  "The  Troubled 
Psyche,"  and  "The  String  of  Pearls." 

ANGERMAN,   Aii^erman-aa,  or  Anijernian-elf,   a 
river  of  northern  Sweden,  rises  in  the  lake  of 
Knit,  on   the   Norwegian   frontier,  and,   after  ' 
flowing  S.  E.  through  the  provinces  of  Wester-  • 
botten  and  Westernorrland  for  240  m.,  falls 
into  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  12  m.  N.  of  Ilerrio- 
sand.     It  is  navigable  to  Solleftea,  about  60  m. 
It   passes   through    many   lakes,   contains   nu 
merous  islands,  and  is  noted  for  its  fine  scenery.  \ 

ANGERMUNDE,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  Pots- 
darn  district  of  the  province  of  Brandenburg, 
on  Lake  Munde  and  about  40  m.  by  railway 
N.  E.  of  Berlin  ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,412.  It  trades 
in  wool,  tobacco,  and  yarn,  and  there  are  fish- 


j  erics,  breweries,  and  manufactories  of  hosiery 
|  and  cloth. 

ANGERS  (anc.  Juliomagus,  in  the  territory  of 
'  the   Andecavi    or   Andegavi),   an    old  city  of 
i  France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Maine-et- 
Loire,  situated  on  the  Mayenne,  4  m.  from  its 
I  junction  with  the  Loire,  161  in.  S.  W.  of  Paris, 
;  on  the  line  of  the  Tours  and  Nantes  railway; 
;  pop.  in  1866,  54,791.    It  has  a  college  and  sem 
inary,    a   government   sail-cloth   manufactory, 
and   various  manufactories  of  linen,   woollen, 
cotton,    and    silk    stuffs;    also    tanneries  and 
!  sugar   and  wax   refineries;    and   contains  the 
i  mother    house    of    the    Sisters   of    the    Good 
i  Shepherd.     In  the  vicinity  are  extensive  slate 
|  quarries.     Its   chief  curiosities   are   the   ruins 
;  of  a  castle  of  the  old  dukes  of  Anjou,  a  ca- 
|  thedral    containing   the   monument  of  Marga- 
!  ret  of  Anjou,  remains  of  a  Roman  aqueduct, 
;  and  a  museum  with  600  pictures.     It  has  a  li- 
I  brary,  a  botanical  garden,  and  a  school  of  arts 
and  trades.     The  university,  founded  in  1246, 
and   once  among  the  most  famous  schools  of 
learning  in  Europe,  and  the  royal  academy  of 
:  belles-lettres,    established    by   Louis    XIV.   in 
I  1685,    were  destroyed   during  the  revolution. 
•  In  1585  the  castle  was  surprised  by  the  Ilugue- 
\  nots,  and  in  1793  the  city  was  besieged  by  the 
\  Vendeans,  when  the  inhabitants  endured  great 
;  sufferings.     Lord    Chatham  and  the  duke  of 
Wellington  studied  here  at  a  military  school. 
!  David  the  sculptor  was  born  here. 

ANGHIERA,  Pietro  Mai  tire  d'  (called  in  English 
;  PETER  MARTYR),  an  Italian  historian  and  geog- 
!  raphcr,  born  at  Arona  on  Lago  Maggiore  in 
'  1455,  died  in  the  city  of  Granada  in  1526.  He 
;  was  of  noble  extraction,  and  at  the  age  of  22 
i  went  to  finish  his  education  at  Rome.  In 
1488  he  accompanied  the  Spanish  ambassa 
dor  to  Spain,  where  he  served  in  two  cam 
paigns  against  the  Moors,  and  then  entered  the 
church,  and  opened  a  school  for  the  young  no 
bility.  In  1501  he  visited  the  sultan  of  Egypt 
on  a  mission  from  King  Ferdinand,  arid  took 
occasion  to  explore  the  pyramids  and  some  of 
the  most  striking  remains  of  antiquity.  The 
king  obtained  for  him  the  title  of  apostolic 
prothonotary,  and  in  1505  made  him  prior  of 
the  church  of  Granada.  Charles  Y.  afterward 
presented  him  with  a  rich  abbey.  The  histor 
ical  works  of  Peter  Martyr  are  among  the  best 
sources  of  information  respecting  the  important 
age  in  which  he  lived.  His  literary  remains 
comprise  his  Opus  Epistolarum,  a  collection  of 
letters  in  38  books,  in  which  almost  every  event 
of  public  importance  from  1488  to  1525  is  re 
corded  ;  a  history  of  the  new  world  entitled  De 
Rebus  Oceanicis  et  Orbe  Novo,  written  from 
original  documents  furnished  by  Columbus,  and 
from  statements  made  to  the  council  of  the 
Indies,  of  which  he  was  a  member;  an  account 
of  newly  discovered  islands  and  their  inhabi 
tants  ;  and  a  report  of  his  visit  to  Egypt,  under 
the  title  of  De  Legatione  Bdbylonica. 

ANGILBERT,  Saint,  minister  of  Charlemagne, 
and  the  most  distinguished  poet  of  his  age,  born 


ANGINA  PECTORIS 


in  Neustria,  now  Normandy,  died  Feb.  18,  814.  ' 
He  studied  under  Alcuin  with  Charlemagne ;  ! 
received  Bertha,  the  daughter  of  that  prince, 
in  marriage;  was  appointed  prime  minister  of 
Pepin,  king  of  Italy;  and  after  returning  to 
France  was  intrusted  with  a  portion  of  the  gov 
ernment,  and  became  secretary  and  minister 
to  Charlemagne.  With  the  consent  of  his  wife  i 
he  entered  in  TOO  the  monastery  of  Centule  or  j 
St.  Riquier,  of  which  he  became  abbot  in  794.  | 
He  often  left  his  retreat  to  attend  to  interests  ; 
of  state  or  to  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  made 
four  journeys  to  Home,  in  the  last  of  which  he  j 
accompanied  Charlemagne  and  saw  hun  crown-  ' 
ed  emperor  of  the  West.  Angilbert  was  a  cor- 
respondent  of  Alcuin,  and  was  called  the  Ho-  i 
mer  of  his  time.  His  poems  and  a  history  of  the  j 
abbey  of  Centule  are  marked  by  much  elegance.  | 
ANGINA  PECTORIS  (Lat.  angere,  to  suffocate),  j 
a  disease  so  named  from  a  sense  of  suffocating  j 
contraction  or  tightening  of  the  chest,  over  the  i 
sternum,  causing  anguish  and  fear  of  sudden  ; 
death.  A  sudden  attack  of  severe  pain  in  the  | 
lower  part  of  the  chest,  commonly  inclining  to  ! 
the  left  side  and  extending  down  the  left  arm,  j 
is  the  most  prominent  symptom  of  the  disease,  i 
The  pain  sometimes  affects  the  right  arm,  and  ; 
is  often  attended  with  palpitation  of  the  heart  ] 
and  a  sensation  of  fainting ;  but  the  latter  j 
symptoms  are  not  constant.  The  pulse  is  com-  j 
monly  accelerated,  though  otherwise  very  ! 
slightly  affected.  The  countenance  is  pal-  j 
lid,  and  the  expression  anxious  and  depress-  j 
ed.  There  is  no  regular  interval  between  the  j 
paroxysms  nor  distinct  warnings  of  return,  j 
They  come  on  suddenly  and  unexpectedly,  from  | 
slight  causes,  and  often  when  no  immediate  : 
cause  can  be  assigned,  and  last  from  a  few  min-  i 
utes  to  half  an  hour  or  more.  The  health  is  ' 
often  tolerably  good  between  the  intervals  j 
when  first  the  disease  comes  on,  but  by  degrees  \ 
it  fails,  and  various  uneasy  sensations  distress  j 
the  patient  in  the  intervals  of  paroxysms,  j 
The  respiration  becomes  labored  and  digestion  j 
difficult. — The  nature  of  this  disease  is  still  in-  j 
volved  in  some  obscurity.  It  seems  to  be  j 
mainly  an  affection  of  the  nerves,  complicated  ! 
with  symptoms  of  a  rheumatic  or  a  gouty  na-  i 
tu re,  and  often  also  with  disease  of  the  vessels,  j 
The  morbid  appearances  which  are  found  after  j 
death  are  most  frequently  ossification  of  the  ! 
small  vessels  that  supply  the  heart  itself,  com-  ] 
monly  called  coronary  arteries ;  ossification  of  j 
the  valves  of  the  heart ;  excessive  accumulation  i 
of  fat  on  its  external  surface;  enlargement  of  its  ' 
cavities,  arid  change  of  structure  in  its  muscu-  | 
lar  substance,  which  becomes  soft  and  flabby,  j 
thin,  and  easily  torn.  Although  the  hardening  j 
of  the  coronary  arteries  and  the  valves  of  the  ! 
heart  has  been  generally  called  ossification,  ; 
the  term  is  a  misnomer ;  for  there  is  no  real 
ossification,  but  a  hardening  and  thickening  of  '• 
the  parts  by  earthy  deposits,  such  as  are  ob- 
served  in  the  blood  vessels  and  in  the  joints  of  ; 
certain  rheumatic  and  gouty  constitutions.  The 
degenerations  and  morbid  appearances  of  the 


vessels,  valves,  and  tissues  of  the  heart  are 
therefore  often  quite  analogous  to  those  ob 
served  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  in  patients 
suffering  from  gout  and  rheumatism  and  certain 
kinds  of  aneurisms,  with  morbid  deposits  in  the 
distended  and  thickened  walls  of  the  arteries. 
Still,  these  symptoms  are  not  constant,  and 
cases  are  not  infrequent  in  which  the  patients 
have  suffered  much  during  life  from  attacks 
of  angina  pectoris,  and  yet  in  which  no  morbid 
changes  whatever  have  been  found  after  death, 
either  in  the  heart  or  blood  vessels.  Much  has 
been  done  to  ascertain  the  primary  seat  and 
the  nature  of  this  disease,  but  physicians  are 
not  as  yet  unanimous  in  their  opinions.  The 
majority  believe  it  to  be  primarily  a  nervous 
affection,  the  nerves  at  fault  being  those  which 
supply  the  lungs  and  the  heart.  It  differs  from 
neuralgia  properly  so  called  in  several  most 
important  features,  although  the  sudden  violent 
shooting  pains  are  not  unlike  those  of  tic  dou 
loureux  and  other  forms  of  severe  neuralgia. 
In  so  far  as  the  latter  disease  may  be  chiefly 
caused  by  swelling  and  inflammation  of  the 
sheaths  of  the  nerves,  there  is  a  strong  analogy; 
but  careful  observation  suggests  that  the  gouty 
or  rheumatic  diathesis,  whatever  be  the  nature 
and  the  cause  of  that  peculiar  cachexia,  lies  at 
the  bottom  of  the  disease  of  the  heart  known 
as  angina  pectoris;  and  that  the  neuralgic 
pains  are  no  more  violent  and  sudden  in  the 
paroxysms  of  this  disease  than  they  are  in  gout 
and  certain  forms  of  rheumatism.  The  seat  of 
the  disease,  however,  renders  the  same  parox 
ysms  more  alarming.  There  are  undoubted 
instances  on  record  in  which  angina  pectoris 
has  been  completely  cured,  the  paroxysms 
growing  more  moderate  in  character  and  less 
frequent  in  their  recurrence,  and  finally  passing 
off  altogether,  leaving  the  patient  in  a  state  of 
sound  health.  On  the  whole,  however,  the 
malady  is  a  dangerous  one,  having  a  tendency 
to  become  Averse  rather  than  better,  the  pa 
tient's  health  gradually  deteriorating,  and  death 
finally  taking  place,  either  from  syncope  during 
one  of  the  paroxysms,  or  from  one  of  the  compli 
cations  mentioned  above,  by  which  the  disease 
is  so  frequently  accompanied. — Angina  pectoris 
seldom  affects  young  people.  It  most  fre 
quently  occurs  in  the  meridian  of  life  or  in  the 
descending  phase  of  existence.  It  is  much 
more  frequent  in  the  male  than  in  the  female. 
Sir  John  Forbes  and  M.  Lartigne  found  that 
out  of  155  cases  140  were  males  and  only  15 
females.  The  following  list  of  04  cases  by  M. 
Lartigue  shows  its  comparative  frequency  at 
different  ages:  At  17  years,  1  ;  21,  1 ;  29,  1  ; 
30  to  35,  G ;  40,  2 ;  41  to  50,  11;  51  to  GO,  25 ; 
fil  to  70,  13  ;  71  to  77,  4.  When  the  disease  is 
far  advanced,  paroxysms  are  easily  brought  on 
by  mental  or  moral  emotions.  Absolute  rest 
of  body  and  tranquillity  of  mind  are  necessary 
while  the  paroxysm  lasts.  The  head  and 
chest  should  be  raised,  and  the  body  seated  in 
an  easy  chair ;  and  where  the  disease  is  far  ad 
vanced,  the  patient  should  sleep  in  this  position. 


490 


ANGLE 


ANGLE,  a  portion  of  space  between  two  lines 
or  between  two  or  more  surfaces  intersecting 
each  other.  Geometry  distinguishes  four  kinds 
of  angles:  plane,  spherical,  dihedral,  and  poly 
hedral.  1.  Plane  angles.  When  two  lines  are 
situated  in  the  same  plane  and  not  parallel  to 
each  other,  they  intersect  at  some  point,  and 
around  this  point  of  intersection  they  form 
four  plane  angles ;  the  point  of  intersection  is 
called  the  vertex,  and  the  lines  the  sides  of  the 
angles.  If  all  the  four  angles  thus  formed  are 
equal,  they  are  called  right  angles,  and  the 
lines  are  said  to  be  perpendicular  to  one  another ; 
when  not  equal,  those  smaller  than  a  right  an 
gle  are  called  acute,  and  those  larger  obtuse 
angles.  Angles  are  measured  by  degrees,  which 
are  nothing  but  angles  so  small  that  360  of  them 
are  situated  around  one  point,  and  therefore  90 
in  a  right  angle.  For  practical  measurement 
of  angles  the  circumference  of  a  circle  is  divided 
into  300  equal  parts  (see  fig.  1),  and  its  centre 


270= 

FIG.  1.— Plane  Angles. 


FIG.  2.— Spherical  Angles. 


laid  on  the  vertex  of  the  angle,  in  which  case 
the  parts  of  the  circumference  between  the 
sides  of  the  angle  will  indicate  the  number  of 
degrees  contained  in  the  same.  Each  degree 
is  again  divided  into  GO  parts  called  minutes, 
and  each  minute  into  60  seconds.  The  whole 
circumference  of  the  circle  is  therefore  subdi 
vided  into  1,296,000  seconds,  which  is  about 
the  limit  of  accuracy  of  astronomers  in  measur 
ing  angles  at  the  firmament.  When  angles 
have  curved  sides  (as  represented  in  fig.  2), 
tangents  are  drawn  to  the  curves  at  the  ver 
tex,  and  the  angle  these  tangents  make  with 
one  another  is  measured.  2.  Spherical  angles. 
Under  this  name  is  designated  the  space  in 
cluded  between  two  arcs  of  great  circles,  drawn 
on  a  sphere.  A  D  and  B  I),  fig.  2,  form 
together  a  spherical  angle,  which,  if  the  plane 
B  O  E  D  is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  A  O  0  D, 
is  a  spherical  right  angle:  the  intersections  of 
the  meridians  with  the  equator  of  the  earth  are 
such  right  angles,  while  the  intersections  of  the 
meridians  at  the  poles  form  a  number  of  acute 
spherical  angles.  The  angles  which  the  astron 
omers  measure  in  their  celestial  triangles  are 
all  spherical  angles.  3.  Dihedral  angles  are 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  planes.  The 
planes  A  B  C  D  and  A  B  F  E,  fig.  3,  form  a  di 
hedral  angle ;  the  line  of  intersection,  A  B,  is 
called  the  edge,  and  the  planes  are  called  the 
faces.  Such  angles  are  measured  by  the  plane 
angle  formed  when  passing  a  plane  perpendicu 


lar  through  the  edge,  or,  what  is  the  same, 
drawing  two  lines  OT  and  ST  from  the  same 
point  in  the  edge  A  B,  perpendicular  to  the 


FIG,  3.— Dihedral  Angles. 


same,  and  one  in  each  plane ;  the  arc  S  T  is 
in  that  case  the  measure  of  the  dihedral  angle. 
4.  Polyhedral  angles  are  the  spaces  included 


FIG.  5.— Tetrahedral 
Angle. 


FIG.  4.— Trihedral  Angle. 

between  three  or  more  planes  which  intersect 
at  one  point.     Thus  O,  fig.  4,  is  the  vertex  of  a 
trihedral,  and  O,  fig.  5,  the 
vertex  of  a  tetrahedral  an 
gle,  respectively  bounded 
by  three  and  four  faces.  As 
an  arc  of  a  circle  is  used  for 
measuring  plane  and  dihe 
dral  angles,  so  a  portion  of 
the  surface  of  a  sphere,  of 
which  the  centre  is  at  the 
vertex,  is  used  to  measure 
polyhedral    angles. — Angle 
of  Total  Reflection.     When  a  ray  of  light  falls 
j  on  a  polished  surface  separating  a  transparent 
denser  medium  from  a  similar  rarer  one,  it  will 
be  reflected  and  refracted,  that  is,  split  up  into 
two  rays ;  one  of  which  will  be  thrown  back, 
and   the   other  will  pass  on  and  be  diverted 
more  or  less  from  its  course.     Such  a  splitting 
up  of  a  ray  of  light  always  takes  place  when  it 
j  passes  from  a   rarer   into   a   denser   medium. 
|  But  when  the  light  passes  from  a  denser  into 
j  a  rarer  medium,  for  instance,  from  glass  into 
j  air,  this  will  not  be  the  case  under  all  inclina 
tions   of   the  ray.     When  the    angle  of  inci 
dence  is  not  very  acute,  no  refraction,  but  total 
reflection,  will  take  place.     Let  A  B  O  repre 
sent  a  cross  section  of  a  glass  prism  ;  then  the 
ray  D  R  will  be  split  up,  being  reflected  to 
RE  and  refracted  to  R  R,  because  the  angle 
of  incidence,  D  R  Q,   is  very  acute,  the  ray  F 
T,  however,  making  with  the  perpendicular  T 
P  a  less  acute  angle.     As  F  T  P  is  only  re 
flected  in  the  direction  T  G,  and  not  refracted 
at  all,  it  cannot  pass  out  of  the  prism  at  T,  and 
this  constitutes  there  a  case  of  total  reflec 
tion.  The  minimum  number  of  degrees  required 


ANGLER   FISH 


ANGLESEY 


497 


for  such  a  case  is  calculated  according  to  a  law 
discovered  by  Descartes,  which  is  that  "the 
dines  of  the  angles  of  incidence  and  retraction 
bear  a  fixed  relation  to  one  another,  different 
for  each  substance.'1  When  the  calculation 
gives  for  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  refraction  a 
quantity  greater  than  1,  it  gives  a  sine  which 
cannot  exist,  which  indicates  that  no  refraction 
can  exist  in  this  case,  and  that  consequently 
all  the  light  is  reflected.  The  smallest  angle  of 
incidence  with  which  this  takes  place,  or  the 
angle  of  total  reflection,  differs  according  to 


FIG.  6.— Angle  of  Total  Reflection. 

the  relative  power  of  refraction  of  the  two 
transparent  media.  For  light  passing  into  air,  it 
is  when  coming  from  water  48°  30' ;  from  crown 
glass,  42° ;  from  flint  glass,  38°  ;  and  from  dia 
mond,  24°.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  of  the 
special  brilliant  lustre  of  the  last-named  sub 
stance. — For  other  special  applications  of  the 
term  (angle  of  incidence,  of  least  deviation,  of 
polarization,  of  repose),  see  MECHANICS,  POLAR 
IZATION,  and  SPECTRUM. 

ANGLER  FISH.     See  GOOSE  FISH. 

ANGLES,  or  Angli,  an  ancient  German  tribe 
which,  after  various  migrations,  settled  in  Den 
mark,  and  thence  passed  over  in  great  numbers 
to  England,  to  which  they  gave  their  name. 
Tacitus  in  his  German  ia  mentions  this  tribe  by 
name.  Lendenbrog  and  Leibnitz  (Scriptores 
Rerum  Srunsuicensium)  have  preserved  some 
fragments  of  the  ancient  laws  used  in  common 
by  the  Angli  and  the  Varini.  On  the  conti 
nent  their  name  has  only  been  preserved  in  the 
district  of  Schleswig  called  Angeln,  and  his 
tory  would  have  let  them  drop  entirely  into 
oblivion,  but  for  the  circumstance  that  their 
immigration  into  Britain  gave  to  the  greater 
portion  of  the  southern  part  of  that  island  the 
name  of  Angle-land,  England.  (See  ANGLO- 
SAXONS.) 

ANGLESEA,  or  Anglesey,  a  small  island  in  the 
Irish  sea,  on  the  coast  of  Wales,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Menai  strait,  constituting  a 
county;  area,  302  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  50,919. 
The  chief  agricultural  products  are  oats  and 
barley.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  largely  raised. 
The  copper  mines  at  Parys  and  Mona,  once  very 
productive,  have  much"  declined.  The  chief 
towns  are  Beaumaris,  the  county  seat,  Holy- 
head,  Llangefni,  and  Amlwch.  which  unite  in 
returning  one  member  to  parliament,  besides 
the  county  member.  The  Menai  strait  is 
VOL.  i. — 32 


crossed  by  a  fine  suspension  bridge,  one  of  the 

earliest  and  most  perfect  specimens  of  this  style 

i  of    structure,    also    by   the    Britannia   tubular 

j  bridge  of  the  Chelsea  and  Ilolyhead  railway, 

I  one  of  the  great  triumphs  of  modern  science 

and  enterprise.     (See  BRIDGE.)     Anglesea  was 

<  known  to  the  Romans  as  Mona,  and  was  the 

|  last  stronghold  of  the  Druids,  of  whose  religion 

i  various  cromlechs  and  other  remains  are  still 

extant.     On  the  N.  W.  end  of  the  island  is  the 

smaller  island  of  Holyhead. 

ANGLESEY,  Earl  of.  See  ANNESLEY. 
ANGLESEY,  Henry  William  Paget,  first  marquis 
of,  and  second  earl  of  Uxbridge,  a  British  gen 
eral,  born  May  17,  1768,  died  April  29,  1854. 
He  received  his  education  at  Westminster  and 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  1793  he  raised 
a  regiment  of  infantry  at  his  own  expense 
among  \is  father's  tenantry  in  Staffordshire, 
with  which  he  served  in  the  campaign  in  Flan 
ders;  and  in  1799  he  commanded  a  regiment 
of  cavalry  in  Holland,  and  ultimately  became 
the  most  distinguished  cavalry  officer  in  the 
service.  In  1808  he  joined  Sir  John  Moore  in 
Spain,  as  commander  of  the  two  cavalry  brig 
ades.  He  defeated  the  French  at  Mayaga,  and 
repulsed  their  advanced  guard  at  Benevente, 
where  he  took  Gen.  Lefebvre-Desnouettes  pris 
oner,  and  covered  Sir  John  Moore's  celebrated 
retreat,  which  ended  in  the  battle  of  .Corunna, 
where  a  charge  by  him  decided  the  fate  of  the 
day.  Returning  to  England  in  1809,  he  did 
j  not  serve  again  till  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
|  where  he  commanded  the  heavy  cavalry,  and 
headed  the  terrible  British  charge  that  annihi 
lated  the  French  cuirassiers.  In  this  action  he 
lost  a  leg.  He  had  inherited  the  earldom  of 
Uxbridge  in  1812,  and  on  July  4,  1815,  he  was 
created  marquis  of  Anglesey.  At  the  corona 
tion  of  George  IV.  he  was  lord  high  steward  of 
England.  In  1827  he  became  a  member  of 
Canning's  cabinet  as  master  general  of  the  ord 
nance,  and  in  1828,  under  Wellington,  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland.  In  these  offices  he  was 
exceedingly  popular  from  the  impartiality  of  his 
administration,  while  his  firmness  secured  him 
the  respect  of  all.  In  December,  1828,  in  a  letter 
to  Archbishop  Curtis,  the  Roman  Catholic  pri 
mate  of  Ireland,  he  expressed  opinions  so  favor 
able  to  Catholic  emancipation  that  his  recall 
was  determined  upon,  and  he  quitted  Dublin 
Dec.  19,  amid  the  regret  of  all  classes.  In 
1830,  under  Earl  Grey,  he  was  restored  to  his 
post.  The  severe  measures  now  employed 
against  O'Connell's  repeal  agitation  destroyed 
his  former  popularity  in  Ireland,  and  led  to  the 
overthrow  of  Earl  Grey's  ministry  and  his  own. 
retirement  in  1833.  In  1846  he  again  became 
master  general  of  the  ordnance,  and  was  made 
field  marshal.  He  finally  retired  from  office  in 
1852.  He  married  in  1795  the  daughter  of  the 
fourth  earl  of  Jersey,  from  whom  he  was  di 
vorced  in  1810,  and  soon  afterward  married 
!  Lady  Cowley,  daughter  of  the  first  earl  of  Ca- 
dogan,  who  had  also  just  been  divorced.  His 
•  former  wife  soon  married  the  duke  of  Argyll. 


498 


ANGLING 


ANGLO-SAXONS 


ANGLING,  the  art  of  taking  fish  by  means  of 
the  rod,  line,  and  hook.  It  probably  was  never 
a  popular  recreation  with  any  of  the  more 
civilized  peoples  of  antiquity,  but  in  England  it 
early  became  a  favorite  sport.  One  of  the 
earliest  books  printed  in  the  English  language 
is  a  small  folio  republication  of  u  The  Boke  of 
St.  Albans,"  issued  in  141)6  by  Wynkin  de 
Worde,  and  containing  a  "  Treatise  of  Fishing 
with  an  Angle."  The  fish  which  have  always 
been  the  keenest  object  of  the  skilful  fisher 
man's  pursuit,  both  as  the  best  on  the  board 
when  taken,  and  as  affording  the  greatest  sport 
to  the  taker,  are  those  of  the  salmon  family, 
including  the  true  or  sea  salmon,  tbe  sea  trout, 
the  lake  trout  of  several  varieties,  and  the 
brook  trout.  For  fly-fishing,  the  rod  for  sal 
mon  fishing  should  be  from  16  to  18  feet  long, 
pliable,  elastic,  and  tapering ;  with  a  reel  ca 
pable  of  containing  100  yards  of  strong,  evenly 
plaited  hair  line,  tapering  gradually  from  end 
to  end,  and  terminating  in  a  leader  of  the  best 
round  silkworm  gut,  to  which  is  attached  the 
foot  length  of  a  large,  gaudily  colored  salmon 
fly.  The  trout  fly  rod  is  of  the  same  general 
character,  but  shorter,  lighter,  and  capable  of 
being  easily  managed  with  one  hand ;  whereas 
the  salmon  rod  requires  the  use  of  both,  and 
takes  a  strong  and  practised  man  to  wield  it 
with  effect  through  a  whole  day's  fishing. 
From  10  to  12  feet  will  be  long  enough  for  an 
ordinary  fly  rod,  and  from  30  to  40  yards  of 
line  will  be  an  ample  allowance.  Trout  flies 
are  much  smaller,  and  usually  much  more 
gravely  colored,  than  the  salmon  flies  most  in 
use.  The  object  in  fly-fishing  is  to  throw  the 
fly  well  out,  and,  letting  it  drop  on  the  water  as 
lightly  and  naturally  as  possible,  to  keep  it 
playing  and  dancing  in  the  eddies,  with  mo 
tions  simulating  those  of  a  drowning  insect. 
The  fish  of  America  most  valued  by  the  angler 
are  the  trout,  striped  bass,  the  black  bass  of 
the  hikes,  and  the  rock  bass ;  several  varieties 
of  pike,  from  the  gigantic  muscalonge  of  the 
basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  down  to  the  little 
Long  Island  pickerel,  which  rarely  exceeds  10 
inches  in  length  ;  the  pike  perch,  known  as  the 
glass-eye  or  Ohio  salmon,  in  the  western 
waters  ;  the  perch  ;  the  carp ;  and  many  other 
species  and  varieties,  of  various  degrees  of  size 
and  excellence,  down  to  the  little,  many-colored 
pond  fish.— The  principal  differences  between 
bait-fishing  and  fly-fishing  consist  in  the  use 
of  the  fish  or  the  worm  with  trolling,  spinning, 
roving,  or  stationary  tackle.  Trolling  and 
spinning  are  both  practised  with  dead  fish,  to 
which  the  angler,  by  the  play  of  his  wrist  and 
line,  conveys  a  motion  in  the  water  similar  to 
that  of  swimming.  The  bluefish  and  Span 
ish  mackerel  are  caught  by  trolling,  but  in 
stead  of  bait  the  hook  is  attached  to  a  piece 
of  bright  metal  or  bone,  shaped  somewhat 
like  a  small  fish.  In  spinning,  swivels  are 
used,  and  a  series  of  small  hooks,  tied  on  fine 
gut,  are  applied  to  the  bait  externally,  which 
is  fastened  to  the  line  head  upward,  with  a 


!  slight  curve  given  to  the  tail,  so  that  the  action 
!  of  the  swivel  and  the  force  of  the  current  cause 
I  it  to  play  with  a  rotatory  motion  in  the  water. 
!  Roving  is  performed  with  a  small  live  fish, 
|  hooked,  so  as  not  to  injure  him  seriously, 
through  the  dorsal  fin  or  the  lip,  and  suffered  to 
swim  about  at  his  own  pleasure,  within  such  lim 
its  as  are  accorded  to  him  by  the  length  of  line. 
Bottom  fishing  requires  a  weighted  line,  a  cork 
float,  and  worm,  paste,  or  shellfish  bait ;  it  is 
adopted  for  trout  and  perch  fishing  in  rivers, 
and  for  taking  many  sorts  of  sea  fish  in  bays 
and  tideways. — The  following  are  the  titles  of  a 
few  of  the  most  valuable  works  on  angling,  pub 
lished  within  a  few  years  :  Scrope's  "Days  and 
Nights  of  Salmon  Fishing  "  ;  "  The  Book  of  the 
Salmon,"  by  Andrew  Young ;  Sir  Humphry 
Davy's  "  Salmonia  "  ;  Pulman's  "  Yade  Mecum 
of  Fly-fishing  for  Trout";  "Handbook  of 
Angling,"  by  Ephemera ;  "  The  Rod  and  Line," 
by  Hewett  Wheatley ;  Ronald's  "Fly-fisher's 
Entomology."  These  are  all  English  works,  to* 
which  may  be  added  the  following  American 
publications:  Dr.  Bethune's  edition  of  Izaak 
Walton's  "  Complete  Angler,"  Frank  Forres 
ter's  "Fish  and  Fishing,"  Brown's  "Angler's 
Guide,"  Lanman's  "  Adventures,"  Roosevelt's 
"Superior  Fishing"  and  "Game  Fish  of  the 
North,"  and  G.  C.  Scott's  "Fishing  in  Ameri 
can  Waters." 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  the  Teutonic  people  who  in 
the  5th  and  6th  centuries  passed  over  from  their 
territory  in  and  near  the  Cimbric  (Danish)  pen 
insula  to  the  island  of  Britain,  then  just  aban 
doned  by  the  Romans.  They  first  acted  as  aux 
iliaries  to  the  British  against  the  Picts  and 
Scots,  but  afterward  subdued  and  overspread 
the  country,  establishing  themselves  as  its  per 
manent  inhabitants,  while  the  aboriginal  races 
gradually  disappeared  before  their  rapid 
growth.  They  were  principally  collected  from 
three  nations,  the  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes, 
all  members  of  the  great  Saxon  confederation, 
a  rough  union  of  Teutonic  tribes  effected  dur 
ing  the  4th  century,  under  the  Saxon  hegemo 
ny,  for  mutual  advancement  and  protection. 
(See  SAXONS.)  The  Saxons  inhabited  the 
country  called  Nortu  Albingia  or  Eala  Saexen, 
extending  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Eider,  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  Oimbric  peninsula,  and 
divided  into  Ditmarsia,  Stormaria,  and  Hol- 
satia — districts  which  still  retain  these  names. 
The  Jutes  inhabited  South  Jutland,  now 
Schleswig.  The  territory  of  the  Angles  was 
probably  the  district  of  Angeln,  now  also 
within  the  limits  of  Schleswig.  These  tribes, 
celebrated  for  naval  prowess,  had  made  sev 
eral  piratical  expeditions  to  the  British  coast 
|  before  the  abandonment  of  the  island  by 
j  the  Romans.  According  to  the  statement  of 
old  histories,  the  details  of  which  are  not  now 
fully  credited  by  critical  writers,  it  was  the 
knowledge  of  them  thus  acquired  by  the  Brit 
ons  that  led  these  latter  to  call  upon  them  for 
aid,  when,  about  A.  D.  449,  Vortigern,  the 
i  leading  British  chief  of  the  time,  found  him- 


ANGLO-SAXONS 


499 


aelf  unable  to  withstand  the  increasing  inroads 
of  the  Picts  and  Soots,  the  barbarous  tribes  in 
habiting  the  north  of  the  island.  In  response 
to  his  invitations,  it  is  said,  the  Saxon  chiefs 
Ilengist  and  Ilorsa,  who  were  visiting  the  coast 
for  some  unexplained  but  probably  predatory 
purpose,  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  British 
with  only  a  few  hundred  men,  yet  with  such 
effect  that  the  Picts  and  Scots  were  almost  im 
mediately  defeated.  While  it  is  now  general 
ly  admitted  that  the  names  of  these  chieftains 
are  probably  mythical,  the  fact  that  many 
Saxon  settlers  landed  at  this  time  in  Britain, 
and  the  account  of  the  general  events  which 
followed,  are  unquestionably  matters  of  history. 
The  Picts  and  Scots  were  overcome,  and 
the  country,  already  somewhat  cultivated  and 
with  much  of  the  luxury  of  a  Roman  province, 
soon  aroused  the  cupidity  of  the  strangers. 
They  sent  for  large  reinforcements  of  their 
countrymen,  and  turned  their  arms  against  the 
inhabitants.  From  this  time  Saxons  constant 
ly  poured  into  the  island,  and  by  gradual  steps, 
which  it  is  now  impossible  to  trace,  the  native 
Britons  were  completely  subjugated  by  the  new 
people,  who  overspread  the  whole  country,  in 
troduced  their  laws,  customs,  and  language, 
and  became  the  acknowledged  founders  of  most 
of  its  future  institutions.  As  successive  bands 
arrived,  they  landed  on  different  parts  of  the 
coast,  and  their  leaders  founded  separate  states. 
Turner  gives  an  elaborate  chronology  of  these, 
fixing  the  date  of  the  establishment  of  each, 
and  the  name  of  its  founder ;  but  later  in 
vestigations  have  shown  upon  how  doubtful 
a  basis  these  accounts  must  rest.  The  little 
that  is  actually  known  of  the  events  of  the  cen 
tury  following  the  landing  of  the  first  Saxon 
settlers  may  be  said  to  be  the  one  fact  that 
at  different  times  during  that  period  new  de 
tachments  of  the  invaders,  with  their  chiefs, 
founded  eight  kingdoms,  as  follows,  mention 
ing  them  in  their  most  probable  chronological 
order:  Kent,  Sussex,  Wessex,  East  Anglia, 
Mercia,  Essex,  Bernicia,  and  Deira,  the  last 
two  afterward  joined  in  Northumbria.  Grad 
ually,  during  the  8th  century,  these  became 
united  in  the  alliance  called  the  Saxon  hep 
tarchy —  though  it  should  properly  be  called 
the  octarchy;  and  finally,  about  827,  they 
were  united  into  one  kingdom,  called  Anglia, 
or  England  (A.  S.  Engla-land),  by  King  Eg 
bert  of  Wessex.  The  history  of  the  eight  sepa 
rate  sovereignties  until  this  final  union  presents 
in  general  only  a  series  of  wars  between  them, 
of  oppression  of  the  conquered  Britons,  who 
revolted  again  and  again,  and  of  such  changes 
in  the  boundaries  of  the  various  kingdoms  as 
render  it  almost  impossible  for  us  to  correctly 
define  their  limits  at  any  one  point  of  time. 
The  progress  of  the  Saxons  after  their  union 
under  Egbert  belongs  to  the  history  of  Eng 
land;  but  their  customs,  and  those  laws  and 
institutions  which  grew  up  under  the  heptarchy 
and  under  Egbert  and  his  successors,  can  best 
be  treated  here.— At  the  head  of  each  of  the 


|  governments   of  the    heptarchy,    and   at  the 
j  head  of  the  whole  nation  after  its  union  under 
Egbert,  stood  the  king  (cyning).     He  was  first 
j  chosen  from  among  the  leaders  of  the  people, 
i  but  afterward  the  office  became  in  some  sense 
i  hereditary,  though  not  according  to  the  modern 
|  laws  of  succession ;  for  although  the  new  king 
j  must  be  chosen  from  the  descendants  or  im- 
I  mediate  relatives  of  the  late  ruler,  a  younger 
'  son  was  often  preferred   to  the  eldest,   or  a 
I  brother's  family  to  the  direct  heirs,  the  choice 
in  fact  depending  greatly  on  personal  qualifica 
tions.     The  king's  power  was  at  first  decidedly 
limited  by  the  witenagemote,  or  supreme  coun 
cil  (parliament) ;  but  afterward  it  became  more 
nearly  absolute.     He  determined  the  rank  of 
his  immediate  followers,  summoned  the  wite 
nagemote,  ledMn  war,  &c.     The  queen  (cweri) 
was  held  in  great  respect ;  offences  against  her 
were  punished  like  those  against  the  king ;  and 
she  often   played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
government.     Next  in  rank  were  the  aethelings 
|  or  nobility;    and  this  term  included  in  early 
i  times   only   the   immediate  'family   and    near 
!  relatives  of  the  king.     Just  below  the  aethel- 
|  ing,  and  in  time  coming  to  share  many  of  his 
|  privileges,   was   the   ealdorman.     Officials   of 
!  many  kinds  bore  this  title,  but  it  was  at  first 
i  generally  applied  to  the  governor  of  a  province, 
j  who  led  its  forces  in  war  and  superintended 
|  its  affairs  in  peace.     The  title  was  not  in  early 
I  times  hereditary,  but  became  so  after  the  reign 
|  of  Alfred.     The  thanes  (thegnas)  composed  the 
I  next  class,  and  were  landholders,  forming  a 
"nobility  by  service,"  as  it  is  called  by  Lap- 
penberg,   divided,   according  to  position   and 
i  immediate  attachment,  into  king's  thanes  and 
subordinate  thanes.     Upon  the  possession  of  a 
certain  amount  of  landed  property  depended 
generally  their  title;    though  merchants  who 
had  made  three  voyages  of  a  certain  length 
were  also  entitled  to  the  rank  of  thanes.     The 
thanes  were  exactly  similar  to  the  barons  after 
the   Norman   conquest.     Below   these   classes 
were  the  common  freemen  or  churls  (ceorlas), 
rarely  entirely  independent  men,  but  generally 
standing  in  the  relation  of  retainer  to  some 
chief.     The  lowest  class  of  all  was  that  of  the 
theowas  or  slaves,  made  up  of  those  prisoners 
of  war  who  had  been  reduced  to  servitude, 
of  the  descendants  of  Roman  slaves,  and  of 
those  made  seivile  as  a  punishment  for  crime. 
These  could  not  be  sold  outside  the  country, 
and  in  general  seem  to  have  been  nearly  as 
well  off,  save  in   civic   rights,  as   the   poorer 
churls.      The    chiefs  of  the    Christian  clergy 
occupied  high  positions,  the  archbishop  hold 
ing   the  privileges  and   rank  of  an   aetheling, 
the  bishop  that  of  an  ealdorman.     They  were 
also  prominent  members  of  the  witenagemote. 
— The  country  of  the  Saxons  was  divided  into 
shires,   each  composed   of  a   certain   number 
(varying  greatly  in  different  cases)  of  hundreds ; 
and  these  in  their  turn  were  made  up  of  those 
districts  which  united  in  choosing  (originally) 
100  men  for  the  defence  of  the  shire  and  its 


500 


ANGLO-SAXONS 


governor.  "The  meeting  of  the  hundred," 
says  Lappenberg,  "was  held  monthly  for  ob 
jects  of  voluntary  and  contentious  jurisdiction. 
The  presiding  officer  was  the  ealdorman,  as 
sisted  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  and  the 
principal  thanes.  The  townships  were  repre 
sented  by  their  reeves  [sheriffs]  and  four  depu 
ties."  In  northern  England  a  similar  division 
was  called  a  wapentake.  A  tithing  was  an  as 
sociation  of  freemen,  who  bound  themselves 
to  become  surety  for  one  another  in  case  of 
misbehavior,  and  to  aid  in  bringing  to  trial  any 
one  of  their  number  who  should  commit  a 
criminal  offence.  Every  freeman  was  obliged 
by  law  to  enroll  himself  in  such  an  association. 
— Among  the  most  cherished  Anglo-Saxon 
institutions  was  also  \\iQfolcmote.  Authorities 
disagree  somewhat  as  to  the  nature  and  privi 
leges  of  the  assemblies  thus  named,  but  the 
term  seems  to  have  been  freely  applied  to  large 
gatherings  of  freemen  for  counsel  on  public 
measures,  rather  than  to  any  organized  conven 
tion  of  the  people.  The  right  of  meeting  in 
folcmote  seems  to  .have  corresponded  exactly 
to  the  modern  right  of  assembling  in  public 
gatherings,  and  of  free  debate. — See  Palgrave's 
"Rise  arid  Progress  of  England  under  the 
Anglo-Saxons"  (London,  1832);  Lappenberg's 
"History  of  England  under  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Kings"  (English  translation  by  13.  Thorpe,  Lon- 
don,^1845) ;  "  Six  Old  English  Chronicles,"  edit 
ed  by  J.  A.  Giles  (London,  1848) ;  J.  M.  Kemble's 
"  Saxons  in  England  "  (London,  1849) ;  Sharon 
Turner's  "  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  "  (7th 
ed.,  London,  1852) ;  "  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chroni 
cle,"  edited  with  a  translation  by  B.  Thorpe 
(London,  1861).—  Anglo-Saxon  Church.  The  Teu 
tonic  invaders  of  Britain,  after  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire  of  the  West,  were  of  course 
pagans,  and,  with  the  pride  of  a  conquering  in 
presence  of  a  conquered  race,  would  not  receive 
Christianity  from  the  Welsh  Christians.  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great  sent  a  solemn  embassy  of 
40  Benedictines  to  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent, 
who  had  espoused  Bertha,  a  Frankish  princess. 
St.  Augustin,  known  as  the  apostle  of  the  Eng 
lish,  was  at  the  head  of  it.  The  king  consented 
to  be  baptized  in  597,  and  Augustin  was  ap 
pointed  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  From  Kent 
Christianity  rapidly  spread  among  the  other 
Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms.  In  604  a  union  of  all 
the  churches  in  Britain  was  made  by  the  exer 
tions  of  Theodore,  afterward  archbishop  of  Can 
terbury,  and  in  068  the  services  of  the  church 
were  made  uniform  over  the  island.  Under 
Theodore  there  were  an  archbishop  of  York 
and  15  bishops.  During  the  8th  and  9th 
centuries  the  Anglo-Saxon  church  enjoyed  a 
degree  of  independence  which  Avas  not  quite 
canonical.  By  the  aid  of  Dunstan  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  10th  century,  it  was  brought  into 
more  complete  harmony  with  the  Roman  see. 
This  church  produced  the  venerable  Bede,  St. 
Boniface,  the  apostle  of  the  Germans,  and  many 
others  who  contributed  to  the  cause  of  learning 
and  the  spreading  of  Christianity  among  the  pa 


gan  nations  of  the  north.  Its  history  has  been 
carefully  investigated  by  Soames,aiithor  of  "  The 
Anglo-Saxon  Church  "  and  "The  Latin  Church 
during  Anglo-Saxon  Times,"  and  by  Lingard, 
"Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church. "- 
Anglo-Saxon  Jurisprudence.  The  memorials  that 
have  come  down  to  us  afford  but  an  imper 
fect  view  of  Anglo-Saxon  laws.  Codes  are 
spoken  of  as  having  been  promulgated  by  sev 
eral  of  their  kings,  but  these  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  a  collection  of  all  the  laws  in  force, 
|  but  rather  such  regulations  as  were  new  or 
little  known,  and  which  supplemented  the  body 
of  laws  contained  in  the  unwritten  customs 
with  which  the  people  were  familiar.  The 
very  idea  of  a  complete  code  would  have  been 
far  in  advance  of  the  time.  Ethelbert,  king  of 
Kent,  is  said  to  have  published  laws  as  early 
as  A.  D.  501.  The  first  laws  of  much  note 
were  those  of  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons, 
after  which  we  have  the  laws  of  Alfred,  Edward 
his  son,  Ethelred,  and  Canute.  The  general 
features  of  all  are  similar  ;  they  are  permeated 
with  the  prevailing  superstition  of  the  period ; 
they  consist  in  the  main  of  regulations  of  police 
more  or  less  barbarous  in  character,  intermin 
gled  with  moral  and  religious  precepts  derived 
from  the  ecclesiastics  who  framed  them.  The 
laws  of  Ina  thus  commenced  :  "First,  we  com- 
j  niand  that  God's  servants  hold  the  lawful  rule; 
after  that  we  command  that  the  law  and  doom 
!  of  the  whole  folk  be  thus  held,"  &c.  ;  and 
|  among  the  first  of  the  laws  is  one  that  if  a 
I  slave  be  put  to  wrork  on  Sunday,  he  shall  be 
I  free.  The  churls  and  their  tenure,  which  is 
j  the  origin  of  the  modern  copyholds,  are  re- 
I  ferred  to.  The  next  important  laws  are  those 
I  of  Alfred,  which  became  more  famous  than 
|  they  deserved  through  the  admirable  manner 
j  in  which  they  were  administered  by  that  mon- 
j  arch.  The  first  attempt  at  settling  an  orderly 
I  course  of  procedure  in  administering  justice 
was  in  the  laws  of  Edward  the  Elder.  While 
these  prescribed  the  trial  by  ordeal  in  cases 
where  compurgators  did  not  come  forward,  yet 
they  provided  that  trial  should  be  by  sworn 
witnesses  as  much  as  possible.  The  laws  of 
Canute  were  more  complete  than  any  which 
preceded  them,  and  better  deserving  the  name 
of  a  code.  They  begin  as  follows:  "Let God's 
justice  be  exalted ;  and  henceforth  let  every 
man,  both  poor  and  rich,  be  esteemed  worthy 
of  folc-right,  and  let  just  doom  be  doomed  to 
him."  They  prescribed  regular  terms  of  court, 
regulated  weights  and  measures  as  well  as  mon 
eys,  and  punished  counterfeiters  with  the  cut 
ting  off  of  hands.  A  freeman  who  was  not 
infamous,  and  had  never  failed  in  oath  or  or 
deal,  could  clear  himself  with  a  single  oath; 
but  others  must  furnish  compurgators  or  sub 
mit  to  the  ordeal.  It  has  been  a  common  sup 
position  that  Edward  the  Confessor  promul 
gated  a  code  of  written  laws,  but  of  this  there 
is  no  sufficient  evidence.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
after  the  conquest  exhibited  a  strong  attach 
ment  to  the  lews  of  their  last  king,  and  the 


ANGLO-SAXONS   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


501 


conqueror  caused  a  compilation  of  them  to  be  j 
made  ;  but  it  contained  little  of  importance,  or  i 
that  would  be  likely  to  be  thought  important  j 
by  the  people  beyond  a  recognition  of  their  | 
right   to   assemble   in   full    folcmote    to   elect  ; 
their   sheriff  and  discuss   public  affairs.-    The  ] 
meagre  character  of  the  Saxon  compilations  is  j 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  great  body  j 
of  their  law,  like  that  of  the  English  law  to  I 
this  day,  consisted  of  unwritten  customs  and  i 
usages  with  which  the  people  were  familiar,  ' 
and  which  the  conqueror  did  not  attempt  to 
set  aside..    Many  of  these  customs,  as  well  as 
the  divisions  of  the  country  for  administrative 
and  judicial  purposes,  were  of  Roman  origin. 
Justice    was   administered  in   local  courts,  of 
which  the  chief  were  the  hundredgemote  or 
wapentake,  held  by  the  sheriff  and  bishop  for  | 
the  trial  of  criminal  causes  in  every  hundred — 
the  sheriff  presiding  assisted  by  the  bishop  on 
the  trial  of  offences  in  general,  and  the  bishop 
with  the  assistance  of  the  sheriff'  when  offend 
ers  against  the  church  were  to  be  dealt  with ; 
and   the   scyregemote  or  county  court,  which 
was  the  principal  court   of  civil  jurisdiction, 
and  whoso  judges  were  the  freemen  and  land 
holders  of  the  county,    presided   over   by  the 
earl  or  sheriff,   assisted  by  the  bishop.      The 
Saxons  appear  to  have  accepted  the  idea  that 
the  king  was  the  fountain  of  justice,  but  his 
intervention  was  riot  often  invoked  except  to 
set   the   courts  in    motion   when  justice   was  i 
delayed    or    refused.     From    the    rude    trials  j 
by  witnesses  in   their  popular   tribunals  was  j 
developed  at  length  the  orderly  system  of  trial  j 
by  jury.     The  ''Mirror  of  Justice"  enumerates  \ 
several  judges  who  were  hanged  in  Alfred's  i 
reign  for  causing  prisoners  to  be  executed  who  j 
were  not  convicted  by  the  unanimous  verdict 
of  twelve  sworn  men.     The  most  remarkable  j 
feature  of  Anglo-Saxon  criminal  law  was  the  i 
sco,le  of  compensation  prescribed  for  the  com 
mission  of  homicide  and  other  crimes.     Even 
the  life  of  the  king  was  rated  at  a  money  value,  j 
which  under  the  laws  of  Athelstan  was  30,000 
thrymsae,    each    thrymsa    being    worth    four 
pence;  while  that  of  an  earl  was  15,000,  and 
so  on  down  to  a  common  person,  rated  at  only 
267.     The  ears,  the  teeth,  the  limbs  had  each 
their  separate  value,  and  the  place  where  an 
offence  was  committed  was  sometimes  an  ag 
gravation  requiring  an  additional  penalty.    The 
compensation  or  were  was  payable  to  the  in 
jured  person,  or,  in  cases  of  homicide,  to  the 
immediate  family  of  the  deceased,  or,  if  he  had 
none,  to  his  other  relations.     If  the  offender 
was  unable  to  p^y,  he  was  liable  to  death,  but 
was  allowed  to    ubmit  to  the  loss  of  limb  or 
other  corporal  i   liction  instead.     Torture  to 
extract    evidence    was    unknown   among  the 
Anglo-Saxons.     Immunity  seems  to  have  been 
extended  in  some  cases  to  those  who  in  the 
heat  of  passion  excited  by  the  chase  of  an  of- 
fender  should  slay  him  upon  the  spot,  while 
the  irregular  infliction  of  punishment  in   cold  ' 
blood  upon   a  detected   criminal   was   visited 


with  extreme  penalties.  An  offender  fleeing 
to  sanctuary  was  allowed  protection  during  his 
stay  there,  whatever  his  crime  might  have 
been.  Lands  among  this  people  appear  to 
have  been  held  by  a  species  of  feudal  tenure, 
and  were  descendible  to  all  the  sons,  or,  as 
some  writers  think,  to  all  the  children  equally, 
and  they  were  conveyed  either  by  writing  or 
by  ceremonies  conducted  in  the  presence  of 
witnesses,  designed  to  give  publicity  to  the 
transfer.  A  collection  of  the  laws  of  the 
Saxon  kings  was  made  by  Lainbard  in  the 
time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  under  the  title  of 
Archaionomia,  which  was  afterward  repub- 
lished  by  Dr.  Wilkins,  and  also  more  recently 
under  the  title  of  u  Anglo-Saxon  Laws  and  In 
stitutes,"  edited  by  Benjamin  Thorpe  (London, 
1840). 

A\GLO-SAXONS,  Language  and  Literature  of  the. 
The  language  of  the  German  tribes  who  con 
quered  and  peopled  Britain  in  the  5th  and  Oth 
centuries  was  by  them  called  Anglisc,  Englisc 
(English) ;  but  since  English  has  become  so 
widely  different  from  its  mother  speech,  the 
name  Anglo-Saxon  has  come  into  use  for  the 
old  language.  This  language  was  a  growth  on 
the  island  of  Britain  from  the  collision  of  many 
dialects  spoken  by  the  invading  tribes.  The 
Celts  used  a  very  different  kind  of  speech,  so 
that  the  Celtic  affected  the  Anglo-Saxon  as  the 
tongues  of  the  aborigines  of  America  have 
affected  our  English ;  it  gave  a  good  many 
geographical  names,  and  but  few  other  words. 
The  new  language  was  shaped  to  literary  use 
by  ecclesiastics  who  wrote  and  spoke  Latin, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  literature  is  translated 
or  imitated  from  Latin  works.  Hence  it  con 
tains  many  words  from  Latin  and  frequent  im 
itations  of  Latin  idiom,  and  it  attained  the 
power  to  render  Latin  with  more  accuracy  and 
ease  than  any  other  Germanic  tongue  of  its 
time.  The  Danes  also  contributed  something 
to  it,  especially  to  the  Northumbrian  dialect. 
But  it  is  after  all  a  true  Low  German  speech, 
closely  akin  to  Frisic,  Old  Saxon,  Dutch,  and 
Platt-Deutsch.  The  talk  in  the  harbors  of 
Antwerp,  Bremen,  and  Hamburg  is  said  to  be 
often  mistaken  by  English  sailors  for  corrupt 
English.  These  Low  German  tongues  are  akin 
to  the  High  German  on  one  side  and  to  the 
Scandinavian  on  the  other,  and  these  all  with 
the  Moeso-Gothic  constitute  the  Teutonic  class 
of  languages,  which  belongs,  with  the  Latin, 
Greek,  Slavic,  Sanskrit,  and  the  like,  to  the 
Indo-European.  The  invading  tribes  had 
writing  of  their  own  in  characters  called  runes, 
but  the  literary  remains  are  almost  all  in  an 
alphabet  known  as  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  let 
ters  of  which,  except  three,  are  Roman  charac 
ters,  with  some  fanciful  variations.  Thorn  (f>) 
and  wen  (p)  are  runes,  and  edh  (ft)  a  crossed  d. 
Occasionally  k,  q,  v,  z  get  into  the  manuscripts, 
mostly  in  foreign  words,  and  uu  or  u  for  }\  The 
Semi-Saxon  has  a  peculiar  character  for  j  (3). 
The  vowels  were  pronounced  nearly  as  they 
now  are  in  German  :  a  as  in  far  ;  d  as  in  fall; 


502 


ANGLO-SAXONS   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUEE) 


Old  Forms.                     Eoman.                        Names. 

homo,  A.  S.  guma,  man.     These  changes  were 

yt       a.              A           a                ah 

complete  in  the  3d  century,  and  here  the  Anglo- 

A-    3e               JSt         SB                 a 

Saxon  has  remained,  while  the  High  German 

has  shifted  in  the  same  way  a  second   time, 

B       b               B           b                 bay 

changing  ic,  I,  to  ich  ;  tha,  thou,  to  du  ;  deor, 

EC               C            c                 cay 

deer,   to   thier,   and  the  like;  so  that  Anglo- 

DS                   D              H                      rliv 

Saxon  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  German 

O                             ,L,J                     U.                                 *-^*-*J 

that  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin  do  to  Anglo- 

D      3               DH      dh                 edh 

Saxon.     A  marked  fact  in  this  speech  is  the 

6       e              E           e                ay 

sensitiveness  of  the  vowels  to  the  influence  of 

F       F              F            f                ef 

other  letters.     A  stem  a  may  appear  as  ce,  ea, 

e,  or  o,  according  to  the  vowel  or  consonant 

E     s          G-       g           gay 

after  it  ;  and  so  with  other  letters.     In  cases 

P  P    h               H           h                 hah 

where  i  follows  the  stem,  man  changes  to  men  ; 

I         i               I             i                ee 

so  fot  to  fet,  feet  ;  gos  to  ges,  geese  ;  mm  to 

T        1             T           i              A! 

mys,   mice,    and  the  like.     Such  changes   are 

j-j       i             jj 

called  umlaut.    Breaking  is  produced  by  a  con 

00     m               Mm                 em 

sonant,  as  when  c  or  g  changes  a  to  ea  :  Lat. 

N      n               N          n                en 

castrum  to  ceaster  ;  or  I  or  r  changes  a  preced 

O      o               O           o                o 

ing  i  to  eo  :  meolc,  milk.  —  There  are  inflection 

endings   for  five   cases,    three    numbers,    and 

P      P            P         p             pay 

three  genders  ;    but   the   instrumental  case  is 

R      p               R           r                 cr 

rare,  and  the  dual  number  is  found  only  in  pro 

&        f              S            s                es 

nouns.     The  substantive  has  four  declensions 

distinguished  by  the  endings  of  the  genitive  sin 

i            t                tay 

gular  —  es,  e,  a,  an.     The  three  first  come  from 

Y  P  p               TH       th                 thorn 

old  vowel  steins,  the  last  from  a  consonant  stem. 

U      u               U           u                oo 

FIRST  DECLENSION. 

P      p         jvv    VN 

SINGULAR.    An.  Sax.     English.     German.         Latin. 

i  m  fw^  c          wen 

Nominative,     wulf.        wolf.               wolf,                 anser. 

(    V  *  *  /       \'v/    ) 

Genitive,          wulfes,     wolf's,            wolfes,              anseris. 

X      x              X           x                ex 

Dative,              wulfe.      to  or  for  a      wolfe,               anseri. 

Y       y               Y           y                 ypsilon 

wolf, 
Accusative.      wulf,        wolf,               wolf.                 anserem. 

J                                                         J                                   J  l^kjij 

Instrumental,  wulfe,      by  or  with  a  (ablative)  ansere. 

<E  as  #  in  <7?«6?  ;  $  as  &  in  ^Zare  ;  e  as  in  Ze£  ;  e 

or  y,       "wolf, 

as  in  £Ae?/  ;  i  as  in  <^'m  ;  \  as  ee  in  deem  ;  o  as 

PLURAL. 

Nominative,     wulfas,    wolves,           wulfe,                anseres. 

in  wholly  ;  6  as  in  holy  ;  u  as  in  full  ;  u  as  00  in 

Genitive,           wulfa,      of  wolves,       wolfe,                ansermn. 

fool  ;  y  nearly  like  u  in  music  or  the  French  w; 

Dative,             wulfum,  to  or  for         wulfen,             anseribus. 

y  the  same  sound  prolonged.     The  consonants 

Accusative,      wulfas,     wolves.           wolfe,                anseres. 

were  pronounced  as  in  English,  except  that  c, 

Instrumental,  wulfum,  by  or  with      (ablative)  auseribus. 

was  always  like  k,  g  as  in  give,  and  both  letters 

wolves, 

were  distinctly  sounded  in  initial  hi,  hr,  hw, 

FOURTH  DECLENSION. 

wl,  icr,  en.     The  changes  to  the  modern  Eng 

SINGULAR.             An.  Sax.        English.                  German. 

lish  sounds  have  most  of  them  occurred  since 
the  time  of  Chaucer,  many  since  Shakespeare. 

Nominative,             oxa,                ox,                                 ochse. 
Genitive,                  oxan,              of  an  ox,                        ochseu. 
Dative,                     oxan,              to  or  for  an  ox,             ochsen. 

There   are   many   words   common    to   Anglo- 

Accusative,             oxan,              ox,                                ochsen. 

Saxon,  Gothic,  and  Latin,  Greek,  or  Sanskrit. 

PLURAL. 

When  we  compare  the  spelling  of  such  words, 
we  find  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  retains  the  origi 

Norn,  and  Ace.        oxan,              oxen,                            ochsen. 
Genitive,                  oxena,            of  oxen,                         ochsen. 
Dative.                    oxum,            to  or  for  oxen,              ochseu. 

nal  vowels  better  than  the  Gothic.     It  has  the 

old  «,  <£,  while  the  Gothic  has  changed  to  6  or  e  ; 

The  common  English  endings  of  the  possessive 

and  the  old  i,  while  the  Gothic  has  ei.     In  its 

and  plural  are  from  the  first  declension.     The 

consonant  system  it  agrees  with  the  Gothic, 

-en  of  oxen  is  from  the  fourth.     Neuters  have 

and  is  midway  between  the  old  forms  of  the    no  plural  sign,  and  so  some  English  words  from 

Greek,  or  Latin,  and  High  German.    Each  surd  |  them  do  not  yet  always  use  it:   sheep,  deer, 

mute  of  the  Greek  or  Latin  is  in  Anglo-Saxon 

swine,  folk,  hair,  head,  hundred,  year,  and  the 

changed  into  its  cognate  aspirate  :  £  to  th,  Latin 

like.     The  old  feminines  were  declined  some 

tu,  A.  S.  thu,  thou;  p  to  ph=f,  Lat.  ped-es, 

what  like  the  Latin  first,  with  a  genitive  in  -c, 

A.  S.  fet,  feet;  c  to  ch=7i,  Lat.  cannab-is,  A. 

and  we  find  a  few  examples  of  it  in  Chaucer. 

S.  hcncp,  hemp.     Each  sonant  mute  changes 

Gender  is  determined  by  the  endings  of  words  ; 

into  its  cognate  surd  :  d  to  t,  Lat,  dent-es,  A. 

it  agrees  generally  with  the  German  :  w{f-man, 

S.  teth,  teeth;  J  to  p,  Lat.   canna&-is,  A.  S. 

woman,  is  regularly  masculine  because  it  ends 

hene^>,   hemp  ;  g  to  c,  Lat.  e^-o,  A.  S.  \c,  I. 

in  man;  wif   wife,  is  neuter;   sunne,  sun,  is 

Each  aspirate  mute  changed  to  sonant  :   th  to 

feminine  ;    mona,  moon,    is   masculine.     Each 

d,  Gr.  ther,  A.  S.  deor,  deer;  ph=fto  b,  Lat. 

adjective  may  be  declined  in  two  ways  accord 

frater,  A.  S.  brother,  brother;  ch=h  to  g,  Lat. 

ing  as  it  is  definite  or  indefinite,  as  in  German. 

ANGLO-SAXOXS   (LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE) 


503 


An  ending  -e  is  found  in  Chaucer  to  indicate 
sometimes  the  plural,  sometimes  the  definite 
declension.  Comparison  in  Anglo-Saxon  was 
by  endings,  -/*,  -st ;  not  by  more  and  most. 

TIIE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL.  DUAL. 

Nom.  ic,  7.  wo,  ice.  wit,  ire  tico. 

Gen.   min.  mine,  of  me.   user,  ure,  our.      uncer,  of  u*  tico. 
Dat.    mo,  to  or  for  me.     us,  ux.  unc,  to  us  two. 

Ace.    mec,  me, 'me.  usic,  us,  us.  uncit,  unc,  us  two. 

Nom.  thu,  thoti.  ye,  ?/«.  git,  ye  tico. 

Gen.   thm.  thine,  of  t'tee.  cower,  ?/owr.  incer,  o/>0M  too. 

Dat.    the,  to  or/o/'  tf'iee.  eow.  you.  inc.  to  >/ow  ?«.•<>. 

Ace.    thec,  the,  t/iee.         eowic,  cow,  you.  incit,  inc,  yow  tico. 

Neut.  PLURAL,  all  genders. 
hit,  it.  hi.  Z/^y. 

his,  its.  hira,  Meir. 

him,  iZ>.  him.  them. 

hit,  #.  hi,  them. 


SINGULAR.  Masc.        Fern. 

Nom.        he.  heo,  she. 

Gen.         his.  hire,  her. 

Dat.          him.  hire.  her. 

Ace.          hine.  hco,  lier. 


The  English  she,  they,  their,  them,  are  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon  demonstrative  se,  seo,  that ; 
its  is  a  modern  growth,  not  found  in  the 
first  edition  of  our  English  Bible.  The  arti 
cles  are  both  in  use,  and  the  demonstratives 
that,  that,  and  thes,  this,  plural  thus,  those; 
the  personals  are  used  as  reflexives ;  hied,  who, 
is  an  interrogative ;  other  English  pronouns 
are  from  Anglo-Saxon  originals.  So  are  the 
numerals  except  second,  A.  S.  other. — There 
are  two  great  classes  of  verbs:  1,  the  ancient 
or  strong  class,  which  formed  their  past  tense 
by  reduplication,  repetition  of  their  root;  2, 
the  modern  or  weak  class,  which  formed  their 
past  tense  by  composition  with  dide,  did.  In 
the  first  class  there  are  five  conjugations,  dis 
tinguished  by  the  vowel  of  the  past  tense.  1. 
The  original  root  is  a,  unchanged  in  the  past : 
swimman,  swam,  swummen,  swim,  swam,  swum. 
2.  The  root  is  i,  changed  to  #  in  the  past : 
ridan,  rdd,  riden,  ride,  rode,  ridden.  3.  The 
root  is  u,  changed  to  eo,  o,  past  ed:  cleofan, 
deaf,  clofen,  cleave,  clove,  cloven.  4.  The 
root  was  d,  changed  to  a,  past  6 :  wacan,  woe, 
wacen,  wake,  woke,  waken.  5.  The  root  a 
diphthong  or  long  vowel  changed  to  eo,  e: 
feallan,  feol,  feallen,  fall,  fell,  fallen.  The 
weak  verbs  make  another  conjugation:  6.  The 
past  a  compound  with  dide,  -de :  lufian,  lufode, 
lufod,  love,  loved,  loved.  The  umlaut  and 
breaking  referred  to  in  the  first  part  of  this  ar 
ticle  introduce  variations  of  vowel  in  different 
parts  of  the  same  verb,  and  different  variations 
for  different  verbs,  so  that  to  a  superficial  view 
there  may  appear  to  be  many  conjugations,  or 
no  regularity  at  all.  The  following  paradigms 
show  the  inflection  endings: 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 
Present  and  future  tense.   'Past,  strong.  Past,  weak. 

1,  nime,  take.  nam,  took.  lufode,  loved. 

2,  nimest,  tnkest.             name,  tookext.  lufodest.  loredst. 
S,mmeth.t,tketh.             nam.  took.  lufode.  loved. 

1,  2,  3,  niinath,  take.        namon,  took.         lufodon,  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present.  Past. 

Singular,  1,  2.  3.  nime.  .     name. 

Plural,      1,  2,  3,  nimen.  narnen. 

Imperative.  Infinitive. 

Singular,  nirn.  niman. 


Plural,     nimath. 


Gerund,  to  nimenn 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  nimen  de,  taking. 

Passive,  numen,  taken ;     gelufod,  loved. 

The  -th  of  the  indicative  3d  singular  and  the 
plural  appears  as  -*  in  the  northern  dialect 
of  Anglo-Saxon.  There  are  said  to  be  168  plu 
rals  in  -*  and  46  in  -th  in  the  Shakespearian  folio 
of  162*3.  (Prof.  T.  R.  Lounsberry,  "On  Cer 
tain  Forms  of  the  English  Verb,"  in  "  Transac 
tions  of  the  American  Philological  Associa 
tion,"  1869-70.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  for 
our  potential  and  imperative,  as  in  the  English 
expressions,  u it  were  a  sin,"  "be  it  so";  but 
a  periphrastic  potential  in  may,  can,  might, 
&c.,  is  in  use.  The  gerund  in  -enne  changed  to 
-ende  and  then  to  -ing  ;  and  in  the  English  we 
have  in  the  ending  -ing  a  verbal  noun,  present 
participle,  and  gerund  mixed.  The  form  given 
above  as  the  present  tense  may  be  used  for  any 
modification  of  both  present  and  future  act,  the 
other  form  to  express  every  shade  of  past  act ; 
but  auxiliaries  are  also  used.  A  perfect  in 
hcebbe,  have,  and  a  pluperfect  in  hcpfde,  had, 
are  in  full  use,  though  the  participle  of  the 
principal  verb  is  often  in  the  accusative  case 
agreeing  with  the  object  of  hcelrte :  lie  hcefih 
mon  geworhtne,  he  has  man  wrought.  A  few 
intransitives  use  eom  (am)  and  icces  (was)  for 
perfect  signs:  he  is  gecumen,  he  is  come;  he 
wees  dgdn,  he  was  (=had)  gone.  Sceal,  shall, 
and  wille,  will,  are  common  for  future  signs, 
though  they  generally  have  some  meaning  of 
duty,  power,  promise,  resolve,  in  addition  to 
that  of  future  time.  A  progressive  form  is 
common  in  the  active:  is  feohtende,  is  fight 
ing,  continues  fighting ;  but  not  in  the  passive. 
The  emphatic  form  in  do  hardly  occurs.  The 
adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  other 
particles  are  many  of  them  common  to  other 
Indo-European  tongues,  and  many  of  the  more 
obscure  may  be  traced  to  pronouns.  Compo 
sition  is  more  freely  used  in  Anglo-Saxon  than 
in  English,  and  many  of  the  suffixes  and  pre 
fixes  are  there  found  as  separate  words. — A 
body  of  rules  almost  as  great  as  those  used  in 
Latin  grammar  is  needed  to  state  the  uses  of 
the  different  cases.  Some  verbs  govern  a  gen 
itive,  some  a  dative  or  instrumental,  some  the 
accusative,  some  two  or  three  different  cases. 
The  uses  of  the  subjunctive  mode  are  various 
and  obscure.  The  arrangement  of  the  parts 
of  a  sentence  is  often  intricate.  The  syntax  is 
that  of  a  highly  inflected  language.  Most  of 
the  difficulties  of  English  idiom  are  to  be  traced 
to  Anglo-Saxon  combinations,  and  they  are 
often  easily  understood  by  the  help  of  the  old 
meanings  of  the  words,  or  the  old  inflection 
forms. — For  the  study  of  the  language  may  be 
used  Bosworth,  "Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary" 
(London,  1848);  Marsh,  "English  Language 
and  its  Early  Literature"  (New  York,  1862); 
lladley,  "Brief  History  of  the  English  Lan 
guage,"  in  Webster's  Dictionary  (1865) ;  Ptask's 
grammar,  translated  by  Thorpe  (London,  1865); 
Shute,  "Manual  of  Anglo -Saxon  for  Begin 
ners"  (New  York,  1867) ;  March,  "Compara- 


504 


ANGLO-SAXONS   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


tive  Grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,"  and  "In 
troduction  to  the  Study  of  Anglo-Saxon  "  (New 
York,  1870);  Corson,  "Handbook  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Early  English"  (New  York,  1871); 
Grimm,Deut8che  Grammatik (Gottingen,  1840); 
Ettmuller,  Lexicon  cum  Synopsi  Grammatica 
(Quedlinburg  and  Leipsic,  1851) ;  Ileyne,  Kurtz 
Laut-  iind  Flexiomlehre  (Paderborn,  1862) ; 
Koch,  Hixtoriische  Grammatik  der  englischen 
Sprache  (Weimar,  18(53);  Grein,  Sprachschatz 
der  AngelsachsiscJien  Dichter  (Cassel  and  Got- 
tingen,  1804);  Maetzner,  Englische  Grammatik 
(Berlin,  18(55). — Anglo-Saxon  Literatnrei  It  was 
a  habit  of  the  early  Germans  to  give  hin^honor 
to  the  xcop  or  poet,  and  long  before  their  con 
quest  of  Britain  there  were  current  among  them 
cycles  of  songs,  of  mythological  and  heroic 
ballads,  such  as  furnish  the  material  for  epic 
poems.  Their  exploits  in  Britain  doubtless 
added  to  the  number  of  current  ballads,  and 
of  skilful  poets  and  singers.  We  learn  from  | 
Beda  that  the  harp  passed  from  hand  to  hand 
at  feasts,  and  that  it  was  disgraceful  for  any 
man  not  to  be  able  to  sing  in  turn.  Bishop 
Aldhelm  used  to  stand  in  minstrel's  garb  on  the 
bridge  over  which  the  people  were  to  pass  and 
collect  a  crowd  by  the  beauty  of  his  song,  into 
Which,  when  their  attention  was  gained,  he 
wove  words  of  devotion.  The  verse  common 
to  the  northern  nations  was  brought  to  great 
perfection  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  It  is  an 
accentual  rhythm,  marked  off  into  verses  by 
alliteration.  The  common  narrative  verse  is 
constructed  in  sections  separated  by  a  metri 
cal  pause.  Each  section  has  regularly  four 
accents.  This  accent  or  metrical  stress  falls 
on  each  syllable  having  a  primary  accent  in 
prose,  on  many  syllables  having  a  secondary 
accent,  and  in  certain  metrical  emergencies  on 
other  syllables,  especially  the  last  syllable  in 
each  section.  Each  metrical  stress  is  followed 
by  a  remission  of  voice,  which  may  be  silent, 
or  filled  by  an  unaccented  syllable  or  two. 
Each  peil'ect  line  contains  three  alliterating 
words,  t\vo  in  the  ^rjjL,aejciion,  and  one  in  the 
first  part  of  the  second  section. 

Cj/ninfl aceal'  mid  cen'pS       cwene"  fjebic'gari, 

bu'nunt  and  beii'gutri' :        bu'  sceo'lan  ce'reaf 

geo'fum  <j<id'  •ices'ftiC. 

A  kinjr  shnll  with  cattel        a  queen  buy, 

with  beakers  and  bracelets :        both  should  first 

in  gifts  sood  be.  (Gnom.  Exon.,  line  82  + .) 

Many  lines  have  but  one  alliterating  word  in 
the  first  section,  and  irregular  sections  have 
three  or  sometimes  only  two  feet.  Rhyme  is 
found  occasionally  in  most  poems.  A  few  con 
tain  rhyming  passages  of  some  length.  One  is 
known  as  the  rime  song.  It  contains  87  verses 
in  all  sorts  of  rimes,  and  is  plainly  a  task  \ 
poem  to  show  riming  skill. 

CluJi  mdli  fli'tetK        flan'  mCtn'  hwt'tetJi\ 
orrj-xorrf  i,itcth\        bald'  aid'  thirtieth,  &c. 
Sci/l'dum*  Msce'rede"        sai/ndari  gener'ede* 
vcom'munf  b-iwe'rede*        u'iil'dr£  ffehe>''ede\  &c. 
Subtle  fiend  fi>hteth,         darts  sin  whetteth, 
borrow- sorrow  biteth,         bold  old  severeth,  &c. 
From  sins  freed.        let  us  escape  saved 
from  stains  covered,        gloric^sly  honored,  &c. 


Almost  all  the  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  we  have  is 
in  this  verse,  varied  occasionally  by  passages 
in  longer  verses  of  similar  construction.  It  is 
the  common  verse  in  Old  Saxon,  and  in  Ice 
landic  has  been  cultivated  into  a  surprising 
variety  of  artificial  meters.  The  poems  re 
maining  in  Anglo-Saxon  are  few.  The  Chris 
tians  destroyed  whatever  was  tainted  with 
paganism,  and  the  Normans  neglected  every 
thing  Anglo-Saxon.  They  have  been  divided 
into  seven  classes.  .J^The  ballad  epic.  Of 
this  we  have  one  poem  and  a  few  fragments. 
"Beowulf"  is  a  poem  of  3,183  lines,  celebrat 
ing  the  exploits  of  a  Gothic  prince  Beowulf, 
for  the  most  part  in  slaying  monsters.  The 
scene  is  laid  in  the  island  of  Seeland  and  the 
opposite  Gothland.  It  is  evidently  a  pagan 
production,  though  rewritten  by  a  Christian. 
Only  one  copy  of  it  is  known,  and  no  mention 
of  iiTTas  oeen  found  elsewhere.  A  few  names 
and  facts  referred  to  in  it  have  however  been 
identified  in  old  German  history,  and  serve  to 
show  that  it  embodies  historical  matter  of  the 
end  of  the  5th  century.  The  manuscript  is 
thought  to  be  of  the  10th  century.  Its  exist 
ence  is  mentioned  in  Wanley's  catalogue,  1705. 
In  1781  it  was  badly  injured  by  fire.  In  1786 
the  Dane  Thorkelin  had  two  copies  of  it  made, 
and  in  1815  published  an  edition.  No  particu 
lar  notice  was  taken  of  it  till  the  late  revival 
of  Anglo-Saxon  scholarship;  but  the  present 
generation  of  Anglo-Saxon  scholars,  especially 
in  Germany,  have  studied  it  with  great  enthu 
siasm,  and  find  in  it  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of 
the  north.  Among  many  editions,  translations, 
and  essays  of  elucidation  and  criticism,  we 
mention  Kenible,  edition  (London,  1833)  and 
translation  and  glossary  (1837) ;  Ettmuller, 
translation  and  valuable  notes  and  introduction 
(Zurich,  1840);  Thorpe,  text,  translation,  and 
glossary  (Oxford,  1855);  Grein,  two  editions 
(Gottingen,  1857  and  18(57),  and  translation 
(1857) ;  Gruntvig,  text  and  notes  (Copenhagen, 
1861);  Heyne,  two  editions  with  notes  and 
glossary  (Paderborn,  1863,  1808),  arid  transla 
tion  (1863);  Wackerbarth,  translation  into 
rhymed  English  verses  like  Scott's  "Marmion" 
(London,  1849);  Ilaigh,  "The  Anglo-Saxon 
Sagas,"  containing  a  notable  attempt  to  locate 
Beowulf  on  English  ground  (London,  1861); 
Morley,  "English  Writers,"  vol.  i.  (London, 
1867).  A  few  fragments  may  be  classed  with 
"Beowulf,"  as  "The  Traveller's  Song,"  143 
lines;  "The  Fight  at  Finnsburg,"  48  lines; 
"Bryhtnoth,"  325  lines;  the  first  two  to  be 
found  in  Thorpe  and  Kemble,  and  all  in  Grein 
(1857).  2.  The  Bille  epic.  This  is  a  growth 
of  Christian  England.  We  have  the  story  of 
its  originator,  Ciedmon,  from  Beda,  who  lived 
near  him,  and  may  have  seen  him.  lie  was  an 
unlearned  man,  so  backward  that  he  could  not 
take  his  turn  in  singing  to  the  harp  at  feasts, 
and  so  sensitive  that  he  would  leave  the  board 
in  shame  as  the  harp  came  round.  Once  when 
he  had  done  this,  and  fallen  asleep  in  a  stall 
near  by,  a  vision  appeared  to  him,  and  bade 


ANGLO-SAXONS   (LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE) 


505 


him  sing.     "I  cannot  sing,"  said  he;  "I  have  I 
left  the  feast  and  come  here  because  I  cannot  i 
sin?."     "Sin?  for  me  though,"  said  the  vision;  ; 
"sing  the  creation."     And  he  sang  the  famous 
verses  which  were  to  usher  in  a  new  era  of  song : 

Nu  scylun  Iiergan         Iiefaenricaes  uard, 

metucltes  in.iecti        end  his  modgidanc, 

Uere  uuldur  fadur;        sue  he  uundra  gihuaes 

eci  dryctin        or  astelidie. 

He  icrist  scop       aelda  barnum 

liehcn  til  Earofe,        bales  scepen : 

tha  middungeard        nsoncynnaes  uard 

ei'i  drvctin,        seftcr  tladae, 

firuin,foldan,        f rea  allmectig. 

"Now  must  we  glorify        the  guardian  of  heaven's  kingdom, 

the  maker's  mi_'ht.  "    and  his  mind's  thought, 

the  work  of  the  worshipped         when  of  his  wonders  each 

father  one, 

the  ever  livincr  lord        ordered  the  origin, 
He  erst  created        for  earth's  children 
heaven  as  a  high  roof,        the  holy  creator: 
then  this  mid  world         did  man's  guardian 
the  ever  living  lord        afterward  prepare, 
for  men  a  mansion,        the  master  almighty." 

(Iladley's  translation.) 

Next  morning  he  told  his  story  and  repeated  | 
the  verses.     The  abbess  Hild  and  her  learned  | 
men  proved  him,  and  found  that  he  could  turn  ; 
into   noble    poetry   passages   from    the   Bible 
which  they  read  to  him.     They  recognized  the  | 
gift  as  divine,  and  received  him  into  the  mon-  ! 
astery.     There  he  led  a  holy  life,  humble  and  j 
lovely,  and  composed  many  Christian  poems. 
Hosts  of  imitators  followed.     The  "Ileliand," 
a  poem  of  some  6,000  lines  in  Old  Saxon,  cele 
brating  the  acts  of  the  Saviour,  is  thought  by 
many  to  be  a  translation  from  Ca^dmon.     But  \ 
none  equalled  him  till  Milton.     A  single  man-  • 
uscript  remains,  containing  Genesis  (2,935  lines),  , 
Exodus  (589),  Daniel  (765),  Christ  and  Satan 
(733).     All  that  is  known  of  it  is  that  it  be-  ; 
longed  to  Archbishop  Usher,  who  gave  it  to  j 
Junius,  who  printed  it  at  Amsterdam  in  1635,  ; 
and  who  bequeathed  it  to  the  Bodleian  library. 
There  is  no  external  evidence  to  prove  these 
poems  C3Bdmon's,.but  they  have  been  accepted 
provisionally  by  most  students  as  a  rewriting 
of  his  originals  in  another  dialect.     The  Gen 
esis  gives  the  story  of  man's  first  disobedience 
and  his  fall,  beginning  with  the  fallen  angels. 
The  description  of  Satan,  his  first  speech,  some  • 
striking  expressions  in  the  description  of  his 
fall,  of  heaven,  hell,  Adam  and  Eve,  strongly  sug 
gest  that  Milton  borrowed  from  Credmon,  but 
they  may  be  accounted  for  by  their  using  com 
mon  sources.     Editions  are  by  Thorpe,  for  the 
society  of  antiquaries  (London,  1832;  Illumina 
tions,   1833),   Grein  (Gottingen,  1857,  transla 
tion,  1857>,  and  Bouterwek  (text,  translation, 
copious  introductory  essays,  notes,  and  lexicon, 
Giltersloh,  1854).     Among  the  many  valuable 
articles  upon  it  may  be  mentioned  Dietrich's 
in    Ilaupt's    ZeiUchrift,    X.,    310-367.     With 
these  works  of  Credmon  may  be  classed  a  frag 
ment  of  Judith  (350  lines),  Cynewulf 's  "  Christ" 
(1,694),  "The  Harrowing  of  Hell"  (137),  and 
some  other  fragments,  all  to  be  found  in  Grein's 
Bibliothek  der  Angelsachsischcn  Poesie  (Got 
tingen,  1857),  and  translations  in  his  Dichtun- 
gen  der  Angchachsen  (1857).     3.  Ecclesiastic 


narratives — the  lives  of  saints,  and  versified 
chronicles,  without  the  epic  exaltation  of  the 
former  classes.  Such  are  "Andreas"  (1,724 
lines),  "Elene"  (1,821),  "Juliana"  (731),  and 
"  Guthlac  "  (1,353).  4.  Psalms  and  hymns — 
translations  of  Hebrew  psalms  and  a  few  Chris 
tian  hymns  and  prayers.  The  version  of  the 
Psalms  has  been  attributed  to  Bishop  Aldhelm, 
(656-709).  The  manuscript  is  in  the  royal 
library  at  Paris.  Editions  have  been  published 
by  Thorpe  and  Grein ;  Essays  by  Dietrich  in 
llxwpfs  Zeitschrift  (IX.,  214-222).  5.  Secular 
lyrics.  A  few,  mostly  elegiac,  are  found  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  celebrating  kings 
and  heroes.  They  are  also  to  be  found  in 
Grein's  Bibliothek.  6.  Allegories,  gnomic 
verses,  riddles.  This  was  a  favorite  style  of 
composition  with  the  later  Anglo-Saxons.  We 
have  in  Grein's  Bibliothek  "The  Phoenix,"  a 
translation  from  Lactantius,  much  expanded 
(677  lines) ;  "The  Panther  "  (74) ;  " The  Whale  " 
(89) ;  also  gnomic  verses  which  are  still  inter 
esting,  and  riddles  in  considerable  numbers, 
and  hard  enough  to  guess.  7.  Didactic  ethical. 
The  "Meters  of  Boethius"  are  versifications 
of  passages  in  Boetliius  De  Comolatione  Phi- 
losophice,  attributed  to  King  Alfred.  They  were 
transcribed  by  Junius  from  a  manuscript  since 
lost.  Editions  are  by  Ra \vlinson  (Oxford, 
1698);  Fox,  with  translation  (London,  1835); 
Grein  (1858);  and  Fox,  (2d  ed.,  with  metrical 
rendering  by  Martin  Farquhar  Tupper  (Lon 
don,  1864). — The  Anglo-Saxon  prose  is  of  com 
paratively  little  literary  value.  It  affords  abun 
dant  material  for  the  study  of  the  language 
and  the  people,  but  consists  mostly  of  transla 
tions  from  the  Latin.  They  have  been  classified 
as  follows:  1.  Theological — translations  of  the 
Bible.  Portions  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Numbers,  Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  and  Judges, 
called  the  Heptateuch,  together  with  an  out 
line  of  Job,  the  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  and  a 
fragment  of  Judith,  were  published  by  Thwaites 
(Oxford,  1698).  The  Psalms  are  spoken  of 
above.  We  have  several  manuscripts  of  the 
Gospels.  Editions  have  been  published  in  Eng 
land  by  Parker  (1571),  Marshall  (1665),  Thorpe 
(1842),  and  Bos  worth  (with  the  Gothic,  Wyck- 
liffe,  and  Tyndale  versions  in  parallel  columns, 
London,  1865).  Kemble  began  an  edition  with 
the  old  Latin  and  four  Anglo-Saxon  texts 
printed  together,  and  various  readings  from 
four  others.  Matthew  has  been  printed  in  this 
form,  and  the  work  is  going  on  at  the  Univer 
sity  press,  Cambridge.  A  large  number  of 
homilies  are  still  to  be  found.  A  set  by  ^rElfric, 
80  in  number,  compiled  or  translated  from 
Latin  works,  about  A.  D.  990,  for  the  un 
learned,  were  printed  by  Thorpe  for  the  /Elfric 
society  (1844-'6).  More  are  promised  by  the 
early  English  text  society.  2.  Philosophy.  In 
this  department  we  have  only  Alfred's  transla 
tion  of  Boethius,  mentioned  above.  3.  His 
tory.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  extends  from 
the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar  to  Henry  II.,  1154. 
As  far  as  the  history  of  Beda  extends,  it  is 


506 


ANGOLA 


ANGORA 


abridged  from  it  or  from  some  common  source. 
It  lias  been  supposed  that  Alfred  had  it  com 
piled  and  copies  placed  in  the  monasteries. 
How  the  records  were  kept  afterward  is  not 
known.  It  is  for  the  most  part  a  meagre  note 
of  events  of  little  interest,  but  in  the  later 
times  there  are  sometimes  reflections  and  poet 
ical  passages,  as  well  as  sketches  of  character. 
It  has  been  often  printed  and  translated. 
Thorpe's  edition  (London,  1861)  has  seven  par 
allel  texts,  a  translation,  and  indexes.  There  are 
also  a  large  number  of  charters,  deeds,  wills,  and 
similar  documents  remaining,  of  which  Kemble 
has  published  six  volumes  (Codex  Diplomat- 
icus  j%fci  Saxonici,  London,  1839-'46).  Beda's 
"Ecclesiastical  History  "was  written  by  him 
in  Latin,  and  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by 
Alfred.  It  is  one  of  the  world's  great  books. 
It  has  passed  through  many  editions  in  many 
countries.  Wheloc's  edition  has  Latin  and 
Anglo-Saxon  in  parallel  columns  (Cambridge, 
1644) ;  and  Smith's  has  various  readings  (Cam 
bridge,  1722).  A  new  edition  is  needed.  For 
ancient  history  there  is  Alfred's  translation  of 
Orosius,  with  additions  by  the  translator  of 
some  value.  Thorpe's  edition  with  translation 
and  glossary  is  in  Bohn's  library  (London,  1857). 
There  are  some  biographies.  St.  Guthlac  has 
been  repeatedly  printed  (Goodwin,  London, 
1848).  4.  Law,  A  large  body  of  laws  re 
mains,  extending  from  Ethelbert,  who  was  king 
of  Kent  at  the  time  of  its  conversion  to  Chris 
tianity,  to  those  of  William  the  Conqueror. 
The  best  editions  are  those  of  Thorpe  (Lon 
don,  1840),  containing  the  ecclesiastical  insti 
tutes,  and  Schmid  (Leipsic,  1858),  a  critical 
text  with  Latin  and  German  translations,  notes, 
and  a  glossary.  These  and  the  charters  are 
perhaps  the  most  valuable  prose  remaining  for 
the  study  of  the  people.  5.  Natural  science 
and  medicine.  "  Popular  Treatises  of  Science  " 
(Thorpe,  London,  1841);  "Leechdoms"  (3 
vols.,  O.  Cockayne,  London,  1864-' 6).  6. 
Grammar.  ./El trio  has  a  Latin  grammar  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  which  answers  as  a  reverse 
grammar.  It  is  printed  in  Somner's  Diction 
ary  (Oxford,  1659).  yElfric's  "Colloquy,"  in 
Thorpe's  "Analecta  Anglo-Saxonica "  (Lon 
don,  1846).  There  are  a  few  glossaries  in 
Wright  (London,  1857). 

AIVGOLA,  in  its  wider  sense,  a  Portuguese 
colony  on  the  W.  coast  of  South  Africa,  Lower 
Guinea,  between  lat,  7°  30'  and  17°  S.  It 
was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1488,  and 
they  have  ever  since  held  it,  except  from  1641 
to  1648,  when  the  capital  and  a  portion  of  the 
colony  were  occupied  by  the  Dutch.  The  gov 
ernment  general  of  Angola,  as  claimed  by  the 
Portuguese,  embraces  an  area  of  upward  of 
200,000  sq.  m.  The  population  is  estimated  by 
the  Portuguese  government  at  2,000,000.  The 
colony  is  divided  into  four  districts,  besides 
the  Gimbandi  country,  which  is  likewise  re 
garded  as  belonging  to  it :  Ambriz,  Angola 
proper,  Benguela,  and  Mossamedes.  The  rule 
of  the  Portuguese  is  recognized  between  the 


Koanza  and  the  Dande  only,  the  main  part 
of  Angola  proper ;  outside  of  this  territory  they 
have  isolated  fortified  places,  and  the  native 
chiefs  sustain  the  relation  of  more  or  less 
doubtful  vassals.  A  line  of  forts  which  they 
intended  to  construct  across  the  continent  to 
connect  with  their  colony  of  Mozambique  in 
eastern  Africa  has  never  been  completed,  but 
the  country  in  the  interior  has  been  explored 
to  some  extent.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  the 
vegetation  is  luxuriant;  the  fauna  and  flora  are 
tropical.  Along  the  rivers  sugar  cane  is  rais 
ed,  and  in  the  primitive  forests  excellent  coffee 
is  found.  The  climate  is  unhealthy  along 
the  coast.  The  mountains  contain  gold,  iron, 
lead,  and  sulphur.  Spring,  the  rainy  season, 
begins  in  September.  The  most  intelligent 
among  the  natives  are  the  people  of  the  dis 
trict  of  Ambaca,  most  of  whom  are  able  to 
read  and  write.  As  roads  are  almost  wholly 
wanting,  the  government  employs  carregadores 
(burden-carriers),  who  are  furnished  by  the 
villages.  In  the  district  of  Golungo-Alto  the 
number  of  these  carriers  was  estimated  by 
Dr.  Livingstone  at  6,000.  An  army  of  5,000 
men,  four  war  vessels,  and  the  packet  ser 
vice  consume  nearly  the  entire  revenue  of 
the  colony.  A  Catholic  bishop  was  appointed 
for  Angola  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen 
tury,  and  a  large  number  of  the  natives  were 
nominally  received  into  the  church ;  but  since 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  the  native  churches 
have  been  to  a  large  extent  without  priests, 
and  the  population  has  partly  relapsed  into 
paganism.  In  1857  there  were  in  the  whole 
diocese  only  six  priests,  though  the  Christian 
population  was  estimated  at  300,000. — The 
capital,  Saint  Paul  de  Loanda,  on  the  coast  of 
Angola  proper,  is  the  seat  of  the  governor 
general  and  of  the  bishop;  pop.  12,500,  of 
whom  850  are  whites,  2,500  mulattoes,  and  the 
remainder  negroes.  The  chief  coast  towns  of 
the  three  other  districts  are  Ambriz,  Sao  Felipe 
de  Benguela,  and  Mossamedes.  (See  GrraEA.) 
ANGORA  (Turk.  Engurieh ;  anc.  Ancyra),  a 
city  of  Asia  Minor,  capital  of  a  Turkish  eyalet  of 
the  same  name,  220  in.  E.  S.  E.  of  Constantino 
ple ;  pop.  about  45,000,  including  about  30,000 
Turks,  10,000  Armenians,  4,000  Greeks,  and 
1,000  Jews.  It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  vast 
elevated  plain,  abounding  in  fruits  and  pastu 
rage,  over  which  the  roving  tribes  of  the  Turco 
mans  tend  their  sheep,  goats,  and  horses.  The 
citadel  is  situated  on  a  steep  rock,  and  its  walls 
are  covered  with  inscriptions.  The  trade  with 
the  west  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks 
and  Armenians,  and  thus  the  city  in  social  life 
is  rather  European  than  Mohammedan.  It  is 
the  see  of  a  Greek  and  of  a  Catholic  Armenian 
bishop.  On  July  20,  1402,  Angora  was  the 
scene  of  a  terrible  battle  between  Timour 
and  the  sultan  Bajazet  L,  in  which  the  lat 
ter  was  captured.  There  are  some  ancient 
remains.  (See  ANCYRA.) — The  Angora  goat, 
with  its  silken  fleece,  is  the  most  curious  pro 
duct  of  this  region.  Its  hair,  which  is  white 


ANGORNO 

and  soft,  and  about  eight  inches  long,  is  shorn  1 
twice  a  year,  and  is  much  esteemed  as  material  ; 
for  shawls.  In  1809  the  number  of  these  goats  [ 


ANGOULEME 


507 


Angora  Goat. 

in  and  near  Angora  was  estimated  at  1,000,- 
000.  The  yearly  yield  of  wool  is  about  2,700,- 
000  Ibs.  The  Angora  goat  was  introduced  into 
South  Carolina  in  1849,  and  still  more  were  im 
ported  in  1863. 

ANGORNO,  a  town  of  Borneo,  in  central  Af 
rica,  near  the  S.  W.  shore  of  Lake  Tchad ;  pop. 
said  to  be  above  30,000.  Weekly  markets  are 
held,  at  which  a  very  extensive  trade  is  carried 
on  in  cotton,  amber,  metals,  slaves,  &c. 

AXGOSTTRA,  or  f  indad  Bolivar,  a  city  of  Vene 
zuela,  capital  of  the  province  of  Guayana,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river  Orinoco,  at  a  pass 
(angostura)  where  it  is  confined  between  high 
rocks,  about  260  m.  S.  E.  of  Caracas ;  pop. 
about  7,000.  It  was  founded  in  1674,  and 
named  San  Tomas  do  la  Nueva  Guayana,  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  San  Tomas  32 
leagues  distant.  Its  name  was  changed  to 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  and  subsequently  in  common 
speech  to  Angostura.  It  is  built  in  the  form 
of  an  amphitheatre,  on  the  slope  of  a  rocky 
hill,  destitute  of  vegetation.  The  houses  are 
massively  constructed,  usually  of  two  stories. 
The  city  is  the  principal  emporium  for  the  com 
merce  of  the  Orinoco,  although  240  m.  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  and  contains  a  college,  ecclesiastical 
seminary,  hospital,  and  a  hall  in  which  a  ses 
sion  of  the  congress  of  Colombia,  then  includ 
ing  New  Granada  and  Venezuela,  was  held  in 
1819.  The  city  is  defended  by  a  fort  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  here  3,100  ft.  wide. 
The  exports  consist  of  cotton,  cocoa,  indigo, 
hides,  sugar,  and  Angostura  bark. 

_  ANGOSTURA  BARK,  the  bark  of  galipea  offi- 
cinalw,  a  South  American  tree  of  the  rue  fam 
ily,  growing  on  the  river  Orinoco,  and  espe 
cially  on  the  Caroni,  Venezuela.  It  possesses 
a  peculiar  and  disagreeable  smell  when  fresh, 
and  a  bitter  and  slightly  aromatic  taste.  It  is 
sometimes  used  in  medicine  as  an  aromatic 
tonic.  By  the  natives  it  is  employed  to  intoxi 
cate  fish,  as  the  cinchona  is  in  Peru.  The  false 
Angostura  may  be  distinguished  by  its  greater 
thickness  and  hardness,  its  total  want  of  odor, 


and  its  intense  tenacious  bitterness,  due  to  the 
poisonous  alkaloid  brucia.  When  steeped  in 
water  it  does  not  become  soft  like  the  true 
Angostura.  It  is  said  to  be  the  bark  of  strych- 
nos  nux-vomica. 

ANGOT,  or  Ango,  Jean,  a  French  merchant 
of  Dieppe,  died  in  1551.  He  made  trading 
voyages  to  Africa  and  the  East  Indies,  and 
secured  a  large  fortune,  which  he  used  with 
liberality.  Some  of  his  ships  having  been  cap 
tured  by  the  Portuguese,  he  fitted  out  a  fieet, 
fully  provided  with  soldiers  and  arms,  which  en 
tered  the  Tagus  and  blockaded  Lisbon.  Every 
vessel  coming  to  that  port  was  intercepted,  while 
both  shores  on  the  river  were  devastated.  The 
king  of  Portugal  sent  an  ambassador  to  Fran 
cis  I.,  who  referred  him  to  the  merchant  of 
Dieppe.  Angot,  however,  persevered,  and 
forced  Portugal  to  pay  a  large  indemnity  for 
his  losses.  Unsuccessful  speculations  brought 
ruin  upon  him,  and  the  king  of  France,  to  whom 
he  had  lent  large  sums,  having  failed  to  repay 
him,  Angot  spent  his  last  years  in  destitution. 

ANGOULE3IE  (anc.  Inculisma,  or  deltas  Eco- 
lismensium),  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Charente  and  of  the  ancient 
province  of  Angoumois,  situated  on  the  Cha 
rente,  66  m.  1ST.  E.  of  Bordeaux,  on  the  railway 
connecting  that  city  with  Paris;  pop.  in  1866, 
25,116.  It  is  built  on  an  isolated  hill,  rising 
about  200  feet  above  the  river ;  and  though 
the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  it  presents 
with  its  white  stone  houses  a  neat  and  cheer 
ful  aspect.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  the 
old  ruined  castle,  the  birthplace  of  Marguerite 
of  Navarre,  and  remains  of  the  ancient  fortifi 
cations  are  also  extant.  A  noble  cathedral 
of  the  12th  century,  the  church  of  St.  Andre 
dating  from  the  llth,  and  a  Benedictine  abbey 
of  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  are  among  its  oth 
er  antiquities.  It  has  a  college,  a  museum  of 
natural  history,  manufactures  of  paper,  wool 
lens,  linen,  earthenware,  and  cognac,  a  cannon 
foundery,  and  a  thriving  trade  with  Bordeaux 
and  the  southern  departments.  It  was  for 
some  years  the  seat  of  a  naval  school,  trans 
ferred  to  Brest  in  1830. — From  the  9th  centu 
ry  Angouleme,  with  its  territory  of  Angoumois, 
to  which  Perigord  was  at  first  united,  was  gov 
erned  by  counts.  In  1360  it  was  ceded  to  the 
English,  who  were  driven  out  in  the  reign  of 
King  Charles  V.  It  afterward  belonged  to  the 
crown,  was  erected  into  a  duchy  by  Francis  I., 
and  formed  a  royal  apanage  till  1(550,  since 
which  the  title  of  duke  of  Angouleme  has  been 
only  nominal. 

AXGOILEME.  I.  Charles  de  Valois,  duke  of, 
natural  son  of  Charles  IX.  of  France  by  Marie 
Touchet,  bora  April  28,  1573,  died  Sept.  24, 
1650.  He  received  from  Catharine  de1  Medici 
the  counties  of  Auvergne  and  Lanragais,  mar 
ried  the  daughter  of  the  constable  de  Mont- 
morency,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of 
Arques,  Ivry,  and  Fontaine  Francaise,  but  was 
sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment  for  cer 
tain  intrigues  with  his  uterine  sister,  the  mar- 


508 


ANGOULfiME 


ANHYDRIDES 


quise  de  Verneuil.  Released  in  1616,  he  con 
ducted  the  siege  of  Soissons  the  next  year,  ob 
tained  from  Louis  XIII.  the  duchy  of  Angouleine 
in  1019,  and  besieged  Rochelle  in  1628.  He  took 
part  also  in  the-  wars  of  Languedoc,  Germany, 
and  Flanders.  He  left  Memoires  of  the  reigns  of 
Henry  111.  and  Henry  IV.,  a  Relation  de  Vori- 
gine  et  sueces  des  cherifit,  et  de  Vetat  des  roy- 
aumes  dc  Maroc,  Fez  et  Tarudant,  translated 
from  the  Spanish  of  Diego  de  Torres,  and  some 
other  writings,  all  of  which  have  been  pub 
lished.  II.  Louis  Antoinc  de  Bourbon,  duke  of, 
eldest  son  of  Charles-  X.  of  France  and  Marie 
Therese  of  Savoy,  born  at  Versailles,  Aug.  6, 
1775,  died  at  Gorz,  June  3,  1844.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  revolution  he  accompanied  his 
father  (then  duke  of  Artois)  to  Turin,  where  he 
spent  a  few  years  in  military  studies.  In  1792 
he  received  a  command  in  Germany,  but  he 
was  not  fitted  for  a  soldier,  and  soon  withdrew 
from  the  field,  retiring  with  his  father  to  Holy- 
rood,  and  subsequently  joining  his  uncle  Louis 
XVIII.  at  Blankenburg  and  Mitau.  At  the  lat 
ter  place  he  married,  June  10,  1799,  his  cousin 
Marie  Therese  Charlotte,  daughter  of  Louis 
XVI.  During  the  hundred  days  he  was  ap 
pointed  lieutenant  general  of  the  kingdom,  and 
made  a  weak  attempt  to  oppose  the  emperor; 
but  his  troops  abandoned  him,  and  after  a  few 
days'  detention  as  a  prisoner  he  was  sent  to 
Barcelona.  After  the  second  restoration  he  was 
charged  with  the  suppression  of  disorders  in 
the  southern  provinces,  and  in  1823  command 
ed  the  army  of  intervention  which  put  down 
the  revolution  in  Spain.  In  July,  1830,  he 
signed  with  his  father  the  act  of  abdication  in 
favor  of  his  nephew  the  duke  of  Bordeaux 
(now  Count  de  Chambord),  and  went  into  ex 
ile  with  the  rest  of  the  royal  family.  He  was 
a  man  of  mean  abilities  and  sluggish  disposi 
tion.  III.  Marie  Theiese  Charlotte,  duchess  of, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  and  daughter  of  Louis 
XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette,  born  at  Versailles 
Dec.  19,  1778,  died  at  Frohsdorf,  Oct.  19,  1851. 
She  shared  the  imprisonment  of  her  parents  in 
the  Temple,  and  after  their  execution  was  held 
in  captivity  till  December,  1795,  when  Austria 
procured  her  liberation  in  exchange  for  cer 
tain  members  of  the  convention.  She  lived  at 
Vienna  till  her  marriage,  known  by  the  title 
of  rtiadame  royalc.  Afterward  she  shared  the 
vicissitudes  of  her  husband's  exile,  sustaining  his 
courage  by  her  superior  spirit  and  intelligence, 
returning  with  him  to  France  in  1814,  and  ex 
erting  a  great  influence  over  the  troops  at 
Bordeaux  during  the  hundred  days,  so  that 
Napoleon  called  her  "the  only  man  in  the  fam 
ily."  At  the  time  of  the  July  revolution  she 
was  at  Dijon,  and  made  a  dangerous  journey 
in  disguise  to  Rambouillet,  where  she  rejoined 
the  duke.  She  went  with  the  royal  family  to 
England,  where  her  husband  and  she  assumed 
the  titles  of  count  and  countess  of  Marne. 
They  lived  some  time  at  Holyrood,  but  the 
climate  of  Scotland  proving  too  severe  for  the 
countess,  they  removed  to  the  continent. 


ANGOITMOIS,  one  of  the  old  provinces  of  France, 

between  Poitou  and  Guienne,  bounded  W.  by 

i  Saintonge,  with  which  it  was  joined  to  form  a 

1  military  government.    Capital,  Angouleme.    It 

|  nearly  corresponded  to  the  present  department 

j  of  Charente.    It  was  generally  governed  by  the 

counts  of  Angouleme  from  the  9th  to  the  14th 

century,  when  it  was  united  to  the  crown. 

A\GRA,  a  seaport  town  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
j  island  of  Terceira,  one  of  the  Azores ;  pop. 
|  13,000.  It  is  well  built  on  a  hill  rising  from 
the  water's  edge,  has  wide  but  dirty  streets, 
and  is  generally  the  residence  of  the  governor 
of  the  Azores,  as  well  as  of  the  consuls  of  Eng 
land,  France,  and  Holland.  The  harbor  is  pro 
tected  by  two  forts,  but,  though  the  best  in 
the  Azores,  it  is  exposed  to  all  winds  from  the 
S.  S.  W.  by  S.  to  the  E.,  and  on  the  approach 
of  a  gale  from  this  quarter  vessels  are  obliged 
to  put  to  sea  for  safety.  The  principal  exports 
are  wine  and  grain. 

ANGUSCIOLA,  Allans-sola,  or  Agnosdola,  Sofonisba, 
an  Italian  female  painter,  born  at  Cremona  about 
1530,  died  about  1620.  After  executing  a  num 
ber  of  portraits  and  some  fine  historical  pieces, 
she  went  to  Madrid  in  1561,  at  the  invitation  of 
Philip  II.,  and  painted  portraits  of  Queen  Isa 
bella  and  other  celebrities  of  the  Spanish  court. 
Constant  application  brought  on  blindness  in 
her  latter  years.  Vandyke,  who  visited  her 
frequently,  was  wont  to  speak  with  great  re 
spect  of  her  knowledge  of  art.  Her  sisters 
LUCIA,  EUEOPA,  and  ANNA  MARIA  also  painted, 
but  were  less  distinguished  than  Sofonisba. 
AINGIS,  Earls  of.  See  DOUGLAS. 
AMIALT,  a  duchy  of  the  German  empire,  sit 
uated  on  both  banks  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Saale, 
and  bounded  by  Prussian  Saxony,  Branden 
burg,  and  Brunswick;  area,  897  sq.  in.;  pop. 
in  1871,  203,354.  It  was  formerly  divided  into 
four  duchies,  called  Anhalt-Dessau,  Anhalt- 
Bernburg,  Anhalt-Zerbst,  and  Anhalt-Kothcn, 
after  the  principal  towns,  but  was  in  1793  uni 
ted  into  three,  in  1853  into  two,  and  finally  in 
1863  into  one.  The  soil  is  mostly  level  and 
fertile,  and  here  and  there  wooded  and  pictu 
resque.  It  produces  corn,  flax,  tobacco,  hops, 
and  fruits.  There  are  iron,  lead,  and  copper 
mines.  The  Anhalt  family  trace  their  lineage 
to  Esico  von  Ballenstedt,  who  flourished  in  the 
10th  century.  They  have  been  generally  of 
martial  spirit,  and  in  the  history  of  Germany 
they  have  furnished  various  distinguished  gen 
erals  in  the  service  of  the  emperors  and  of  the 
kings  of  Prussia.  From  Anhalt-Zerbst  came 
Catharine  II.,  empress  of  Russia.  The  present 
duke,  Frederick,  born  April  29,  1831,  succeed 
ed  his  father  May  22,  1871.  Capital,  Dessau. 

ANHYDRIDES,  compounds  which  become  acids 
upon  the  addition  of  water.     In  technical  lan- 
|  guage,  they  are  the  oxides  of  acid  radicals,  and 
|  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  acids  as  the  oxide 
of  potassium,  K2O,  does  to  the  hydrated  pot 
ash,  I1KO.     The  most  familiar  anhydrides  are 
sulphuric,    nitric,    hypochlorous,    and   acetic ; 
these  have  long  been  called  anhydrous  sulphu- 


ANI 


ANIMAL 


509 


ric  acid,  anhydrous  nitric  acid,  anhydrous  hy- 
pochloroua  acid,  and  anhydrous  acetic  acid; 
but  as  thej  do  not  possess  acid  properties  until 
combined  with  water,  it  is  now  proposed  to 
call  them  sulphuric  anhydride,  nitric  anhydride, 
&c.  The  following  formulas  will  illustrate  how 
an  anhydride  becomes  an  acid  on  the  addition 
of  water:  SO3  (sulphuric  anhydride) +  II2O= 
H2  SO4  (sulphuric  acid) ;  N2O6  (nitric  anhy 
dride)  +  1I,O  =  2IIXO3  (nitric  acid);  C12O 
(hypochlorous  anhydride)  +  IiaO=2HClO  (hy- 
pocblorous  acid).  Anhydride  has  therefore 
a  signification  of  its  own,  and  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  term  anhydrous,  applied 
to  substances  which  have  no  water  either 
mixed  or  combined  with  them. 

AM,  or  Anni,  a  ruined  city  of  Turkish  Ar 
menia,  on  the  Arpi  Tchai,  about  25  m.  E.  S.  E. 
of  Kars.  Its  ancient  name  appears  to  have 
been  Abnicum,  but  its  history  is  only  imper 
fectly  known.  In  the  5th  century  it  was  a 
small  fort :  in  the  10th  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  Bagratide  kings  of  Armenia;  in  the  llth  it 
was  sacked  by  the  Seljuks,  and  subsequently 
occupied  by  the  Kurds;  and  in  the  12th  re 
peatedly  taken  by  the  Georgians.  In  the  14th 
century  it  was  finally  ruined  by  an  earthquake, 
and  has  never  since  been  reoccupied.  There 
are  numerous  ruins  of  churches,  chapels,  and 
private  buildings,  while  the  massive  walls, 
about  0  m.  in  circuit,  are  in  good  preservation. 
— See  Riiiue.s  <TAni,  by  M.  F.  Brosset  (2  vols., 
St.  Petersburg,  ISGO-'Ol). 

MUET-BOIUGEOIS,  the  popular  name  of 
AUGUSTS  ANICET  BOURGEOIS,  a  French  play 
wright,  born  in  Paris,  Dec.  25,  1806,  died  at 
Pau,  Jan.  12,  1871.  He  was  a  clerk  in  a  law 
yer's  office,  when  he  wrote  in  1825  his  first 
melodrama,  Gxstare,  ou  le  Napolitain.  He 
afterward  produced  over  200  plays,  most  of 
them  in  conjunction  with  other  authors,  though 
he  was  the  sole  author  of  his  best  drama,  La 
Venitienne  (1834).  His  fairy  plays  have  had 
an  immense  run,  especially  Les  pilules  du  Dia- 
l)le.  He  is  also  believed  to  have  been  the  real 
author  of  Teresa,  Angele,  and  other  pieces  as 
cribed  to  Alexandre  Dumas.  His  remains  have 
been  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  was  buried 
May  10,  1872,  Alexandre  Dumas  the  younger 
pronouncing  the  funeral  oration. 

lARKITS,  /t  freedman  and  preceptor  of 
Nero,  and  commander  of  the  Praetorian  fleet 
at  Cape  Misenurn,  A.  D.  59.  At  Nero's  instiga 
tion  he  had  a  false  bottom  made  for  a  ship 
which  Agrippina  was  enticed  to  visit.  She 
barely  escaped  drowning,  and  was  soon  after 
ward  murdered  by  Anicetus  at  her  villa,  near 
the  Lucrine  lake.  Seneca,  in  his  defence  ot 
Nero,  used  Anicetus's  story  of  Agrippina's 
plots  against  the  emperor's  life.  Anicetus  also 
professed  to  have  had  an  intrigue  with  Octa- 
via,  so  as  to  furnish  Nero  with  a  pretext  for 
her  banishment.  He  subsequently  lived  in 
luxury  in  Sardinia  with  the  money  given  him 
by  Nero  in  reward  for  his  infamy. 

1AIELLO,  Tominaso.     See  MASANIELLO. 


ANILIC  ACID  (Spanish  anil,  indigo),  an  acid 
'>  produced  by  the  action  of  diluted  nitric  acid 
|  upon  indigo ;  also  called  indigotic  acid.  Car- 
j  bonic  acid  is  produced  with  it,  and  remains  in 
!  solution,  the  anilic  acid  separating  it.  in  light 
!  yellowish  white  prisms,  which  are  fusible  and 
I  volatile,  and  dissolve  in  1,000  parts  of  water. 
Their  composition  is  represented  by  the  formu- 
1  la  C7H6(NOo)O3,  H2O.  '  Anilic  acid  decom- 
j  poses  acetate  of  lead,  forming  with  the  lead  a 
•  crystallized  anilate. 

A\!LI\K,  a  substance  discovered  in  1820  by 
i  O.  Unverdorben,  in  the  distillation  of  indigo. 
i  At  the  present  time  it  is  almost  exclusively 
!  prepared  by  the  deoxidation  of  nitro-benzole 
|  by  means  of  nascent  hydrogen  evolved  from 
|  iron  filings  and  acetic  acid.     This  operation  is 
!  graphically  represented  by  the  following  for- 
|  mulas  :  CoHsNOa  (nitro-benzole)  +  611  =  C6H7 
|  N   (aniline)  +  2II2O.     Aniline    is    a    colorless 
!  oily  liquid,  of  a  vinous  aromatic  odor,  and  bit- 
|  ter  burning  taste,  and  in  the  air  turns  brown. 
|  Its  specific  gravity  is  1,028.     It  is  slightly  sol- 
!  uble  in   water,  to   which  it   imparts    a  weak 
|  alkaline   reaction.      Alcohol,    ether,    and    the 
i  fatt}'  oils   dissolve   it    in   all    proportions.     It 
i  solidifies  at  —8°  C.,  boils  at  182°  C.,  and  com 
bines  with    acids   and   forms   salts   soluble   in 
!  water  and  alcohol.     The  faintest  trace  of  ani- 
!  line  can  be  detected  by  the  deep  purple  violet 
color  which  chloride  of  lime  produces  with  it. 
It  is  an  active  poison,  but  its  salts  are  said  to 
be  harmless.     In  1856  Mr.  Perk'm,  while  ex 
perimenting  with  aniline,  discovered  the  beau 
tiful  purple  dye,  which  was  soon  introduced 
into    commerce   under    the   name   of    mauve. 
Since  that  time  a  variety  of  colors  have  been 
produced,  and  the  manufacture  of  aniline  has 
become  an  industry  of  great  importance. 

AMMAL.  It  is  difficult  to  define  the  word 
animal,  and  even  a  scientific  definition  distin 
guishing  an  animal  from  a  vegetable  is  scarcely 
less  so.  The  assertion  of  Linnreus,  that  u  plants 
live  and  grow,"  while  "animals  live,  grow, 
and  feel,"  is  probably  correct;  but  it  is  impos 
sible  to  verify  its  correctness  as  applied  to  the 
very  lowest  animals.  According  to  the  Ger 
man  naturalists,  an  animal  may  consist  of  a 
single  cell.  The  idea  also  till  recently  main 
tained,  that  all  animals  have  a  stomach,  or  in 
ternal  digestive  cavity,  is  untenable;  since 
many  microscopic  animals  have  no  trace  of  a 
digestive  apparatus.  Indeed,  there  is  no  part 
or  organ  common  to  all  animals.  The  stomach, 
the  heart,  and  other  parts  of  the  circulatory 
apparatus,  the  mouth,  and  even  the  head,  so 
indispensable  in  the  higher  animals,  not  only 
in  the  lower  become  modified  in  form  and  de 
velopment,  but  in  the  lowest  even  entirely  dis 
appear.  Nor  can  muscular  fibres  or  nervous 
filaments  be  identified  in  the  latter. — The 
changes  in  form  of  the  same  organ  in  different 
animals  can  merely  be  alluded  to  here.  The 
mouth,  for  instance,  usually  single,  and  opening 
transversely,  is  sometimes  double,  triple,  or 
multiple,  and  modified  into  a  trunk,  or  sucker, 


510 


ANIMAL 


as  in  many  insects.     The  heart  has  but  two  \ 
cavities  in  fishes,  while  there  are  three  in  rep-  j 
tiles,  and   four   in    birds   and   the   mammalia. 
The  same  type  of  structure,  however,  often  ex-  , 
tends  over  a  vast  number  of  species  of  animals.  | 
All  the  vertebrate  animals  have  the  same  typi-  j 
cal  skeleton,  it  being  modified  in  the  various  \ 
species  to  suit  their  requirements.     The  bones  ' 
of  the  anterior  extremities,    for  instance,   are 
the  basis  of  the  arm  and  hand  of  man,  of  the  , 
fore  legs  of  quadrupeds  and  reptiles,  the  wings  | 
of  birds,  and  the  anterior  fins  of  the  whale. — 
Nor  are  our  investigations  in  regard  to  func-  j 
tion  in  all  cases  more  satisfactory.     Feeling  and  j 
voluntary  motion  are  certainly  characteristic  j 
attributes  of  all  but  the  lowest  animals ;  but  j 
some   of  the   latter   are   endowed    with   only  j 
a  kind  of  motion  of  a  lower  grade  than  the  j 
voluntary,  and  do  not  give  certain  evidence  of  j 
feeling  at  all.     It  is  therefore  not  surprising  | 
that  it  was  found  impossible  for  a  long  time  to  j 
distinguish  the  lowest  animals  from  the  sim-  j 
plest  vegetable  organisms ;  and  that  to  these 
doubtful  structures  the  name  of  zoophyte,  or 
animal-plant,  was  given.     Hence  it  is  not  pro 
posed  here  to  attempt  to  give  a  precise  defini 
tion  of  the  term  animal,  but  only  some  of  the 
more  striking  particulars  which  distinguish  ani 
mals  from  plants.     It  should,  however,  be  here 
remarked,   in  regard  to   the  microscopic  ani 
mals,  or  animalcules,   that   Prof.  Agassiz  has 
shown  that  many  of  them  are  merely  the  ova, 
or  germs  of  higher  animal  forms. —  1.  An  or-  | 
ganism  manifesting  the  power  of  sensation  or 
voluntary  motion,    or   possessing  a   digestive 
cavity  (stomach),  or  into  whose  structure  en 
ters  the  nervous  or  the  muscular  tissue,  is  an 
animal.     But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  impossi 
bility  of  demonstrating  either  or  all  of  these 
characteristics  does  not  prove  the  organism  to 
be  a  plant,  as  before  stated.      Besides,  some 
plants,  as  the  sensitive  plant  (mimosa  pudica), 
withdraw  their  leaves  from  the  touch  of  the  j 
hand ;  but  not,  as  there  is  every  reason  to  be-  j 
lieve,    in   consequence  of  either  sensation  or  j 
volition.     2.    Albumen  is  the  great   nutritive  j 
element  of  animals,   while   starch  is  that  of  | 
plants.     Some  of  the  lowest  plants  (fungi)  are,  \ 
however,  apparent  exceptions  to  this  proposi-  ! 
tion.     Consequently,  the  chemical  composition  j 
of  the  tissues  of  animals  differs  from  that  of  i 
plants :  the  basis  of  vegetable  structure  is  eel-  j 
lulose,  a  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  | 
oxygen,  while  those  of  animals  contain  nitro-  ! 
gen  also  in  addition.     Recent  researches  show  | 
that  cellulose  is  found  in  some  of  the  lower  j 
protozoa.      3.  It  has  been  stated  that  plants  | 
absorb  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  atmosphere,  i 
and  give  out  to  it  pure  oxygen,  while  animals  i 
precisely  reverse  the  process.     Plants  actually,  | 
in  their  nutrition  and  growth,  assimilate  the  j 
carbon  of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  I 
and  return  its  oxygen  to  the  latter  ;  but  in  the  j 
respiratory  process  they,  like  animals,  consume 
the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  return  to  it  carbonic 
acid  gas.     By  day,  however,  they  give  off  less 


of  the  latter  than  of  oxygen.  4.  For  the  fixa 
tion  of  carbon  in  the  tissues  of  plants,  as  just 
stated,  the  constant  stimulation  of  light  is  in 
dispensable.  This  is  not  true  to  the  same  de 
gree  of  animals,  whose  tissues  also  consist  in 
part  of  carbon,  as  has  been  seen. — In  respect 
to  varieties  in  size,  the  animal  kingdom  pre 
sents  a  far  wider  range  than  the  vegetable. 
The  extremes  in  the  former  are  the  whale, 
sometimes  100  feet  long  and  weighing  as  many 
tons,  and  the  animalcule,  of  some  species  of 
which  .30,000  individuals  may  inhabit  a  single 
drop  of  water;  while  in  the  latter  we  find  on 
the  one  hand  the  sequoia  of  California,  90  feet 
in  circumference,  and  the  talipot  of  Ceylon,  a 
single  leaf  of  which  may  shelter  20  men  from 
the  rain,  and  on  the  other  the  microscopic 
fungi,  as  the  yeast  plant  (torula  ccrerisice),  or 
those  constituting  the  mould  on  decaying  sub 
stances.  Dick  calculates  that  the  largest  trees 
of  Guiana  are  2,985,984,000,000,000  times  as 
large  as  the  rose-leaf  plant ;  while  the  largest 
whale  is  to  the  minutest  animalcule  as  34,560,- 
000,000,000,000,000  to  1.—  The  number  of  spe 
cies,  and  probably  of  individuals,  is  also  far 
greater  in  the  animal  than  in  the  vegetable  king 
dom.  About  70,000  species  of  plants  may  be 
seen  in  Paris  in  a  single  collection.  Balbi  40 
years  ago  estimated  the  whole  number  of  known 
species  at  80,000 ;  and  it  has  been  supposed 
that  there  are  about  250,000  species  in  all  on 
the  globe.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  at 
least  100,000  species  of  animalcules  alone. 
Dick  estimated  the  whole  number  of  species 
of  animals  at  300,000,  and  the  number  of  indi 
viduals  at  24  billions;  while  the  parts  and 
adaptations  of  these  exceed  60,000  billions. — 
In  regard  to  rapidity  of  increase,  the  highest 
plants  vastly  excel  the  highest  animals.  An 
elm  of  average  size  sometimes  produces  158 
million  seeds.  But  the  lowest  animals  and 
plants  manifest  the  greatest  power  of  multipli 
cation.  The  bovista  gigantea,  a  species  of  fun 
gus,  has  been  known  to  increase  its  size  more 
than  a  million  times  during  a  single  night ;  and 
Ehrenberg  speaks  of  an  animalcule  which  prop 
agates  so  rapidly  that  its  descendants  would 
in  four  days  amount  to  70  billions. — The  sci 
entific  study  of  the  animal  kingdom  constitutes 
the  department  of  natural  science  termed 
zoology.  Zoography  is  merely  the  description  of 
animals  ;  while  zootomy,  or  comparative  anat 
omy,  is  the  study  of  their  structure,  and  zoon- 
omy,  or  comparative  physiology,  that  of  their 
functions.  To  facilitate  these  investigations, 
a  scientific  classification  of  the  animal  kingdom 
was  first  published  by  Linnrcus  in  1735,  in  his 
Sy  sterna  Naturae.  This  was  improved  by  G. 
Cuvier,  who  spent  17  years  in  perfecting  his 
system  (1795  to  1812),  which,  being  based  upon 
the  structure  of  animals,  is  termed  the  ana 
tomical  system.  Modifications  have  also  been 
made  by  Lamarck,  Virey,  Dumeril,  and  De 
Blainville ;  but  Cuvier's  classification  is  still 
generally  adopted.  He  arranged  the  animal 
kingdom  in  four  great  divisions,  viz. :  I.  The 


ANIMAL 


511 


vertebrata  (those  animals  having  a  spinal  col 
umn),    containing     four     classes  —  mammalia, 
birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes.     II.  The  mollusca. 
III.    The  articulate.     IV.    The  radiata.     The 
classes   are    divided   into   72   orders,   and  the 
latter   into   the  different  genera  and   species,  j 
The  classification  of  Prof.  Agassiz,  founded  on  I 
that  of  Cuvier,  is  one  of  the  most  modern,  and 
in  many  respects  one  of  the  most  instructive. 
It  is  as  follows : 

Branch  I.    RADIATA. 

Class  1.  Polypi:  including  the  2 orders,  actinoids  and  hal- 
cyonoids. 

"  2.  Acalephoe  :  3  orders— hydroids  (including  siphono- 
phoni1).  discophora?.  and  ctenophora?. 

"  3.  Echinoderma:  4  orders — criuoids,  asteroids,  echi- 
noids,  and  holothurioids. 

Branch  II.     MOLLUSCA. 

Class  1.  Acepliala :  4  orders— bryozoa  (including  the  verti- 
cella'),  brachiopods,  tunicata,  and  lamellibranchi- 
ata. 
"    2.  Gasteropoda:   3  orders— pteropoda,  heteropoda, 

and  gasteropoda  proper. 

"  3.  Cephalopoda  :  2  orders — tetrabranchiata  and  di- 
brauchiata. 

Branch  III.     ARTICULATA. 

Class  1.   Warms:  3  orders— trematods  (including  cestoids, 
planaria?.  and  leeches),  nematoids  (including acan- 
thocephala  and  gordiacei\  and  annelides. 
"    2.  Crustacea  :  4  orders— rotifera.  entomostraca  (in 
cluding  cirripeds),  tetradecapods.  and  decapods. 
u     3.  Insects:  3  orders — myriapods,   arachnids,  and  in 
sects  proper. 

Branch  IV.    VERTEBRATA. 

Class  1.  Mi/zontes:  2  orders — myxinoids  and  cyclostomes. 
"     2.  Fishes  proper :  2  orders — ctenoids  (as  the  perch) 

and  cycloids  (as  the  cod).     [This  division  will 

probably  be  considerably  modified  by  its  author.] 
"    3.  Ganoids":  3  orders — caelacanths.  acipenseroids,  and 

sauroids :  and  doubtful,  the  siluroids,  plectogna- 

thi.  and  lophobrancb.es. 
u    4.  Selachians:  3  orders — chiinaera?,  galeodes,  and  ba- 

tides. 
"    5.  Amphibians:   3  orders — csecilise,  ichthyodi,    and 

anoura. 
"     6.  Reptiles:  4  orders — serpents,  saurii,  rhizodontes, 

and  testudinata. 


gans  of  animals  are  constituted, 
the  vertebrata  as  follows  : 


These  are  in 


1.  Epithelial  Tit/rue  : 

A.  Epidermis    and    its    modifications — nails,    hoofs, 
horns,  scales,  and  shells. 

B.  Hair  and   its  modifications — bristles,    wool,    and 
feathers. 

2.  Elastic  Tissue,  its  properties  much  resembling  those  of 

gum  elastic. 

3.  White  Fibrous  Tissue,  in  tendons,  ligaments,  &c.,  very 

strong  and  almost  totally  inextensible. 

4.  Osseous  and  Dental  Tissues,  in  bones  and  teeth. 

5.  Areolar   Tissue,  connecting    the   various    organs  to 

gether. 

6.  Adipose  Tissue,  otherwise  called  fat. 

7.  Cartilage,  in  the  joints,  those  of  the  ribs,  &c. 

8.  Muscular  Tissue,  the  source  of  motion. 

9.  Nerrouft  Tissue,  the  seat  of  sensation  and  intelligence. 

10.  Membranes,  cutaneous  (skin),  mucous,  and  serous. 

11.  Glands,  the  secretory  organs. 

12.  Vessels,  the  blood  vessels  and  the  lymphatics. 

The  tissues  of  animals  are  developed  direct 
ly  from  the  vital  fluid,  the  blood.  This  in 
all  the  vertebrata  is  red,  from  the  presence 
of  minute  cells  containing  a  colored  fluid, 
and  which  are  called  the  blood  corpuscles. 
In  the  invertebrate  animals  no  such  cor 
puscles  exist,  and  therefore  the  blood  is  color 
less.  Hence  the  division  of  animals  into  the 
red-blooded  and  the  white-blooded.  The 
blood  of  each  animal  in  the  central  parts  of 
the  body  has  its  peculiar  natural  temperature, 
that  of  man  being  98°  to  99°  F.  The  tem 
perature  of  all  animals  lower  in  the  scale  than 
birds  is  lower  than  that  of  human  blood,  and 
hence  all  these  are  called  cold-blooded,  while 
birds  and  the  mammalia  are  termed  warm 
blooded  animals. — The  fecundity  of  animals 
also  varies  inversely  with  their  elevation  in  the 
scale.  While  mammals  produce  from  1  to  8 
or  at  most  10  young  at  a  time,  a  tench  produces 
38,000  and  a  mackerel  546,000  eggs;  and 
Leeuwenhoeck  professes  to  have  counted  9,384,- 


sessores  (including  scansores  and  accipitres). 
u     8.  Mammalia:  3 orders — marsupialia, herbivora,  and 
carnivora. 

— As  to  the  chemical  composition  of  animals, 
probably  only  17  out  of  the  64  simple  elements 
now  known,  or  at  most  19,  enter  into  their 
structure.  These  are : 


Oxygen, 

Hydrogen, 
Carbon, 
Nitrogen, 
Copper, 


:  4  onl, -rs-natatores.  grail*,  rasores.  and  in-    i  000  eggs  in  a  single  Codfish.       Some  of  the  mam- 

;  mals  are,  however,  very  prolific.     Pennant  cal- 
i  culates  that  the  descendants  of  a  single  pair  of 
j  rabbits  would,  without  interference,  amount  in 
|  four  years  to  1,274,840.     But  external  circum 
stances  exert  a  powerful  influence  in  this  re- 
I  gard.      For    instance,   the  pigeon  in  its  wild 
I  state  broods  but  twice  a  year,  but  when  do- 
j  mesticated  six,  and  sometimes  even  nine  times. 
In  the  latter  case,  a  single  pair  would  in  four 
|  years  produce  14,762  descendants  according  to 
;  Stillingfleet,  and  according  to  Linnaeus,  over 
!  18,000.     The  astonishing  fecundity  of  some  of 
!  the  animalcules  has  already  been  illustrated. 
I  The  mammalia  alone  bring  forth  their  young 
;  alive,  the  duration  of  gestation  being  as  follows 
in  the  following  species :    elephant,  20  months 
1  and  18  days;  rhinoceros,  9  months;    horse,  11 
months;    ass,    12    months;     cow,   9    months; 
reindeer,  8  months ;  buffalo,  12  months ;  sheep 


Sulphur, 

Phosphorus, 

Calcium, 

Iodine, 

Lead, 


Magnesium, 

Sodium, 

Potassium, 

Manganese, 

Iron, 


Chlorine, 
Fluorine, 
Silicon, 
Bromine. 


These  elements,  variously  combined,  form 
numerous  compounds,  termed  the  immediate 
principles  of  animal  structures,  of  which  in 
the  mammalia  there  are  about  90.  Of  these, 
some  are  of  mineral  origin,  as  water,  common 
salt,  and  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime. 
Some  are  formed  within  the  bodies  of  animals 


bv  disassimilation,  as  urea,  uric  acid,  and  crea-  j  and    goat,   5  months ;     foxes    and    wolves,   o 
tine;  and  others  still  are  obtained  from  vege-  :  months ;  Greenland  whale,  about  10 months. — 


table  and  animal  food  for  the  nutrition  of  the 
tissues,  as  albumen,  caseine,  musculine,  and 
fat,  and  hence  exist  as  constituent  elements  in 
the  latter.  These  immediate  principles  unite 
to  form  the  tissues  of  which  the  parts  and  or- 


Obviously  there  must  be  a  correspondence  of 
the  structure  of  an  animal  to  its  habits  and 
functions.  For  example,  a  carnivorous  animal 
must  have  great  strength  and  powers  of  loco 
motion,  enabling  it  to  overtake,  seize,  and  de- 


512 


ANIMAL 


stroy  its  victim.  It  must  therefore  have 
largely  developed  muscles  and  strong  bones, 
and  the  teeth  and  jawbones  must  be  es 
pecially  strong,  and  the  former  of  a  peculiar 
form  for  tearing  animal  tissues.  Such  an  animal 
must  also  have  an  acute  sense  of  smell  and  of 
hearing,  and  a  corresponding  structure  of  the  or 
gans  of  these  two  senses.  It  is  therefore  not 
wonderful  that  Cuvier  could  construct  an  entire 
animal  from  having  a  few  of  its  bones  given,  and 
that  Agassiz  has  deduced  the  form  and  struc 
ture  of  a  fossil  fish  from  its  scales  alone. — What 
is  nourishment  to  one  animal  may  prove  to  be 
poison  to  another.  Pallas  states  that  hedge 
hogs  eat  abundantly  of  cantharides  without  in 
convenience.  The  sphinx  of  a  species  of  cater 
pillar  feeds  on  the  acrid  and  poisonous  juice 
of  the  milk  thistle  (tythimalis),  and  a  certain 
worm  on  the  leaves  of  the  tobacco  plant. 
Bees  feed  on  and  obtain  honey  from  the  se 
cretions  of  many  poisonous  plants ;  and  a  kind 
of  buzzard  devours  the  nux  vomica.  Most 
animals,  however,  confine  themselves  within 
certain  definite  limits  so  far  as  the  sources  of 
their  nourishment  are  concerned.  Even  the 
hog,  which  is  usually  spoken  of  as  omnivorous, 
may  be  mentioned  in  illustration.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  ox  eats  270  and  rejects  218 
plants;  the  sheep,  387  and  141  ;  the'goat,  449 
and  120  ;  the  horse,  202  and  212  ;  while  the  hog 
eats  but  72  and  refuses  171.  This  animal,  there 
fore,  except  in  cases  of  necessity,  evinces  even 
a  superior  discrimination  in  the  selection  of  its 
food.  Some  animals  never  drink  at  all,  drink 
not  being  required  if  the  food  contain  a  large 
amount  of  water,  as  is  the  case  with  the  suc 
culent  plants.  The  gemsbok  and  the  eland, 
two  species  of  antelope,  are  thus  adapted  to 
the  sandy  deserts  they  inhabit. — The  amount 
of  food  required  by  animals  depends  upon  its 
quality  and  their  activity.  A  far  less  bulk  of 
animal  than  vegetable  food  is  required;  and 
the  greater  the  activity,  the  greater  is  the  waste 
of  the  tissues,  and  the  more  nourishment  is 
needed  to  repair  them.  The  intervals  of  fast 
ing  are  therefore  determined  mainly  by  this 
circumstance.  While  birds  are  eating  most  of 
the  time  when  not  asleep,  reptiles  pass  months 
in  succession  without  food,  in  the  mean  time 
being  in  a  dormant  state.  And  those  of  the 
mammalia  which  hibernate  (as  the  dormouse, 
hedgehog,  marmot,  &c.)  also  pass  the  entire 
winter  with  little  or  no  food.  The  sloth  also 
has  been  known  to  suspend  itself  on  a  pole  for 
40  days  without  taking  food.  But  irregularity 
of  supply  of  food  must  also  be  taken  into  ac 
count.  The  griffin  vulture  will  retain  its  vigor 
for  five  or  six  weeks  without  food;  but  when 
opportunity  recurs  it  does  not  leave  its  repast 
for  days,  or  so  long  as  a  morsel  of  flesh  remains, 
so  completely  gorging  itself  that  it  is  incapable 
of  rising  on  the  wing  till  it  has  ejected  the  con 
tents  of  its  crop.  A  total  privation  of  food  is 
longest  endured  without  fatal  consequences  by 
animals  manifesting  the  lowest  vital  energy. 
Fourteen  persons,  male  and  female,  survived 


starvation  on  being  shipwrecked  for  23  days. 
An  eagle  lived  28  days,  and  several  dogs  3(5 
days  without  food.      On  the  other  hand,  land 
tortoises  have  been  kept  alive  18  months  and 
serpents  for  five  years  without  food.     The  re- 
j  quirements  of  different    animals  in  regard  to 
I  their    food    will    determine  the  limits  on  the 
globe  within  which   each  species  will  thrive ; 
|  and  this,   together  with  the  temperature    re- 
I  quired  by  each,  is  the  principal  agency  deter- 
|  mining   the    geographical   distribution  of   the 
!  various  species  of  the  animal  kingdom. — The 
|  greatest  amount  of  strength  and  endurance  is 
I  possessed  by  the  warm-blooded  animals  ;  birds 
I  being  the  strongest  of  all  animals  in  proportion 
I  to  their  size,  except  certain  insects.     The  lion 
I  is  capable  of  bearing  off  large  animals,  and  has 
•  been  known  to  leap  over  a  broad  ditch  with  a 
;  heifer  in  his  mouth,  and  to  break  the  back  of  a 
|  horse  with  a  single  stroke  of  his  paw.     The 
'  grisly  bear,    weighing  800  Ibs.,  can  drag   the 
carcass  of  a  buffalo  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  to  a 
I  considerable  distance.     The  camel    sometimes 
!  carries  a  weight  of  1,000  Ibs.  30  miles  a  day, 
and  judges  so  accurately  of  its  powers  that, 
I  being  accustomed  to  lie  down  while  loaded,  it 
i  refuses  to  rise  till  a  part  has  been  taken  off,  if 
too  heavy  a  burden  is  imposed.      The  horse  ia 
j  about  six  times  as  strong  as  a  man,  his  power 
|  being  estimated  at  420  Ibs.  at  a  dead  pull.     lie 
j  cannot,  however,  carry  more  than  three  times 
|  as  much  weight  up  a  steep  hill.     A  Canadian 
i  shrew  mole,  whose  body  was  but  four  inches 
j  long,  being  let  loose  in  a  room,  passed  between 
i  the  legs  of  some  heavy  chairs  and  the  wall  with 
|  which  they  were  in  contact,  throwing    them 
|  aside  without  much  apparent  effort,  and  at  last 
j  hid  itself  behind  a  pile  of  quarto  books  more 
i  than  two  feet  high,  which  it  also  moved  from 
I  the  wall.     This  animal  also  burrows  so  quickly, 
|  that  on  being  let  loose  in  a  yard  it  almost  in 
stantly  disappears  beneath   the  surface  of  the 
ground.      On  the  other  hand,  the  sloth  is  so 
averse  to   all  effort  that,  when  it  has  satisfied 
its  appetite  upon  the  fruits  of  trees,  it  falls  to 
the  ground  to  save  itself  the  labor  of  descend 
ing. — As  instances  of  fieetness  of  animals,  the 
kangaroo,  the  hare,  and  the  antelope  may  be 
|  alluded  to.     The  first  progresses  by  a  rapid  se- 
|  ries  of  leaps,  frequently  of   20  feet,   its  own 
|  body  being  from  5  to  0  feet  in  length.      The 
i  hare  sometimes  passes  over  25  feet  at  a  single 
bound.      The  springbok  bounds  to  the  height 
of  10  to  12  feet,   clearing  at  each  leap  from 
i  12  to  15  feet  without  any  apparent  exertion. 
Even  the  sheep  in  its  wild  state  runs  and  leaps 
with  great  agility.     The  movements  of  the  dol- 
:  phin  are  also  very  rapid,  and  it  leaps  so  high 
:  out  of  the  water  as  sometimes  to  throw  itself 
!  upon  a  ship's  deck.      The  ostrich  will  at  the 
outset  outstrip  the  fleetest  horse.      The  nandu 
(allied  to  the   ostrich)   is    equally  fleet,    and 
when    caught  kicks  so  violently  as  to  break 
even  stones.     The  carrier  pigeon  flies  25  to  30 
miles  an  hour.     The  dragoon  pigeon  has  flown 
I  from  Bury  to  London,  72  miles,  in  2£  hours. 


AXIMAL 


ANIMALCULES 


513 


rp.illanzani    states    that    two   swallows    Hew 
iroin   Milan   to    Pa  via,    18    mik-s,    in  13  min 
utes.      The  precision  and  rapidity  of  muscu 
lar    action    of    some  animals  is  also  remark 
able.     The  elephant  can  pick  up  a  pin  with  its 
huge  trunk.     The  chamois  goat  leaps  with  the 
greatest  precision  from  point  to  point  on  the 
mountain  rocks,  alighting  on  surfaces  scarcely 
large  enough  for  its  feet  to  rest  upon.     A  bird 
called  the  wryneck,  having  a  long  tongue  like 
the  woodpecker,  darts  forth  and  retracts  this 
organ  with  such  rapidity  that  the  eye  is  unable 
to  follow  it.  The  frog  also  catches  flics  by  move 
ments  scarcely  less  rapid. — Xo  animal  possesses 
more  than  five  senses,  and  some  are  probably  j 
endowed  with  not  more  than  one,  the  sense  of  j 
touch.    But  we  find  each  sense  manifested  in  the 
animal  scale,  in  all  grades  of  perfection.     Of  in 
telligence,  also,  we  find  great  varieties  in  birds  ! 
and  mammalia,  while  below  the  former  we  hard-  j 
ly  find  any  higher  attributes  than  mere  instinct,  i 
This,  indeed,  predominates  in  most  birds,  and  in  | 
the  mammalia  often  assumes  the  appearance  ! 
of  cunning,  artifice,  or  sagacity.     The  Egyptian  j 
ichneumon,   being  fond  of  poultry,  feigns  it-  ! 
self  dead  till  the  birds  coine  within  its  reach,  j 
when  it  springs  upon  and  strangles  them,  usu-  j 
ally  contenting  itself  with  sucking  their  blood. 
There  is  a  species  of  musk  which  also  feigns 
death  when  caught  in  the  noose  set  for  it,  but 
escapes  the  moment  it  is  untied.     The  Europe 
an  cuckoo  neither  builds  a  nest  for  itself  nor 
hatches  its  own  eggs.     It  deposits  a  single  egg 
in  the  nest  of  the  hedge  sparrow  (and  some 
times  of  the  wagtail  or  the  titlark),  while  the 
other  bird  is  laying  her  eggs.     This  addition  to 
her   charge    disturbs   her    arrangements,    and 
during  incubation  she    throws   out   her   own  | 
eggs,  or  so  disturbs  as  to  addle  them,  to  make  j 
room  for  the  cuckoo's ;  but,  according  to  Dr.  j 
Jenner's  observations,  she  never  displaces  the  j 
latter.     When  some  of  her  own  eggs  and  that  I 
of  the  cuckoo  are  hatched,  the  young  cuckoo  j 
manages  to  throw  out  the  young  sparrows  and  | 
the  remaining  eggs,  and  thus  gets  the  whole  j 
nest  to  itself.     The  ostrich  surrounds  her  nest  j 
with  a  trench,  in  which  she  deposits  some  of  ! 
her  eggs  as  the  first  food  of  the  young  ones  to  j 
be  hatched  from  the  eggs  in  the  nest.— To  an  | 
animal  capable  of  being  educated,  though  to  a  | 
slight  extent,  we  cannot  deny  the  possession  of  j 
intelligence ;  and  judged  by  this  criterion,  most  i 
of  the  mammals  and  some  birds  must  be  re-  j 
garded  as  possessing  this  attribute.     The  adap-  i 
tation  of  means  to  ends,  in  entirely  new  cir-  | 
cumstances,  must  also  generally  be  attributed  I 
to  it  rather  than  to  mere  instinct.     Swallows  ' 
club  together  to  repel  a  common  enemy,  many 
closing  round  a  hawk.     A  martin  being  caught  \ 
in  a  noose  of  packthread,  fastened  at  the  other  ; 
end  to  a  gutter,  all  the  martins  in  the  vicinity  i 
were  attracted  by  its  cries,  and,   striking  the  i 
thread   with  their  bills,   succeeded  in  setting  I 
him  at  liberty.     The  superior   intelligence  of 
the  elephant  is  often  asserted  ;  but  this  animal  j 
i.s  really  less  intelligent  than  the  dog,  and  about  I 
VOL.  i. — 33 


equal  in  this  respect  to  the  horse.  As  tested 
by  educability,  as  well  as  by  acquired  taste*, 
the  quadrumana  are  far  the  most  intelligent  of 
the  lower  animals. — Carnivorous  animals  are 
mostly  solitary  in  their  habits,  while  many  of 
the  herbivorous  are  socially  inclined  and  gre 
garious.  This  is  the  case  with  the  llama  and 
the  horse  in  the  wild  state.  Camelopards  herd 
together  usually  in  companies  of  l(i.  Ante 
lopes  are  found  in  herds  of  2,000  or  3,000,  or 
in  small  parties  of  only  five  or  six  individuals. 
The  males  also  of  antelopes  and  deer  frequently 
consort  together,  independently  of  the  females. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  conjugal  attachment 
of  the  stellerine  (allied  to  the  dugoiig)  is  so 
great  that  if  the  female  be  taken,  the  male  will 
dash  on  shore  to  her  in  spite  of  blows,  with  the 
swiftness  of  an  arrow.  Some  animals  are  do 
cile  and  yielding,  others  obstinate.  The  mule 
is  proverbial  for  the  last  attribute,  but  the  llama 
is  still  more  remarkable  in  this  respect.  Some 
animals  are  grave  or  morose,  while  others  are 
playful,  and  even  have  their  peculiar  amuse 
ments.  The  mocking-bird  amuses  itself  in 
frightening  other  small  birds  by  imitating  the 
screams  of  the  sparrow  hawk. — The  particular 
classes  and  orders  of  animals  will  be  described 
under  the  appropriate  heads;  the  four  classes 
of  the  vertebrata  forming  the  articles  AMPHI 
BIA,  HERPETOLOGY,  ICHTHYOLOGY,  MAMMALIA, 
and  ORNITHOLOGY  ;  while  the  in  vertebrata  will 
be  found  described  under  the  heads  ANIMAL 
CULES,  ARACHNIDA,  ARTICULATA,  CRUSTACEA, 
ECHINODEKMA,  ENTOMOLOGY,  ExTOZOA,  EPIZOA, 
MOLLTJSCA,  PROTOZOA,  and  RADIATA. 

ANIMALCULES,  a  name  familiarly  applied  to 
the  more  minute  forms  of  animal  life,  for  the 
knowledge  of  which  we  are  mainly  indebted 
to  the  microscope.  Leeuwenhoeck  led  the  way 
in  this  as  in  most  other  branches  of  microscop 
ic  study ;  but  it  is  to  Gleichen  that  we  are  in 
debted  for  the  first  attempt  at  the  systematic 
study  of  the  subject.  He  was  followed  by  the 
Danish  microscopist  O.  F.  Muller,  who  made 
the  first  regular  classification  of  animal 
cules.  Subsequent  observation  has  detected 
many  errors  in  the  classification  of  Muller, 
and  it  has  now  little  other  than  a  historic  in 
terest.  It  is  to  Ehrenberg  that  we  are  indebted, 
directly  or  indirectly,  for  almost  all  our  knowl 
edge  of  these  forms.  Since  the  appearance  of 
his  work.  Die  InfmiomtMerchcn*  the  study  of 
minute  animal  forms  has  been  ably  pursued  by 
Dujardin  in  France,  Siebold,  Kolliker.  and 
others  in  Germany,  Owen  in  England,  and  Bai 
ley  in  the  United  States. — The  earlier  observ 
ers  grouped  together,  under  the  term  animal 
cules,  a  vast  variety  of  living  beings  having 
nothing  in  common  except  their  minuteness 
of  size.  Plants  and  animals,  mollusks,  crus 
taceans,  insects  and  worms,  larva)  and  per 
fect  forms,  all  were  aggregated  together  under 
the  vague  term  animalcules.  The  labors  of 
modern  scientific  men  have  been  in  great  part, 
exhausted  in  the  distribution  of  this  mass  of 
animal  and  vegetable  life  a-n ion y;  tho  various  - 


ANIMALCULES 


classes,  families,  and  orders  to  which  its  heter 
ogeneous  materials  properly  belong,  and  the 
formation  of  a  class  to  which  the  name  infuso 
ria,  first  proposed  by  M  tiller,  is  now  generally 
applied.  To  this  class  we  shall  confine  our 
selves,  and  shall  generally  use  the  term  infuso 
ria,  not  that  it  is  absolutely  accurate,  for  though 
the  greater  number  of  these  animals  are  devel 
oped  in  infusions,  yet  this  rule  is  not  without 
some  striking  exceptions. — If  a  drop  of  water 
in  which  animal  or  vegetable  matter  is  decay 
ing  be  placed  upon  the  object-holder  of  a 
microscope  of  adequate  magnifying  power,  say 
200  diameters,  it  will  be  found  to  swarm  with 
living  beings  in  active  and  incessant  motion. 
They  vary  in  size  from  -^  of  an  inch,  when 
they  are  just  within  the  limit  of  unassisted  vis 
ion,  to  a  minuteness  which  it  tasks  the  power 
of  the  glass  to  detect.  These  are  infusoria; 
they  abound  in  every  ditch,  pond,  lake,  or  riv 
er,  are  equally  numerous  in  salt  as  in  fresh 
water,  have  been  found  in  thermal  springs  of 
high  temperature,  and  in  the  melted  snow  of 
the  Alps  and  the  Andes;  in  short,  wherever 
water  and  decaying  vegetable  or  animal  matter 
exist,  these  infusorial  animals  will  be  found  in 
vast  numbers.  There  is  no  doubt  that  they  are 
often  drawn  np  into  the  atmosphere  in  watery 
vapor,  and  borne  to  and  fro  by  the  winds. 
Many  forms  are  not  deprived  of  life  by  complete 
desiccation,  and  may  therefore  be  mingled 
with  the  dust,  and  in  this  condition  carried 
about  by  the  winds,  to  resume  their  active  vi 
tality  so  soon  as  they  chance  to  fall  into  water. 
The  suddenness  wTith  which  they  appear  in  wa 
ter,  even  distilled  water,  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  furnished  the  advocates  of  spontaneous  gen 
eration  with  one  of  their  strongest  arguments. 
— Infusorial  animalcules  have  neither  vessels 
nor  nerves,  and  are  made  up  of  a  uniform  tis 
sue,  called  by  Dujardin  sarcode,  and  by  Huxley 
protoplasm.  This  is  in  some  classes  of  nearly 
uniform  consistence;  in  others  the  external 
layer  possesses  considerably  more  density  than 
the  internal,  while  in  yet  others  a  distinct  pel 
licle  or  skin  can  be  made  out.  They  have  no 
true  feet;  a  few  of  the  very  lowest  type  have 
the  power  of  protruding  portions  of  their  homo 
geneous  structure  in  the  form  of  limbs,  which 
they  use  both  for  the  prehension  of  their  food 
and  for  locomotion.  In  the  higher  forms  the 
locomotion  is  by  cilia,  or  very  minute  hairs. 
This  motion  is  probably  automatic,  as  it  is  con 
stant  day  and  night,  the  animal  never  sleeping, 
nor  appearing  to  take  rest.  Yet  it  certainly 
has  in  some  cases  many  of  the  characteristics 
of  spontaneity,  the  animal  in  his  rapid  course 
seeming  to  avoid  obstacles;  but  the  subject 
of  the  character  of  the  locomotion  of  these 
animals  is  very  obscure.  Some  of  these  higher 
forms  have  a  shell  or  outer  coat,  called  carapace 
or  lorica;  these  are  spoken  of  as  loricated. — 
We  have  already  intimated  that  the  systematic 
classification  of  the  infusoria  has  been  a  mat 
ter  of  great  difficulty.  That  of  Ehrenberg,  to 
which  we  shall  in  the  main  conform,  though 


possessing  great  merit,  has  also  very  great, 
defects.  He  includes  among  his  infusorial  an 
imals  very  many  large  and  important  families 
which  are  now  known  to  belong  to  the  vegeta 
ble  kingdom.  His  desmidiece  are  now  very 
generally,  we  might  almost  say  universally, 
admitted  to  be  (tl(j<p  ;  and  his  diatomacece  are 
now  also  placed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
The  classification  of  Pujardin,  though  it  has 
some  great  advantages  over  that  of  Ehrenberg, 
is  deformed  by  a  multitude  of  new  terms,  or. 
what  is  worse,  old  terms  to  which  he  affixes  new 
significations.  The  two  great  obstacles  which 
at  present  forbid  even  the  hope  of  success  in  any 
attempt  at  systematic  classification  of  infusoria 
are:  1,  the  great  difficulty  of  distinguishing 
the  lower  forms  of  animal  from  the  correspond 
ing  forms  of  vegetable  life ;  2,  that  of  deciding 
whether  a  given  form  is  permanent,  or  whether 
we  have  to  do  with  the  larva)  of  an  insect,  or 
some  one  of  those  forms  which  crustaceans, 
polyps,  and  other  of  the  lower  animals  assume 
in  the  progress  of  their  alternations  of  genera 
tion.  A  motion  apparently  spontaneous  was 
formerly  supposed  to  decide  the  question  in 
favor  of  an  animal  nature:  but  Vaucher  of 
Geneva  (1700)  proved  that  a  motion  not  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  spontaneous  movements 
of  animals  is  common  in  the  spores  of  the 
simpler  aquatic  plants,  and  is  indeed  nature's 
provision  for  their  dispersion.  That  animals 
absorb  oxygen  and  give  out  carbon,  while 
plants  give  out  oxygen  and  absorb  carbon, 
affords  in  the  opinion  of  many  naturalists  the 
desired  test.  But  although  this  is  a  very  gen 
eral,  it  is  not  found  to  be  a  uniform  law.  A 
third  distinctive  mark,  and  probably  the  most, 
useful,  is  found  in  the  character  of  their  nutri 
tive  material — plants  being  nourished  by  inor 
ganic,  animals  by  organic  food.  There  are 
some  exceptions  to  this  rule  also,  but  they  are 
not  numerous,  nor  do  they  greatly  detract  from 
its  practical  value.  Agassiz  has  satisfied  him 
self  that  very  many  of  Ehrenberg's  genera  are 
germs  of  aquatic  worms,  and  he  suggests  that 
this  is  probably  the  true  nature  of  all  the  infu 
soria.  Should  this  idea  prove  well  founded, 
the  most  essential  changes  will  of  course  be 
necessary  in  the  arrangement  of  the  infusoria 
— if,  indeed,  it  is  not  found  necessary  to  break 
up  this  class  altogether,  and  distribute  the  in 
dividuals  of  which  it  is  composed  throughout 
the  lower  divisions  of  the  animal  scale.  But. 
meanwhile  we  shall  adopt  the  classification  of 
Ehrenberg,  eliminating  from  it  those  families 
on  whose  vegetable  nature  the  great  mass  of 
naturalists  are  agreed.  Ehrenberg  divides  the 
infusoria  into  potygastriea  and  rotatoria.  The 
characteristic  of  the  former  is  the  appearance 
of  certain  internal  cavities,  which  he  supposed 
to  be  dilated  portions  of  the  alimentary  canal, 
or  stomachs ;  hence  their  name  polygastric,  or 
many-stomached.  The  rotifera,  the  so-called 
wheel  animalcules,  are  distinguished  by  a  pecu 
liar  arrangement  of  cilia  upon  lobes  near  the 
mouth,  which,  when  in  a  state  of  active  vibra- 


ANIMALCULES 


tion,  give  to  the  lobes  the  appearance  of  wheels 
in  rapid  motion.  These  so-called  wheel  ani 
malcules  are,  however,  so  widely  diflerent  in 
their  plan  of  structure,  and  so  much  higher  in 
their  degree  of  organization  than  the  polygas 
trica,  that  naturalists  have  very  generally  sep 
arated  them  from  the  infusoria,  and  have  placed 
them  among  the  eutromostracan  crustaceans. 
We  shall,  however,  treat  of  both  in  the  present 
article.  I.  POLYGASTRIC  INFUSORIA.  It  is  un 
fortunate  that  the  name  polygastric,  or  many- 
stomached,  is  taken  from  a  supposed  peculiarity 
of  the  animal,  the  existence  of  which  in  any  of 
the  class  has  been  rendered  by  later  researches 
more  than  doubtful,  and  the  absence  of  which 
in  some  families  is  admitted  by  Ehrenberg 
himself.  By  retaining  this  name,  we  commit 
two  verbal  inconsistencies :  1,  in  calling  ani 
mals  many-stomached  which  have  probably  no 
stomach  at  all ;  and  2,  we  form  a  subdivision 
of  these  polygastrica,  the  characteristic  of 
which  is  the  absence  of  any  digestive  tube. 
Following  Ehrenberg,  then,  we  base  the  first 
great  division  of  the  polygastric  infusoria  on 
the  presence  or  absence  of  an  alimentary 
canal.  Those  in  which  it  does  not  exist  he 
calls  anentera  ;  those  in  which  it  does,  entero- 
dela.  Of  the  anentera,  some  have  the  power 
of  protruding  a  portion  of  their  homogeneous 
bodies  as  a  foot-like  process;  and  of  these 
some  have  a  shell,  or,  in  scientific  phrase,  are 
loricated,  others  are  non-loricated.  The  former 
are  called  arcellina,  the  later  amabce-.  Of  the 
remainder,  some  are  furnished  with  cilia,  others 
are  not.  To  the  former  the  term  dinobryina 
is  applied  when  they  are  loricated,  and  astasiwa 
when  they  are  not.  The  non-ciliated,  in  like 
manner,  are  called  peridina  when  loricated, 
and  cyclidina  when  naked.  The  cnterodela,  or 
polygastrica  having  a  digestive  canal,  are  di 
vided  in  the  same  way  into  two  parallel  series, 
as  they  have  or  have  not  a  lorica  or  shell. 
First  in  this  parallel  series  are  placed  those 
where  the  orifice  of  the  digestive  tube  is  single; 
these  are  wrticellina  and  ophrydina.  Next 
come  those  with  two  orifices  at  opposite  ends 
of  the  body;  these  are  enchelia  and  colepina. 
Next  are  those  where  the  two  orifices  are 
irregularly  placed,  the  aspiditcina  having  no 
shell,  the  trachelina  and  ophryocercina  each 
having  a  shell ;  the  former  having  a  proboscis 
but  no  tail,  the  latter  a  tail  and  mouth  anterior. 
Lastly,  those  having  two  ventral  orifices :  the 
euplota,  where  the  shell  is  present,  and  the 
kolpoda  and  oxy  trichina,  the  former  moving 
by  cilia,  the  latter  by  other  organs,  neither 
having  a  shell.  A  diagram  will  perhaps  make 
this  classification  more  intelligible  : 

POLYGASTEIC  ANIMALS. 
ANENTERA,  hacing  no  digestive  tube. 

Loricated.  Non-loncated. 

A.  Protruding  prxrt  of  the  )  . 

body  like  f^et         ne  [ARCELLIXA.  AM<EB*. 

B.  Having  cilia.  DINOBRYINA.         ASTASIJSA. 

C.  Non-ciliated.  PEHIDINA.  CYCLIDINA. 


ENTERODELA,  ha  ring  a  digestive  tube. 


A.  One  orifice  to  the  di 

gestive  tube. 

B.  Two  orifices  at  oppo 

site  ends  of  the  body. 


C.  Two  orifices  irregular 
ly  placed. 


VORTIOELLINA.      OPITRTDIXA. 

ENTHET.IA.  COLEPINA. 

TRAOIIELTNA,    a  ) 

proboscis  but  no  ^ASPIDISCINA. 
tail. 


terior  mouth. 


(  OXYTRICHINA, 
D.  Two  ventral  orifices.       ECPLOTA.  •<  moving  by  oth- 

(  er  organs" 

— As  to  structure,  we  have  already  stated  that 
neither  nerves  nor  vessels  have  been  discovered 
j  in  infusoria ;  indeed,  in  the  very  lowest  class,  the 
j  amoeba  and  arcellina,  which  are  by  Dujardin 
I  called  rhizopoda,  and  by  other  writers  pseudo- 
poda,  we  find  life  manifesting  itself  almost 
without  organization.    The  amwba  is  a  jelly-like 
mass,  without  determinate  shape,  in  texture 
nearly  uniform,  having  no  integument ;  in  fact, 
only  differing  from  a  mass   of  jelly  in  being 
slightly  more  fluid  in  the  centre  than  at  the 
circumference,  and  having  at  some  point  near 
its  surface  a  vesicle,  perhaps  only  a  vacuole, 
which  pulsates  pretty  regularly.      When  this 
creature  is  about  to  move,  a  current  of  the 
more  fluid  central  portion  is  seen  tending  to 
ward  some  one  point  of  the  circumference ;  soon 
a  portion  of  the  mass  protrudes,  it  elongates 
till  perhaps  double  the  length  of  the  animal, 
the  mass  of  whose  body  then  seems  to  pass 
into  the   protruded    and    elongated    portion, 
and  thus  locomotion  is  effected.     The  mode  of 
taking  food  is  thus  described  by  Kolliker,  who 
studied  it  in  the  actinophrys,  a  genus  closely 
allied  to  the  amoeba,  and  like  it  made  up  of 
a  mass  of  jelly,  portions  of  which,  scarcely 
differing  from  the  general  mass  in  structure, 
are  protruded  in  the  form  of  rays :  "  The  modo 
in  which  the  actinophrys  is  nourished  is  one 
of  the  highest  and  most  special  interest.     Al 
though   the  creature  has  neither  mouth  nor 
stomach,  yet  it  takes  in  solid  nutriment,  and  re 
jects  what  is  indigestible.     This  miracle,  for  ?o 
it  may  almost  be  called,  is  thus  effected :  When 
in  its  progress  through  the  Avater  the  actino 
phrys  approaches  any  small  plant  or  animal — a 
minute  crustacean,  rotifera,  the  young  of  cy- 
clops,   or  the  lower  alga  diatomacece  for  in- 
'  stance — as  soon  as  the  mass  is  touched  by  one 
j  of  the  rays  of  the  actinophrys,  it  seems  to  ad- 
|  here  to  it;  the  ray  now  slowly  shortens  itself, 
and  draws  its  prey  to  the  surface  of  its  own 
|  body ;  the  surrounding  filaments  attach  thcm- 
'  selves  to  it,  bending  their  points  together,  and 
!  closing  over  it  till  it  is  enclosed  on  all  sides. 
'  Gradually  a  cup-like  cavity  is  formed  in  the 
j  body  of  the  actinophrys,   at  the  base  of  the 
j  ray,  and  into  this  the  prey  is  crowded,  till,  the 
j  cavity  still    growing    deeper,  the  whole  mass 
i  comes  to  be  imbedded  in  the  very  substance  of 
i  the  animal,  which  gradually  closes  around  and 
I  over  it,  and  thus  the  mass  comes  to  be  con- 
i  tained  in  a  cavity  or  stomach  formed  for  its 
j  reception.     Here  it  is  digested,  and  its  nutri- 
!  tive  portions  absorbed;    and  when  this  is  ac- 


510 


ANIMALCULES 


complished,  the  undigested  portion,  if  any  such 
remain,  is  protruded  toward  the  surface,  and 
finally  emerges  from  the  body  of  the  animal  as 
it  might  from  a  mass  of  jelly  ;  the  opening  by 
which  it  escaped  closes  behind  it,  and  the  ani 
mal  resumes  its  pristine  form  and  condition." 
Of  the  mode  of  reproduction  in  these  animals, 
we  only  know  they  multiply  by  self-division, 
and  that  when  portions  of  the  mass  are  cut  or 
torn  away,  these  maintain  an  independent  ex 
istence,  and  soon  acquire  the  shape  and  func 
tions  of  mature  animals.  Of  their  proper 
sexual  reproduction  we  know  nothing,  al 
though  all  analogy  leads  us  to  suppose  that 
this  multiplication  by  division,  whether  spon 
taneous  or  artificial,  must  have  its  limit,  and 
a  proper  sexual  reproduction  by  germ  and 
sperm  cells  be  interposed. — Ascending  in  the 
scale,  we  come  to  those  polygastric  infusoria 
which  have  a  proper  digestive  canal — the  en- 
terodela  of  Ehrenberg.  Though  the  existence  of 
an  alimentary  canal  is  made  the  characteristic 
of  this  group,  its  presence  in  any  of  the  genera 
is  by  no  means  certain.  All  have  beyond  con 
troversy  a  mouth  into  which  food  is  taken,  and 
many  have  an  anal  orifice  from  which  excre 
ment  is  discharged ;  but  whether  there  is  any 
canal  with  definite  walls  through  which  the 
food  passes,  as  in  the  higher  animals,  is  doubted 
by  many  naturalists,  and  denied  by  not  a  few. 
Ehrenberg  indeed  traced  the  course  of  the  ca 
nal  passing  very  nearly  straight  in  the  length  of 
the  animal's  body  in  some  genera,  convoluted 
in  others,  and  in  a  third  class  winding  in  a  spi 
ral  around  the  inner  surface  of  the  body,  with 
llask-like  appendices  communicating  with  its 
cavity,  and  making  up  the  great  mass  of  the 
body.  But  the  disciples  of  Ehrenberg,  work 
ing  with  the  best  modern  improved  micro 
scopes,  have  not  been  able  to  satisfy  themselves 
of  the  existence  of  this  so-called  digestive  tube. 
A  mouth  and  a  short,  generally  ciliated  oesoph 
agus,  these  animals  certainly  have;  but  the 
existence  of  an  alimentary  canal,  beyond  this 
short  gullet,  is  very  doubtful.  The  infusoria  of 
this  class  differ  from  the  amcebcc  and  other 
rhizopoda,  in  that  they  have  a  true  investing 
membrane  or  skin,  which  in  some  families  can 
be  detached  as  an  independent  membrane ;  and 
from  the  internal  surface  of  this  membrane 
partitions  are  sent  off,  which  divide  the  general 
cavity  of  the  body  into  separate  chambers.  In 
these  the  jelly-like  tissue  of  the  animal,  the 
Barcode  of  Dujardin,  is  lodged  ;  and  into  these 
chambers  the  food,  when  it  has  escaped  from 
the  oesophagus,  is  received ;  it  passes  from  one 
to  the  other  till  it  has  made  the  circuit  of  the 
body,  not,  however,  with  much  regularity,  and 
is  in  its  course  digested  ;  and  all  of  its  aliment 
ary  substance  being  absorbed,  the  residue  is 
ejected  either  by  the  mouth  or  by  an  anal  ori 
fice.  Tims  is  the  function  of  digestion  per 
formed  in  the  cnterodela. — It  was  stated  in  the 
definition  of  the  infusoria,  that  they  have  no 
nerves  or  blood  vessels.  Nervous  matter  has 
certainly  never  been  detected  in  any  of  the 


class ;  and  although  Ehrenberg  supposed  that 
two  colored  (generally  red)  spots,  which  are 
found  pretty  constantly  near  the  anterior  part 
of  the  body,  are  eyes,  yet,  as  he  was  equally 
confident  of  the  existence  and  nature  of  these 
spots  in  some  forms  which  undoubtedly  belong 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  it  is  probable  that 
he  was  in  error  as  to  these.  In  most  poly- 
gastric  infusoria,  small  vessels  which  appear  to 
contain  a  clear,  nearly  colorless  fluid,  are  found, 
which  enlarge  when  full,  and  when  empty  con 
tract  so  as  to  be  scarcely  visible.  Their  num 
ber  varies  from  a  single  one  to  ten  or  twelve; 
they  usually  occupy  the  same  place  in  individ 
uals  of  the  same  species,  and  their  contents 
seem  sometimes  to  be  propelled  from  one  to 
the  other.  They  are  probably  receptacles  of 
nutrient  fluid  stored  up  for  the  use  of  the  sys 
tem.  Another  remarkable  peculiarity  of  the 
infusoria  is,  that  in  the  very  substance  of  their 
bodies  may  generally  be  found  a  solid  granular- 
looking  mass  of  very  variable  form — round, 
oval,  curved,  or  even  in  some  cases  branched — 
by  some  called  the  nucleus.  By  Ehrenberg  it 
was  said  to  beatestis;  and  although  this  opin 
ion  has  found  little  favor  with  the  more  recent 
observers,  yet  that  this  peculiar  mass  has  a  very 
important  connection  with  the  reproductive 
function  cannot  be  denied.  When  the  infusoria 
are  about  to  multiply  by  self-division,  the  sep 
aration  always  begins  in  the  nucleus.  May 
not  this  be  a  mass  of  germ  cells,  such  as  we  see 
in  those  insects  which,  after  one  sexual  connec 
tion,  continue  throughout  a  succession  of  gen 
erations  to  bring  forth  young,  till  the  mass  of 
germ  cells  is  exhausted,  and  a  second  sexual 
act  is  necessary  to  continue  the  multiplication 
of  the  species  ?  In  none  of  the  infusoria  has 
any  muscular  or  contractile  tissue  been  found, 
though  the  very  lowest  form,  the  amoeba, 
possess  the  function  in  an  eminent  degree. 
Here,  as  ever  in  the  animal  scale,  function  pre 
cedes  organization  ;  and  the  function  of  muscu 
lar  contractility  is  manifested  while  there  is 
as  yet  no  appearance  of  muscular  tissue.  The 
stalk  of  the  xorticella  forms  a  notable  illustra 
tion  of  this  rule,  as  it  possesses  contractility  in 
a  remarkable  degree,  yet  no  muscular  tissue  is 
to  be  found  in  it. — Reproduction  is  effected  in 
different  ways  in  the  different  forms ;  the  mode 
which  has  been  best  studied  is  that  by  sponta 
neous  self-division.  This  is  sometimes  longitu 
dinal,  sometimes  transverse.  As  before  stated, 
it  begins  in  the  nucleus,  and  this  body  is  often 
completely  divided  while  the  line  of  future  sep 
aration  has  scarcely  begun  to  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  animal.  These  subdivisions  are 
completed  in  so  short  a  time,  that  Ehrenberg 
has  calculated  that  no  fewer  than  208,000,000 
may  be  produced  in  the  space  of  one  month 
from  a  single  individual.  Another  mode  in 
which  new  individuals  are  formed  is  by  what 
is  called  conjugation.  Two  individuals  attach 
themselves  together,  till  at  length  their  entire 
bodies  coalesce  and  form  one,  in  the  interior  of 
which  a  new  individual  is  formed,  and  in  pro-* 


ANIMALCULES 


517 


cess  of  time  discharged  from  the  parent  body, 
either  by  splitting  or  through  some  orifice.  Yet 
another  mode  of  reproduction  has  been  observed 
by  Stein  and  other  microscopists.  It  has  been 
called  the  encysting  process;  and  although  it 
has  been  studied  in  relation  to  but  few  forms, 
yet  the  facts  already  established  render  it  very 
probable  that  many,  if  not  indeed  all  the  in 
fusoria  multiply  by  this  or  some  closely  allied 
process.  An  infusory  animal  about  to  become 
encysted  secretes  from  the  surface  of  its  body 
a  thick  glutinous  substance,  which,  gradually 
hardening,  forms  a  firm  case-  in  which  the  ani 
mal  is  shut  up,  but  not  so  closely  as  to  prevent 
tolerably  free  motion.  A  change  now  takes  place 
in  the  animal  itself;  the  cilia  upon  its  surface 
are  retracted,  and  the  body  assumes  a  pretty 
regular  circular  outline:  then  either  the  whole 
body,  or  the  nucleus  only,  breaks  up  into  many 
small  fragments,  each  of  which  assumes  an  in 
dependent  life,  and  moves  freely  in  the  parent 
organism;  this  mother-cell  now  bursts  and  is 
disintegrated,  while  the  young  brood  swim 
forth  either  in  the  form  of  the  parent,  or  in 
some  transition  shape,  from  which,  through  one 
or  more  changes,  they  pass  into  the  permanent 
type  identical  with  the  parent  organization. 

II.    ROTIFEEA  OR  WHEEL  ANIMALCULES.      These 

have  little  in  common  with  the  order  of  infuso 
ria  of  which  we  have  spoken,  being  both  more 
highly  organized  and  formed  on  a  different  plan. 
Even  in  respect  to  size  they  differ,  being  gene 
rally  much  larger,  some  having  a  length  of  half 
a  line,  and  many  being  within  the  limit  of  un 
assisted  vision.  By  many  naturalists  they  are 
classed  with  the  articulated  animals,  under  the 
term  of  cilio-articulates.  Their  name,  as  we 
have  already  stated,  is  derived  from  a  particu 
lar  and  very  curious  arrangement  of  the  cilia 
covering  two  lobes  near  the  anterior  extrem 
ity,  which  when  in  motion  have  exactly  the 
appearance  of  two  minute  wheels  rotating  very 
rapidly.  But  this,  though  a  striking  peculiar 
ity  of  many  rotifers,  is  not  common  to  them 
all.  In  some  the  cilia  about  the  head  are  ar 
ranged  in  a  wavy  line.  The  rotifera  may  be 
defined  as  minute  worm-like  animals,  very 
transparent,  without  legs,  having  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  body  furnished  with  certain  re 
tractile  lobes,  the  margins  of  which  are  covered 
with  cilia,  the  alimentary  canal  distinct  and 
having  two  orifices,  the  mouth  having  a  true 
dental  apparatus,  the  reproduction  by  ova  only. 
They  are  aquatic,  though  a  few  species  can  ex 
ist  in  moist  earth.  They  are  found  alike  in 
salt  and  fresh  water,  but  rarely  in  that  which 
is  rendered  foul  by  decaying  vegetable  and 
animal  matter,  and  which  swarms  with  the 
polygastric  animalcules.  It  is  only  when  these 
have  devoured  the  decaying  matter  that  the 
rotifer  appears  to  feed  upon  them.  Rotifera 
have  great  tenacity  of  life,  and  are  not  de 
stroyed  by  complete  and  long-continued  desic 
cation.  Individuals  have  been  kept  in  vacuo 
with  sulphuric  acid  and  chloride  of  lime,  in 
suring  the  utmost  possible  amount  of  dryness, 


for  a  month,  and  yet  revived  on  being  placed 
in  water.  The  rotifera  have  always  two  in 
vesting  membranes,  both  transparent,  and  the 
inner  always  flexible;  the  outer  is  in  many 
quite  firm,  constituting  a  horn-like  tube,  from 
which  the  head  and  tail  of  the  animal  pro 
trude.  It  never  contains  either  lime  or  silica, 
which  is  probably  the  reason  why  no  traces  of 
these  animal  forms  are  found  in  any  fossilif- 
erous  rocks.  Their  bodies  are  retractile,  and 
many  creep  like  worms.  They  swim  by  means 
of  their  cilia  very  rapidly.  Near  the  tail  is,  in 
most  forms,  either  a  dirk-like  or  claw-like  pro 
cess,  by  which  the  animal  can  attach  itself. 
The  gullet  is  furnished  at  its  inferior  portion 
with  a  masticating  apparatus  consisting  of  two 
strong  semicircular  jaws,  each  furnished  with 
from  one  to  five  teeth,  which  appear  to  contain 
mineral  matter.  The  stomach  is  either  globu 
lar  or  tubular,  and  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  the  intestine  below.  Near  the  anus  the 
intestine  is  enlarged  into  a  sort  of  cloaca  with 
which  the  genital  apparatus  communicates. 
Several  small  glandiform  bodies  are  observed 
near  the  alimentary  canal,  and  some  undoubt 
edly  communicate  with  its  cavity.  It  is  a  curi 
ous  fact  that,  though  the  digestive  apparatus 
is  in  most  of  these  animals  much  more  fully 
developed  than  any  other,  yet  in  one  genus 
described  by  Mr.  Dalrymple  ("  Philosophical 
Transactions,"  1849,  p.'  339),  no  anal  orifice 
was  found,  and  indeed  scarcely  any  intestinal 
canal ;  so  that  the  excrementitious  food  must 
have  been  ejected  from  the  inouth,  as  in  some 
of  the  very  low  polygastric  forms. — We  now 
come  to  locomotion.  Several  distinct  longitu 
dinal  bands  of  a  highly  contractile  tissue  pass 
the  entire  length  of  the  animal,  and  certain 
transverse  bands  have  probably  the  same  power. 
It  is,  however,  very  doubtful  whether  any  true 
muscular  tissue,  with  the  characteristics  by 
which  we  identify  it  in  the  higher  animals, 
exists  in  these  animalcules.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  the  nervous  system.  The  function 
is  certainly  performed ;  but  whether  the  cords 
and  masses  which  Ehrenberg  describes  as  nerves 
and  ganglia  really  have  that  character,  is  at 
least  uncertain.  Two  red  spots  near  the  head 
are  supposed  on  pretty  strong  evidence  to  be 
eyes,  or  at  least  rudimentary  forms  of  the  or 
gan  of  vision.  There  is  no  proper  circulatory 
apparatus,  but  water  is  very  freely  admitted 
into  the  body,  and  probably  serves  to  aerate, 
the  tissues.  It  is  kept  in  motion  by  cilia  lining 
the  tubes  into  which  it  is  received. — Reproduc 
tion.  All  that  is  certainly  known  upon  this 
subject  is  that  the  rotifera  multiply  by  true  ova, 
and  never  by  gemming,  budding,  or  spontaneous 
:  splitting,  like  the  polygastrica.  Until  recently 
i  they  were  generally  supposed  to  be  hermaph- 
I  rodite,  but  some  late  observers  believe  them 
i  to  be  unisexual.  Ovaries  are  made  out  with- 
!  out  difficulty,  and  in  the  vast  majority  of  indi- 
!  viduals ;  but  spermatozoa  have  been  found  in 
!  only  a  very  few,  perhaps  only  one  species.  If 
i  males  exist  as  a  separate  sex,  they  are  probably 


518 


ANIMAL  ELECTRICITY 


only  developed  at  one  period  of  the  year,  and 
their  term  of  existence  is  very  short.  This  is 
rendered  probable  by  a  very  curious  observa 
tion  made  by  Mr.  Dalrymple.  lie  found  in 
one  genus  male  individuals,  that  possessed 
neither  mandibles,  nor  alimentary  canal,  nor 
glands.  The  only  apparatus  that  was  fully  de 
veloped  was  the  generative.  The  animal  was 
in  fact  a  mere  male  genital  system,  endowed 
with  power  of  independent  existence,  though 
that  existence  must  have  been  of  very  short 
duration.  The  transparency  of  the  tissues  en 
ables  us  to  trace  very  satisfactorily  the  forma 
tion  and  progress  of  the  ova.  Their  growth  is 
very  rapid,  and  they  are  in  some  genera  ex 
truded  from  the  ovary  two  or  three  hours  after 
their  germ  is  first  detected,  and  hatch  in  less 
than  half  a  day.  In  other  families  the  eggs 
remain  in  the  ovary  or  cloaca,  and  are  there 
hatched,  the  young  being  born  alive.  From 
the  transparency  of  all  the  tissues,  it  is  often 
possible  to  trace  the  form,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  make  out  the  details  of  the  structure 
of  the  young  animal  while  it  is  yet  in  the  body 
of  the  parent. 

ANIMAL  ELECTRICITY,  electricity  produced  in 
the  bodies  of  animals.  Of  this  electricity  there 
are  two  kinds,  the  dynamical  or  galvanic  and  the 
statical.  I.  The  production  of  dynamic  elec 
tricity.  Few  discoveries  in  science  have  more 
importance  than  the  almost  accidental  obser 
vation  made  by  Luigi  Galvani  in  1786.  After 
having  examined  the  influence  of  the  shock 
produced  by  a  spark  of  the  electrical  machine 
on  a  frog's  leg,  Galvani  observed  a  new  and 
very  curious  phenomenon.  He  had  skinned  a 
frog,  taking  away  its  two  legs  with  a  part  of 
the  spine,  and  attached  the  whole  to  a  copper 
hook  which  he  had  hung  upon  an  iron  railing 
near  his  laboratory.  He  stood  watching  to 
see  if  the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere  would 
produce  upon  these  legs  the  same  effect  as  an 
electrical  machine.  After  some  time,  having 
observed  no  sign  of  electrical  influence,  he 
decided  to  remove  the  frog's  limbs,  and  while 
doing  so  he  perceived  the  very  muscular  con 
traction  which  he  had  been  vainly  expecting 
to  see  produced  by  atmospheric  electricity. 
He  soon  discovered  the  condition  of  this  con 
traction,  which  was  the  contact  of  the  moist 
limbs  of  the  frog  with  the  iron  rail.  Having 
substituted  for  the  copper  hook  and  iron  rail  a 
metallic  arc  composed  of  pieces  of  these  two 
metals,  he  found  that  he  could  produce  the  con 
traction  at  will.  For  the  production  of  sud 
den  muscular  contraction  and  of  a  movement  of 
the  limb,  it  was  only  necessary  to  place  one  end 
of  the  arc  in  contact  with  a  nerve  or  with  the 
spinal  canal,  from  which  the  nerves  emerge, 
and  with  the  other  end  one  of  the  muscles 
of  the  leg.  Galvani  first  published  these  ex 
periments  in  1791,  in  his  celebrated  work, 
Ds  Viribus  Electricitatis  in  Motu  Muscular i 
Commentarim.  According  to  the  theory  pro 
posed  in  this  work,  the  muscles  chiefly  contain 
the  animal  electricity  which  manifested  itself 


in  the  above  experiments,  and  which  he 
thought  was  supplied  by  the  nerves  and  the 
blood.  When  the  discoveries  of  Galvani  be 
came  known,  the  whole  civilized  world  was 
seized  with  admiration,  and  the  curiosity  to 
witness  his  experiments  became  universal. 
Du  Bois-Reymond  says  :  "  Wherever  frogs  were 
to  be  found,  and  where  two  different  kinds  of 
metal  could  be  procured,  everybody  was  anx 
ious  to  see  the  mangled  limbs  of  frogs  brought 
to  life  in  this  wonderful  way.  The  physiologists 
believed  that  at  length  they  should  realize  their 
visions  of  a  vital  power.  The  physicians, 
whom  Galvani  had  somewhat  thoughtlessly 
led  on  with  attempts  to  explain  all  kinds  of 
nervous  diseases,  as  sciatica,  tetanus,  and  epi 
lepsy,  began  to  believe  that  no  cure  was  impos 
sible."  Volta  soon  opposed  the  views  of  Gal 
vani,  and  maintained  that  the  pretended  animal 
electricity  was  nothing  but  the  electricity  de 
veloped  by  the  contact  of  two  different  metals. 
Galvani  replied  that  with  one  metal  only  the 
muscular  contraction  was  produced,  although 
very  feebly.  Volta  answered  that  the  metals 
employed  were  not  pure,  and  that  as  they  had 
no  homogeneity  they  acted  like  two  metals. 
He  showed  that  even  the  least  physical  altera 
tion  of  a  part  of  an  arc  of  one  metal  was  suf 
ficient  to  make  it  act  as  if  it  were  composed 
of  two  metals.  Galvani,  however,  succeeded 
in  producing  contractions  without  the  inter 
vention  of  any  metal  whatever,  by  merely 
applying  the  nerve  of  a  leg  on  the  muscles  or 
establishing  a  communication  between  the 
muscles  and  the  nerve  by  a  piece  of  moist 
animal  tissue.  Alexander  von  Ilumboldt  took 
sides  with  Galvani  against  Volta.  In  employ 
ing  very  irritable  frogs  he  found  that  there 
were  strong  muscular  contractions  in  the  fol 
lowing  circumstances :  1,  when  the  leg  of  a 
frog  was  bent  back  against  the  ischiatic  nerve, 
both  parts  being  still  originally  connected; 
2,  when  the  crural  nerve  and  its  muscles  were 
connected  by  a  fragment  cut  from  the  same 
nerve ;  3,  when  a  connection  was  established 
between  two  parts  of  the  same  nerve  by 
means  of  some  animal  tissue.  In  1798  Gal 
vani  died,  and  the  next  year  Volta  discovered 
the  pile;  and,  as  it  has  been  said,  he  then 
earned  the  right  of  exclaiming,  with  triumph 
ant  scorn,  "I  don't  need  your  frog;  give  me 
two  metals  and  a  moist  rag,  and  I  will  pro 
duce  your  animal  electricity.  Your  frog  is 
nothing  but  a  moist  conductor,  and  in  this 
respect  it  is  inferior  to  my  wet  rag."  For 
nearly  30  years  the  suj  porters  of  the  theory 
of  animal  electricity  were  silenced  by  the  great 
discovery  of  Volta. — In  1825  Nobili,  having 
rendered  extremely  sensitive  the  galvanometer 
(instrument  for  the  measuring  of  galvanic  cur 
rents),  thought  that  the  current  which  produces 
muscular  contractions  in  the  frog's  legs  might 
be  detected  by  his  instrument.  lie  failed  in 
his  first  attempt,  the  contractions  taking  place 
while  the  needle  of  his  instrument  stood  still ; 
but  after  having  improved  the  instrument  Le 


ANIMAL   ELECTRICITY 


519 


succeeded  in  obtaining  a  notable  deflection  of  '. 
the  needle.  Unfortunately  for  the  progress 
of  science,  Nobili  admitted  tliat  the  cur-  | 
rent  formed  in  muscles  was  due  to  a  differ 
ence  of  temperature  between  the  nerves  and 
the  muscles.  Nevertheless,  he  left  to  his  suc 
cessors  some  facts  of  great  importance,  the 
most  interesting  of  which  is  that  when  the  legs 
of  several  frogs  are  disposed  in  such  a  way  that 
the  nerves  of  one  touch  the  muscles  of  an 
other,  this  kind  of  pile  increases  in  power  with 
the  number  of  legs.— To  Prof.  Carlo  Matteucci 
belongs  the  merit  of  having  positively  proved 
the  production  of  galvanic  currents  in  muscles. 
His  researches,  those  of  Du  Bois-Reymond,,  of 
Donne,  of  Baxter,  of  Brown-Sequard,  of  Eck- 
ard,  and  others,  have  established  beyond  doubt 
that  a  production  of  electricity  is  constantly 
going  on  in  all  the  tissues  of  the  living  animal 
economy.  The  following  facts,  among  others, 
have  been  well  demonstrated:  1.  When  the 
electrodes  or  conductors  of  a  galvanometer  are 
applied  one  on  one  surface,  and  the  other  on 
another  surface,  of  the  animal  body,  a  current 
takes  place  which  moves  the  needle  of  the  in 
strument.  Thus  Donne  found  a  current  be 
tween  the  skin  and  most  of  the  internal  mem 
branes  ;  thus  Matteucci  ascertained  that  there 
are  different  electrical  states  in  the  liver  and 
the  stomach;  and  thus  also  Baxter  found  a 
current  between  the  internal  surface  of  an  in 
testinal  vein  and  any  part  of  the  mucous  mem 
brane  of  the  bowels.  2.  There  are  electrical 
currents  in  muscles  and  nerves,  as  we  will 
show  hereafter.  3.  All  the  organs  of  the  body 
yield  electrical  currents  when  they  have  been 
divided,  and  when  their  normal  surface  and 
the  surface  of  the  section  are  in  communica 
tion  with  the  electrodes  of  a  galvanometer. — 
No  one  has  been  more  successful  than  Du  Bois- 
Reymond  in  experimenting  upon  the  production 
of  galvanic  or  electrical  currents  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  body.  lie  owes  his  success  in  a 
great  measure  to  his  galvanometer,  which  ad- 
mi  rable  instrument,  made  by  himself,  is  so  sen 
sitive  that  the  exceedingly  weak  current  from 
two  parts  of  the  skin,  e>ren  very  near  each 
other,  is  felt  by  it.  The  wire  wound  upon  the 
frame  of  this  apparatus  is  5,584  yards  or  more 
than  3  miles  long;  it  forms  24,160  coils  around 
the  frame.  However,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
employ  such  a  powerful  instrument  to  prove 
the  existence  of  animal  electricity,  and  the  or 
dinary  galvanometers  may  answer  the  purpose. 
Before  the  researches  of  Du  Bois-Reymond  it 
was  admitted  that  there  were  two  kinds  of 
muscular  currents,  one  belonging  to  divided 
muscles  and  the  other  to  undivided  muscles. 
The  first  had  been  very  well  observed  by  Mat 
teucci,  who  ascertained  that  it  is  constantly 
directed  from  the  interior  of  the  muscles  to 
its  surface.  It  exists  in  the  muscles  of  all  the 
animals  which  have  been  examined,  and  Brown- 
Sequard  has  found  it  in  man.  As  to  the  other 
current,  that  of  undivided  muscles,  it  is  what 
Nobili  called  the  proper  current  of  the  frog. 


Du  Bois  Reymorid  found  that  this  current  ex 
ists  also  in  the  higher  animals,  and  that  its 
direction  varies  extremely  according  to  many 
circumstancey.  In  the  limb  of  the  frog  this 
current  is  directed  from  the  tendon  of  the  prin 
cipal  muscles  to  their  surface.  If  in  certain 
animals  the  current  seems  to  be  weak,  although 
it  may  be  in  reality  strong,  it  is  because  in 
some  muscles  the  tendon  is  placed  at  one  ex 
tremity  and  in  others  at  the  other,  and  that 
sometimes  there  are  twro  tendons. — The  gal 
vanic  current  of  muscles  gradually  diminishes 
after  the  death  of  animals,  or  after  the  separa 
tion  of  the  muscles  from  the  living  body.  Ac 
cording  to  the  researches  of  Du  Bois-Reymond, 
and  numerous  experiments  made  by  Brown- 
Sequard,  the  laws  regulating  the  diminution 
and  the  disposition  of  the  muscular  current 
are  the  same  as  those  of  muscular  irritability. 
Between  these  two  physiologists,  however, 
there  is  this  difference,  that  Du  Bois-Reymond 
thinks  that  the  cessation  of  the  current  takes 
place  at  the  time  a  supposed  coagulation  of 
the  fibrinous  liquid  of  the  muscles  occurs, 
producing  the  so-called  cadaveric  rigidity; 
while  Brown-Sequard  has  shown  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  this  coagulation  where 
cadaveric  rigidity  supervenes.  The  latter 
physiologist  has  discovered  that  the  muscular 
current,  after  having  completely  disappeared 
(cadaveric  rigidity  being  fully  established), 
may  be  reproduced,  together  with  the  mus 
cular  irritability,  when  an  injection  of  blood 
charged  with  oxygen  is  made  into  the  arteries 
of  a  limb.  This  experiment  he  has  per 
formed  not  only  on  animals,  but  on  the 
limbs  of  guillotined  men.  He  found  that  the 
more  oxygen  there  is  in  the  blood  employed, 
the  quicker  the  muscular  current  and  irrita 
bility  return.  This  fact,  with  many  others  dis 
covered  by  Matteucci  and  Du  Bois-Reymond, 
shows  that  the  production  of  the  current  de 
pends  on  the  nutrition  of  the  muscles,  and  par 
ticularly  on  the  oxidation  of  their  tissues. 
Prof.  Matteucci  published  many  facts  to  prove 
that  the  muscular  current  is  independent  of  the 
nervous  system;  but  his  experiments  are  all 
open  to  objections.  More  decisive  researches 
have  been  made  by  Brown-Sequard,  who  has 
ascertained  that  in  muscles  whose  nerves  have 
completely  and  definitively  lost  their  vital  prop 
erties,  currents  not  only  exist  during  life,  but 
may  be  reproduced  by  the  influence  of  injec 
tions  of  oxygenated  blood  when  they  have  dis 
appeared  after  death. — Du  Bois-Reymond  has 
established  as  a  law  that  every  point  in  the 
natural  or  artificial  longitudinal  surface  of  a 
muscle  is  positive  in  relation  to  every  part  of 
its  transverse  surface,  whether  natural  or  arti 
ficial  ;  and  as  the  tendons,  which  are  conduc 
tors,  are  in  communication  with  the  natural 
transverse  surface,  it  follows  that  they  are 
negative  as  regards  this  surface.  This  law  sig 
nifies  that  the  longitudinal  surface  of  a  muscle 
acts  like  the  positive  pole  of  a  pile  or  galvanic 
battery,  while  the  transverse  surface  acts  like 


520 


ANIMAL   ELECTRICITY 


the  negative  pole.  According  to  this  impor 
tant  law,  when  any  point  of  the  longitudinal 
section  of  a  muscle  is  connected  by  a  conduc 
tor  with  any  point  of  the  transverse  section, 
an  electric  current  is  established,  which  is  di 
rected  in  the  muscle  from  the  transverse  to 
the  longitudinal  section.  Du  Bois-Reyrnond 
has  discovered  that  the  smallest  part  of  a  mus 
cle  acts  in  the  same  way  as  the  whole  of  it, 
except  that  the  strength  of  the  current  is  less 
and  less  powerful  as  the  part  is  smaller. 
Each  elementary  bundle  of  fibrils  in  a  muscle 
seems  to  be  like  a  couple  in  a  galvanic  battery, 
except  that  the  couples  represented  by  these 
elementary  bundles  are  not  able  to  transmit 
their  current  so  freely  as  the  couples  of  a  real 
galvanic  battery  usually  are.  Du  Bois-Rey- 
mond  has  found  that  the  amount  of  electricity 
generated  in  muscles  must  be  excessively  great ; 
but  as  it  is  impossible  to  make  an  aggregation 
of  all  the  elementary  currents  existing  in  a 
muscle,  we  have  not  a  real  measure  of  the 
quantity  of  electricity  produced  in  these  or 
gans. — We  owe  to  Matteucci  the  discovery  of 
one  of  the  most  important  facts  concerning 
animal  electricity.  He  found  that  when  a 
muscle  contracts,  if  there  is  a  nerve  placed 
npon  it  leading  to  another  muscle,  the  latter 
contracts  also.  The  contraction  of  this  second 
muscle  Matteucci  calls  induced.  To  facilitate 
the  understanding  of  what  we  have  to  say  on 
this  subject,  we  will  call  not  only  this  second 
ary  contraction  induced,  but  also  the  muscle  that 
exhibits  it,  and  we  will  call  the  first  contrac 
tion  and  the  muscle  in  which  it  takes  place  in 
ducing.  Matteucci  had  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
in  trying  to  explain  this  induced  or  secondary 
contraction ;  his  latest  view  was  that  it  re 
sults  from  a  galvanic  discharge  from  the  in 
ducing  muscle  on  the  nerve  of  the  induced  one. 
Du  Bois-Reymond,  who  has  carefully  examined 
the  circumstances  of  this  fact,  explains  it  other 
wise,  lie  supposes  that  the  current  of  the  in 
ducing  muscle  passes  through  the  nerve  of  the 
induced  one,  and  that  when  the  inducing  mus 
cle  is  set  in  contraction,  the  current  dimin 
ishes,  and.  as  any  diminution  of  a  continuous 
current  passing  through  a  nerve  is  a  cause  of 
contraction  for  the  muscle  which  it  animates, 
it  results  that  the  induced  muscle  contracts. 
It  is  known  that  when  a  continuous  current 
passes  through  a  nerve  there  is  a  contraction 
in  the  muscle  which  it  enters  in  the  beginning 
of  the  passage  and  on  its  cessation,  and  also 
when  there  is  any  change  in  its  strength.  *  It  is 
to  this  last  condition  that  the  induced  contrac 
tion  is  attributed  by  Du  Bois-Reymond,  but, 
if  he  were  right,  there  should  be  a  contraction 
in  the  induced  muscle  at  the  time  we  put  its 
nerve  on  the  inducing  one,  and  also  at  the  time 
we  take  it  away ;  but  unfortunately  for  the 
theory,  there  is  no  contraction  in  these  cases, 
except  in  peculiar  circumstances.  We  must 
therefore  consider  the  theory  of  the  distin 
guished  German  physiologist  as  not  sufficiently 
grounded. — Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  the 


irritation  of  the  nerve  of  the  induced  muscle, 
it  is  certain  that  when  the  inducing  one  con 
tracts  this  motor  nerve  is  irritated ;  the  same 
thing  takes  place,  as  Matteucci  and  Brown-Se- 
quard  observe,  when  an  excitor  or  a  sensitive 
nerve  instead  of  a  motor  is  placed  upon  the 
inducing  muscle ;  the  irritation  then  causes 
either  a  reflex  movement  or  a  pain.  Brown- 
Sequard  has  been  led  by  many  experiments 
to  conclude  that  the  irritation  of  sensitive 
nerves  by  the  contraction  of  inducing  muscles 
has  a  great  share  in  many  important  physio 
logical  and  pathological  phenomena.  Every 
one  knows  that,  except  when  we  look  at  the 
parts  of  our  body  which  we  move  voluntarily, 
we  direct  our  movements  almost  entirely  ac 
cording  to  the  sensations  that  we  receive  from 
our  contracting  muscles.  These  sensations 
have  been  shoAvn  by  this  physiologist  to  be 
chiefly  due  to  the  induced  irrritation  of  the 
sensitive  nerves  at  the  time  the  muscles  con 
tract.  The  muscular  sense  of  Sir  Charles  Bell, 
or  the  guiding  sensations  of  Prof.  Carpenter, 
are  thus  obtained,  and  so  it  is  with  the  measure 
of  the  distance  of  objects  when  looked  at  with 
both  eyes ;  the  state  of  our  ocular  muscles* 
teaches  us  the  distance,  and  they  do  it  by  the 
irritation  they  induce  in  nerves  while  contract 
ing.  According  to  Brown-Sequard,  the  pain 
of  cramps,  that  of  the  contractions  of  the  uterus 
in  parturition,  that  of  the  spasm  of  the  sphinc 
ters,  &c.,  depends  upon  an  excessive  induced 
irritation  of  the  sensitive  nerves  in  conse 
quence  of  muscular  contractions.  Among  the 
other  proofs  adduced  by  him  in  support  of  his 
view  that  muscular  contractions,  normal  or 
pathological,  induce  irritations  in  their  sensi 
tive  nerve  fibres,  probably  by  a  galvanic  dis 
charge,  and  exactly  as  an  inducing  muscle  irri 
tates  a  motor  nerve  placed  upon  it,  the  follow 
ing  are  the  most  important :  He  has  found 
that  it  is  electrically  just  the  same  thing  for 
the  intensity  of  the  irritation  of  the  motor 
nerve  lying  upon  an  inducing  muscle,  and  for 
the  intensity  of  pain  in  a  case  of  spasm  of  the 
sphincter  of  the  anus,  and  in  a  case  of  contrac 
tion  of  the  anterior  muscles  of  the  thigh.  In 
these  three  circumstances,  viz.,  the  experiment 
with  the  motor  nerve,  and  the  two  pathologi 
cal  cases  in  man,  we  observe:  1,  that  there  is 
no  irritation  or  no  pain  if  the  inducing  muscle 
has  no  resistance  to  overcome  when  it  con 
tracts  (it  is  so  after  the  section  of  the  muscle 
or  of  its  tendon) ;  2,  that  the  irritation  or  the 
pain  increases  when  the  inducing  muscle  is  ex 
tended.  The  known  facts  that  the  pain  due  to 
the  spasm  of  the  sphincter  of  the  anus  disap 
pears  when  it  is  divided,  and  that  the  section 
of  a  tendon  of  a  contracted  muscle  causes  the 
cessation  of  pain,  had  not  hitherto  received 
any  explanation.  The  researches  of  Brown- 
Sequard  render  now  very  easy  the  understand 
ing  of  the  mode  in  which  these  facts  are  pro 
duced. — With  the  help  of  his  very  sensitive 
galvanometer,  Du  Bois-Reymond  has  been  able 
to  prove  that  the  galvanic  currents  of  muscles 


ANIMAL   ELECTRICITY 


521 


in  man  rniy  be  rendered  evident  during  a 
voluntary  movement.  If  the  two  electrodes 
of  the  galvanometer  are  in  communication,  one 
with  one  hand  and  the  other  with  the  other 
hand  of  a  man,  and  if  a  voluntary  movement 
is  made  by  one  of  the  arms,  there  is  at  once  a 
deviation  of  the  needle  of  the  instrument,  indi 
cating  the  passage  of  a  galvanic  current.  Ac 
cording  to  the  discoverer  of  this  important 
fact,  at  the  time  of  the  contraction  of  the  mus 
cles  of  one  arm,  the  current  which  existed 
there,  and  which  was  neutralized  by  a  cur 
rent  of  equal  strength  in  the  other  arm,  be 
comes  diminished,  and  therefore  the  surplus  of 
the  other  passes 'out  and  deflects  the  needle 
of  the  instrument. — Du  Bois-Reymond  has 
discovered  that  nerves  are,  like  muscles,  able 
to  afford  galvanic  currents.  The  principal  law 
concerning  these  currents  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  muscular  currents.  The  direction  of  the 
galvanic  current  of  the  nerves  is  from  their 
interior  to  their  exterior,  just  as  it  is  with  the 
muscles.  From  all  his  experiments  on  the 
electro-motive  power  of  muscles  and  nerves, 
the  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn:  1. 
The'  muscles  and  nerves,  including  the  brain 
and  the  spinal  cord,  are  endowed  during  life 
with  an  electro-motive  power.  2.  This  electro 
motive  power  acts  according  to  a  definite  law, 
which  is  the  same  in  the  nerves  and  muscles, 
and  may  be  briefly  stated  as  the  law  of  the 
antagonism  of  the  longitudinal  and  transverse 
section;  the  longitudinal  surface  being  positive, 
and  the  transverse  section  negative.  3.  As 
the  nerves  have  no  natural  transverse  section, 
their  electro-motive  power  when  they  are  in  a 
state  of  rest  cannot  be  made  apparent  unless 
tiiey  have  previously  been  divided.  4.  The 
muscles,  having  two  natural  transverse  sec 
tions,  may  show  their  electro-motive  power 
without  being  divided.  However,  the  electro 
motive  power  of  the  undissected  muscles  is 
often  more  or  less  concealed  by  the  contrary 
action  of  a  layer  situated  on  the  natural  trans 
verse  section,  which  Du  Bois-Reyrnond  calls 
the  parelectronomic  layer.  The  contrary  elec 
tro-motive  power  of  this  layer  may  be  increased 
by  cooling  the  animal.  5.  Every  minute  parti 
cle  of  the  nerves  and  muscles  acts  according  to 
the  same  law  as  the  whole  nerve  or  muscle. 
6.  The  currents  which  the  nerves  and  muscles 
produce  in  circuits  of  which  they  form  a  part, 
must  be  considered  only  as  derived  portions  of 
incomparably  more  intense  currents  circulating 
in  the  interior  of  the  nerves  and  muscles  around 
their  ultimate  particles.  7.  The  electro-motive 
power  lasts  after  death,  or,  in  dissected  nerves 
and  muscles,  after  separation  from  the  body  of 
the  animal,  as  long  as  the  excitability  of  the 
nervous  and  muscular  fibres;  whether  these 
fibres  are  permitted  to  die  gradually  from  the 
cessation  of  the  conditions  necessary  to  the 
support  of  life,  or  whether  they  are  suddenly 
deprived  of  their  vital  properties,  by  heat, 
chemical  means,  &?.  8.  We  may  add  that, 
according  to  Brown-Sequard,  the  electro-mo- 


j  tive   power,  at   least  in   muscles,  after  it  has 

|  disappeared  naturally  after  death,  may  be  re 
produced  with  the   other  vital   properties  by 

'  the  influence  of  injections  of  oxygenated  blood. 
0.  In  the  different  contractile  tissues  the  elec- 

j  tro-motive  power  is  always  proportioned  to 
the  mechanical  power  of  the  tissue.  10.  Other 
animal  tissues  may  produce  electro-motive  ac 
tion  ;  but  it  is  neither  so  strong  as  the  action 
of  the  nerves  and  muscles,  nor  so  regular ;  nor 
does  it  vanish  with  the  vital  properties  of  the 
tissues ;  nor  does  it,  lastly,  undergo  those  sud 
den  variations  of  intensity  and  direction,  which 
maybe  thus  briefly  stated:  11.  The  galvanic 
current  in  muscles  when  in  the  act  of  contrac 
tion,  and  in  nerves  when  conveying  motion  or 
sensation,  undergoes  a  sudden  and  great  dimi 
nution  of  its  intensity.  (We  have  said  above 
that  there  is  some  reason  to  doubt  the  accuracy 
of  this  law  as  regards  muscles.)  12.  Muscles 
inactive  from  the  contrary  action  of  the  par 
electronomic  layer,  when  contracting,  become 
active  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  which 
muscles  in  a  state  of  rest  exhibit.  Hence  it 
must  be  concluded  that  the  electro-motive 
force  of  the  parelectronomic  layer  remains  con 
stant  in  the  act  of  contraction.  13.  If  any  part 
of  a  nerve  is  submitted  to  the  action  of  a  per 
manent  current,  the  nerve  in  its  whole  extent 
suddenly  undergoes  a  material  change  in  its 
internal  constitution,  which  disappears  on 
breaking  the  circuit  as  suddenly  as  it  came  on. 
14.  The  electrical  phenomena  of  motor  and 
sensitive  neryes  are  identical.  Both  classes  of 
nerves  transmit  irritation  in  both  directions. 
We  will  merely  say  in  addition  to  these  laws, 
that,  in  examining  who  was  right  between 
Galvani  and  Volta,  we  find  that  they  were 
both  in  some  points  right,  and  in  some  others 
wrong.  Galvani  was  right  in  saying  that  there 
is  an  animal  electricity,  and  Volta  was  right  in 
looking  at  the  heterogeneity  of  metals  as  a 
source  of  electricity ;  and  had  he  extended  his 
views  to  the  living  tissues,  he  would  have  found 
that  there  also,  as  in  metals,  where  there  are 
two  heterogenic  particles  in  contact  one  with 
the  other,  a  galvanic  current  is  generated.  II. 
The  production  of  static  electricity  in  animals. 
A  constant  production  of  this  kind  of  electri 
city  cannot  be  doubted ;  but  animals  and  men 
being  in  free  communication  with  the  earth, 
it  is  rarely  possible  to  ascertain  the  presence 
of  this  electricity.  But  when  the  body  of  a 
man  is  insulated  he  may  affect  the  electrome 
ter.  If  two  men  are  insulated,  as  it  often  oc 
curs  that  they  are  charged  with  different  elec 
tricities,  there  is  when  they  touch  each  other 
a  peculiar  crackling,  and  sometimes  a  spark, 
announcing  the  combination  of  the  vitreous 
and  the  resinous  electricity.  In  dry  weather 
many  persons  may  hear  the  sound  and  see 
the  light  resulting  from  a  combination,  when 
they  suddenly  pull  off  the  articles  of  dress 
in  contact  with  their  skin.  Dr.  Schneider  men 
tions  a  Capuchin  friar  who,  on  removing  his 
cowl,  used  to  perceive  a  number  of  shining, 


522 


ANIMAL  HEAT 


crackling  sparks  passing  from  his  scalp.  But 
it  is  in  the  United  States  that  the  most  interest 
ing  fact  concerning  the  production  of  static  elec 
tricity  has  been  observed.  It  was  in  a  lady, 
who  for  many  months  was  in  an  electrical 
state  so  different  from  that  of  surrounding 
bodies,  that,  whenever  she  was  but  slightly 
insulated  by  a  carpet  or  other  non-conducting 
medium,  sparks  would  pass  between  her  per 
son  and  any  object  she  approached;  when 
she  was  most  favorably  circumstanced,  four 
sparks  per  minute  would  pass  from  her  linger 
to  the  brass  ball  of  the  stove  at  the  distance  of 
1£  inch.  Sometimes  the  electricity  thus  devel 
oped  is  sufficient  to  light  the  gas  from  an  ordi 
nary  burner.  From  the  pain  which  accompa 
nied  the  passage  of  the  sparks,  the  lady's  con 
dition  was  a  source  of  much  discomfort  to  Tier. 
The  circumstances  which  appeared  most  favor 
able  to  the  production  of  electricity  were  an 
atmosphere  of  80°  F.,  tranquillity  of  mind,  and 
social  enjoyment;  while  alow  temperature  and 
depressing  emotions  diminished  it  in  a  corre 
sponding  degree.  The  phenomenon  was  first 
noticed  during  the  occurrence  of  an  aurora 
borealis;  and  though  its  appearance  was  sud 
den,  its  departure  was  gradual.  Articles  of 
dress  had  no  influence  upon  its  intensity. 

ANIMAL  HEAT,  the  heat  produced  iii  the  in 
terior  of  animal  bodies  by  the  nutritive  changes 
going  on  in  the  blood  and  the  tissues.  Living 
animals,  as  a  general  rule,  if  not  invariably, 
have  the  power  of  generating  heat  within  their 
own  bodies.  The  proof  of  this  is,  that  in  many 
of  them  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  habit 
ually  above  that  of  the  surrounding  atmos 
phere  or  water  in  which  they  live.  Thus  the 
temperature  of  the  porpoise  has  been  found  to 
be  99-5°  F.,  and  that  of  the  seal  104°.  The 
temperature  of  the  human  body,  and  that  of 
the  quadrupeds  generally,  is  about  100°  ;  while 
that  of  many  of  the  birds  is  105°,  110°,  or  even 
111°.  As  this  temperature  is  maintained  at  or 
about  the  same  standard,  though  that  of  the 
external  atmosphere  may  be  much  lower,  and 
as  the  animal  is  consequently  losing  heat  in 
cessantly  by  radiation  and  conduction,  it  is 
evident  that  there  is  a  constant  supply  from  an 
internal  source  by  which  the  external  loss  is 
made  good.  In  man  and  in  all  the  higher  ani 
mals,  namely,  birds  and  mammals,  this  internal 
heat  is  very  active;  so  much  so  that  their 
higher  temperature  is  easily  distinguished  both 
by  the  touch  and  the  thermometer,  and  is  kept 
at  almost  a  uniform  standard  whatever  may  be 
the  external  variations.  These  are  therefore 
called  the  warm-blooded  animals.  In  reptiles 
and  fishes,  on  the  other  hand,  the  production 
of  heat  is  less  active  ;  their  temperature  is  ha 
bitually  lower  than  our  own,  so  that  they  feel 
cool  to  the  touch;  and  it  varies  so  little  from 
that  of  the  surrounding  media  that  greater 
care  is  requisite  to  distinguish  it,  even  by  the 
thermometer.  They  are  accordingly  distin 
guished  as  the  cold-blooded  animals.  Animal 
heat  is  generated,  however,  even  in  these 


!  species,  as  is  demonstrated  by  exact  observa 
tion.  Thus  the  temperature  of  a  frog  has  been 
found  to  be  48°  \vhen  immersed  in  water  at 
44-4° ;  that  of  a  serpent  88-4°,  in  air  at  81 -5°  ; 
that  of  a  tortoise  84°,  in  air  at  79-5° ;  and  that 
of  a  fish  from  1-7°  to  2 -5°  above  that  of  the 
surrounding  water.  In  the  invertebrate  ani 
mals,  the  appreciation  of  their  temperature  by 
the  thermometer  has  been  found  more  difficult, 
since,  on  account  of  their  small  size,  the  radiat 
ing  external  surface  is  greater  in  proportion 
to  the  mass  of  heat-producing  tissue  within; 
and  the  heat  thus  generated  is  almost  as  rap 
idly  dissipated.  This  difficulty,  however,  has 
been  overcome  in  the  case  of  insects  by  ex 
perimenting  upon  a  large  number  collected  in 
a  small  space.  Thus  Mr.  Newport  found  that 
when  the  temperature  of  the  external  atmos 
phere  was  34'5°,  that  of  the  interior  of  a  hive 
of  bees  was  48'5° ;  and  that  if  the  insects  were 
thrown  into  a  state  of  active  excitement  by 
rapping  on  the  hive,  it  would  rise  to  102°.— 
The  heat  thus  produced  in  the  interior  of  the 
body  is  not  exactly  the  same  in  degree  in 
every  part.  It  is  generated  either  in  the  blood 
itself  or  in  the  substance  of  the  internal  organs, 
or  most  probably  in  both.  At  all  events,  the 
blood  acquires  during  its  circulation  through 
different  organs  slightly  different  degrees  of 
warmth.  Thus  Claude  Bernard  has  found,  by 
introducing  the  bulb  of  a  delicate  thermometer 
into  the  vessels  of  a  living  dog,  that  the  tem 
perature  of  the  blood  in  the  abdominal  aorta 
varied  from  99'5°  to  105'5° ;  in  the  portal  vein, 
from  100°  to  100° ;  and  in  the  hepatic  vein, 
from  101°  to  100-8°.  The  warmest  blood  in 
the  body,  on  the  average,  was  that  of  the  he 
patic  vein,  which  had  passed  through  two  suc 
cessive  capillary  circulations,  namely,  that  of 
the  intestines  and  that  of  the  liver,  since  leav 
ing  the  arterial  system.  On  the  other  hand, 
while  passing  through  an  organ  in  which  it  is 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  air  and  evapora 
tion,  the  blood  diminishes  somewhat  in  tem 
perature.  Thus,  in  passing  through  the  lungs 
it  was  found  to  have  lost  sometimes  a  little 
less  and  sometimes  a  little  more  than  -J-0  F. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  temperature  of  the 
skin  is  habitually  a  little  lower  than  that  of 
the  internal  organs.  If  the  bulb  of  a  thermo 
meter  be  taken  between  the  fingers  of  the 
closed  hand,  it  will  rise  only  to  90°  or  95° ;  in 
the  axilla,  carefully  protected  from  the  air,  it 
will  stand  at  98°  ;  while  under  the  tongue,  and 
in  contact  only  with  the  vascular  mucous 
membrane,  it  will  reach  100°.  In  the  external 
parts  of  the  body,  therefore,  which  are  espe 
cially  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  outer  air, 
the  temperature  may  vary  considerably.  Espe 
cially  the  thinner  parts,  with  a  comparatively 
greater  extent  of  surface,  feel  this  variation  in 
a  marked  degree,  and  may  thus  be  affected 
with  a  local  depression  of  temperature.  On  a 
very  cold  day  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  the  nose, 
the  ears,  &c.,  may  be  cooled  down  very  con 
siderably,  and  in  some  instances  may  be  even 


ANIMAL  HEAT 


congealed  and  destroyed,  without  affecting 
sensibly  the  general  system.  But  if  the  cold 
be  so  intense  and  long  continued  as  to  depress 
the  general  temperature  of  the  blood  and  the 
internal  organs,  the  system  at  large  begins  to 
feel  its  effects,  and  the  vital  powers  yield  to  its 
inilueiK-e.  A  benumbing  effect  is  produced, 
followed  by  a  difficulty  of  muscular  exertion,  a 
confusion  'of  mind,  drowsiness,  and  insensi 
bility  ;  and  death  takes  place  long  before  the 
body  as  a  whole  is  actually  congealed.  Thus 
the  maintenance  of  the  internal  temperature 
at  or  near  the  natural  standard  is  a  condition 
necessary  to  life.  Experiments  upon  the  warm 
blooded  animals  have  shown  that  in  them,  as  a 
general  rule,  death  is  produced  when  the  tem 
perature  of  the  blood  is  reduced  to  about  80°. 
The  vital  changes  necessary  to  existence  can 
not  go  on  below  this  point.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  animal  temperature  may  rise  above 
the  natural  standard.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
an  increase  of  heat  is  produced  in  the  muscular 
tissue  during  the  contraction  of  these  organs. 
We  have  already  noticed  the  rise  of  tempera 
ture  observed  by  Mr.  Newport  in  a  hive  of 
bees  when  the  insects  were  excited  to  activity. 
Becquerel  and  Breschet  found  the  temperature 
of  the  biceps  muscle  of  a  man  raised  1'83  by 
active  contraction  and  relaxation  continued 
for  several  minutes ;  and  Matteucci  observed  an 
increase  of  1°  in  the  muscle  of  a  frog  separated 
from  the  body  and  artiljcially  excited  to  con 
traction.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 
that  a  general  sensation  of  unusual  warmth 
follows  any  active  muscular  exertion.  Xot 
only  is  the  temperature  of  the  muscular  system 
itself  raised,  but  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation 
is  accelerated,  a  larger  quantity  of  warm  blood 
is  brought  to  the  skin  in  a  given  "time,  and  the 
sensitive  integument  thus  feels  the  increased 
temperature.  No  doubt  it  is  owing  to  this  fact 
that  active  muscular  exercise  is  itself  a  protec 
tion  against  external  cold.  An  unusual  degree 
of  heat  in  the  atmosphere  also  tends  indirectly 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  body;  for  if 
the  internal  production  of  heat  be  the  same, 
and  its  external  loss  by  contact  with  the  at 
mosphere  be  diminished,  of  course  the  actual 
temperature  of  the  body  would  rise  in  conse 
quence.  A  provision  is  made,  however,  against 
allowing  this  increase  of  temperature,  whether 
from  muscular  exertion  or  external  heat,  to 
reach  too  high  a  point.  This  provision  is 
the  cutaneous  perspiration.  Anything  which 
raises  the  bodily  heat  above  the  natural  stand 
ard  excites  the  circulation  through  the  skin, 
and  increases  the  quantity  of  perpsiration  pour 
ed  out  upon  its  surface.  This  fluid,  by  its  evap 
oration,  uses  up  or  renders  latent  a  portion  of 
the  heat,  and  thus  reduces  the  skin  and  the 
blood  circulating  through  it  to  its  natural  tem 
perature.  The  body  therefore  can  be  exposed  to' 
a  very  high  external  temperature  without  itself 
rising  above  its  natural  standard,  provided  the 
perspiration  be  free  and  its  evaporation  unim 
peded.  If  the  perspiration  be  checked,  how 


ever,  or  if  its  evaporation  be  prevented  by  ex 
posure  to  hot  water,  or  hot  air  loaded  with 
moisture,  the  temperature  of  the  body  rises, 
and  death  soon  takes  place.  The  experiments 
of  Magendie  and  others  have  shown  that  in  the 
higher  animals  life  is  destroyed  when  the  blood 
generally  has  become  heated  10°  or  lo°  above 
the  natural  standard.  Animals  therefore  have 
a  natural  internal  temperature,  which  is  essen 
tial  to  the  performance  of  the  vital  functions, 
and  which  cannot  be  either  raised  or  lowered 
to  any  considerable  extent  without  producing 
death. — With  regard  to  the  precise  mode  in 
which  animal  heat  is  generated,  and  its  exact 
chemical  conditions,  opinions  are  not  entirely 
agreed.  Many  physiologists  have  entertained 
and  still  accept  the  belief  that  it  is  due  to  an 
oxidation  or  combustion  of  the  elements  of  the 
blood  and  tissues  by  the  oxygen  absorbed  in 
respiration.  The  grounds  for  this  doctrine  are 
as  follows:  1.  The  most  common  and  ready 
method  by  which  heat  is  generated  artificially 
is  the  combustion  of  substances,  like  wood  and 
coal,  which  are  rich  in  carbon.  The  rapid  oxi 
dation  of  these  substances,  which  requires  a 
free  access  of  air,  causes  a  great  development 
of  heat,  and  at  the  same  time  uses  up  the  oxy 
gen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  produces  as  a  re 
sult  carbonic  acid.  The  consumption  of  fuel, 
the  degree  of  heat  produced,  and  the  quantities, 
of  oxygen  absorbed  and  carbonic  acid  liberated, 
are  all  in  direct  ratio  to  each  other.  The  pro 
cess  may  go  on  rapidly  or  slowly ;  but  in  either 
case  the  relations  of  quantity  remain  the  same. 
If  the  oxidation  be  rapid,  as  in  a  furnace  or  open 
fireplace  with  a  strong  draught,  the  fuel  is  soon 
consumed  and  a  large  quantity  of  heat  is  pro 
duced  in  a  given  time.  If  the  process  be  re 
tarded,  as  in  a  close  stove  with  a  limited  or 
gradual  admission  of  air,  the  consumption  of 
fuel  is  slow,  an'd  the  heat,  less  intense  at  any 
particular  moment,  is  continued  for  a  propor 
tionally  longer  time.  But  in  both  instances,  for 
the  entire  amount  of  heat  which  has  been  gen 
erated,  there  are  the  same  quantities  of  fuel 
consumed,  of  oxygen  absorbed,  and  of  carbonic 
acid  produced.  2.  In  the  animal  body  the  ab 
sorption  of  oxygen  and  the  exhalation  of  car 
bonic  acid  are  the  most  striking  and  constant 
of  all  the  phenomena  of  nutrition.  At  the  same 
time  heat  is  evolved,  as  in  the  case  of  artificial 
combustion  ;  and  it  is  very  natural  to  connect 
the  two  sets  of  phenomena  with  each  other. 
Furthermore,  as  in  artificial  combustion,  the 
elevation  of  temperature  in  different  animals 
corresponds  very  closely  with  the  activity  of 
respiration  and  the  quantity  of  the  two  gases 
inspired  and  exhaled.  These  considerations 
have  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  theory,  at  once 
intelligible  and  comprehensive,  which  attributes 
the  production  of  animal  heat  to  the  direct  oxi 
dation  or  combustion  of  the  carbonaceous  in 
gredients  of  the  fo-od  and  tissues. — On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  certain  facts  which  are  less 
favorable  to  the  above  theory.  1.  In  the  first 
place,  though  the  combustion  of  carbonaceous 


524 


ANIMAL   HEAT 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM 


matter  happens  to  be  tlie  most  familiar  and 
useful  of  the  artificial  means  for  producing 
heat,  it  is  by  no  means  the  only  one  which  will 
have  that  effect.  A  great  variety  of  both 
physical  and  chemical  changes,  other  than  oxi 
dation,  are  attended  with  an  elevation  of  tem 
perature,  often  of  a  very  active  kind ;  as  in  the 
ordinary  slaking  of  lime,  where  a  boiling  tem 
perature  may  be  reached  in  a  few  minutes  by 
the  simple  combination  of  water  with  the  al 
kali,  which  already  contains  the  oxygen  it  is 
capable  of  absorbing.  A  great  variety  of  chem 
ical  and  physical  changes  are  constantly  go 
ing  on  in  the  process  of  nutrition,  varying  in 
their  character  in  the  different  organs;  and  of 
their  details  \ve  are  in  many  cases  still  igno 
rant.  As  \ve  have  seen  that  animal  heat  is  pro 
duced  as  a  local  phenomenon  in  the  different  or 
gans,  it  may  be  the  result  of  these  combined 
changes,  which  vary  in  character  in  different 
parts  of  the  body.  2.  The  first  absorption  of 
oxygen  by  the  blood,  which  takes  place  in  the 
lungs,  is  not  accompanied  by  any  very  marked 
elevation  of  temperature.  This  elevation,  if  it 
exist  at  all,  is  not  sufficient  to  compensate  for 
the  cooling  effect  of  the  air  and  exhalation  in 
the  pulmonary  cavities ;  for  we  have  seen  that 
in  the  living  animal  the  blood  has  been  found 
by  experiment  to  lose  slightly  instead  of  gain 
ing  in  temperature  while  passing  through  the 
lungs.  The  oxygen  is  here  taken  up  by  the 
red  blood  globules,  and  thence  distributed  to 
the  tissues  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  its  sub 
sequent  transfer  to  the  ingredients  of  the  tis 
sues  has  any  more  the  character  of  an  active 
combustion  than  its  first  absorption  by  the 
blood.  Some  physiologists  regard  oxygen  as  a 
kind  of  food  which  must  be  supplied  to  the 
body  with  great  regularity  and  constancy,  and 
which  is  destined  to  become  a  constituent  part 
of  the  tissues  very  much  in  the  same  manner 
as  other  nutritive  elements.  3.  The  produc 
tion  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  interior  of  the  body 
is  directly  due,  not  to  a  combination,  but  to  a 
decomposition  of  the  ingredients  of  the  tissues. 
Carbonic  acid  may  be  generated  at  anytime  in 
either  of  two  ways:  by  the  immediate  combi 
nation  of  oxygen  with  carbon,  as  in  the  com 
bustion  of  charcoal ;  or  by  the  decomposition 
of  another  body  still  more  compound  in  its  na 
ture,  as  in  the  decomposition  of  carbonate  of 
lime  by  an  acid,  or  the  decomposition  of  sugar 
in  fermentation.  In  both  these  latter  cases 
carbonic  acid  is  evolved  without  any  direct 
oxidation  taking  place;  and  the  process  will 
go  on  accordingly  without  the  access  of  oxygen 
or  atmospheric  air.  In  the  animal  body* it  is 
by  such  a  process  of  decomposition  that  car 
bonic  acid  is  produced ;  and  the  proof  of  this  is, 
that  if  the  fresh  muscles  of  a  frog,  or  the  living 
animal  itself,  be  enclosed  in  an  "atmosphere  of 
hydrogen  or  nitrogen,  or  even  in  a  vacuum, 
they  will  still  for  a  considerable  period  continue 
to  exhale  carbonic  acid.  This  has  been  fully 
shown  by  the  experiments  of  Marchand.  4. 
While  it  id  true  that  the  development  of  animal 


heat  is  in  proportion  to  the  consumption  of 
oxygen  and  the  exhalation  of  carbonic  acid, 
this  is  also  true  of  most  if  not  all  the  other  sub 
stances  consumed  and  eliminated  by  the  living 
body.  An  abundant  production  of  warmth 
coincides  with  a  general  vigor  and  activity  of 
all  the  animal  functions,  with  muscular  exer 
tion,  capacity  of  endurance,  and  a  liberal  con 
sumption  of  both  the  nitrogenous  and  non- 
nitrogenous  elements  of  food.  We  cannot  safe 
ly  attribute  the  heat-producing  power  exclusive 
ly  to  one  or  the  other  class  of  alimentary  sub 
stances  ;  for  while  fat  and  albuminous  matters 
are  both  consumed  in  large  quantities  in  cold 
climates,  on  the  other  hand  starchy  materials 
form  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  food  in 
warm  weather  and  in  tropical  climates.  In 
point  of  fact,  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  are  two 
substances  which  enter  and  are  discharged 
from  the  system  by  the  same  organ,  the  lungs ; 
but  there  is  not  necessarily  any  direct  relation 
between  them,  except  that  oxygen  is  one  of  the 
nutritious  substances  essential  to  the  body,  and 
carbonic  acid  is  excrementitious. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM,  or  Mesmerism,  an  influ 
ence  analogous  to  terrestrial  and  metallic  mag 
netism,  supposed  to  reside  in  animal  bodies  and 
to  be  capable  of  transmission  from  one  to 
another.  It  was  first  brought  into  notice  in 
Germany  in  1775  by  Mesmer,  a  native  of  Swa- 
bia,  who  had  graduated  in  medicine  at  Vien 
na  nine  years  beforehand  had  written  as  his 
inaugural  thesis  a  treatise  on  "  The  Influence 
of  the  Planets  on  the  Human  Body."  He 
regarded  the  new  force,  which  he  said  could 
be  exerted  by  one  living  organism  upon  another, 
as  a  means  of  alleviating  or  curing  disease. 
Maximilian  Hell,  a  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Vienna,  had  made  some  suggestions  to  Mesmer 
a  few  years  earlier  as  to  the  possibility  of  pro 
ducing  an  effect  on  the  human  body  by  mag 
netism,  and  he  soon  claimed  to  be  the  discoverer 
of  the  new  influence.  Mesmer  declared  that 
the  effects  he  produced  were  those  of  animal 
magnetism,  capable  of  transmission  without  his 
touching  the  body  of  the  patient,  while  Hell's 
theory,  he  affirmed,  had  made  necessary  the 
actual  contact  of  the  patient  with  a  metallic 
magnet.  The  disputes  to  which  this  rivalry 
gave  rise,  together  with  various  accusations  of 
imposture,  caused  Mesmer  to  receive  a  warning 
from  the  government.  He  left  Vienna,  and  in 
1778  transferred  his  residence  to  Paris.  Here 
he  appears  to  have  been  from  the  first  regarded 
with  dislike,  or  at  least  with  suspicion,  by  the 
medical  profession,  but  with  great  favor  by  the 
general  public.  lie  received  at  his  house  pa 
tients  suffering  from  various  diseases,  and  per 
formed  upon  them  many  reputed  cures  by  the 
influence  of  the  magnetic  fluid.  His  method 
was  to  seat  himself  in  front  of  the  patient,  with 
his  eyes  steadily  fixed  upon  him,  and  to  per 
form  with  the  hands  a  few  preliminary  manipu 
lations  about  the  epigastrium  and  hypochon- 
drium  in  order  to  establish  between  them  what 
he  called  the  "magnetic  relation."  He  then 


ANIMAL   MAGNETISM 


proceeded  to  cperate  upon  the  diseased  part  by 
touching  it  with  the  right  hand  on  one  side  and 
the  left  "on  the  other,  and  performing  certain  cir 
cular  or  vihratory  movements  with  the  fingers 
which  were  left  free ;  an  essential  condition 
being  that  actual  contact  should  be  kept  up  on 
the  two  opposite  sides  in  order  that  the  mag 
netic  influence  might  circulate,  passing  into  the 
body  of  the  patient  on  one  side  and  out  again 
on  the  other.  His  idea  with  regard  to  the  na 
ture  of  the  influence  termed  animal  magnetism 
may  be  best  conveyed  in  his  own  words,  as 
contained  in  a  set  of  so-called  u  propositions  " 
or  "  assertions,"  in  a  volume  published  by  him 
in  1779  and  entitled  Memoire  sur  la  decouverte 
du  magnetisme  animate.  The  most  important 
of  these  propositions  are  as  follows  :  1.  "  There 
exists  a  mutual  influence  between  the  celestial 
bodies,  the  earth,  and  animated  beings.1'  2. 
u  This  reciprocal  action  is  regulated  by  mechan 
ical  laws  which  up  to  the  present  time  have  been 
unknown/'  3.  u  Animal  bodies  are  susceptible 
to  the  influence  of  this  agent;  and  they  are 
affected  by  it  on  account  of  its  disseminating 
itself  through  the  substance  of  the  nerves."  In 
cases  where  the  body  was  affected  by  some 
disorder  which  pervaded  all  parts  of  the  sys 
tem,  Mesmer  was  in  the  habit  of  magnetizing 
his  patients  with  long  and  wide  passes,  made 
from  a  distance,  either  with  the  open  hands  or 
with  the  aid  of  a  short-rod  or  wand  of  glass  or 
steel.  His  success  witl^  the  public,  however, 
and  the  number  of  patients  who  presented 
themselves,  increased  so  rapidly  that  he  could 
no  longer  give  to  each  one  the  personal  atten 
tion  rendered  necessary  by  this  method  of 
practice,  and  a  new  one  was  adopted  which 
soon  became  the  main  feature  of  the  magnetic 
system,  and  was  in  fact  the  principle  from 
which  mesmerism,  or  animal  magnetism  as 
practised  by  Mesmer,  acquired  its  greatest 
reputation  and  popularity.  This  was  the 
"  magnetic  tub,"  about  a  foot  and  a  half  high 
and  six  feet  in  diameter,  placed  in  the  centre  of 
a  spacious  apartment.  This  tub  was  filled  with 
water  up  to  a  certain  level,  and  its  bottom  cov 
ered  with  a  mixture  of  iron  filings  and  broken 
glass.  Around  its  outer  circumference  were 
ranged  a  series  of  bottles  with  their  necks 
looking  inward  toward  the  centre,  and  around 
its  centre  another  set  of  bottles  with  their 
necks  looking  outward.  The  whole  tub  was 
surmounted  by  a  wooden  cover  pierced  with  a 
number  of  small  holes;  and  through  these 
holes  were  inserted  an  equal  number  of  glass  or 
metallic  rods  bent  at  right  angles,  the  inner 
ends  of  which  dipped  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  water,  while  the  outer  portions  radiated 
horizontally  in  every  direction,  and  were  held 
in  contact  with  the  bodies  of  the  patients,  ar 
ranged  in  concentric  circles  round  the  tub. 
Thus  a  large  number  could  be  subjected  at  the 
same  time  to  the  magnetic  influence.  The  tub 
was  a  sort  of  reservoir  in  which  the  magnetic 
force  was  condensed,  and  from  which  it  radi 
ated  in  continuous  currents  through  the  bodies 


of  the  patients.  Its  circulation  was  secured  by 
means  of  a  long  cord,  attached  by  one  extrem 
ity  to  the  tub,  and  passed  in  successive  loops 
round  the  waist  of  each  person,  the  magnetizer 
himself  forming  one  link  in  this  continuous 
chain  of  living  bodies.  Thus  the  magnetism, 
radiating  from  the  tub  by  the  metallic  rods, 
returned  again  to  it  by  means  of  the  cord,  and 
so  continued  its  course  in  a  closed  circuit  with 
out  ever  becoming  exhausted.  The  more  sus 
ceptible  of  the  patients  soon  felt  a  nervous 
influence  pervading  the  affected  parts,  or  even 
their  whole  bodies.  This  often  became  so 
intensified  as  to  produce  irregularity  of  respira 
tion,  and,  especially  among  the  female  patients, 
sobs  and  laughter  of  an  hysterical  nature,  ex 
altation  of  the  sensibilities,  partial  unconscious 
ness,  and  even  convulsions  and  a  kind  of  mani 
acal  delirium.  These  effects,  however,  lasted 
but  for  a  time  after  the  patient  was  removed 
from  the  magnetic  circle,  and  resulted  in  many 
cases,  according  to  the  assertions  of  Mesmer 
and  his  friends,  in  the  relief  or  cure  of  diseases 
previously  regarded  as  hopeless.  The  receipts 
of  Mesmer  from  the  patients  resorting  to  his 
establishment  were  said  at  one  time  to  amount 
to  nearly  100,000  francs  a  year.  His  system 
had  indeed  become  so  popular  that  he  ventured 
to  address  a  note  to  the  French  government, 
stating  that  he  had  discovered  an  agent  by 
which  most  of  the  diseases  of  the  human  frame 
could  be  cured,  and  requesting  the  grant  of  a 
certain  chateau  and  adjoining  lands  as  a  reward 
for  his  discovery,  and  as  a  place  for  the  estab 
lishment  of  a  great  healing  institute.  The  gov 
ernment  refused  his  request,  but  offered  him  a 
yearly  pension  of  20,000  livres,  and  a  certain  sum 
for  the  establishment  of  a  hospital,  on  condition 
that  he  should  teach  his  doctrines  to  some  per 
sons,  of  whom  three  should  be  selected  by  the 
government.  This  offer  he  rejected ;  and  his 
friends,  desirous  of  giving  him  some  lasting 
pecuniary  reward  for  his  discoveries,  propos 
ed  that  classes  should  be  formed  of  pupils 
whom  he  should  instruct  in  animal  magnetism. 
Each  pupil  should  pay  100  livres  as  tuition 
fee,  and  bind  himself  not  to  teach  others. 
These  classes  were  formed,  and  they  paid  him 
in  all  340,000  livres.  Among  those  who  sub 
scribed  themselves  as  pupils  were  Lafayette, 
D'Espremenil,  the  marquis  de  Puysegur,  and 
Dr.  D'Eslon.  D'Eslon  was  a  man  of  much 
influence,  and  held  the  post  of  physician  to  the 
king's  brother.  He  took  great  interest  in  ani 
mal  magnetism,  used  it  in  his  practice,  and 
made  a  large  fortune  by  its  means.  In  1784 
the  French  government  ordered  the  medical 
faculty  of  Paris  to  investigate  Mesmer's  theory, 
and  make  a  report  upon  it.  Under  this  order  a 
commission  was  appointed,  consisting  of  Benja 
min  Franklin  (at  that  time  minister  to  France 
from  the  United  States),  Lavoisier,  Bory,  Bail- 
ly,  Majault,  Sallin,  D'Arcet,  Guillotin,  and  Le 
Roy.  '  Mesmer  refused  to  appear  before  them, 
but  D'Eslon  took  his  place,  made  himself  the 
advocate  of  the  new  doctrine,  and  tried  a  great 


ANIMAL   MAGNETISM 


number  of  experiments  before  them.  In  their  re-  ' 
port  to  the  government  the  commissioners  say  ; 
that,  "in  regard  to  the  existence  and  the  util-  j 
ity  of  animal  magnetism;  they  have  come  to  the  ! 
unanimous  conclusion  that  there  is  no  proof  of  | 
the  existence  of  the  animal  magnetic  fluid ;  that  | 
this  fluid,  having  no  existence,  is  consequently 
without  utility;  and  that  the  violent  effects  ; 
which  are  to  be  observed  in  the  public  practice  j 
of  magnetism  are  due  to  the  manipulations,  to  : 
the  excitement  of  the  imagination,  and  to  that 
sort  of  mechanical  imitation  which  leads  us  to 
repeat  anything  which  produces  an  impression 
upon  the  senses."  The  special  report  of  the 
committee  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  con 
sisting  of  Franklin,  Le  Roy,  Bory,  Lavoisier, 
arid  Bailly,  and  made  to  the  academy  itself, 
concludes  as  follows :  u  Magnetism,  accordingly, 
will  not  have  been  altogether  valueless  for  the 
philosophy  which  pronounces  its  condemnation  ; 
it  is  one  more  fact  to  be  recorded  in  the  history 
of  the  errors  of  the  human  mind,  and  an  im 
portant  experiment  upon  the  power  of  the 
imagination."  (Histoire  de  Vacademie  royale 
des  sciences,  1784,  p.  15.)  This  report  of  the 
commission,  together  with  a  previous  quarrel 
in  regard  to  money  matters  between  Mesmer 
and  his  partisans,  seems  to  have  rapidly  dimin 
ished  the  prosperity  and  esteem  which  he  had 
enjoyed  in  Paris.  He  left  that  city  in  1785, 
and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement  in 
Switzerland,  in  the  possession  of  considerable 
wealth  acquired  from  his  former  magnetic  prac 
tice. — About  the  time  of  Mesmer's  retirement 
from  Paris,  animal  magnetism  entered  upon  a 
new  phase  of  development,  by  the  discovery 
by  the  marquis  de  Puysegur  of  the  magnetic 
sleep,  or  somnambulism,  which  afterward  be 
came  still  further  developed  by  the  addition  of 
clairvoyance.  It  is  under  this  title  that  the 
most  surprising  phenomena  of  animal  magnet 
ism  have  been  exhibited  during  the  present 
century.  A  magnetic  clairvoyant  is  a  person 
who,  having  been  thrown  into  the  somnambu 
listic  condition  by  the  manipulations  of  the 
magnetizer,  becomes  possessed  of  extraordinary 
powers  of  sense  and  perception.  The  term 
clairvoyant  designates  the  power  which  is 
claimed  for  these  persons  of  seeing  distinctly 
through  the  substance  of  opaque  ol  jects.  Thus 
a  clairvoyant,  it  is  said,  can  read  a  book  un 
opened,  or  a  letter  which  is  enclosed  in  a  solid 
wooden  box.  He  can  do  this  as  well  as  with 
his  eyes  closed  or  bandaged  as  if  they  were 
open  and  uncovered.  Sometimes  the  sense  of 
sight,  or  a  faculty  capable  of  perceiving  things 
which  the  normal  man  perceives  only  by  means 
of  the  organ  of  vision,  seems  seated  in  the  fore 
head,  in  the  backhead,  in  the  fingers,  or  in  the 
knuckles  of  the  hand.  It  is  asserted  that  the 
clairvoyant  can  hear  also  without  using  his 
ears,  and  with  more  aeuteness  than  can  others 
in  the  waking  state  using  their  ears.  Some 
times  the  sense  of  hearing  appears  to  have 
its  seat  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  tlie  clair 
voyant  hears  no  sounds  except  those  n.adc  at 


his  breast,     The  senses  of  taste,   touch,   and 
smell  are  ordinarily  inactive.     But  while  insen 
sible  to  impressions  upon  his  own  nerves,  he  feels 
all  those  which  are  experienced  by  his  magne 
tizer  ;  and  if  the  latter  be  pinched,  the  clair 
voyant  winces,  as  though  he  felt  the  pain  at 
the  corresponding  part  of  his  own  body.     He 
is  governed  by  the  will   of  the  magnetizer; 
whatever  the  latter  orders  him  to  do,  he  does; 
and  this  order  is  understood  and  obeyed,  even 
if  not  spoken,   but  merely  thought.     As  the 
theory  of  these  alleged  phenomena  was  gradu 
ally  developed,  mesmerism  again  rose  into  some 
degree  of  favor.     M.  Deleuze,  assistant  secre 
tary  and  naturalist  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
published  in  1813  a  favorable  u  Critical  History 
of  Animal  Magnetism;"    and    other   friendly 
publications  followed  rapidly  in  France   arid 
|  Germany.     Several  able  German  physiologists 
|  spoke  of  the  new  agent  as  worthy  of  attention. 
!  Well  conducted  magazines  were  established  to 
propagate  its  principles.     The  Prussian  govern- 
i  merit  took  notice  of  it  in  1817,  so  far  as  to 
order  that  none  save  physicians  should  practise 
it ;  and  in  the  following  year  the  academy  of 
sciences  of  Berlin  offered  a  prize  for  the  best 
treatise  on  the  subject,  but  this  oft'cr  was  sub 
sequently    withdrawn.       Ennemoser,    Kluge. 
|  Kieser,    Wolfarth,    and    Nees    von    Esenbeck 
defended  mesmerism  in  books  and  magazines 
before  the  German  public,  and  Deleuze  kept 
the  subject  before  France  by  publishing  a  num- 
|  her  of  works.     In  1825,  Dr.  Foissac,  a  young 
|  physician  and  an  enthusiastic  believer  in  animal 
j  magnetism,  demanded  of  the  royal  academy  of 
medicine   in   Paris    that    another   commissioK 
should  be  appointed,  and  another  investigation 
made.     The  academy  consented  and  appointed 
a  commission  of  five  members  to  conduct  the 
inquiry.      Their   report,  not   made   till    1831, 
!  while  it  did  not  concede  by  any  means  all  that 
I  the  believers  in  the  new  force  claimed,  was  in 
i  general  favorable  to  the  theory  of  its  existence 
I  and  effects;  and  although  not  regularly  adopted 
j  by  the  academy,  or  printed  as  a  part  of  its  for- 
!  mal  memoirs,  it  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the 
investigation  of  mesmerism,  and  extended  it  into 
Britain  and  America,  where  it  had  been  almost 
unknown   before.     In   1833  J.   C.  Colquhoun 
j  published  in  English  a  translation  of  the  report 
with  remarks;  in  1836  he  published  an  original 
j  work  on  the  same  subject,  entitled  Isis  Rere- 
'  late.     In  1837  the  subject  was  again  taken  up 
i  by  the  academy.     A   committee  of  nine  was 
i  appointed,  among  whom  were  Roux,  Bouillaud, 
;  and  Cloquet,  who  tested  in  several  se?  sions  the 
phenomena  exhibited  by  a  reputed  clairvoyant. 
!  Their  report,  made  Aug.  17,  1837,  detailed  all 
j  the  particulars  of  their  investigations,  and  ex- 
:  pressed   the   results   as   follows  :   "The    facts 
which  had  been  promised  by  M.  Berna  (the 
j  magnetizer)  as  conclusive,  and  as  adapted  to 
throw  light  on  physiological  and  therapeutical 
i  questions,  arc  certainly  not  conclusive  in  favor 
i  of  the  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism,  and  have 
i  nothing  in  common  with  either  physiology  or 


ANIME 


ANJOU 


therapeutics."      This   report  was   adopted   l>y  | 
the  academy  Sept.  5,  1837.     In  the  same  month  j 
M.  Burdin,  a  member  of  the  academy,  made  a  i 
standing    otter    of    3,000    francs   to    whoever  : 
within  two  years  should  produce  a  clairvoyant 
able  to  read  without  the  use  of  the  light,  the  ; 
eyes,  or  the  touch.     The  conditions  of  the  trial 
were  afterward  modified  so  that  the  paper  to  ; 
be   read  might   be  illuminated,   provided   the  I 
eyes  of  the  clairvoyant  were  properly  covered,  i 
and  the  sense  of  touch  might  be  used  as  an  aid,  j 
hut  with  a  smooth  glass  surface   covering  the  j 
object  to  be  examined.     The  time  during  which  j 
the  prize  was  to  remain  open  was  also  extended  j 
to  three  years.     The  money  was  deposited  with  \ 
a  notary  subject  to  the  order  of  the  academy,  j 
and  a  committee  appointed   to  supervise  the 
experiments.      Several   clairvoyants   appeared 
as  contestants  for  the  prize  at  various  times,  but 
the  committee  in  each  case  reported  their  com 
plete  failure. — About  18-40  a  new  and  prominent 
student  of  animal  magnetism  appeared  in  the 
person  of  Mr.  Braid  of  Manchester,  England, 
who  discovered  that  he  could  produce  sleep  in 
most  persons  whom  he  tried,  by  ordering  them 
to  look  steadily  at  some  small  object  about  a 
foot  from  the  eyes,  and  above  their  level.     He 
gave  the  name  of  "hypnotism "  to  the  sleep  and 
somnambulism  thus  produced,  and  styled  his 
theory  for  the  explanation  of  the  phenomena 
"  neurypnology."      The   principles  discovered 
by  him  were  applied  by  other  persons  in  vari 
ous    ways,   and    variously   styled    u  biology," 
a  electro-biology,"   &c.      All   the   phenomena 
produced  under  these  different  names  are  sub 
stantially  mesmeric.     Mr.  Braid  had  no  faith 
in  clairvoyance  proper;    but  he  admitted   an 
''exaltation  of  the  senses"  in  the   mesmeric 
and  hypnotic  states,  giving  a  delicacy  of  per 
ception,  and  sometimes  a  perspicacity  of  rea 
soning,  exceeding  that  of  the  normal   state. 
These  views  were  sanctioned  by  Dr.  William  B. 
Carpenter  in  his  "  Human  Physiology." — Re 
cently  there  has  been  no  special  change  in  the 
doctrine  of  clairvoyance,    except   that   it  has 
become  somewhat  closely  connected  with  that 
of   spiritualism.     While   the   members  of  the 
medical  profession,  with  few  exceptions,  have 
always  opposed  the  claims  of  mesmerism,  these 
have   nevertheless  found  supporters  in  many 
men  of  learning  and  eminence ;  among  them,  be 
sides  those  already  mentioned,  are  Laplace,  Cu- 
vier,  Agassiz,  Hufeland,  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
Dr.  Herbert  Mayo,  and  Prof.  Edward  Hitchcock. 
For  information  in  regard  to  the  theories  of  its 
advocates,  see  Deleuze's  "  Practical  Instruction 
in  Mesmerism;  "  "Letters  on  Animal  Magnet 
ism,"  by  Prof.  William  Gregory;  "Mesmerism, 
its  History,  Phenomena,  and  Practice,"  by  Wil 
liam  Lang ;  "  Facts  in  Mesmerism,"  by  the  Rev. 
Chauncey  Hare  Townshend ;   "  Truth  in  Popu 
lar  Superstitions,"  by  Dr.  Herbert  Mayo;   and 
"Practical  Instruction  in  Animal  Magnetism," 
by  Dr.  Alphonse  Teste. 

AN  1MB  (Fr.,  animated),  a  resin  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  the  hymeniza  courbaril  of  South 


America.  It  exudes  from  wounds  in  the  bark, 
and  collects  between  the  principal  roots.  This 
resin  is  soft  and  sticky,  and  melts  easily,  diffus 
ing  white  fumes  and  a  very  pleasant  odor. 
Insects  are  generally  entrapped  in  such  num 
bers  in  it,  that  it  is  said  to  well  merit  its  name 
of  animated.  The  Brazilians  use  it  internally 
in  diseases  of  the  lungs.  It  was  formerly  em 
ployed  in  the  composition  of  ointments  and 
plasters,  but  at  present  its  only  use  is  for  var 
nishes  and  incense. 

ANISE  SEED,  the  fruit  of  the  pimpinclla  ani- 
sum,  a  native  of  Europe  and  Africa.  It  is 
extensively  employed  as  a  carminative  medi 
cine,  and  for  the  purpose  of  flavoring  liqueurs 
or  medicines.  It  yields  an  aromatic  oil  both 
by  distillation  and  expression,  which  is  used 


Anise  (Pimpinclla   anisum). 

for  the  same  purposes  as  the  seed,  and  is  also  a 
!  favorite  article  with  vermin-killers,  who  em- 
i  ploy  it  to  disguise  the  scent  of  poisonous  baits. 
i  The  anise-seed  cordial  of  the  shops  is  a  cora- 
|  pound,  of  alcohol,  anise  seed,  and  angelica. 
!  The  plant  is  cultivated  in  Malta  and  Spain, 
j  and  grows  spontaneously  in  Egypt  and  the 
I  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  especially 
Scio.  The  genus  pimpinclla  belongs  to  the 
umbelliferous  tribes  of  plants  inhabiting  mead- 
j  ows  and  mountains  in  Europe  and  Africa. 

ANJOU,  an  ancient  province  of  X.  W.  France, 
j  chiefly  constituting  the  present  department  of 
I  Maine-et-Loire,  with   Angers   for   its   capital. 
I  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  it  was  inhabited  by 
1  the  Andegavi.    During  the  Frankish  and  feu 
dal  eras  its  counts  played  an  important  part  in 
European  history.     The  eldest  branch  of  the 
family  traced  its  descent  to  the  days  of  Charles 
the  Bald  in  the  9th  century,  and  the  younger 
branches  to  those  of  Louis  VIII.  and  XL,  in 
the  13th.    Among  the  eminent  counts  of  Anjou, 
those  of  the  name  of  Foulques  or   Fulk  were 


distinguished  as  crusaders,  especially  Foulques 
V.,  who  in  1131  succeeded  his  father-in-law 
Baldwin  II.  as  king  of  Jerusalem.  His 
son  Geoffrey,  surnamed  Plantagenet,  became 


528 


ANJOU 


ANNABERG 


through  his  marriage  (1127)  with  the  empress 
Matilda  the  father"  of  Henry  II.  of  England. 
Charles,  hrother  of  St.  Louis,  commonly  called 
Charles  of  Anjou  (born  about  1220),  a  brave  cru 
sader,  heir  to  Anjou  and  Provence,  became  the 
founder  of  the  younger  branch  which  reigned 
over  the  Two  Sicilies.  In  1356  Anjou  was 
made  a  duchy.  Louis,  son  of  King  John  II., 
was  the  first  duke,  and  ancestor  of  the  u  good 
King  Rene  of  Anjou."  The  last  of  this  branch, 
Charles  IV.,  bequeathed  the  duchy  to  Louis 
XL,  who  permanently  annexed  it  to  France 
(1483).  Since  that  time  Anjou  has  merely 
given  honorary  titles  to  Bourbon  princes. 
Among  them  was  Francois,  fourth  son  of  Henry 
II.  and  Catharine  do'  Medici,  duke  of  Alencon, 
afterward  duke  of  Anjou  (born  in  1554).  He 
was  famous  for  his  zeai  in  favor  of  the  Hugue 
nots,  and  his  opposition  in  the  Netherlands  to 
Philip  II.  After  having  been  for  a  short  time 
acknowledged  by  the  Netherlander  as  ruler 
under  the  title  of  duke  of  Brabant  (1582),  they 
expelled  him  on  account  of  his  autocratic 
measures.  lie  was  one  of  the  rejected  suitors 
of  Queen  Elizabeth. .  Several  descendants  of 
Louis  XIV.  bore  the  title  of  dukes  of  Anjou. 
Louis  XV.  bore  it  anterior  to  that  of  dau 
phin  ;  and  Philip  V.  was  known  in  France 
under  the  same  title  before  he  became  king  of 
Spain,  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 

ANJOU,  Margaret  of.     See  MARGARET. 

ANKLAM,  an  old  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Pomerania,  on  the  river 
Peene,  6  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  Stettin-IIaff, 
45  m.  N.  W.  of  Stettin,  and  91  m.  by  railway 
N.  of  Berlin ;  pop.,  including  the  three  sub 
urbs,  in  1871,  10,739.  It  has  an  active  trade. 

AXKYFITZ,  Mikolaj,  count,  a  Polish  politician, 
executed  in  1794.  He  was  ambassador  at 
Copenhagen,  and  deputy  to  the  diet  from  Cra 
cow.  In  the  diet  of  Grodno,  which  was 
forced  to  sanction  the  second  dismemberment 
of  Poland,  he  played  a  prominent  part ;  and 
when  the  treaty  consummating  it  was  concluded 
with  Russia,  he  was  deputed  to  sign  it  on  behalf 
of  Poland,  July  23,  1793.  Immediately  after 
ward  a  salary  of  $13,000  was  conferred  upon 
Ankwitz  by  the  Russian  government,  with  the 
appointment  of  president  of  the  council.  When 
these  facts  became  known,  the  rage  of  the  peo 
ple  knew  no  bounds.  On  April  18,  1794,  soon 
after  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  of 
which  Kosciuszko  became  the  leader,  he  was 
accused  of  treason,  and  his  correspondence  was 
seized,  which  established  his  guilt.  lie  was  : 
hanged,  and  buried  in  the  felons1  graveyard. 

AMA  CAULOm,  grand  duchess  of  Russia,  i 
originally  called  Elizabeth  Catharine  Christina,  ! 
daughter  of  Charles  Louis,  prince  of  Mecklen-  j 
burg,  and  Catharina  Ivanovna,  daughter  of  the  ' 
eldest  V-rotherof  Peter  the  Great,  born  in  1718,  i 
died  March  18,  1746.  She  wras  a  niece  of  the  j 
empress  Anna  Ivanovna.  In  1739  she  married  j 
Anthony  Ulrick,  duke  of  Brunswick- Wolfen-  ! 
buttel.  They  had  in  1740  a  son,  Ivan,  whom  i 
the  empress  Anna  designed  as  heir  to  the  Rus-  i 


|  sian  crown,  appointing  Biron  regent.  After 
j  the  death  of  the  empress  the  same  year,  Anna 
i  Carlovna  overthrew  the  regency  of  Biron  and 
|  took  affairs  into  her  own  hands,  declaring  her- 
I  self  grand  duchess.  A  year  later  (Decem- 
i  her,  1741)  she  was  overthrown  by  Elizabeth, 
|  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  was  de 
clared  empress.  The  boy  Ivan  was  shut  up 
i  in  the  fortress  of  Schlussclburg,  where  he 
I  perished.  Anna,  her  husband,  and  a  daugh- 
;  ter  were  sent  to  Kholmogory,  a  small  town 
!  on  an  island  in  the  Dwina,  near  the  White 
|  sea,  where  she  died. 

AMA  C03L\ENA,  daughter  of  Alexis  Comne- 
!  mis,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  and  the  empress 
Irene,  born  Dec.  1,  1083,  died  in  1148.  She 
Avas  married  to  Nicephorus  Bryennius,  a  Greek 
j  nobleman  of  distinction,  whom  she  incited 
j  after  the  death  of  her  father,  in  1118,  to  con- 
!  spire  against  her  brother  and  seize  the  sceptre. 
!  The  conspiracy  failed,  and  Anna  and  her  hus- 
I  band  were  banished  from  Constantinople  and 
!  stripped  of  most  of  their  property.  Anna 
;  during  her  exile  composed  a  biography  of  her 
\  father,  which  she  styled  Alexias.  This  work  is 
I  divided  into  19  books,  and,  though  very  de- 
:  fective  in  many  respects,  is  yet  of  great  im- 
|  portance  as  a  history  of  the  period  of  which  it 
!  treats.  The  best  edition  of  the  Alexias  is 
j  Schopen's,  published  at  Bonn  in  1839. 

AftKA  IVAJVOVIVA,  empress  of  Russia,  born 
!  in  1693,  died  Oct.  28,  1740.  She  was  the 
I  daughter  of  Ivan,  the  eldest  brother  of  Peter 
|  the  Great,  and  married  the  duke  of  Courland, 
|  who  died  previous  to  her  ascending  the  throne. 
i  She  became  empress  on  the  death  of  Peter  II., 
|  grandson  of  Peter  the  Great,  in  1730.  Oster- 
j  mann,  the  great  chancellor,  and  the  then  all- 
|  powerful  princes  Dolgoruki  facilitated  her  ele- 
i  vation  over  the  heads  of  two  daughters  of 
|  Peter  the  Great,  as  Anna  promised  a  limitation 
!  of  the  autocracy.  But  Anna  brought  from  Cour- 
!  land  to  Moscow  her  favorite,  the  former  equerry 
i  Biron,  who  prevented  her  from  keeping  her 
|  promise,  exiled  the  Dolgorukis  to  Siberia,  and 
j  ruled  absolutely  over  the  empress  and  the  na- 
!  tion.  He  organized  the  system  of  espionage 
i  over  all  classes,  officials  and  private  individu- 
i  als,  which  with  more  or  less  rigor  prevailed  for 
i  more  than  a  century.  Anna  interfered  in  the 
I  affairs  of  Poland,  in  1733,  in  favor  of  Augus 
tus  III.  against  Stanislas  Leszczynski,  and 
obliged  the  Courlanders  to  choose  Biron  for 
I  their  sovereign  duke,  and  on  her  deathbed 
:  named  him  regent  during  the  minority  of  her 
j  nephew  Ivan;  but  a  revolution  overthrow  him, 
!  and  he  was  exiled  to  Siberia. 

AMABERG,  a  town  of  Saxony,  in  the  Erzge- 
birge,  2,000  feet  above  sea  level,  in  the  district 
of  Zwickau,  19m.  by  railway  S.  of  Chemnitz; 
pop.  in  1871,  11,639."  The  mining,  formerly  of 
great  importance,  has  been  diverted  to  other 
localities,  and  the  government  department 
relating  to  it  was  removed  in  1856  to  Marien- 
berg.  Annaberg,  however,  besides  being  the 
seat  of  various  district  authorities,  continues 


ANNALS 


ANNAPOLIS 


529 


to  be  an  important  centre  for  the  manufacture 
of  lace  and  fringes,  which  latter  industry  was 
introduced  about  1590  by  Protestant  refugees 
from  Spanish  oppression  in  Flanders.  Crino 
lines  are  also  made  here  to  the  extent  of  over 
1  00,000  dozens  annually.  The  town  was  found 
ed  in  1-496. 

A\\ALS  (Lat.  annale-s,  that  is,  libri  annales, 
year  books),  a  concise  and  unadorned  narrative 
of  events,  written  in  the  order  of  time.  In 
the  early  days  of  Rome  the  pontifex  maximus 
kept  a  record  of  state  affairs,  prodigies,  arid 
the  markets,  which,  written  upon  a  white 
tablet,  was  displayed  in  some  convenient  por 
tion  of  his  house  to  the  public  inspection. 


These  records  were  called  annalcs 
and  were  written  down  to  the  pontificate  of 
Publius  Mucius  Scavola,  131  B.  0.  When  the 
Gauls  burned  the  city,  390  B.  C.,  the  greater 
portion  of  those  previously  written  were  de 


stroyed.  Subsequently,  other  individuals  com 
posed  portions  of  Roman  history,  imitating  in 
style  the  pontifical  annals.  The  first  of  these 
works,  which  was  written  by  Quintus  Fabius 
Pictor,  commenced  with  the  founding  of  Rome, 
and  came  down  to  the  author's  own  time,  dur 
ing  the  second  Punic  war. 

AMATOLLS,  a  city  of  Anno  Arundel  county, 
Md.,  capital  of  the  county  and  of  the  state, 
28  m.  8.  by  E.  of  Baltimore,  and  40  m..  E.  by 
N.  of  Washington ;  hit.  of  tiie  state  house,  38° 
58'  N.,  Ion.  70°  29'  W. ;  pop.  in  I860,  3,228 
whites  and  1,301  colored;  in  1870,  5,744,  of 
whom  1,682  were  colored.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  Severn  river,  about  2  m.  from 
its  junction  with  the  waters  of  Chesapeake 
bay.  For  a  long  period  before  Baltimore  was 
at  all  noted,  Annapolis  was  the  seat  of  wealth, 
refinement,  and  extensive  trade.  It  was  for 
merly  a  port  of  entry,  but  has  lost  its  corniner- 


United  States  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis. 


cial  importance,  and  is  now  chiefly  distinguished 
as  the  seat  of  the  state  go\ernment  and  of  the 
United  States  naval  academy.  The  city  is  con 
nected  with  Baltimore  an^l  Washington  by  rail 
road,  and  with  the  former  also  by  regular  lines 
of  steamers  "rlie  plan  of  the  city  bears  some 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  national  capital,  all 
the  streets  radiating  from  two  points,  the  state 
house  and  the  Episcopal  church.  Its  appear 
ance  is  interesting  from  its  air  of  quiet  seclu 
sion;  and  the  antique  look  of  many  of  the 
houses,  with  their  peculiar  style  of  architec 
ture,  gives  the  stranger  an  impression  of  some 
old  European  town,  rather  than  that  of  an 
American  city.  The  state  hou^e,  standing  on 
an  eminence,  is  a  noble  and  massive  structure 
of  brick,  with  a  lofty  dome  and  cupola.  It  con 
tains  the  halls  of  the  legislative  assembly,  as  well 
as  the  state  library  and  records.  St.  John's 
college,  founded  in  1784,  is  a  state  institution. 
In  1868  there  were  10  instructors,  433  gradu- 
VOL.  i.— 34 


ates.  and  about  3,500  volumes  in  the  library. 
St.  Mary's  seminary,  a  Roman  Catholic  insti 
tution,  is  also  situated  here.  Three  weekly 
papers  are  published  in  the  city.  The  naval 
academy  was  established  in  1845  by  the  lion. 
George  Bancroft,  then  secretary  of  the  navy. 
Candidates  (who  must  be  over  15  ami  under  18 
years  of  age)  are  admitted  to  the  institution 
after  passing  a  thorough  phvsical  examination, 
as  well  as  an  examination  in  the  elements  of 
an  English  education.  They  remain  in  the 
institution  four  years,  under  strict  discipline 
and  instruction  in  all  the  branches  of  the  naval 
profession,  before  they  are  examined  for  ad 
mission  into  the  navy  as  midshipmen.  The 
academic  board  is  composed  of  the  superin 
tendent  of  the  institution,  who  must  be  an 
;  officer  of  the  navy,  not  below  the  rank  of  com- 
:  mander;  the  executive  officer,  or  commandant 
I  of  midshipmen,  with  four  assistants,  who  must 
i.be  either  commanders  or  lieutenants  in  the 


530 


ANNAPOLIS 


ANN  ARBOR 


navy,  and  who  discharge  the  duties  of  instruc 
tors  in  seamanship,  naval  tactics,  and  practical 
gunnery ;  and  the  professors  of  mathematics, 
of  steam  engineering,  of  astronomy,  navigation, 
and  surveying,  of  natural  and  experimental 
philosophy,  of  field  artillery  and  infantry  tac 
tics,  of  ethics  and  English  studies,  including  in 
ternational  law,  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
languages,  and  of  drawing  and  draughting. 
The  academic  staff  consists  of  the  members  of 
the  academic  board  as  heads  of  the  different 
departments,  assisted  by  04  professors  and  in 
structors.  The  grounds  connected  with  the 
establishment  are  extensive,  having  recently 
been  considerably  enlarged.  Across  College 
creek  114  acres  were  added  in  1809,  and  in  1870- 
'71  a  large  naval  hospital  was  built  upon  this 
ground  at  a  cost  of  over  $150,000.  The  grounds 
immediately  surrounding  the  academy  contain 
buildings  for  recitation  and  lecture  rooms,  mess 
rooms,  dormitories,  officers'  quarters,  a  phi 
losophical  hall  and  laboratory,  and  an  astro 
nomical  observatory.  The  observatory  has  an 
equatorial  telescope  constructed  by  Clark  of 
Boston,  with  a  tine  achromatic  lens  of  7f  inches 
clear  aperture,  and  9J  feet  focal  length ;  an  ex 
cellent  meridian  circle  by  Repsold  of  Ham 
burg;  and  a  very  complete  collection  of  the 
minor  instruments  used  by  the  travelling  astron 
omer,  the  surveyor,  and  the  navigator.  The 
academy  has  a  carefully  selected  library  of 
^bout  15,000  volumes,  to  which  additions  are 
made  annually.  Fort  Severn,  to  which  the 
grounds  formerly  pertained,  is  now  enclosed  and 
covered  with  a  roof,  and  used  as  a  gymnasium 
and  ball  room.  Two  sloops  of  war  are  attached 
to  the  institution,  used  during  the  summer 
months  as  practice  ships,  and  for  sailing  upon 
an  ocean  voyage.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
academic  year  1870  the  whole  number  of  mid 
shipmen  in  the  several  classes  was  253;  08 
graduated  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  100  were 
admitted.  During  the  civil  war,  the  academy 
was  removed  to  Newport,  R.  L,  but  soon 
after  its  close  was  brought  back  here. — An 
napolis  was  settled  in  1049  by  puritan  refugees 
from  Virginia,  under  a  ruling  elder  named 
Durand,  and  was  at  first  called  Providence. 
The  next  year  Brooke,  under  a  commission 
from  Lord  Baltimore,  organized  the  county 
under  its  present  appellation,  and  called  the 
settlement  Anne  Arundel  Town  in  honor  of 
Lady  Baltimore.  A  few  years  later  it  was 
again  known  as  Providence,  and  was  the  seat 
of  a  Protestant  council,  disputing  the  legisla 
tive  authority  with  the  Catholic  council  at  St. 
Mary's.  The  latter  was  finally  abandoned  in  i 
1694,  and  the  government  was  established  at  j 
the  settlement  on  the  Severn,  where  a  town  j 
had  been  regularly  laid  out  and  called  Annap-  | 
olis  after  Queen  Anne,  who  gave  it  some  valu-  ' 
able  presents.  A  city  charter  was  granted  in  ! 
1708.  At  the  close  of  the  revolution  Mary-  ! 
land  offered  to  cede  Annapolis  to  the  general  j 
government  as  the  federal  capital.  During  the  j 
negotiations  for  a  permanent  site,  it  was  re-  ; 


solved  in  1783  that  congress  should  meet  alter 
nately  at  Annapolis  and  Trenton,  the  first  ses 
sion  to  be  held  at  Annapolis.  It  was  at  this 
session  that  Washington  surrendered  his  com 
mission  as  commander-iii-chief,  Dec.  23,  1783. 

ANNAPOLIS.  I.  A  W.  county  of  the  prov 
ince  of  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  bounded  N.  W. 
by  the  bay  of  Fundy ;  area,  about  1,700  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871, 18,121.  The  principal  river  is  the 
Annapolis,  which  flows  S.  "VV.  about  60  m., 
through  an  expansion  called  Annapolis  basin, 
to  the  bay  of  Fundy.  The  surface  is  varied. 
The  elevated  ridge  of  the  North  mountains  ex 
tends  along  the  coast,  with  flanks  of  excellent 
soil ;  the  uplands  of  the  valley  of  Annapolis 
river  are  well  adapted  to  fruit  culture;  and 
the  region  S.  of  the  Annapolis  valley  is  broken 
but  generally  fertile.  There  is  a  valuable  bed 
of  iron  ore  near  the  Moose  and  Nictaux  rivers. 
The  chief  employment  of  the  population  is  ag 
riculture,  and  the  exports  of  dairy  produce  are 
considerable.  II.  A  town  (formerly  Port  Roy 
al),  capital  of  the  above-named  county,  situated 
on  Annapolis  basin,  in  lat.  44°  40'  N.,  Ion.  65°  37' 
"W.,  95  m.  W.  of  Halifax,  with  which  it  is  con 
nected  by  railway;  pop.  2,127.  The  basin  is 
a  capacious  and  sheltered  harbor,  but  the  en 
trance,  through  Annapolis  strait,  is  narrow 
and  difficult.  The  first  European  settlement 
on  this  part  of  the  coast  was  made  here  by 
De  Monts  in  1604.  Under  the  name  of  Port 
Royal  it  was  the  capital  of  the  French  colony 
of  Acadia,  after  the  conquest  of  which  by  the 
English  in  1710  the  name  of  the  town  was 
changed.  The  capital  was  removed  to  Halifax 
in  1750. 

ANN  ARBOR,  a  city  of  Michigan,  capital  of 
Washtenaw  county,  lying  on  both  sides  of 
Huron  river,  in  lat.  42°  15'  N.,  Ion.  83°  43' 
W.,  38  m.  by  railroad  "W.  of  Detroit;  pop.  in 
1870,  7,363.  The  Huron  river,  and  a  creek 
which  empties  into  it  from  the  south,  supply 
valuable  water  power.  There  are  within  the 
limits  of  the  township  2  woollen  mills,  4  flour 
mills,  5  breweries,  2  factories  of  agricultural 
implements,  2  tanneries,  2  printing  offices,  nu 
merous  saw  mills,  planing  mills,  and  workshops 
for  wood  and  iron,  10  churches  (2  Baptist,  2 
Methodist,  Catholic,  Episcopal,  Congregational, 
Presbyterian,  Lutheran,  and  Unitarian),  and  6 
school  houses,  one  of  which  has  accommoda 
tion  for  1,000  pupils.  There  are  numerous 
fruit  gardens,  and  the  streets  are  thickly 
planted  with  shade  trees.  Two  railroads  pass 
through  the  town,  the  Michigan  Central,  E. 
and  W.,  and  the  Toledo  and  Saginaw,  N.  and 
S.,  and  the  city  is  the  centre  of  a  brisk  inland 
traffic.  There  are  five  mineral  springs  in  the 
city  (over  one  of  which  has  been  erected 
a  large  water-cure  establishment),  an  opera 
house,  concert  halls,  and  a  ladies'  library  as 
sociation.  Of  the  resident  inhabitants,  about 
one  quarter  are  of  German  descent,  and  the 
German  language  is  taught  in  the  schools. 
The  most  important  interest  of  Ann  Arbor  is 
the  Michigan  university.  (See  MICHIGAN  Usi- 


ANNATS 


ANNEALING 


531 


VERSITY.)  Ann  Arbor  was  settled  in  1824, 
and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1851. 

AMATS,  or  Annates,  originally  certain  funds 
which  by  ecclesiastical  law  were  paid  by  a 
new  incumbent  of  a  church  living  to  the  pope 
or  bishop.  As  the  name  indicates,  they 
amounted  to  the  first  year's  stipend  from  the 
living,  and  were  required  in  one  instalment, 
but  were  afterward  paid  in  two.  In  England 
they  were  at  first  paid  to  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury ;  the  popes  aftenvard  appropriated 
them.  The  English  parliament  in  1532  be 
stowed  them  on  the  crown,  but  Queen  Anne 
restored  them  to  the  church,  for  the  support 
of  the  poorer  livings,  whence  they  have  been 
called  Queen  Anne's  bounty.  In  Germany 
annats  are  synonymous  with  the  sermtia,  an 
early  form  of  taxation  in  the  western  church. 

AMATTO.     See  ANNOTTO. 

AME,  queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
the  last  member  of  the  house  of  Stuart  who 
sat  upon  the  English  throne,  born  at  Twicken 
ham,  near  London,  Feb.  6,  1664,  died  Aug.  1, 
1714.  She  was  the  second  daughter  of  James 
II.,  then  duke  of  York,  by  his  first  marriage 
with  Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  the  illustrious 
Clarendon.  Though  both  her  parents  became 
attached  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  she 
was  educated  in  the  principles  of  the  church 
of  England,  and  in  1683  was  married  to  Prince 
George,  brother  of  Christian  V.,  king  of  Den 
mark.  It  was  for  some  time  a  matter  of 
doubt  and  deep  anxiety  what  part  she  would 
take  in  the  contest  which  distracted  England 
between  James  II.  and  the  party  of  the  prince 
of  Orange ;  but  the  influence  of  the  vehement 
duchess  of  Marlborough,  for  whom  Anne  had 
a  romantic  fondness,  at  length  made  her  decide 
the  question  against  the  promptings  of  filial 
affection.  She  renounced  the  purpose  of  ac 
companying  her  father  in  his  exile,  adhered  to 
the  dominant  party,  and  by  the  act  of  settle 
ment  the  British  crown  was  guaranteed  to 
her  and  her  children  in  default  of  issue  to 
William  and  Mary.  She  lived  in  retirement 
till  the  death  of  William,  and  the  friendship 
between  her  arid  the  king  and  queen  was  only 
formal.  Of  the  17  children  whom  she  bore  to 
her  husband,  only  one  survived  infancy,  the 
duke  of  Gloucester,  who  died  in  1700,  at  the 
age  of  11.  On  the  death  of  William  in  1702, 
Mary  having  previously  died  without  heirs, 
Anne  ascended  the  throne.  Though  feeble  in 
character,  she  pursued  the  plans  of  her  prede 
cessor  against  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
on  the  day  of  her  coronation  the  triple  alli 
ance  was  renewed  between  England,  Holland, 
and  the  German  empire,  against  France.  This 
was  shortly  after  the  opening  of  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession,  in  which  Prince  Eu 
gene  and  Marlborough,  by  the  victories  of 
Oudenarde,  Rarnillies,  and  Blenheim,  drove 
the  French  troops  from  the  Danube  across  the 
Rhine.  In  the  battle  of  Malplaquet,  the  son 
of  James  II.,  the  chevalier  St.  George,  charged 
at  the  head  of  the  French  cavalry  the  army  of 


his  sister  Anne,  commanded  by  Marlborough. 
The  most  important  conquest  made  by  Eng 
land  in  this  war  was  the  fortress  of  Gibraltar. 
The  great  political  event  of  the  reign  of  Anne 
i  was  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland,  com- 
!  pleted  May  1,  1707.  In  1710  the  popularity 
of  Marlborough,  who  had  been  for  eight  years 
the  idol  of  the  queen,  the  parliament,  and  the 
people,  began  to  wane,  and  his  duchess  lost 
the  queen's  confidence.  The  tories,  who  now 
had  in  their  ranks  the  ablest  statesmen  and  the 
most  effective  writers,  increased  in  power,  and 
the  whigs  completed  their  own  ruin  by  the 
prosecution  of  Dr.  Sacheverell  for  preaching 
in  favor  of  the  divine  right  of  kings.  In  the 
new  election  the  tories  were  successful,  a  new 
ministry  was  formed,  in  which  Harley,  after 
ward  earl  of  Oxford,  and  Lord  Bolingbroke 
were  the  chiefs,  and  a  new  favorite,  Mrs.  Ma- 
sham,  the  daughter  of  a  London  merchant, 
reigned  at  court.  It  was  determined  to  con 
clude  peace,  and  the  fruits  of  the  war,  not  less 
than  the  allies  of  England,  were  neglected  in 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  signed  April  11,  1713. 
j  The  new  leaders  were  not  harmonious,  and 
|  though  the  crown  had  been  settled,  in  the 
event  of  Anne's  death  without  children,  upon 
the  princess  Sophia  of  Hanover,  the  grand 
daughter  of  James  L,  yet  the  court  and  court 
iers  were  occupied  with  intrigues  to  give  the 
succession  to  the  son  of  James  II.,  James,  the 
chevalier  St.  George.  The  queen,  wearied 
with  the  wrangling  and  cabals  of  her  minis 
ters,  suddenly  died ;  and  her  death,  at  a  mo 
ment  when  the  plans  of  Bolingbroke  were  im 
mature,  was  perhaps  the  means  of  securing 
peacefully  to  England  the  Protestant  succes 
sion.  Anne  was  deficient  in  mental  vigor,  but 
amiable.  Though  she  was  obliged  twice  to  set 
a  price  upon  the  head  of  her  brother,  she 
seems  to  have  cherished  for  him  a  strong  affec 
tion.  Her  reign,  distinguished  by  successful 
wars,  has  also  been  called  the  Augustan  period 
of  English  literature.  The  writings  of  Addi- 
son,  Pope,  Steele,  Swift,  and  Defoe  adorned 
the  age,  and  periodical  sheets  and  newspapers, 
such  as  the  successive  numbers  of  the  "Specta 
tor,"  then  first  came  into  fashion. 

ANNEALIXG  (Sax.  ana-Ian,  to  heat),  a  process 
of  softening  and  toughening  certain  metals  and 
glass  by  heating  them,  and  then  cooling  them 
very  slowly.  In  working  some  of  the  metals 
under  the  hammer,  or  in  rolling  them  into 
plates,  or  in  drawing  them  out  into  wire,  they 
become  hard  and  brittle,  so  that  the  process 
cannot  be  continued  without  restoring  them  to 
their  former  condition.  This  is  done  by  an 
nealing.  It  has  sometimes  to  be  often  repeated 
in  drawing  out  a  single  plate  of  brass  or  alumi 
num.  The  jarring  motion  to  which  the  wheels 
of  railway  cars  and  their  axles  are  subjected 
changes  in  time  the  soft,  fibrous  texture  of  the 
iron  into  a  crystalline  structure  approaching 
that  of  cast  iron.  They  become  brittle,  and 
can  be  restored  only  by  working  them  over  and 
annealing.  Intense  cold  produces  a  similar 


532 


ANNE  ARUNDEL 


ANNE   BOLEYN 


effect  when  the  change  of  temperature  is  very 
sudden.  The  tempering  of  steel  is  an  artificial 
hardening  of  the  same  nature.  Cast  iron  may 
he  chilled  and  hecorne  as  hard  as  steel,  hut 
hrittle.  It  may  he  annealed  (with  a  slight 
change  in  the  composition  at  the  same  time) 
and  form  malleable  castings — even  cast-iron 
nails  that  will  clench. — The  subject  is  more 
particularly  interesting  as  it  relates  to  the 
changes  effected  by  temperature  in  glass. 
When  this  is  melted  and  shaped  into  articles 
which  are  allowed  to  cool  in  the  air,  the 
glass  becomes  too  brittle  for  any  use.  The  ex 
terior  cools  first  and  forms  a  contracted  crust, 
which  shelters  the  interior  particles ;  so  that 
these  continue  longer  in  a  semi-fluid  state,  and 
are  prevented  from  expanding,  as  glass  does  in 
cooling,  and  uniting  with  the  rest  to  form  a  ho 
mogeneous  mass.  The  inner  parts  are  thus  con 
stantly  tending  to  expand.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
the  glass  is  placed  in  a  hot  oven,  and  this  is  al 
lowed  to  cool  very  slowly,  the  particles  of  glass 
appear  to  assume  a  condition  of  perfect  equi 
librium  of  cohesive  force  without  tension,  so 
that  the  mass  becomes  tough  and  elastic.  The 
extreme  effect  of  sudden  cooling  is  very  curious 
ly  shown  in  the  philosophical  toys  called  Prince 
Rupert's  drops  and  the  Bologna  phial.  The 
former,  which  were  shown  by  Prince  Rupert  to 
Charles  II.  in  1661,  are  little  pear-shaped  lumps 
of  glass,  with  a  curved  stem,  formed  by  dropping 
melted  glass  into  water.  Most  of  the  particles 
hurst  to  pieces,  but  some  assume  this  form. 
When  taken  out  of  the  water  they  will  bear  a 
smart  blow  without  breaking,  the  effect  being 
spread  equally  throughout  the  whole  body; 
hut  if  a  little  piece  be  broken  off'  the  end  of  the  | 
stem,  they  will  fly  into  fragments  with  a  sort  ! 
of  explosion.  Dr.  Ure  explains  this  phenomenon  j 
by  referring  it  to  the  tendency  of  a  crack  once  I 
formed  in  the  glass  to  extend  its  ramifications 
in  different  directions  throughout  the  whole 
mass.  The  same  effect  is  observed  in  t^ie  very 
large  sheets  of  plate  glass  used  for  shop  win-  | 
dows :  once  cracked,  they  are  seen  in  time  to  | 
fall  to  pieces,  the  cause  no  doubt  being  imper-  i 
feet  annealing.  The  Bologna  phials  are  made 
of  unannealed  glass,  3  or  4  inches  long  and  | 
about  i  of  an  inch  thick.  Xo  regard  is  paid  to  j 
their  shape.  They  will  hear  a  pretty  hard 
blow  with  a  hammer  handle  on  the  outside,  or 
a  small  bullet  may  be  dropped  into  one  with 
out  breaking  it;  but  if  a  sharp  fragment  of 
sand,  or  small  piece  of  stone,  be  dropped  in, 
the  glass  will  burst  in  pieces,  generally  at  once, 
but  sometimes  after  a  considerable  interval. 

AOE  ARUNDEL,  a  central  county  of  Mary 
land,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Chesapeake  bay, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Patapsco  river,  W.  by  the 
Patuxent,  and  watered  in  the  eastern  half  by 
the  South  and  Severn  rivers ;  area,  750  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2-4,457,  of  whom  11,732  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  undulating  and  hilly, 
and  the  soil  is  fertile.  In  1870  the  county  pro 
duced  126,451  bushels  of  wheat,  560,359  of 
com,  65,888  of  oats,  3,020,455  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 


21,521  of  wool,  and  142,632  of  butter.  Copper 
and  iron  ore  are  found.  The  Annapolis  and 
Elk  Ridge  railroad  passes  through  the  county. 
Capital,  Annapolis. 

AME  OF  AUSTRIA,  queen  of  France,  daughter 
of  Philip  III.  king  of  Spain,  born  Sept.  22,  1601, 
died  Jan.  20,  1666.  She  was  married  in  1615 
to  Louis  XIII.,  and  in  1638,  23  years  after 
her  marriage,  became  the  mother  of  Louis 
XIV.,  and  in  1640  of  Philip  of  Orleans,  the  first 
of  that  branch  of  the  house  of  Bourbon.  Car 
dinal  Richelieu,  the  all-powerful  minister  of  the 
weak  Louis  XIII.,  dreading  the  influence  of  the 
queen,  or,  as  others  pretend,  having  been  re 
fused  by  her  as  a  lover,  succeeded  in  prejudic 
ing  the  mind  of  the  king  till  he  allowed  Anne 
to  be  continually  persecuted,  exiled,  and  at 
times  left  to  suffer  the  greatest  penury.  Riche 
lieu  accused  her  of  conspiring  with  the  dukes 
of  Lorraine,  with  England,  with  her  brother 
the  king  of  Spain,  with  all  the  enemies  of 
France,  and  with  the  conspirators  at  the  court, 
against  his  own  supremacy.  At  the  death  of 
Louis  XIII.  in  1643,  the  parliament,  contrary  to 
his  will,  appointed  her  regent  during  the  minor 
ity  of  Louis  XIY.  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  been  secretly  married  to  her, 
ruled  in  her  name,  and  provoked  the  revolt  of 
some  of  the  princes  of  the  blood  and  other 
French  grandees  known  as  the  war  of  the 
Fronde  (1648-'53).  (See  FBOXDE.) 

AME  BOLE1N,  Bullen,  or  Bonleyne,  queen  of 
England,  one  of  the  wives  of  Henry  VIII.,  be 
headed  May  19,  1536.  The  date  of  her  birth  is 
uncertain,  some  authorities  placing  it  as  early 
as  1500,  others  as  late  as  1507.  She  was  a 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Boleyn,  afterward 
created  Viscount  Rochlbrd  and  earl  of  Ormond 
and  Wiltshire,  and  was  one  of  the  ladies  selected 
to  accompany  the  princess  Mary  to  France  at  the 
time  of  her  marriage  with  Louis  XII.  in  1514. 
When  Mary  returned  after  Louis's  death,  Anne 
remained  behind  attached  to  the  household  of 
Claude,  the  queen  of  Francis  I.  She  was  recalled 
to  England  in  1522  (or  according  to  Froude  in 
1527),  and  admitted  to  the  household  of  Catha 
rine  of  Aragon.  Here  she  seems  to  have  been  cir 
cumspect  in  her  behavior,  witty,  vivacious,  and 
accomplished.  The  stories  of  her  questionable 
conduct  at  the  French  court  rest  upon  insuf 
ficient  testimony.  It  was  not  long  before  she 
attracted  the  attention  of  Henry,  who  obliged 
Wolsey  to  interfere  and  break  off'  a  proposed 
marriage  between  Anne  and  Lord  Percy,  son 
of  the  earl  of  Northumberland.  Anne  grew  in 
favor  precisely  as  the  royal  scruples  about  the 
validity  of  the  marriage  with  Catharine  in 
creased.  It  was  in  the  latter  part  of  1527  that 
Henry  openly  declared  to  Wolsey  his  intention 
to  marry  Anne  as  soon  as  the  divorce  could  be 
obtained.  The  cardinal's  opposition  soon  gave 
way  before  Henry's  violent  will,  but  Anne  al 
ways  looked  upon  Wolsey  as  her  rival,  and 
could  not  rest  until  she  had  persuaded  the  king 
to  disgrace  him.  At  last,  after  five  years1  agi 
tation  of  the  divorce,  Anne  was  married  to  the 


ANNE   OF   BRITTANY 


ANNESLEY 


533 


king  at  Whitehall,  Jan.  25,  1533,  by  Dr.  Lee, 
one  of  the  royal  chaplains.  She  had  already 
for  three  years  resided  in  the  palace  and  been  | 
•Henry's  constant  companion,  and  a  few  months  | 
before  the  wedding  had  been  created  marchio-  j 
ness  of  Pembroke.  The  divorce  question  was  | 
now  brought  into  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  | 
Canterbury,  where  Cranmcr  had  been  created 
archbishop  on  purpose  to  decide  it.  In  May  i 
he  pronounced  the  marriage  with  Catharine 
null  from  the  beginning,  and  Anne  the  lawful 
wife  of-his  majesty ;  and  on  June  1  her  corona-  I 
tion  wos  performed  with  great  pomp.  Three 
months  later  was  born  the  princess  Elizabeth,  j 
whose  subsequent  reign  shed  so  much  splendor  j 
upon  English  history.  The  life  of  the  court  | 
while  Anne  shared  the  throne  was  gay  and  j 
easy ;  and  when  Henry  began  to  tire  of  her  and  j 
find  stronger  attractions  in  Jane  Seymour,  it  | 
was  not  difficult  to  convict  Anne  of  improprie-  | 
ties,  to  say  no  worse.  A  committee,  including  \ 
with  other  lords  her  own  father,  appointed  to  j 
inquire  into  her  conduct  (April,  1536),  reported  j 
her  incontinent  with  Brereton,  N orris,  and  Wes-  j 
ton  of  the  privy  chamber,  Smeaton,  the  king's  | 
musician,  and  even  her  own  brother,  Lord  j 
Rochford.  All  the  accused  were  sent  at  once  ! 
to  the  tower.  Anne  was  tried  by  a  commis-  ! 
sion  of  peers  under  the  presidency  of  her  uncle,  j 
the  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  found  guilty,  partly  j 
on  the  confession  of  Smeaton,  though  she  her-  j 
self  and  the  other  prisoners  protested  innocence  | 
to  the  last.  Cranmer  was  compelled  to  pro-  I 
nounce  her  marriage  with  Henry  null  and  void,  ! 
as  he  had  formerly  pronounced  Catharine's.  ! 
Her  prison  hours  were  spent  in  alternations  of  | 
composure  and  excitement ;  but  on  the  scaffold  ! 
she  conducted  herself  with  queenly  dignity.  ! 
Smeaton  was  hanged,  and  the  other  four  ac-  | 
cased  were  beheaded. 

ANNE  OF  BRITTANY,  queen  of  France,  born  ! 
in  Nantes,  June  26,  1476,  died  in  the  castle  of  i 
Blois,  Jan.  9, 1514.  She  was  the  daughter  and  j 
heiress  of  Francis  II.,  duke  of  Brittany.  That  \ 
duchy  was  her  dowry  on  the  marriage  with  j 
Charles  VIII.,  son  of  Louis  XI.  of  France,  Dec.  | 
6,  1491,  and  thus  became  incorporated  with  | 
France.  She  was  previously  affianced  to  Max-  I 
imilian  of  Austria,  but  her  guardian,  Louis  | 
XL,  dissolved  the  engagement,  and  thus  as-  j 
sured  the  aggrandizement  of  his  kingdom  and  j 
family.  After  the  death  of  Charles  VIII. ,  in  j 
1498,  she  married  his  successor,  Louis  XIL, 
and  exercised  a  great  influence  over  her  hus 
band  and  all  around  her.  She  was  an  example  { 
of  virtue  and  industry,  and  administered  the  j 
kingdom  with  ability  during  the  campaigns  of 
her  husbands  in  Italy. 

ANNE  OF  CLEVES,  daughter  of  Duke  John  III.,  | 
and  fourth  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  ! 
died  at  Chelsea,  July  10,  1557.  To  please  the  | 
Protestant  party,  and  to  make  friends  among  j 
the  Protestant  German  princes,  Henry  wedded  l 
her  with  reluctance,  Jan.  6,  1540,  but  divorced  j 
her  in  July  of  the  same  year,  and  settled  upon  | 
her  an  annuity  of  £3,000. 


ANNECY,  an  old  town  of  Savoy,  capital  of 
the  French  department  of  Haute-Savoie,  pleas 
antly  situated  near  the  lake  of  its  name,  22  m. 
S.  of  Geneva;  pop.  in  1866,  11,551.  It  has 
various  factories,  cotton-spinning  mills,  glass 
and  iron  works,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 
St.  Francis  de  Sales  was  born  here,  and  his 
relics  are  preserved  in  St.  Mary's  church. 

ANNELIDA  (Lat.  annellus,  a  small  ring),  red- 
blooded  worms,  such  as  the  earth  worm,  the 
lug  worm,  and  the  leech.  They  are  the  only 
section  of  invertebrate  animals  which  have  red 
blood.  They  form  an  extensive  class,  sub 
divided  into  four  orders  by  Milne-Edwards. 
The  body  has  an  elongated  form,  with  distinct, 
soft,  semi-cartilaginous  annulations,  connected 
together  by  longitudinal  oblique  muscles,  en 
abling  the  animals  to  twist  themselves  in 
various  directions.  The  whole  is  covered  with 
a  moist  skin,  indicating  by  slight  segments  the 
soft  annuli  beneath.  The  first  segment  is  fur 
nished  with  a  mouth,  and  in  some  species  with 
eyes  and  tentacles;  the  last  segment  is  fur 
nished  in  some  cases  with  bristle-like  appen 
dages,  and  in  others,  as  in  the  leech,  it  is 
dilated  into  a  sucker.  Each  segment  has  usual 
ly  minute  seta3,  or  spines,  which  are  useful  in 
locomotion.  In  some  species  vascular  tufts  are 
observed,  which  serve  as  respiratory  organs. 
There  is  a  system  of  veins  and  arteries.  The 
nervous  system  consists  of  ganglia,  united  by 
means  of  a  double  nervous  cord.  Each  in 
dividual  is  bisexual.  The  common  or  earth 
worms  seek  safety  by  retiring  into  holes  which 
they  bore  in  soft  earth,  mud,  or  sand.  The 
ftdbella  and  terebella  of  the  seashore  aggluti 
nate  around  them  particles  of  sand  and  of 
broken  shells  to  form  a  case  in  which  they 
dwell.  The  serpula  exudes  a  calcareous  secre 
tion  to  form  a  long  twisted  tube,  in  which  the 
animal  resides,  and  from  which  it  protrudes 
its  head  and  respiratory  tufts.  The  four  orders 
of  this  class  are :  1,  the  dorsibrancMata,  or  er- 
rantes,  including  the  sea  centipedes  and  sea 
mice;  2,  the •  tubicolw,  which  include  those 
that  live  in  tubes,  as  the  serpula ;  3,  the  ter- 
ricola,  including  the  common  earth  worm; 
and  4,  the  suctorice,  having  suctorial  disks,  as 
the  leech.  From  the  recent  researches  of 
Prof.  Edward  S.  Morse,  it  appears  that  the 
firachiopoda  come  near  the  tubiculous  anne 
lids;  and  he  therefore  removes  them  from  the 
mollusca  to  the  annelid  division  of  articulata. 

ANNESLEY,  Arthur,  first  earl  of  Anglesey,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1614,  died  April  6,  1686.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Francis  Annesley,  after 
ward  Baron  Mountnorris  and  Viscount  of  Va- 
lentia.  He  was  among  the  loyal  members  who 
met  in  the  parliament  summoned  by  Charles  I. 
at  Oxford  in  1643.  The  royal  cause  having 
become  almost  hopeless,  he  joined  the  par 
liamentarians,  and  was  one  of  the  three  com 
missioners  appointed  to  settle  the  affairs  of 
Ireland  in  1645.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  and  in  1661  wa« 
created  Baron  Annesley  and  earl  of  Anglesey 


534 


ANNIUS   OF  VITERBO 


ANNUITY 


in  the  peerage  of  England.  lie  was  afterward 
made  treasurer  of  the  navy  and  lord  privy 
seal,  and  held  the  latter  office  till  1682,  when 
he  was  dismissed  for  favoring  the  exclusion  of 
the  duke  of  York  from  the  throne,  lie  pub 
lished  several  works  on  polemics,  politics,  con 
stitutional  law,  and  parliamentary  privileges. 
— JAMES  AXNESLET,  Lord  Altham,  his  grandson, 
born  in  1715,  was  kidnapped  by  his  uncle  and 
sent  to  America,  where  he  was  13  years  in 
slavery,  but  finally  in  1743  established  his  legal 
right  to  the  honors  and  estates  of  the  earls  of 
Anglesey,  though  lie  never  assumed  the  title. 
Smollett  gave  the  leading  facts  of  the  case  in 
his  novel  of  "Peregrine  Pickle." — The  earldom 
of  Anglesey  expired  in  1761,  but  the  Irish  peer 
ages  of  Annesley  and  Valentia  are  held  by  de 
scendants  of  Arthur  Annesley. 

ANNHS  OF  VITERBO,  an  Italian  Dominican, 
born  at  Viterbo  about  1432,  died  Nov.  13,  1502. 
His  real  name  was  Giovanni  Nanni,  which  he 
Latinized  into  Johannes  Annius.  He  enjoyed 
the  especial  favor  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  and 
his  family ;  though  his  death  was  believed  to 
have  been  caused  by  poison  administered  by 
command  of  Cresar  Borgia,  who  wished  to  be 
rid  of  one  whose  plainness  of  speech  offended 
his  pride.  Annius  published  in  1498  Anti- 
quitatum  Volnmina  XVII.,  purporting  to  be 
a  collection  of  works  of  ancient  authors  pre 
viously  supposed  to  be  lost,  including  Berosus, 
Marcus  Cato,  Manetho,  and  others.  It  has  long 
since  been  condemned  as  spurious. 

ANNO,  or  llauiio,  Saint,  archbishop  of  Cologne, 
died  Dec.  4,  1075.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  fam 
ily,  and  was  destined  at  first  to  the  profession 
of  arms.  He  was  chancellor  under  the  em 
peror  Henry  III.,  and  tutor  of  Henry  IV.  After 
the  death  of  Henry  III.,  aided  by  Archbishop 
Adalbert  of  Bremen,  and  others,  he  obtained 
the  regency,  but  soon  laid  it  down  in  disgust. 
The  hymn  of  St.  Anno,  composed  about  a  cen 
tury  after  the  archbishop's  death,  is  a  kind  of 
panegyric  on  the  saint,  commencing  with  the 
popular  traditions  of  Germany,  and  touching 
on  the  history  of  the  archiepiscopal  see  of 
Cologne,  and  of  33  bishops  before  the  poet, 
among  whom  were  seven  saints.  It  was  first 
printed  from  a  forgotten  manuscript  by  Martin 
Opitz  of  Dantzic  in  1639. 

ANNONAY,  a  town  of  southern  France,  de 
partment  of  Ardeche,  37  m.  S.  of  Lyons,  noted 
as  the  birthplace  of  the  Montgolfiers,  inventors 
of  the  air  balloon,  and  for  its  paper  made  at 
mills  erected  by  these  famous  brothers;  pop. 
in  1866,  18,445.  It  has  several  celebrated 
manufactories  of  gloves.  It  is  the  point  of 
junction  of  the  Cance  with  the  Deaume  river, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge. 

ANNOTTO,  Aimatto,  or  Aruatto,  a  red  coloring 
matter  extracted  from  the  outer  part  of  the 
seeds  of  a  Brazilian  evergreen,  called  the  bixa 
Orellana.  Dissolved  in  an  alkali,  as  a  crude 
pearl-ash,  its  color  changes  to  orange.  It  is 
used  to  color  milk,  butter,  and  cheese.  Dyers, 
painters,  and  soap-makers  also  make  use  of  it. 


Though  employed  only  for  disguising  other  sub 
stances,  it  is  itself  probably  more  adulterated 
than  almost  any  other  article  of  commerce.  It 
has  been  purchased  containing  over  60  per  cent, 
of  chalk,  and  is  often  found  contaminated  with 
red  lead,  so  that  cheese  colored  with  it  has 
been  made  poisonous.  Other  substances  usual 
ly  mixed  with  it  are  turmeric,  rye,  barley,  and 
wheat  flour,  sulphate  of  lime,  salt,  alkali,  Vene 
tian  red,  and  copper. 

ANNUITY,  a  yearly  payment,  subject  to  va 
rious  conditions.  The  payment  may  be  stipu 
lated  without  regard  to  any  contingency,  in 
which  case  it  is  called  an  annuity  certain.  If 
limited  in  time,  it  is  called  a  term  or  tem 
porary  annuity  certain.  If  no  limit  is  fixed,  it 
is  called  a  perpetuity.  A  contingent  annuity 
is  one  of  which  the  payment  is  limited  by  the 
occurrence  of  some  future  event,  uncertain  as 
to  time,  but  more  or  less  probable.  It  is  tem 
porary  when  it  must  cease  at  a  fixed  time,  pro 
vided  it  has  not  already  ceased  by  the  previous 
occurrence  of  the  contingent  event.  The  con 
sideration  for  insurance,  as  generally  paid,  is 
an  example  of  contingent  annuity,  but  is  called 
premium.  Annuities  paid  as  reward  for  meri 
torious  services  are  called  pensions ;  and  those 
paid  for  the  use  of  real  estate  are  called  rent. 
— Though  the  term  annuity  implies  a  year  as 
the  interval  between  the  payments,  yet  in  prac 
tice  it  is  made  to  include  any  series  of  equal  or 
uniformly  increasing  or  decreasing  payments  at 
equal  intervals,  as  annual,  semi-annual,  quarter 
ly,  or  monthly ;  and  in  mathematical  theory  the 
intervals  may  be  infinitely  small,  when  the 
annuity  is  said  to  be  payable  momently. — The 
most  important*  contingency  ever  introduced 
into  annuity  contracts  is  that  of  death.  A  fixed 
sum  which  is  payable  at  equal  intervals  during 
the  entire  life  of  a  person  is  called  a  life  an 
nuity.  If  it  depends  on  two  or  more  lives,  and 
is  to  cease  on  the  death  of  either,  it  is  called  a 
joint  life  annuity.  A  survivorship  annuity  is 
one  which  so  depends  upon  two  or  more  lives, 
that  it  is  to  commence  only  when  one  or  more 
begin  to  be  survivors.  These  annuities  may  be 
temporary,  or  for  the  whole  life,  immediate  or 
deferred ;  that  is,  the  first  payment  may  take 
place  in  advance  or  immediately  after  the  oc 
currence  of  the  contingency,  or  it  may  be  de 
ferred  one  or  more  of  the  equal  intervals.  The 
most  important  question  in  regard  to  any  such 
series  of  payments  is  its  present  value.  This 
would  be  easy  to  answer  in  regard  to  annuities 
certain,  but  for  the  interest  of  money.  For  if 
money  earned  no  interest,  the  present  value 
would  be  the  sum  of  all  the  future  payments, 
which  in  case  of  a  perpetuity  would  be  infinite. 
If  we  assume  any  perpetual  rate  of  interest, 
the  present  value  of  a  perpetuity  at  that  rate 
is  obviously  the  principal  that  will  yield  that 
interest;  and  this  principal  is  always  less  in 
regard  to  a  given  interest  as  the  rate  is  higher. 
Any  term  annuity  certain  may  be  considered 
as  the  early  portion  of  a  perpetuity.  Hence 
the  difference  between  the  principal,  P,  which 


ANNUITY 


ANNUNCIATION 


535 


is  the  present  value  of  the  perpetuity,  and 
the  same  discounted  at  compound  interest  for 
the  intervals  of  the  term  TZ,  at  the  assumed 
rate  i  (P  —  (Y+j)n  P)»  is  tne  present  value  of  the 
term  annuity  for  n  intervals.  The  subtrac- 
tive  quantity  ((1!+i)u-  P,  or  VP  as  it  is  usually 
written)  is  called  the  reversionary  value  of  the 
term  annuity,  or  of  the  estate  whose  income  is 
absorbed  by  its  payment.  Any  annuity  is  said 
to  be  worth  as  many  "years1  purchase  "  as  the 
times  it  is  contained  in  its  present  value. — The 
present  value  of  any  life  annuity  involves  a 
medical  as  well  as  a  mathematical  question. 
The  mathematical  solution,  which  comes  first, 
is  founded  on  an  assumed  rate  of  mortality, 
more  or  less  worthy  of  confidence,  according 
to  its  agreement  with  observed  facts  when 
taken  in  large  numbers.  This  gives  the  value 
supposing  the  life  in  question  possessed  of  the 
average  vitality  due  to  its  age.  Medical  science 
will  modify  this  result  so  far  as  it  can  deter 
mine  a  variation  of  the  individual  from  the 
assumed  average,  though  it  has  no  means  of 
fixing  a  definite  or  numerical  variation.  It  is 
a  common  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  present 
value  of  a  life  annuity  can  be  found  from  the 
"expectation  of  life,"  or  average  after-lifetime 
at  the  given  age,  by  finding  the  present  value 
of  an  annuity  certain  for  the  term  of  that  ex 
pectation,  this  can  be  true  only  whan  the 
assumed  interest  is  zero.  This  popular  error 
has  been  much  fostered  by  life  insurance 
companies  publishing  tables  of  "expectation," 
which  can  have  no  possible  application  to  their 
business  except  by  this  erroneous  method,  and 
which,  so  applied,  only  prove  their  premiums 
too  high.  The  only  correct  method  of  applying 
the  rates  of  mortality  and  interest  to  ascertain 
the  present  value  of  any  series  of  payments 
contingent  on  life,  is  to  apply  them  separately 
to  each  and  every  possible  payment.  Each 
future  payment  must,  in  effect,  be  multiplied 
by  the  present  value  at  compound  interest  of  a 
dollar,  or  monetary  unit,  payable  certain  at 
that  time;  and  this  product  must  again  be 
multiplied  by  the  fraction,  derived  from  the 
table  of  mortality,  expressing  the  probability 
of  the  party  being  then  alive  to  pay  it.  The 
sum  of  as  many  such  products  as  there  are 
possible  payments  is  the  present  value  of  the 
life  annuity.  "When  only  one  or  two  lives  are 
concerned,  there  are  tables  which  abridge  the 
operation  to  a  narrow  compass;  but  when 
there  are  three  or  more,  the  combinations  be 
come  too  numerous  to  admit  of  exhaustive 
tables,  and  mathematicians  content  themselves 
with  methods  of  approximation  to  solve  par 
ticular  problems. — After  the  mathematical  solu 
tion,  which  can  only  be  as  correct  as  the  as 
sumptions  on  which  it  is  founded,  comes  the 
medical,  weighing  the  special  facts  by  which 
the  individual  case  differs  from  the  average  or 
general  type.  The  reason  why  the  business  of 
selling  annuities  to  commence  in  a  year  or  less 
is  always  unprofitable  to  an  honest  company, 


and  why  it  is  unprofitable  to  a  government  as 
a  means  of  borrowing  money,  is  that  the  med 
ical  selection  is  in  favor  of  the  buyer.  On  the 
contrary,  companies  dealing  in  policies  of  in 
surance,  or  selling  annuities  long  deferred,  suc 
ceed  by  a  medical  selection  in  their  own  favor. 
—The  most  valuable  re.-ent  contributions  to 
the  basis  for  calculating  life  annuities  are  con 
tained  in  the  works  of  Chisholm,  and  the  writ 
ings  of  Dr.  Farr,  in  connection  with  the  re 
ports  of  the  registrar  general  of  Great  Britain. 
Very  valuable  observations  have  also  been 
made  by  Mr.  Meech  on  the  United  States  cen 
sus  of  1860,  and  by  Mr.  Elliott  on  the  popula 
tion  returns  of  Massachusetts. 

ANNUNCIATION,  the  announcement  to  Mary 
by  the  angel  (Luke  i.  30-33)  that  she  should 
conceive  and  bear  the  child  Jesus.  In  com 
memoration  of  this  event,  the  church  instituted 
the  feast  of  the  Annunciation,  to  be  observed 
on  the  25th  of  March.  In  old  style  this  day 
commenced  the  year.  Writers  differ  as  to  the 
time  when  this  feast  was  instituted.  Some 
throw  it  as  far  back  as  the  4th  century,  since 
there  is  mention  of  it  in  a  sermon  ascribed  to 
Athanasius.  Others  think  its  origin  is  to  be 
assigned  to  the  7th  century,  which  is  the  most 
probable  opinion,  as  the  sermon  of  Athanasius 
is  believed  to  be  spurious. 

ANODYNE  (Gr.  av  privative  and  bdvvij,  pain),  a 
term  properly  applied,  not  to  medicines  which 
relieve  pain  by  removing  its  cause,  but  to  those 
which  merely  diminish  the  conducting  power 
of  the  nerves  of  sensation,  or  which  render  the 
brain  less  susceptible  to  or  less  conscious  of 
pain.  The  principal  medicines  of  this  kind  are 
opium,  belladonna,  and  hyoscyamus,  with  their 
alkaloids,  Indian  hemp,  ether,  and  chloroform. 
The  last  two  are  usually  called  anaesthetics, 
because  they  diminish  the  power  of  the  brain 
to  receive  impressions  from  any  external  source. 
The  use  of  anodynes  is  generally  to  be  looked 
upon  as  the  substitution  of  a  lesser  evil  for 
a  greater,  and  a  habitual  resort  to  them  is 
always,  if  possible,  to  be  avoided. 

ANOINTING,  an  ancient  custom  of  pouring 
aromatic  oils  on  persons  as  a  token  of  honor. 
It  was  employed  in  consecrating  priests,  proph 
ets,  kings,  and  the  places  and  instruments 
appointed  for  worship.  In  the  Old  Testament, 
the  anointed  of  the  Lord  is  a  person  upon 
whom  God  has  conferred  a  particular  dignity, 
and  whom  he  has  appointed  to  a  special  minis 
try.  The  anointing  oil  was  often  a  very  costly 
preparation.  Olive  oil,  spikenard,  and  myrrh 
were  the  more  common  materials.  A  very 
precious  oil,  the  holy  oil,  was  used  in  the  ser 
vice  of  the  sanctuary,  and  could  not  be  applied 
to  any  ordinary  purposes.  The  Roman  Catholic 
church  has  retained  anointing  as  a  symbol  in 
its  sacraments  of  baptism,  confirmation,  ordina 
tion,  and  extreme  unction.  In  consecrating  a 
church,  the  bishop  anoints  the  walls  of  the 
edifice  and  the  altars  which  are  to  serve  in  the 
celebration  of  the  mass.  Anointing  with  per 
fumed  oil  was  in  common  use  among  the 


536 


ANOKA 


ANQUETIL-DUPERRON 


Greeks  and  Romans  as  a  mark  of  hospitality  to  I 
guests,  and  modern  travellers  in  the  East  still  \ 
find  it  a  custom  for  visitors  to  be  sprinkled  j 
with  rose  water,  or  to  have  their  head,  face,  j 
and  beard  anointed  with  olive  oil. 

ANOKA,  an  E.  county  of  Minnesota,  bounded 
S.  W.  by  the  Mississippi  river,  arid  intersected  : 
by  Rum  river,  one  of  its  branches ;  area,  420 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,940.  The  productions 
in  1870  were  27,390  bushels  of  wheat,  17,715 
of  oats,  36,838  of  corn,  15,872  of  potatoes,  and 
5,240  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  11,200,000  feet  of  lum 
ber  Avas  sawed.  Capital,  Anoka,  at  the  mouth 
of  Rum  river,  22  m.  X.  N.  W.  of  St.  Paul. 

ANOLIS  ((inolius),  a  reptile  of  the  saurian 
family,  peculiar  to  America,  belonging  to  that 
section  of  the  iguanas  which  Cuvier  distinguish 
es  as  having  teeth  on  the  palate  of  the  mouth 
as  well  as  on  the  interior  ja\v  bones.  Its  body, 
legs,  arid  tail  are  long  and  tapering.  The  fore 
legs  are  longest,  having  five  toes  furnished  with 
sharp,  hooked  claws,  with  a  sort  of  pad  ap- 


( 'rested  Anolis 
(Anolius   velifer). 

Green  Carolina  Anolis  Ued-throated  Anolis 

(Anolius  principulis).  (Anolins  btillaris). 

pended  to  the  under  side  of  the  last  joint,  which 
increases  the  power  of  their  hold  on  any  sub 
stance  over  which  they  may  chance  to  be  walk 
ing.  There  is  a  large  extent  of  loose  skin 
extending  from  the  chin  to  the  belly,  which 
when  not  distended  forms  a  longitudinal  fold 
under  the  whole  lower  surface  of  the  animal. 
The  anolis  has  a  singular  serrated  or  saw-edged 
crest  along  the  spine  and  upper  side  of  the  tail, 
and  the  whole  animal  is  covered  with  small, 
round  scales,  which  give  it  a  granulated  ap 
pearance  resembling  the  finest  shagreen.  The 
anolis  seems  in  many  respects  to  supply  in  the 
new  world  the  place  occupied  by  the  chameleon 
in  the  old.  Its  colors  change  with  the  same 
or  even  greater  rapidity,  especially  on  the 
loose  skin  of  the  throat,  which  is  constantly 
distended  when  the  animal  is  actuated  by  strong 
passions,  and  in  this  state  it  assumes  an  endless 


succession  of  ever-varying  hues.  It  frequents 
woods,  coppices,  and  rocky  places ;  climbs  and 
leaps  so  swiftly  and  rapidly  that  its  movements 
can  hardly  be  traced;  and,  when  overheated 
or  fatigued,  pants  like  a  tired  dog.  It  is  a 
gentle,  inoffensive  creature,  feeding  on  insects 
and  flies,  and  is  easily  alarmed.  There  are 
six  species,  two  of  which  belong  to  the  United 
States,  and  the  others  to  the  Antilles  and. to 
South  America.  1.  A.  velifer  is  of  a  beautiful 
ashy  blue  color,  and  is  the  largest  of  the  family. 
Its  body  is  about  a  foot  long,  and  the  tail  a 
foot  and  a  half.  The  crest  extends  along  the 
top  of  the  tail  for  half  its  length  from  the  ori 
gin,  and  is  supported  by  from  12  to  15  rays. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies.  2.  A.  bima- 
citlatm  is  little  more  than  half  the  size  of  the 
former  species,  is  of  a  greenish  blue  color,  clear 
on  the  head  and  upper  parts,  but  variegated 
with  brown  on  the  body,  tail,  and  extremities. 
It  is  found  from  Pennsylvania  to  the  shores  of 
the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  in  the  Antilles.  3.  A. 
equestris  has  scarcely  any  crest,  and  is  nearly 
the  size  of  A.  velifer.  4.  A.  lullaris  is  not 
above  half  the  size  of  A.  eqv.estris,  with  a 
reddish  green  throat,  and  very  pretty.  It 
is  green  in  color,  has  a  short  muzzle  spotted 
with  brown,  and,  except  in  the  absence  of  the 
crest  or  tail,  is  very  similar  to  A.  Itimacula- 
tus.  It  belongs  to  the  Antilles.  5.  A.  line- 
atus  is  of  a  pure,  bright  green  color,  rather 
larger  than  the  last  species,  and  is  marked 
along  each  flank  with  two  parallel  lines  of 
oblong  black  spots ;  it  is  a  native  of  different 
parts  of  South  America.  6.  A.  principal-is  is 
a  native  of  South  Carolina,  and  is  known  as  the 
green  lizard.  It  is  a  beautiful  greenish  gold- 
colored  reptile,  particularly  distinguished  by  a 
black  band  on  the  temples,  and  the  elongated 
and  flattened  form  of  its  muzzle. 

AXQl'ETIL,  Louis  Pierre,  a  French  historian., 
brother  of  Anqnetil-Duperron,  born  in  Paris, 
Feb.  21,  1723,  died  Sept.  6,  1808.  lie  was  an 
ecclesiastic,  and  published  a  history  of  Rheims 
(1756),  a  history  of  France  (14  vols.  12mo,  1805), 
historical  monographs  on  the  times  of  Henry 
IV.,  Louis  XIII.,  and  Louis  XIV.,  and  a  Precis 
de  rhistoire  universelle  (9  vols.  12mo,  1797 ; 
12  vols.,  1801  and  1807),  part  of  which  was 
composed  in  prison  during  the  reign  of  ter 
ror.  His  Motifs  des  gucrrcs  ct  des  traites  de 
paix  de  la  France  (1798)  is  praised  for  its  evi 
dences  of  profound  knowledge  of  diplomacy 
and  its  sound  judgment. 

AAQIETIL-D I  PERRON,  Abraham  Hyacinthe,  a 
French  oriental  scholar,  born  in  Paris,  Dec.  7, 
1731,  died  there,  Jan.  17,  1805.  He  was  edu 
cated  for  the  church,  but  preferred  to  devote 
himself  to  oriental  literature.  In  his  enthusi 
asm  for  this  pursuit  he  enrolled  himself  as  a 
common  soldier  in  the  expedition  to  the  French 
colonies  in  the  East  Indies,  in  1755,  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  discovering  the  ancient  books 
of  the  Parsees.  He  visited  Chandcrnagore, 
Surat,  the  coast  of  Ooromandel,  and  was  just 
about  proceeding  to  Benares  when  the  capture 


ANSALONI 


ANSDELL 


>3T 


of  Pondicherry  forced  him  to  return  to  France, 
where  he  arrived  in  1762,  without  money,  but 
with  valuable  oriental  manuscripts.  He  was 
appointed  interpreter  of  oriental  languages  at 
the  royal  library,  was  admitted  to  the  academy 
of  inscriptions  and  belles-letters,  and  in  1771 
he  published  in  French  the  first  translation  of 
the  Zend-Avesta  ever  made  in  an  occidental 
1  mguage,  with  an  account  of  his  travels  and  a 
life  of  Zoroaster. 

AASALOM,  Giordano,  a  Sicilian  Dominican 
missionary,  died  by  torture  at  Nagasaki, 
Japan,  Nov.  18.  1634.  Hearing  that  in  the  Jap 
anese  islands  Christians  were  persecuted  with 
the  utmost  barbarity,  he  went  with  a  Spanish 
missionary  expedition  to  the  Philippine  islands, 
learned  the  Japanese  language  in  a  Chinese 
and  Japanese  hospital  at  Manila,  and  in  1632 
went  to  Japan,  where  he  spent  two  years  in  the 
disguise  of  a  native  priest.  He  was  finally  dis 
covered  and  arrested  at  Nagasaki,  where  he 
was  tortured  to  death.  Another  priest  and  69 
converts  were  put  to  death  at  the  same  time. 

ANSARIES,  or  Ansarians  (Arab.  Ameriycli), 
also  called  NOSSAIKIAXS,  an  Arab  tribe  or  sect 
inhabiting  the  mountainous  district  between 
the  northern  part  of  the  Lebanon  and  Antioch, 
Syria.  This  range,  called  the  Ansarian  moun 
tains,  is  much  lower  than  the  Lebanon,  not 
averaging  more  than  4,000  feet.  Limestone  is 
the  prevailing  rock,  and  thin  oak  forests  cover 
almost  the  whole  ridge.  The  Ansaries  are  to 
be  found  also  in  Antioch,  Saida,  Latakieh,  and 
other  towns  and  villages  on  the  coast.  Their 
chiefs  live  in  Bahluleh,  Simrin,  and  Safeta. 
Of  their  origin  and  early  history  little  is  known. 
They  endeavor  to  conceal  their  doctrines  from 
all  foreigners,  and  only  male  adults  are  initi 
ated.  Among  Moslems  they,  like  the  Druses, 
profess  Mohammedanism.  Their  prophet  Nos- 
sair  taught  that  God  has  appeared  11  times 
in  human  form,  in  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  Mo 
hammed,  Ali.  Ilakem-bi-amr-Illah,  and  other 
imams;  that  he  always  encountered  opposi 
tion  and  then  returned  to  heaven,  where  he 
wrapped  himself  in  a  blue  mantle,  and  at 
length  retired  to  the  sun,  which  is  therefore 
worshipped  by  the  Ansaries.  They  wait  for 
the  appearance  of  a  Mahdi  or  Messiah,  who 
will  be  the  last  of  the  12  imams  in  whom 
the  Deity  assumes  a  human  form.  Like  the 
Yezidis  of  northern  Syria,  they  allow  promis 
cuous  intercourse  of  the  sexes  on  certain  fes 
tivals,  and  in  performing  their  religious  rites 
they  are  said  to  be  very  licentious.  They  be 
lieve  in  the  migration  of  souls,  which  for  the 
faithful  is  a  progressive  purification  till  they 
become  stars ;  but  those  who  neglect  their  re 
ligious  duties,  betray  the  mysteries,  or  deny  the 
divinity  of  Ali,  are  doomed  to  transforma 
tions  into  Jews,  Christians,  Mohammedans, 
donkeys,  dogs,  and  hogs.  They  have  four  de 
grees:  shamsi,  worshippers  of  the  sun  ;  kama- 
•/•/,  worshippers  of  the  moon;  klesi  or  kadami, 
worshippers  of  women ;  and  shemali  (shcmal, 
north  ;  literally,  northerners).  They  practise 


circumcision  and  ablutions,  and  pray  three 
I  times  a  day  under  the  open  sky.  Their 

•  chief    religious    festival    is    called    the    Gha- 
j  dir.     Their  doctrines  teach  them  benevolence, 

honesty,  and  patience  in  adversity,  but  they 
;  are  thievish,  superstitious,  and  ignorant,  though 
|  very  hospitable.  Each  community  is  governed 
;  by  a  mokaddem,  who  is  almost  wholly  indepen- 
!  dent.  They  have  frequently  defended  their 
|  freedom  with  great  courage  against  Turkish  and 
!  Egyptian  pashas.  During  the  crusades  they 
j  were  found  in  all  parts  of  Syria  and  Mesopo- 
i  tamia.  The  accounts  given  .of  this  sect  by 
!  modern  travellers  vary,  and  must  be  received 
j  with  caution.  According  to  Mme.  Audouard 
j  (U Orient  et  ses  peuplades,  Paris,  1867),  they 
|  are  divided  into  three  parties,  considerably  dif- 
|  fering  from  each  other.  The  most  numerous 
!  of  them  worship  a  beautiful  young  woman, 
!  who  is  elected  to  the  dignity  of  goddess  every 
j  third  year. — Among  the  Ansaries  it  is  usual  to 
!  reckon  the  sect  of  the  Kadamisseh,  who  live 
I  east  of  them  in  several  valleys  of  the  Cadmus 
\  mountains.  They  keep  apart,  however,  from  the 
i  Ansaries,  do  not  intermarry  either  with  them 

or  any  other  neighboring  sect,  and  have  their 
I  own  religious  customs.  Like  the  Assassins  of  the 

middle  ages,  they  call  themselves  Ismaelians. 
AASCARHS,  or  Ansgar   (Fr.  Ansehaire),  Saint, 

the  "apostle  of  the  north,"  born  in  Picardvin 
|  801,  died  at  Bremen  in  864.  Educated  in  the 
:  old  Benedictine  monastery  of  Corbie,  near 
;  Amiens,  he  was  early  transferred  to  a  new  one 
!  recently  founded  at  Ivorvey  on  the  "NVeser,  where 
!  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  teacher.  When 
I  Harold  of  Denmark,  who  had  been  baptized  in 
!  Mentz,  returned  to  his  country,  he  took  with 
|  him  as  missionaries  Anscarius  and  his  colleague 

•  Audibert.  Success  at  first  attended  their  efforts, 

;  but  after  a  time  they,  as  well  as  the  king,  were 
i  expelled  from  the  country.  Anscarius  in  829 
i  penetrated  into  Sweden,  where  he  obtained 
i  from  the  king,  Biorn,  permission  to  preach,  and 
I  made  many  converts,  returning  to  his  monaste- 
!  ry  in  831 .  In  the  same  year  Pope  Gregory  IV. 
!  made  him  archbishop  of  Hamburg  and  apostolic 
I  legate,  and  to  this  appointment  the  bishopric  of 
|  Bremen  was  afterward  added.  Pope  Nicholas 
|  I.  appointed  him  his  legate  to  preach  the  gospel 
I  among  the  Swedes,  Danes,  and  Slavs.  lie  won 
i  the  favor  of  King  Eric  of  Jutland,  and  succeeded 
j  in  preaching  the  Christian  religion  there  in  862. 
I  In  Sweden  he  reformed  many  disorders  which 
had  grown  up  among  the  new  Christians.  An- 
I  scarius  was  not  indeed  the  first  who  attempted 
:  to  propagate  the  gospel  in  northern  Europe, 
!  but  he  was  the  first  to  firmly  plant  Christian- 
I  ity  among  the  Danes  and  Swedes. 

ANSDELL,  Richard,  an  English  painter,  born 
i  in  Liverpool  in  1815.  He  is  known  chiefly  as 
1  a  painter  of  animals  and  field  sports,  although 
i  occasionally  attempting  a  historical  work,  such 
'  as  "The  Battle  of  the  Standard."  Among  his 
'  best  pictures  are  a  number  on  Spanish  sub- 
i  jects.  He  has  also  worked  in  conjunction 
i  with  Creswick,  the  landscape  painter. 


538 


ANSELM 


ANSPACII 


ANSELM,  a  saint  and  doctor  of  the  Latin 
church,  born  at  Aosta  in  Piedmont  about  1033, 
died  in  Canterbury,  England,  April  21,  1109. 
His  youth  was  dissolute,  until,  at  the  age  of  27, 
he  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Bee 
in  Normandy,  of  which  in  10(53  he  succeeded 
Lanfranc  as  prior,  and  in  1078  became  abbot. 
In  1092  he  was  invited  to  England,  and  in  1093 
was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Canterbury  as 
successor  to  his  friend  and  master  Lanfranc, 
since  whose  death  in  1089  the  see  had  been 
vacant.  In  this  office  he  had  several  meraora-  I 
ble  conflicts  with  William  Kufus  and  Henry  I., 
especially  on  the  subject  of  ecclesiastical  investi 
tures,  and  was  deprived  for  a  time  of  his  bish 
opric,  passing  several  years  in  France  and  Italy. 
Anselrn  is  generally  regarded  as  the  earliest  of 
the  scholastic  theologians.  As  a  religious  phi 
losopher  he  had  no  superior  in  his  own  age, 
and  few  superiors  in  any  age.  His  greatest 
works,  and  those  which  have  won  for  him  the 
surname  of  "the  Augustine  of  the  middle 
ages,"  are  his  treatise  I)e  Concordia  Prcedesti- 
nationis,  and  the  treatise  Cur  Deus  Homo,  in 
which  he  illustrates  the  doctrine  of  satisfaction, 
which  has  since  his  time  ruled  in  the  theory  of 
the  atonement.  The  best  and  most  complete 
edition  of  the  works  of  Anselm  is  that  issued 
in  1675  at  Paris,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Benedictine  monk  Gabriel  Gerberon. 

ANSON,  a  S.  county  of  North  Carolina,  bor 
dering  on  South  Carolina,  bounded  N.  by  Rocky 
river,  and  E.  by  the  Yadkin;  area,  650  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1870,  12,428,  of  whom  6,951  were  col-  \ 
ored.     The  Yadkin  furnishes  abundant  water 
power.     The  surface  is  hilly  ;  the  soil  is  good 
and  well  suited  to  cotton.    The  productions  in 
1870  were  39,928  bushels  of  wheat,  149,726  of  j 
corn,  46,851  of  oats,  25,569  of  sweet  potatoes,  ' 
and  4,311  bales  of  cotton.     There  are  several 
cotton   factories.     The  county  was  named  in 
honor  of  Lord  Anson,  who  owned  a  great  deal 
of  property  here.     Capital,  Wadesboro. 

ANSON,  George,  lord,  an  English  admiral  and 
navigator,  born  at  Shugborough,  Staffordshire, 
April  23,  1697,  died  June  6,  1762.  He  entered 
the  navy  when  a  boy,  was  made  a  post  captain 
in  1724,  and  received  the  command  of  the 
Scarborough  man-of-war.  Between  1724  and 
1735  most  of  his  time  was  spent  on  the  Caro 
lina  station,  where  he  founded  the  town  of 
Ansonburgh.  In  1739  England  declared  war 
with  Spain,  and  he  was  appointed  to  the  com 
mand  of  a  squadron  which  was  to  proceed  to 
the  South  sea,  and  harass  the  Spanish  trade 
and  settlements  in  that  quarter.  The  expedi 
tion,  wretchedly  equipped,  heavily  laden  with 
private  merchandise  in  spite  of  Anson's  re 
monstrances,  and  some  of  the  vessels  unsea- 
worthy,  sailed  Sept.  18,  1740.  He  lost  part  of 
his  fleet  off  Cape  Horn,  a  great  part  of  his  men 
died  of  scurvy,  and  he  finally  crossed  the  Pa 
cific  ocean  with  only  a  single  ship.  In  conse 
quence  of  these  disasters,  the  original  object  of 
the  expedition  was  abandoned,  but  Anson  was 
enabled  to  explore  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the 


Pacific,  and  make  important  discoveries.  Every 
coast  and  harbor  he  visited  was  carefully  sur 
veyed,  and  he  made  a  large  collection  of  Span 
ish  charts  and  journals.  With  his  single  vessel 
he  took  Payta,  on  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  a 
number  of  ships,  among  them  the  Manila  gal 
leon,  laden  with  treasure.  Throughout  the 
voyage  he  showed  great  courage,  prudence,  and 
fertility  of  resource,  besides  tender  care  of  his 
sick  men  and  humanity  toward  his  prisoners. 
He  returned  home  with  his  prizes  in  June,  1744, 
having  eluded  the  French  channel  fleet  during 
a  fog,  and  was  soon  afterward  made  rear  ad 
miral  of  the  white  and  a  commissioner  of  the 
admiralty,  in  1746  vice  admiral  of  the  blue,  and 
in  1747  of  the  red.  He  commanded  the  chan 
nel  fleet  in  1746-' 7,  and  on  May  3,  1747,  cap 
tured  off  Cape  Finisterre  most  of  the  French 
India  fleet,  consisting  of  nine  ships,  and  carry 
ing  over  3,000  men  and  420  guns.  This 
achievement  procured  him  a  peerage  as  Lord 
Anson,  baron  of  Soberton.  He  was  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty  from  1751  to  1756,  and  again 
from  1757  till  his  death.  In  1761  he  was  made 
admiral  of  the  fleet,  and  soon  afterward  sailed 
from  Harwich  in  the  Charlotte  yacht,  to  bring 
the  future  bride  of  George  III.  to  England. 
Anson's  "Voyage  round  the  World,"  prepared 
by  Benjamin  Robins  from  materials  furnished 
by  the  navigator  (4to,  London,  1748),  passed 
through  four  editions  the  first  year,  and  has 
been  translated  into  many  languages.  His  title 
expired  with  him,  but  his  name  was  assumed 
by  his  nephew  and  heir  George  Adams,  whose 
son  was  created  Viscount  Anson,  and  his  grand 
son  earl  of  Lichfield. 

ANSON,  George,  British  commander-in-chief  in 
India,  born  in  London,  Oct.  13,  1797,  died  of 
cholera  at  Kurnaul,  May  27, 1857.  He  was  the 
second  son  of  the  first  Viscount  Anson,  and 
uncle  of  the  first  earl  of  Lichfield.  At  an 
early  age  he  entered  the  Scots  fusilier  guards, 
with  which  regiment  he  served  at  the  bat 
tle  of  Waterloo.  In  1825  he  was  placed  on 
half  pay  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel ; 
in  1851  he  became  major  general.  He  sat  in 
parliament  for  many  years  as  a  whig.  In  1855 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  India, 
where  he  held  the  local  rank  of  general.  He 
died  soon  after  the  sepoy  rebellion  began. 

ANSONIA,  a  manufacturing  village  in  the 
town  of  Derby,  New  Haven  co.,  Conn..,  on  the 
E.  bank  of  the  Naugatuck  river  and  on  the 
Naugatuck  railroad,  9  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  New 
Haven;  pop.  in  1870,  2,749.  It  was  estab 
lished  by  Phelps,  Dodge  and  company  of  New 
York,  and  named  from  Mr.  Anson  G.  Phelps. 
It  has  11  rolling  mills,  2  founderies,  white 
lead  works,  woollen  mills,  extensive  clock, 
hoop  skirt,  and  other  factories,  good  public 
water  works,  a  bank,  several  churches,  and 
many  fine  residences.  The  fall  in  the  river  at 
this  point  affords  excellent  water  power. 

ANSPACH  (Ger.  Ansbach,  formerly  Onolz- 
~bach  ;  Lat.  Onoldum),  a  town  of  Bavaria,  capi 
tal  of  the  government  of  Middle  Franconia, 


ANSPAOH 


ANSTEY 


53d 


and  formerly  of  the  principality  of  Anspach-  I 
Baireuth,  which  gave  the  title  of  margrave  to  j 
a  branch  of  the  house  of  Brandenburg.     The  j 
town  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Holz- 
bacli  with  the  Lower  Rezat,  in  the  government  | 
of  Middle  Franconia,  24  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Nurem 
berg;  pop.  in  1871,  12,035.     It  has  a  beautiful 
castle,  a  picture  gallery,  a  library,  manufactures 
of  surgical  instruments,  cutlery,  cotton,  wool-  , 
len,  and  silk  stuffs,  leather,  earthenware,  white  i 
lead,  tobacco,  cards,   parchment,  &c.,  and  a  j 
trade  in  wool,  flax,   and  grain.     It  owes  its  ! 
origin  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Gunibert,  found-  j 
ed  here  in  the  8th  century.— The  last  margrave, 
Christian  Frederick  Charles  Alexander,  son  of 
the  duchess  of  Baireuth,  the  sister  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  nephew  of  Queen  Caroline,  the 
wife  of  George  II.,  was  born  in  1736  and  died 
in  1806.     He  spent  most  of  his  life  in  travel 
and   gallantry,  married  the   celebrated  Lady 
Craven  (see  next  article),  and  left  a  name  re 
nowned  in  the  scandalous  chronicles  of  the 
continent.     In  1790  he  sold  his  principality  to 
Prussia  for  about  $300,000. 

ANSPACH,  Elizabeth,  margravine  of,  youngest 
daughter  of  the  fourth  earl  of  Berkeley,  born 
in  December,  1750,  died  in  Naples  in  January, 
1828.     She  was  married  in  her  17th  year  to 
Mr.  Craven,  afterward  earl  of  Craven.     She 
then  had   beauty,    fascinating    manners,    and 
much  talent.     After  having  been  married  13 
years,  during  which  time  she  had  seven  chil 
dren,   she  separated  from  her  husband,  pro 
ceeded  on  a  very  extensive  tour,  visiting  Italy,  j 
Austria,  Greece,  Turkey,  Poland,  and  Piussia,  I 
and  was  received  with  eclafby  several  crowned  j 
heads.  »  Finally  she  went  to  reside  at  Anspach,  j 
where  she  established  a  theatre,  wrote  plays  ! 
and  directed  their  performance,  and  became  an  ! 
important  personage  with  the  margrave,  whose  I 
wife  was  generally  confined  to  her  chamber  by  j 
ill  health,  and  soon  after  died.     Lady  Craven 
continued  a  visitor  at  Anspach,  and  accompa 
nied  the  margrave  on  his  excursions  to  other 
courts  and  his  tours  through  Italy,  England, 
and  Portugal.     Lord  Craven  died  in  Septem-  I 
ber,  1791,  and  his  widow  was  soon  afterward 
married  at  Lisbon  to  the  margrave,  in  a  very 
ostentatious  manner.     Returning  to  England, 
her  three  daughters  refused  to  see  her,  "out 
of  respect  to  their  father,"  her  eldest  son  neg 
lected  her,  and  her  brother,  Lord  Berkeley, 
reproached  her   for   marrying   again  so  soon 
after  her  late  husband's  death.     Her  reply  was, 
that  "  it  was  six  weeks  after  Lord  Craven's 
decease  that  she  gave  her  hand  to  the  mar 
grave,  which  she  should  have  done  six  hours 
after  had  she  known  it  at  the  time."     Queen 
Charlotte  intimated  that  she  could  not  be  re 
ceived  at  court,  and  refused  to  grant  an  audi 
ence  to  the  margrave,  who  had  settled  in  Eng 
land,   purchasing  Brandenburg  house,  in  the 
suburbs  of  London,  subsequently  so  well  known 
as  the  residence  of  Queen  Caroline.     In  1802 
the   margravine   received   a   patent  from  the 
emperor   of  Germany,  creating   her   Princess 


Berkeley ;  but  the  queen  of  England  still  de 
clined  seeing  her.  In  1806  the  margrave  died, 
aged  70,  leaving  £150,000  to  his  widow.  After 
wandering  over  Europe,  she  finally  settled  at 
Naples.  Her  latter  years,  spent  in  literary  re 
tirement,  were  respectable.  She  wrote  several 
farces  and  musical  pieces,  and  was  an  accom 
plished  composer.  She  published  "Memoirs 
of  the  Margravine  of  Anspach,  formerly  Lady 
Craven,  written  by  Herself"  (2  vols.,  London 
1825),  which  is  only  an  apology  for  her  life. 
Among  her  other  works  were  two  volumes  of 
travels  in  Europe  and  the  East,  in  letters  to 
the  margrave  before  their  marriage. 

ANSTED,  David  Thomas,  an  English  physicist, 
born  in  London  in  1814.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  has  been  professor  of  geology  at 
King's  college,  London,  and  the  college  of  civil 
engineers  at  Putney.  During  the  last  25  years 
he  has  been  principally  engaged  on  works  illus 
trating  the  application  of  geology  to  engineer 
ing  and  mining.  Besides  several  treatises  on 
geology  and  related  subjects,  he  has  published 
"Scenery,  Science,  and  Art"  (1854),  "The 
Channel  Islands"  (1862),  "Correlation  of  the 
Natural  History  Sciences "  (1863),  "The  Ionian 
Islands"  (1863),  and  "Physical  Geography" 
(4th  ed.,  1870).  He  has  also  contributed  largely 
to  the  scientific  reviews ;  and  while  vice  presi 
dent  of  the  geological  society  he  edited  several 
volumes  of  their  quarterly  review.  As  a  con 
sulting  engineer  he  has  a  high  reputation. 

ANSTER,  John,  an  Irish  poet,  born  at  Charle- 
ville,  in  the  county  of  Cork,  about  1798,  died 
in  June,  1867.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  and  published  in  1819  a  volume 
of  "  Poems  and  Translations  from  the  German." 
These  were  favorably  reviewed  in  "Black- 
wood's  Magazine,"  to  which  some  of  them  had 
been  originally  contributed,  and  gained  for  him 
the  friendship  and  encouragement  of  Coleridge. 
By  his  advice,  Anster  completed  his  version 
of  Goethe's  "Faust,"  specimens  of  which  had 
already  appeared  in  "Blackwood."  Mr.  An 
ster  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1824,  and 
was  for  some  time  regius  professor  of  civil  law 
in  the  university  of  Dublin.  He  published  a 
second  volume  of  "Poems  and  Translations" 
in  1837,  and  an  "Introductory  Lecture  on  the 
Study  of  the  Civil  Law  "  in  1849. 

ANSTEY,  Christopher,  an  English  satirical  poet, 
bornatBrinkley,  Cambridgeshire,  Oct.  31,  1724, 
died  at  Chippenham  in  1805.  He  is  only  re 
membered  for  his  amusing  satire  called  "The 
New  Bath  Guide,"  the  profit  on  the  sale  of 
which  was  declared  by  Dodsley  to  be  greater 
than  he  had  ever  gained  in  the  same  period 
from  any  other  book.  The  principal  targets 
for  the  writer's  shafts  are  physicians  and  Meth 
odists.  Smollett  borrowed  largely  from  this 
poem  in  "  Humphrey  Clinker." 

AJVSTEY,  Thomas  Chisholm,  an  English  author, 
born  in  London  in  1816.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1839,  removed  to  Ireland,  was  member 
of  parliament  for  Youghal  from  1847  to  1852, 
and  from  1854  to  1858  was  attorney  general 


540 


ANT 


at  Hong  Kong.  Ho  has  published  several 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  are  "A 
Guide  to  the  Laws  of  England  affecting  Ro 
man  Catholics"  (1842),  and  "Guide  to  the 
History  arid  Constitution  of  England.1' 

AJVT,  an  insect  belonging  to  the  family  for- 
micidcv  (or  formicarice,  Latreille),  of  the  sub 
order  hymenoptera  or  membranous-winged  in 
sects.  There  are  numerous  genera  and  seve 
ral  hundred  species  known  and  described  from 
various  parts  of  the  world.  Some  species 
have  been  famed  from  remote  antiquity  for 
the  intelligence  displayed  in  their  labors.  The 
habits  of  others  are  as  yet  insufficiently  studied, 
or  where  ascertained  exhibit  a  lower  grade  of 
development.  Many  species,  which  are  com 
mon  to  the  temperate  regions  of  both  conti 
nents,  agree  in  the  following  respects:  they 
live  in  communities  consisting  of  hundreds  and 
even  thousands  of  individuals,  of  which  the 
fertile  females  are  the  largest,  the  males  next 
in  size,  and  the  infertile  females  (commonly 
termed  nurses  or  workers,  and  improperly 
neuters)  the  smallest.  The  last,  however, 
in  some  species  are  of  at  least  two  different 
sizes,  which  are  respectively  known  as  the 


soldier  or  major  and  the  minor  worker.  These 
differ  especially  from  the  fertile  females  in  the 
lack  of  development  in  the  ovaries  and  wings. 
All  of  these  forms,  however,  are  hatched  from 
eggs,  not  observably  differing,  which  are  not 
glued  singly  to  one  spot,  as  in  the  honey-bee, 
nor  lodged  irremovably  in  cells  of  clay,  as  in 
the  case  of  many  wasps,  but  are  scattered 
about  in  parcels  of  three  or  more,  loosely  at 
tached  to  each  other,  so  that  they  can  be  sep 
arated  and  carried  from  place  to  place  at 
pleasure,  during  the  process  of  hatching.  This 
is  during  that  season  the  principal  duty  of  the 
female  and  of  the  nurse  ants,  as  it  is  afterward 
to  do  the  same  by  the  large  cocoons.  This 
transportation  of  the  eggs  has,  from  their  re 
semblance,  led  to  the  erroneous  idea  that  ants 
lay  up  grain  for  winter  use;  whereas  many 
species  never  feed  «at  all  during  the  winter,  re 
maining  torpid.  The  eggs  are  exposed  by  the 
worker,  or  by  the  female  when  alone,  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun  during  the  early  morning,  cov 
ered  from  its  too  poAverful  influence  during  the 
extreme  heat  of  the  day,  and  removed  beyond 
the  influence  of  cold  or  wet  by  night.  "  As 
soon  as  the  larvae  or  grubs  are  hatched,  they 


j  are  treated  in  the  same  manner.     Until  then- 
!  maturity  the  grubs,  which  are  necessarily  vora- 
'  cious,  since  they  have  not  only  to  take  up  mate- 
j  rial  sufficient  for  their  own  growth,  but  for  the 
!  formation   of  the   substance   whence   to   spin 
I  their  cocoons,  are  fed  by  the  nurse  ant,  or  by 
|  the  female  when  alone,  with  a  liquid  disgorged 
!  from  the  stomach  of  the  parent.     When  a  fe- 
|  male  has  founded  her  colony  alone,  she  must 
be  at  work  early  and  late,  in  order  to  collect 
sustenance  sufficient  for  herself  and  for  the 
support  of  the  20  or  more  greedy  grubs.     As 
soon  as  the  grubs  have  attained  maturity,  if  of 
those  species  which  are  destitute  of  stings,  they 
I  generally  spin  their  cocoons,  of  a  membranous 
i  texture   and   a   brownish-white   color,    which 
considerably  resemble   barleycorns.     The   co 
coons  are  treated  precisely  as  were  the  eggs 
and   the   grubs,  in   their   exposure   to   proper 
temperature,   and  their  removal   from  undue 
j  extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  until  they  are  ripe 
for  their  second  birth,  when  the  young  ants 
are  cut  out  of  their  cerements  by  the  mandi 
bles  of  the  nurse  ants.     Early  in  the  pairing 
season,  both  males  and  females  are  to  be  seen 
in  great  numbers  in  all  the  ant  hills,  provided 
with  glistening  wings,  mixed  with  the  wingless 
workers,  who  keep  diligent  watch  over  them, 
posting  regular   sentries  and   never   allowing 
them  to  escape  beyond  the  limits  of  the  colony 
without   a   guard,   several   of  whom   may   at 
times  be  observed  dragging  back  a  deserter  by 
the  limbs.     There  always  seems  to  be  a  dis 
position  among  the  winged  ants  to  desert  the 
colony,  but  the  workers  never  accede  to  this 
truant  disposition,  but  resist  it  to  the  utmost, 
nor  ever  yield  unless  the  breeders  become  too 
numerous  to  be  fed  or  guarded  by  them.     The 
actual  copulation  does  not  take  place  in  the 
ant  hills,  but  at  some  small  distance  from  them, 
and  not  infrequently  in  mid-air ;  and  scouts  are 
|  always  on  the  lookout  to  drag  back  the  fertil- 
I  ized  females  to  the  principal  settlement,  or  to 
form  small  independent  parties,  which  seize  a 
female  and  found  a  colony  on  their  own  ac- 
:  count.     Sometimes  it  will  happen,  so  great  is 
i  this  propensity  to  ramble  on  the  part  of  the 
|  females  after  their  impregnation  is  complete, 
!  that  an  original  settlement  is  wholly  deserted, 
i  owing  to  the  workers  who  have  gone  off  in 
j  pursuit,  if  they  have  been  led  too  far  from 
i  home  to  care  about  return,  forming  fresh  col- 
j  onies  in  whatever  place  they  succeed  in  cap- 
!  turing  a  fugitive  queen.     Occasionally,  when 
!  an  impregnated  female  escapes  by  herself,  she 
lays  her  eggs  and  establishes  her  own  colony, 
unassisted  by  the  workers ;  in  which  case  she 
|  herself  performs  the  duties  to  the  eggs  which 
!  would   otherwise   be  rendered   by   the  nurse 
|  ants.     The  males,  after  their  duties  of  impreg- 
|  nating  the  females  are  performed,  are  permit- 
|  ted  to  stray  away  after  their  own  pleasure, 
i  without  any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  workers 
j  to  retain  them,  and  die  shortly  afterward.     It 
I  was  formerly  supposed  that  all  ants  procured 
I  wings  at  a  certain  stage  of  their  growth ;  ..but 


ANT 


it  was  discovered  by  the  younger  Huber  that  I 
in  the  males  and  females  they  are  gradually  j 
developed  from  the  first  day  of  their  existence,  j 
until,  when  their  purpose  has  been  fulfilled,  i 
they  are  dislocated  and  cast  aside  like  worn-  j 
out' clothes.     Besides  the  labors  of  the  work 
ing  ants,  or  neuters,  already  described,  they 
have  the  task  of  forming  the  streets,  chambers,  j 
and  habitations  of  the  colony,  repairing  them,  | 
thatching  them,   fortifying   them   against  _the  | 
weather    by    various    operations    of    mining,  j 
masonry,  or  carpentry,  performed  with  won-  j 
derful   skill,   and  under  circumstances    which 
prove    the     possession    of    some    powers    or 
senses    beyond    our    comprehension.       It    is, 
however,  'noticeable  that   the   possession    of 
elbowed  or  flail-shaped  antenna  is  almost  in-  i 
variably  associated  with  a  high  degree  of  in-  j 
telligenoe,  evidenced  by  constructive  ability,  j 
command   of  language,  &c,,   as  in  the  bees,  j 
wasps,  and  ants. — The  most  remarkable  of  the  i 
mining  ants  are  the  formica  sanguinaria  of  j 
Germany  and  the  F.  cwpitum  or  tuft  ant  of  I 
England,  which  perforate  long  galleries  in  the  \ 
clay,  removing  all  the  rubbish,   and  building 
buttresses  to  support  their  work,  by  aid  of  i 
their  mandibles  only,  and  then  overcasting  the  { 
whole  with  a  thatch  of  grass  stems  and  heather 
against  wet  or  cold.     The  most  common  of  the  ' 
mason   ants   are   the    red    and    yellow    field  j 
ants,  which  erect  superficial  habitations ;  first 
raising    pillars,    then    springing    arches    from  i 
pillar  to  pillar,  and  lastly  erecting  above  them  j 
the   loose  piles  of  soil   which   we   know    as 
ant  hills.      Their  materials  for  these  edifices 
are  the  soil,  sand,  and  clay,  kneaded  with  rain  j 
water  into  a  tenacious  mortar,   which  is  be-  j 
smeared  over  wheat  stalks,  blades  of  grass,  or  j 
any  casual  supports  which  they  can  find.     The  ; 
carpentering  ants  are   those   which,  like  the  j 
emmet,  F.  fuliginosa,  of  Europe,  and  the  F.  ; 
carycB  or  walnut  ant  of  the  United  States,  per 
forate  their  cells  in  the  solid  timber  of  growing 
trees,  boring  or  chiselling  them  out,  side  by  j 
side,  at  all  sorts  of  divergent  curves,  and  some-  < 
times  at  right  angles  one  to  the  other,  appar- .  | 
ently  in  conformity  with  no  plan,  and  carried 
on  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  the  excava 
tor  only,  until  they  come  so  closely  into  rela-  j 
tion  with  another  series  of  workings  that  the  | 
divisions  between  them  are  not  thicker  than  j 
ordinary   letter    paper,    when    they    instantly  ! 
terminate,  or  turn  aside,  without  in  any  known  ; 
instance  perforating  the  partition  between  the  ! 
several  galleries. — There  is  a  considerable  va-  ! 
riety  in  the  food  of  ants.     A  favorite  article  of 
diet  is  honey  in  some  of  its  modifications,  but  i 
more  especially  the  secretions  of  the  various  i 
species   of   aphides,    known    as    honey    dew,  j 
which   is    found    besmearing    the    leaves    of  ! 
plants,  and  which  is  so  injurious  to  the  vege-  ! 
tables  when  it  becomes  thick  enough  to  ob-  ! 
struct  the  pores ;  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  J 
wherever  aphides  abound,  ants  will  ever  be  j 
found  attending  on  their  motions.     Some  vari-  ! 
eties  of  ants  are  in  the  habit  of  capturing  root-  i 


sucking  aphides  and  imprisoning  them  in  their 
cells,  with  a  view  to  feeding  on  their  honey 
dew.  In  this  case  the  ants  take  the  same  care 
of  the  "root  lice"  as  they  do  of  their  own 
young.  Many  ants  subsist  largely  on  decay 
ing  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  rendering 
themselves  very  serviceable  as  scavengers,  and 
as  assistants  to  the  naturalists  in  the  prepara 
tion  and  cleaning  of  the  skeletons  of  small 
animals  for  museums.  The  allusion  in  Prov. 
vi.  0-8  to  the  habits  of  an  Asiatic  species,  is 
also  applicable  to  a  Texan  ant,  myrmica  mole- 
faciens,  which  is  reported  by  observers  to  not 
only  feed  upon  a  certain  grain,  the  seed  of 
aristida  stricta,  but  also  to  plant,  cultivate, 
and  harvest  it,  laying  it  up  in  dry  cells 
"  against  the  rainy  day/'  This  species,  some 
times  called  the  "agricultural  ant,"  builds 
"paved  cities,  constructs  roads,  and  sustains  a 
large  military  force."  Myrmica  molesta,  the 
"troublesome"  or  the  "little  red  ant,"  is  of  a 
reddish  yellow,  the  worker  measuring  only 
_A_  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  the  great  pest 
of  houses  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States. 
In  other  places  a  large  black  ant  (F.  Pennsyl- 
vanica)  takes  its  place,  destroying  decaying 
timbers,  books,  provisions,  specimens  of  natu 
ral  history,  furs,  and  other  property.  Very 
small  ants  abound  in  South  America,  whose 
bite  is  so  sharp  that  they  are  called  fire  ants ; 
they  are  very  annoying  and  destructive,  mak 
ing  up  in  numbers  what  they  lack  in  size. — 
Some  species,  especially  the  wood  ant,  F.  rufa, 
and  the  Amazon  or  warrior  ant,  F.  ruje&cens, 
as  well  as  the  sanguinary  ant,  F.  sanguinaria, 
are  literally  slave-holders.  They  sally  out  in 
great  swarms  on  belligerent  and  predatory  ex 
cursions,  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  and 
bringing  home  to  their  own  colonies  the  eggs  and 
cocoons  of  other  tribes,  generally  of  the  dusky 
ant,  F.  fusca,  which,  when  hatched  in  the 
fortresses  of  the  victors,  are  compelled  to  life 
long  labor.  Independent  of  the  annual  migra 
tory  disposition  of  all  the  species,  for  the  pur 
pose  of  forming  new  colonies,  sudden  impulses, 
probably  connected  with  facility  of  obtaining 
food,  at  times  appear  to  seize  on  certain  vari 
eties  of  ants,  leading  them  all  to  take  wing 
simultaneously.  Strange  relations  may  be 
found  in  the  "History  of  the  Berlin  Academy  " 
for  1749,  in  the  German  "Ephemerides,"  and 
in  the  Journal  de  physique  for  1790,  of  vast 
clouds  of  ants,  darkening  the  air,  and  having 
a  curious  intestine  motion,  like  that  of  the 
aurora  borealis,  unconnected  with  their  line 
of  flight,  being  seen  at  divers  places,  and, 
when  they  fell,  literally  covering  the  earth,  so 
that  one  could  not  tread,  without  crushing 
them  at  every  footfall.  For  particulars  con 
cerning  the  habits  and  ravages  of  the  great 
white  ant  of  the  tropics,  see  TERMITES,  for 
that  insect  is  not  properly  an  ant.  Du  Chaillu 
has  graphically  described  the  formidable  le 
gions  of  the  Cashikonay  ant  of  Africa,  before 
which  all  animals  flee. —  See  tiie  works  of 
Baron  de  Geer  and  the  younger  Iluber,  Pack- 


542 


ANTACIDS 


ANTARCTIC  DISCOVERY 


ard's  "Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects"  (Salem, 
1868  et  scq.),  arid  Fitch's  "  Reports  on  the 
Insects  of  New  York." 

ANTACIDS,  certain  drugs  used  to  neutralize 
acid,  either  in  the  alimentary  canal  or  circula 
ting  in  the  blood.  For  the  former  indication, 
the  carbonates  and  bicarbonates  of  soda  and 
potassa,  lime  water,  chalk,  and  magnesia  with 
its  carbonate,  are  used.  The  symptom  which 
they  temporarily  relieve  is,  however,  often 
more  efficiently  treated  by  regulated  diet  or 
by  mineral  acids.  For  the  second  purpose  we 
have,  besides  the  alkalies  and  their  carbonates, 
including  littisa,  which  is  weight  for  weight 
the  most  powerful,  the  salts  formed  by  them 
with  acetic,  tartaric,  and  citric  acids.  These 
acids,  when  in  combination  with  alkalies,  take 
up  in  the  blood  more  oxygen,  forming  carbonic 
acid,  which  forms  with  the  bases  bicarbonates; 
so  that  the  alkalization  of  the  blood  is  attained 
without  the  local  gastric  troubles  which  might 
attend  the  administration  of  the  caustic  or 
carbonated  alkalies  in  equivalent  doses.  The 
acetate  of  potassa,  or  corresponding  salts,  are 
largely  used  in  the  treatment  of  acute  rheuma 
tism  where  they  render  the  urine  alkaline. 
They  also  considerably  increase  its  quantity. 

ANTJE,  in  ancient  geography,  a  Sarmatian 
people,  between  the  Dniester  and  the  Don,  a 
branch  of  the  Slavic  Veneda)  or  Wends.  Jus 
tinian  overcame  them  when  he  caught  them  in 
the  Roman  territory,  and  gave  them  new  abodes 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Danube,  that  they 
might  be  a  rampart  against  the  Huns.  From 
them  Justinian  took  his  title  of  Anticus. 

ASTJEUS,  a  mythological  giant  of  Libya,  son 
of  Neptune  and  Terra,  a  mighty  wrestler,  and 
invincible  while  he  continued  in  contact  with 
the  earth.  Whoever  visited  Libya  was  bound 
to  wrestle  with  him,  and  with  the  skulls  of 
the  vanquished,  who  were  all  slain,  he  erected 
a  temple  to  Neptune.  Hercules  overcame  him 
by  lifting  him  off  the  earth,  and  strangling 
him  in  the  air. 

ANTALCIDAS,  a  Spartan,  who,  at  the  end  of 
the  Corinthian  war,  was  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  Tiribazus,  governor  of  Sardis,  to  negotiate 
a  peace  with  Persia.  He  succeeded,  and  the 
peace,  concluded  in  387  B.  C.,  with  the  concur 
rence  of  several  Grecian  states,  was  called 
after  his  name.  It  excited  universal  indigna 
tion  throughout  Greece,  for  Sparta  had  sacri 
ficed  to  the  Persian  monarch  the  general  inter 
ests  of  Greece  in  order  to  gratify  her  jealousy 
of  the  Athenians  and  Thebans.  On  being  sent 
again  to  obtain  the  promised  subsidies  from 
the  Persian  king,  he  was  tricked  by  the  ori 
entals,  and  fearing  the  popular  indignation  at 
home,  he  starved  himself  to  death. 

ANTAR,  properly  Antarah,  an  Arabian  prince 
and  poet  of  the  6th  century,  author  of  one  of 
the  Moallakat,  the  seven  poems  suspended  on 
the  Caaba  at  Mecca.  A  copy  of  a  work  called 
"Antar,"  celebrating  the  exploits  of  the  prince, 
is  in  the  imperial  library  of  Vienna ;  and  in 
the  catalogue  of  the  books  written  by  Von 


Hammer  there  is  some  account  of  this  ro 
mance.  The  legends  of  his  exploits  appear  to 
have  been  embodied  in  a  book  and  consider 
ably  enlarged  by  Asmai  or  Osmay,  at  the 
court  of  Haroun  al-Rashid.  He  appears  to 
have  been  aided  in  this  by  Yohainah  and 
Abu  Obeidah.  The  copy  translated  by  Mr. 
Terrick  Hamilton,  oriental  secretary  to  the 
British  embassy  at  Constantinople,  was  pro 
cured  at  Aleppo,  and  is  comprised  in  a  smaller 
form  than  any  other  as  yet  sent  to  Europe. 
The  voluminous  work  had,  it  appears,  been 
curtailed  of  many  of  its  repetitions  and  much 
of  its  poetry  by  some  learned  inhabitants  of 
Syria,  and  was  therefore  called  the  Shamiyeh 
or  Syrian  Antar,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
original  large  work,  which  was  called  the  He- 
jaziych  or  Arabian  Antar.  Though  usually 
written  in  a  continuous  form,  the  story  may 
very  properly  be  divided  into  three  parts.  The 
1st  reaches  to  the  marriage  of  Antar  and  Ibla; 
the  2d  includes  the  period  when  the  hero 
suspends  his  poem  at  Mecca;  the  3d  comprises 
the  death  of  Antar  and  most  of  his  comrades 
and  relatives.  Von  Hammer,  who  twice  read 
through  the  original,  declared  it  to  be  "more 
interesting  than  the  celebrated  'Thousand  and 
One  Nights ; '"  and  Sir  William  Jones  says :  "I 
have  only  seen  the  14th  volume  of  this  work, 
which  comprises  all  that  is  elegant  and  noble  in 
composition.  So  lofty,  so  various,  and  so  bold 
is  its  style,  that  I  do  not  hesitate  to  rank  it 
among  the  most  finished  poems."  With  the 
Arabs  it  is  a  standard  work.  It  is  certainly 
one  of  the  most  ancient  books  of  Arabian  lit 
erature.  Its  language  is  uncommonly  pure, 
equally  remote  from  the  harshness  of  the  ear 
lier  or  the  conceits  of  the  later  authors. 

ANTARCTIC  DISCOVERY.  The  ancient  geog 
raphers,  among  others  the  Greek  Ptolemy, 
supposed  a  continent  to  exist  near  the  south 
pole,  and  to  extend  to  a  great  distance  around 
it.  On  nearly  all  maps  published  before  the 
middle  of  the  last  century,  this  continent  is 
vaguely  given  as  "Terra  Australis  Incognita.11 
Captain  Cook,  by  his  second  voyage,  first  threw 
doubt  upon  this  theory.  He  was  everywhere 
prevented  by  large  masses  of  ice  from  reaching 
any  high  southern  latitudes,  and  he  could  dis 
cover  no  land.  In  the  few  cases  in  which  he 
passed  beyond  the  Antarctic  circle  he  reached 
only  61°  10'  S.  latitude.  In  1819  the  South 
Shetland  islands  were  seen  but  not  visited  by 
Capt.  William  Smith,  the  commander  of  a  mer 
chant  vessel,  driven  far  to  the  south  in  trying  to 
round  Cape  Horn.  In  1821  Trinity  land,  lying 
S.  of  the  South  Shetlands,  in  about  lat.  62°  S., 
was  discovered  by  How  ell,  an  Englishman ; 
Palmer's  land  to  the  westward  of  Trinity  land, 
forming  a  part  of  the  same  coast  line,  by  Pal 
mer,  an  American;  and  still  further  to  the 
south  and  west  the  Russian  Bellinghausen 
found  Alexander's  land.  Weddell,  the  next 
English  explorer,  made  no  discoveries  of  land, 
but  reached  lat.  74°  15'  S.  Enderby's  land, 
lat.  67°  30'  b.,  long.  50°  E.,  and  Graham's 


ANTARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


ANT-EATER 


543 


land,  a  still  further  southwestern  extension 
of  Palmer's  hind,  were  discovered  in  1831 
and  1832  by  Biscoe,  who  circumnavigated  the 
southern  ice  region,  an  expedition  having  been 
fitted  out  for  the  purpose  by  Messrs.  Enderby, 
merchants  of  London.  In  1837  and  1838  Du- 
mont  d'Urville  and  Balleny  made  comparative 
ly  unimportant  explorations ;  and  in  1839  the 
French  and  American  governments  each  sent 
out  an  expedition  for  a  voyage  of  discovery  m 
the  Southern  ocean.  Dumont  d'Urville  com 
manded  the  French  ships,  and  Lieut.  Charles 


line  is  one  that  greatly  needs  confirmation  ;  isl 
ands  lay  all  about  his  course  a  little  further  to 
the  north,  and  they  may  easily  have  been  the 
only  interruptions  the  solid  ice  tloe  found  to  the 
south.  The  French  expedition  under  D'Urville 
also  discovered  a  considerable  extent  of  coast 
in  the  same  quarter,  and  named  it  Adelie ; 
but  he  succeeded  no  more  than  Wilkes  in  es 
tablishing  the  fact  of  its  continuity  for  any  great 
distance.  It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  it 
would  be  rash  to  assume  from  the  results  of 
these  two  expeditions  that  the  existence  of  a 
great  antarctic  continent  is  proved. — In  Janu 
ary,  1841,  Capt.  James  Clarke  Ross,  who  com 
manded  an  English  expedition  in  the  Erebus 
and  Terror,  discovered  a  line  of  coast  trending 
southward  from  a  point  near  lat.  70°  41'  S., 
Ion.  172°  30'  E.  Here  were  mountains  9,000  to 
12,000  feet  high,  of  volcanic  origin;  one,  Mt. 
Erebus,  in  lat.  77°  32'  S.,  Ion.  167°  E.,  was  active, 
and  near  it  was  an  extinct  crater  which  Ross 
called  Mt.  Terror.  The  whole  line  of  coast 
discovered  by  Ross  was  steep  and  rocky,  and 
the  land  he  saw  (Victoria  Land)  was,  like 
almost  all  that  seen  by  the  other  explorers, 
entirely  bare. — Since  1842  no  important  dis 
coveries  have  been  made  in  the  antarctic  seas. 

ANTARCTIC  OCEAN,  and  Antarctic  Circle.  See 
POLAR  SEAS,  and  POLAR  CIRCLES. 

ANT-EATER,  the  popular  name  of  the  Sonth 
American  species  of  the  old  genus  myrmeco- 
pliaga,  of  the  edentate  order  of  mammals,  from 
the  principal  food  of  these  animals.  The  or 
dinal  characters  are  given  under  EDENTATA. 
The  South  American  ant-eaters  are  covered 
with  hair ;  the  scaly  ant-eaters  of  the  old  world 
are  described  under  PANGOLIN.  Xone  of  them 
have  any  teeth,  and  the  plantigrade  anterior 
feet  are  armed  with  enormous  claws,  bent 
downward  and  inward  toward  the  palm,  so  that 


Wilkes  the  United  States  fleet  of  four  vessels. 
On  Jan.  16,  1842,  Wilkes' s  officers  discovered 
land  from  the  masthead  in  about  Ion.  160°  E., 
lat.  61°  S.  The  expedition  followed  the  indi 
cations  of  land  to  the  westward  for  several 
days,  and  afterward  for  several  weeks  sailed 
along  an  immense  ice  field,  which  Wilkes 
thought  to  be  a  continuous  barrier  lying  along 
the  coast  of  an  antarctic  continent.  As  he  saw 
land  only  at  a  few  widely  separated  points,  his 
inference  that  there  existed  a  continuous  coast 


Great  Ant-Eater  (Myrmecophaga  jubata). 

the  animal  walks  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  foot. 
In  this  way  the  points  are  kept  unbroken,  serv 
ing  as  admirable  instruments  for  tearing  down 
ant  hills,  though  they  render  the  gait  of  the 
creature  very  slow  and  awkward.  The  bones 
of  the  jaws  and  nose  are  elongated  into  a  kind 
of  tube,  nearly  cylindrical,  at  the  end  of  which 
is  the  small  circular  mouth,  from  which  is  pro 
truded  the  long  tongue  covered  with  a  gluti 
nous  saliva  by  which  its  food  is  captured.  The 
great  ant-eater  or  ant  bear  (myrmecophaga  ju- 


ANT-EATER 


ANTELOPE 


bata),  the  tamanoir  of  the  Portuguese,  is  about 
4  feet  long,  with  a  bushy  tail  of  2£  feet  more,  . 
the  head  being  more  than  a  foot  long;  the 
height  at  the  shoulder  is  about  8£  feet,  and  at 
the  croup  5  inches  less.  The  claws  are  2£ 
inches  long,  sharp-pointed,  with  cutting  edges,  | 
but  so  directed  that  they  are  comparatively  use-  ; 
less  as  weapons  of  defence  or  offence,  and  ap 
plicable  only  to  the  motions  of  tearing  down 
ant  hills ;  there  are  4  on  the  fore  feet  and  5  on 
the  hind.  The  tongue  may  be  protruded  to  j 
the  length  of  18  inches.  The  hair  is  long  and  ! 
coarse,  brown  mixed  with  gray  at  the  head, 
and  with  white  on  the  body  and  tail ;  the  throat 
is  black,  with  a  broad  stripe  of  this  color,  bor 
dered  with  a  narrower  white  one,  running  over 
the  shoulders  to  the  rump ;  arms  and  thighs 
silvery  white,  and  hind  legs  black  ;  breast  and 
under  parts  brown.  The  claws  when  not  in 
use  are  folded  against  a  callous  pad  in  the  palms 
and  soles.  Though  large  and  powerful,  it  is 
very  stupid  and  inoffensive,  and  allows  itself 
to  be  overpowered  by  the  meanest  enemies, 
which  it  could  easily  hug  and  tear  to  death, 
did  it  know  enough  to  exert  its  great  strength. 
It  is  wholly  terrestrial,  unable  to  climb  trees 
from  the  structure  of  the  claws  and  the  absence 
of  prehensile  power  in  its  uncommonly  plumy 
tail;  it  makes  no  burrow,  covering  its  body 
when  at  rest  by  the  tail,  which,  with  its  long 
mane,  makes  the  creature  resemble  a  bundle 
of  coarse  loose  hay.  The  female  has  a  single 
young  one,  which  she  carries  on  her  back  long 
after  it  can  provide  for  itself.  Its  food  consists 
exclusively  of  ants;  it  obtains  them  by  tearing 
open  the  hills,  and  drawing  its  glutinous  tongue 
over  the  insects,  at  the  rate,  it  is  said,  of  two 
protrusions  in  a  second.  The  flesh  of  the  ant 
bear  is  black  and  of  a  musky  flavor,  but  it  is 
eaten  by  the  Indians  and  negroes,  and  at  times 
even  by  the  European  colonists.  It  is  a  native 
of  South  America,  from  Colombia  to  Paraguay, 
and  from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  foot 
of  the  Andes ;  but  it  is  nowhere  a  numerous 
species,  being  rarely  seen  even  in  its  native  re 
gions.  Like  all  animals  using  a  purely  insect 
diet,  it  is  capable  of  enduring  a  total  deprivation 
of  food  for  almost  incredible  periods. — The 
tamandua,  M.  tamandua,  does  not  exceed  the 
size  of  a  large  cat.  Its  head  is  less  dispropor 
tionately  long,  but  is  of  the  same  cylindrical 
form  with  that  of  the  larger  animal,  with  which 
also  correspond  the  formation  of  its  anterior 
and  posterior  extremities,  the  construction  and 
number  of  its  toes,  and  the  shape  and  form  of 
its  claws.  The  most  remarkable  difference  be 
tween  the  two  animals  lies  in  their  tails,  that 
of  the  tamandua,  which  is  a  purely  sylvan  ani 
mal,  living  exclusively  in  trees  and  never  found 
on  the  ground,  being  bare  on  the  inferior  side 
and  of  singular  prehensile  power.  The  hair 
over  the  whole  body  of  the  tamandua  is  uni 
form,  short,  crisp,  and  shining,  a  sort  of  silky 
wool  standing  out  from  the  body;  and  it  varies 
much  in  color  in  different  individuals.  The 
female  has  butt\vo  pectoral  mammae,  and  bears 


but  one  young  one  at  a  birth,  which  is  of  a 
light  straw  color  and  very  ugly.     The  taman 
dua  feeds  on  termites,  ants,  honey,  and  even 
bees,  which  in  those  countries  make  their  hives 
in  the  topmost  branches  of  the  forest  trees,  and 
are  stingless.     It  is  a  native  of  tropical  Ameri 
ca. — The    little  or  two-toed  ant-eater,,  cycto- 
thurus  didactylus,  is  not  larger  than  the  com 
mon  squirrel.      It  has  but  four  toes  on  its  hind 
feet,   and  two  on  the    fore    feet.      Its  whole 
length,  from  the  snout  to  the  insertion  of  the 
tail,  is  but  6  inches ;    the  length  of  the  head  is 
not  quite  2  inches,  while  that  of  the  tail  is 
j  about  9.     In  general  form  it  resembles  the  ta- 
'  mandua,   but    its  muzzle  is  shorter    and    less 
tapering.     Its  ears  are  short  and  drooping,  and 
are  nearly  concealed  among  the  fur,  which  is 
!  long  on  the  head  and  cheeks.     The  hair  on  the 
|  body  and  sides  is  long,  soft,  and  glossy,  much 
[  shorter  on  the  tail,  of  a  uniform  light  straw 
'••  color,   tinged   with  maroon    along    the  back, 
|  where  it  has  a  strongly  marked  line.     The  tail 
i  is  bare  of  fur  at  the  under  surface  toward  the 
!  end,  and  is  very  prehensile.     The  ribs  are  very 
broad  and    flat,   overlapping    each  other.      It 
lives  in  trees,  having  many  of  the  habits  of 
squirrels;  it  feeds  on  the  larva?  of  wasps  and 
|  other  insects,  which  it  picks  out  of  their  nest? 
j  with  great  dexterity.     Like  other  ant-eaters,  it 
,  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  being  fond  of  sleeping 
by  day  with  its  tail  securely  twisted  around  a 
:  branch.     It  has  four  mamma?,  two  pectoral  and 
,  two  abdominal,  and  bears  but  one  offspring  at 
i  a  birth.     Its  native  countries  are  Guiana  arid 
Brazil ;  farther  south  it  is  unknown. 

ANTELOPE,  an  animal  of  the  family  antilopea, 
ruminating  mammalia,  with  hollow  horns,  con 
ical,    bent    buck,    cylindrical    or    compressed, 
ringed  at  the  base.     The  occipital  plane  forms 
I  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  frontal  plane.     The 
\  core    of  their   horns   is   thin,    consisting  of  a 
dense  bone,  often  with  a  clear  sinus  at  the  base 
i  within.     Teats  two  or  four.     Feet  pits  in  the 
:  hind  feet,  and  generally  in  the  fore  feet  also. 
Perhaps  the  most  certain  characteristic  of  the 
!  antelopes  is  the  cylindrical  and  annulated  form 
|  of  their  horns,  which   are  never  angular,   or 
I  provided  with  prominent  longitudinal  ridges, 
like  those  of  the  sheep  and  goats.     They  are 
also  generally  distinguished  by  having  the  lach 
rymal  sinuses  peculiar  to  the  solid-horned  an 
imals  of  the  cervine  family,  and  possessed  by 
the  antelope  alone  of  the  hollow-horned  rumi 
nants,  though  not  by  all  the  species.     In  other 
respects,  the  different  species  of  antelopes  vary 
as  widely  as  can  be  conceived.     Many  approach 
the  deer  so  closely  that  the  hornless  females 
of    the    two    families   can    hardly   be    distin 
guished  apart;  although  the  difference  would 
appear  on  dissection,  the  true  solid-horned  deer 
being   possessed  of  neither   gall   bladder  nor 
gall  duct,  which  belong  to  all  the  hollow-horned 
ruminants.     They  are  the  fleetest,  as  they  are 
the  most  beautiful  and  most  graceful  of  quad 
rupeds.    They  are,  generally  speaking,  both  gre 
garious  and  migratory,  occasionally  uniting  in 


ANTELOPE 


vast  herds.  Africa  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
antelope  family  in  regard  to  variety,  heauty,  and 
numbers.  Madagascar  and  Australia  possess  no 
antelopes;  Hindustan  and  Further  India  have 
several  varieties ;  western  Europe  and  Amer 
ica  each  but  a  single  species. — Originally,  all 


white,  divided  by  coal-black  lines;  the  common 
antelope  of  India,  A.  cervieapra  ;  the  madoqua, 
A.  saltrara,  the  smallest  of  all  horned  animals, 
i  not  exceeding  a  hare  in  size ;  the  steinbok,  tho 
ourebi,  the  grysbok,  the  klipspringer,  and  the 
,  bush  goat,  with  the  red  reed  buck,  the  water 
I  buck,  and  the  sable  antelope,  of  southern  Afri- 
j  ca.     The  red  reed  buck  (called  rietbok  in  tho 
.  Dutch  settlements)  is  about  five  feet  high  and 
I  five  long ;  its  color  is  gray  above  and  white  be- 
j  neath.     The  sable  antelope,  a  very  rare  and 
i  beautiful  animal,  is  one  of  the  noblest  types  of 
;  the  genus ;  its  back  and  sides  are  black,  and  its 
;  belly  white  ;  its  horns  arc  more  than  three  feet 
in  length,  and  are  covered  with  bold  ridges. — 
Of  the  cervine  antelopes,  by  far  the  most  re 
markable  are  the  gemsbok,  oryx  yazella,  and 
I  the  oryx,  oryx  leucoryx.     The  former  stands 


Red  Reed  Buck  (Eleotragus    arundinaceus). 


species  of  antelopes  were  referred  to  a  single  j 
family;  but  they  are  now  distinguished  into  \ 
two  great  divisions:  the  antelopes  of  the  fields, 
whose  nostrils  are  smooth  and  free  from  hairs,  ! 
and  the  antelopes  of  the  desert,  which  are  beard-  ! 
ed  and  have  bristly  muzzles.  The  antelopes 
of  the  fields  are  again  subdivided  into  three 
groups :  the  true  antelopes,  which  have  a  light, 
elegant  body,  slender  limbs,  small  hoofs,  short 
tails,  lyrate  or  conical  horns,  placed  above  the 
eyebrows;  the  cervine  antelopes,  with  short, 
deer-like  bodies,  strong,  slender  limbs,  long 
tails,  cylindrical  at  the  base,  with  the  hair 
longer  at  the  ends,  and  muzzles  like  those  of  the 
cervine  ruminants ;  and  the  goat-like  antelopes, 
which  have  a  short  heavy  body,  strong  hoofs 
and  false  hoofs,  very  short  tail,  flat  and  hairy 
above,  and  recurved  conical  horns. — Of  the  true 
antelopes,  the  most  remarkable  are  the  gazelles 
of  Egypt,  Barbary,  and  Turkey  in  Asia ;  the 
Ariel  gazelle  of  Egypt  and  Kordofan;  the  pal- 
lah,  antilope  cepyceros  melampus,  of  southern 
Africa,  with  its  annulated,  lyrate  horns,  and  its 
sleek  hide,  painted  with  brilliant  rust  color  and 


Addax   nasouiacuiatus. 

34  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  with  long  straight 
horns,  annulated  at  the  base.  His  hide  is  of  a 
deep  blue-gray  above  and  snow-white  below, 
divided  by  marked  lines  of  jet  black.  Even 
the  lion  seldom  dares  attack  him.  The  oryx  is 
a  native  of  Xubia  and  Senegal.  Another  cer 
vine  antelope,  not  far  inferior  in  size  to  the  last, 
is  the  addax  of  Senegal,  which  lias  preserved  itM 
name  unaltered  since  the  days  of  Pliny.  A 


Sable  Antelope  (Aigoccms   niger). 

VOL.  i. — 35 


Siberian  Antelope  (Saiga  Tartarica). 


546 


ANTELOPE 


ANTEXOR 


species  less  familiar  than  either  of  those  jnst  ! 
named  is  the  Siberian  antelope  (saiga  coins  or  j 
Tartarica),  an  animal  inhabiting  the  region  of  ; 
the  Caucasus,  northern  Persia,  and  Siberia.     It  i 
is  of  medium  size,  resembling  a  deer  in  form, 
and  has  a  peculiarly  curved  forehead  and  face.  ' 
Its  horns  are  of  a  light  color  and  semi-transpa 
rent,  and  are  much  valued.     The  animal  is  gre-  ! 
garious  and  migratory  in  its  habits. — Of  the  | 
goat-like  antelopes  there  are  several  of  the  ori-  : 
ental  species;   but  the  two  most  conspicuous 
are  the  European  chamois,  or  antelope  of  the  i 
Alps,  rupicapra  tragus,  resembling  a  goat  with-  | 
out  a  beard,  with  short  erect  horns,  suddenly 
curved  backward  at  the  tip,  and  coarse  hair,  ; 
beneath  which  lies  a  close  coat  of  wool  (see 
CHAMOIS);  and  the  American  prong-horn,  A.  j 
Americana,  which  has  considerable  affinity  to 
the  chamois;  its  horns  only  differ  from  that  j 


Prong-horn  (American  A 


antelope's  in  turning  inward  at  the  tip,  and  in 
having  a  short  anterior,  medial  prong.  The 
winter  coat  of  this  antelope  differs  from  that 
of  any  other  known  animal ;  the  hairs,  which 
stand  out  to  the  length  of  two  inches  at  right 
'angles  to  the  body,  being  tubular,  like  the  quills 
of  a  bird,  and  nearly  as  brittle  as  glass.  This 
antelope  is  fully  described  in  Dr.  Richardson's 
Fauna  JBoreali- Americana. — The  antelopes  of 
the  desert  are  divided  into  two  groups,  the 
equine  antelopes  and  the  bovine  antelopes. 
Of  the  equine  antelopes  there  are  but  two 
species :  the  gnu,  A.  gnii,  of  South  Africa,  called 
the  wildebeest  by  the  Boers,  which  is  nearly  of 
the  size  of  the  ass,  and  has  precisely  the  body, 
neck,  mane,  tail,  and  paces  of  a  small  horse, 
with  the  limbs,  hoofs,  and  horns  of  an  ante 
lope;  and  the  brindled  gnu  or  gorgon,  cato- 
Mepas  gorgon,  called  by  the  Boers  the  ~blauw 
wildebeest,  of  the  same  country.  (See  Gxu.) 
The  bovine  antelopes  are  the  A.  bultalis  of 
northern  Africa,  equal  in  size  to  the  largest 
stag,  called  by  the  Arabs  beJcker-el-wash,  or 
the  wild  ox,  the  hartebeest,  the  blesbok,  the 
bontebok,  and  the  sassabee  of  southern  Africa ; 
the  korrigum  of  Senegal;  and  the  doria,  or 
gilded  antelope,  of  western  Africa. — To  these, 
which  complete  the  list  of  antelopes  as  sci 
entifically  distinguished,  may  be  added  the 
highly  interesting  group  of  strepsicerce.  This 


group  of  antilopean  ruminants  includes  the  koo 
doo,  strepsiceros  kudu,  which  is  fully  4  feet 
high  at  the  shoulder,  with  horns  nearly  as  long 
as  the  male  is  high,  reflected  in  a  beautiful 
sweeping  spiral  of  2-J-  turns ;  the  eland,  oreas 
canna,  which  is  as  large  as  a  horse,  weighs  from 
7  to  9  cwt.,  unlike  most  antelopes  is  always  fat, 
and  is  said  to  furnish  meat  superior  to  beef  (see 
ELAND)  ;  and  the  great  nil-ghau,  portax  truc/o- 
camelus,  one  of  the  largest  of  antelopes,  having 
much  the  character  of  the  ox,  with  the  horns, 
head,  and  muzzle  of  an  antelope,  the  flat  com 
pressed  neck  of  a  horse,  with  a  thin  erect 
mane,  increasing  into  a  tufted  bunch  on  the 
shoulders,  and  a  singular  beard-like  tuft  of  stiff 
hair  growing  out  of  the  middle  of  its  throat, 
peculiar  to  itself  alone.  Its  fore  legs  are  some 
what  longer  than  its  hind  ones,  and  its  withers 
rise  so  much  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of 
having  a  hump.  Its  color  is  deep  slaty  blue, 
with  a  white  spot  on  each  cheek,  and  a  large 
white  patch  on  the  throat.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  dee])  forests  of  India,  where  it  is  a  vicious 
and  dangerous  animal,  but  it  has  been  taken  to 
England,  where  it  lives  and  breeds. 

AATEAJVyE,  horn-like  members  on  the  head 
of  insects  and  crustaceous  animals.  The  an 
tenna)  are  commonly  called  feelers,  but  their 
functions  are  not  understood.  In  insects  they 
are  two  in  number ;  in  crabs  and  lobsters  there 
are  more  than  two.  The  antennae  of  insects 
are  usually  composed  of  minute  articulated 
rings,  containing  nervous  threads,  muscles, 
tracheae,  and  cellular  tissue,  forming  organs  of 
sensation,  motion,  and  respiration.  In  most 
orders  the  articulations  amount  to  10  or  11  in 
number,  although  they  are  much  fewer  in  some 
species,  while  in  others  they  reach  even  to  150. 
The  length  of  the  antennas  does  not  depend 
on  the  number  of  articulations,  as  they  are 
often  long  when  of  only  three  or  four  pieces, 
and  the  reverse.  They  are  inserted  on  the 
front  of  the  head  in  the  region  of  the  eye,  and 
connected  by  means  of  a  ball  and  socket. 
The  distinction  of  sex  in  some  species  is  marked 
by  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  antennas.  In 
moths  the  antennas  of  the  male  are  of  more 
simple  construction  than  those  of  the  female. 
In  moths  and  beetles  they  are  much  longer 
than  the  body,  while  in  the  common  house  fly 
they  are  comparatively  short.  Linnasus  and 
Bergman  supposed  them  to  be  organs  of  touch, 
and  they  were  thence  termed  feelers ;  but  M. 
Straus-Durckheim  is  of  the  opinion  that  the 
antennas  are  the  insect's  organs  of  hearing. 
Professor  Bonsdorf,  of  Abo  in  Finland,  and 
other  naturalists,  have  adopted  the  same 
opinion.  The  younger  Huber  attributed  to 
ants  the  use  of  the  antennas  in  a  sort  of  lan 
guage,  which  he  terms  the  u  antennal  lan 
guage,"  understood  not  only  among  ants  them 
selves,  but  also  among  the  aphides,  which 
furnish  the  honey-dew  on  which  ants  feed. 

A1YTENOR,  a  Trojan  prince,  son  of  ./Esyetes 
and  Cleomestra,  and  one  of  the  wisest  among 
the  elders  of  Troy.  He  counselled  his  fellow 


ANTEQUERA 


ANTIIOX 


5-i' 


citizens  to  give  Helen  up  to  the  Greeks.  It  is 
said  that,  having  been  sent  to  negotiate  for 
peace  with  Agamemnon,  he  concerted  with 
him  and  Ulysses  a  plan  for  delivering  up  the 
citv;  and  when  Troy  was  taken  the  skin  of  a 
panther  was  hung  up  at  his  door  as  a  signal  to 
the  Greeks  to  spare  the  house.  According  to 
some  authorities,  he  afterward  founded  anew 
kingdom  at  Troy  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  one; 
according  to  others,  he  settled  at  Gyrene  or  on 
the  W.  shore  of  the  Adriatic. 

AMEQl  ERA  (anc.  Antiquaria  or  Anticaria),  a 
city  of  Spain,  in  the  province  and  25  in.  N.  by  W. 
of  Malaga,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railroad, 
on  the  Guadalorce;  pop.  25,900.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fruitful  valley,  surrounded  by  lofty  moun 
tains  containing  numerous  marble  quarries,  and 
has  many  churches  and  convents,  and  some 
remains  of  antiquity.  While  the  Moors  held 
the  kingdom  of  Granada  this  city  was  a  fortress 
of  great  importance,  and  the  possession  of  it 
was  constantly  contested.  A  Moorish  castle, 
built  on  Roman  foundations,  still  exists  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  city.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  employed  in  agriculture  and  the  manu 
facture  of  cloth,  leather,  paper,  silk,  and  cotton. 

MTHELMINTICS.     See  ENTOZOA. 

AMHEMHS.  I.  Emperor  of  the  West  from 
A.  D.  467  to  472.  He  was  the  son-in-law  of 
the  emperor  Marcian,  and  was  invested  with 
the  purple  at  the  suggestion  of  Ricimer,  who 
ultimately  became  his  son-in-law.  Anthemius 
and  Ricimer  soon  quarrelled,  however,  and  then 
the  latter,  proclaiming  Olybrius  emperor,  laid 
siege  to  Rome.  The  city  was  taken  by  storm, 
and  Anthemius  was  slain.  II.  An  architect 
and  mathematician  of  Tralles  in  Lydia,  who 
flourished  in  the  6th  century.  He  designed  for 
the  emperor  Justinian  the  plan  and  conimenced 
the  building  of  the  church  of  St.  Sophia.  A 
fragment  of  one  of  his  mathematical  works  was 
published  at  Paris  in  1777. 

AXTHER  (Gr.  avdr/P6s,  flowery),  the  male  or 
gan  of  the  flower.  Considered  morphologically, 
it  is  a  modified  leaf,  the  petiole  or  stem  of  the 
leaf  becoming  the  filament  of  the  stamen,  and 
the  leaf  blade  by  the  separation  of  its  two  sur 
faces  forming  two  theca3  or  lodges  containing 
pollen,  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  becoming  the  con 
nective  of  the  anther.  The  filament  may  be 
absent,  when  the  anther  is  said  to  be  ses-sile ; 
and  it  may  be  inserted  on  the  style,  as  in  or 
chids  (in  the  Limuean  class  gynandria),  or  on 
the  corolla.  Several  filaments  may  be  more  or 
less  united,  sometimes  forming  a  tube  around 
the  style,  as  in  malvacece  (class  monadelpJi  in)  ; 
sometimes  a  split  tube  with  a  single  detached 
filament,  as  in  leguminoscs  (class  diadelphia) ; 
sometimes  the  tube  is  split  into  several  por 
tions,  forming  clusters  of  stamens  (class  poly- 
adelphia).  The  filaments  may  differ  in  length 
in  the  same  flower,  as  two  short  and  two  long 
(class  didynamia),  or  two  long  and  four  short 
(class  tetradynamia).  The  number  of  stamens 
characterizes  13  classes  of  the  LinnsBan  system, 
which  is  now  wholly  abandoned  by  botanists. 


The  attachment  of  the  anther  to  the  filament 
varies.  Sometimes  the  connective  is  only  a 
prolongation  of  the  filament  (adnate  anther), 
which  may  extend  far  beyond  the  anther,  as  in 
the  oleander.  If  the  filament  joins  the  con 
nective  at  its  centre,  it  may  balance  the  anther 
if  the  connective  is  linear,  in  which  case  the 
anther  is  said  to  be  versatile ;  or  if  the  con 
nective  is  shield-like,  bearing  several  pollen 
lodges  on  its  lower  edge,  it  is  called  peltate. 
Lilies  present  an  example  of  the  first,  and  in 
tulips  the  connective  has  a  funnel-like  hollow 
in  which  the  filament  is  fixed ;  and  the  juniper, 
cypress,  &c.,  show  the  peltate  form.  The  an 
ther  appears  in  the  flower  bud  before  its  fila 
ment  as  a  gland-like  excrescence.  The  two 
cells  on  either  side  the  connective  often  subdi 
vide  into  four ;  but  as  the  development  pro 
gresses  the  septum  disappears  and  the  anther 
becomes  bilocular,  or  even,  by  the  removal 
of  the  connective,  unilocular.  The  lodges  are 
cylindrical,  globose,  ellipsoid,  cordate,  kidney- 
shaped  or  hastate,  or  even,  as  in  the  squash, 
undulating  or  twisted.  The  surface  may  be 
smooth,  or  downy,  fringed,  and  bearded,  as  in 
lobelias.  Anthers  may  be  united  in  the  same 
way  as  the  filaments,  as  in  composite^  (class 
syngcncsia),  or  they  may  be  suppressed  or 
abortive  on  some  of  the  filaments.  From  their 
position  on  the  connective,  they  are  said  to  be 
introrse  when  the  lodges  face  the  style,  or  ex- 
trorse  when  they  are  directed  outward,  which 
is  the  more  common  position.  When  the  pol 
len  is  ripe  the  anther  opens,  either  by  pores  at 
the  base  or  apex  (and  these  pores  are  some 
times  at  the  end  two  tubular  extensions  of  the 
lodges),  as  in  the  potato  and  melastoma ;  or  by 
valves,  as  in  the  barberry ;  or,  what  is  most 
common,  by  clefts  or  sutures  on  the  edge  cor 
responding  to  the  edge  of  the  typical  leaf. 
After  the  discharge  of  the  pollen  the  anther 
collapses,  and,  if  of  a  yellow  or  orange  color 
when  full,  becomes  a  dark  orange-brown. 

ASTHON,  Charles,  LL.  D.,  an  American  clas 
sical  scholar,  born  in  New  York  in  171)7,  died 
there,  July  29,  1867.  His  father,  Dr.  G.  C. 
Anthon,  a  German  by  birth,  was  surgeon  gen 
eral  in  the  British  army,  and  soon  after  the 
revolution  settled  in  Xew  York.  Charles  grad 
uated  at  Columbia  college  in  1815,  and  in  1819 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  The  next  year  he 
was  appointed  adjunct  professor  of  languages 
in  Columbia  college.  In  1830  he  produced  his 
large  edition  of  Horace.  In  that  year,  also, 
he  became  rector  of  the  grammar  school  at 
tached  to  the  college,  and  in  1835  he  sue  ceded 
Prof.  Moore  as  head  of  the  classical  department 
of  that  institution.  For  many  years  it  was  his 
constant  custom  to  retire  at  10  and  rise  at  4,  so 
that  a  large  part  of  his  day's  work  was  done  by 
breakfast  time;  and  thus  he  produced  some  50 
volumes,  consisting  chiefly  of  editions  of  the 
Latin  classics  and  aids  to  classical  study,  and 
including  a  Latin  lexicon  and  a  "Dictionary 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities."  All  his 
works  were  republished  in  England.  When 


548 


ANTHONY 


ANTHRACITE 


first  made'  rector  of  the  grammar  school,  he 
conferred  on  the  public  schools  of  his  native 
city  six  free  scholarships. 

ANTHONY,  Henry  B.,  an  American  journalist  ; 
and  senator,  horn  at  Coventry,  R.  I.,  April  1, 
1815.     He  was  educated  at  Brown  university,  j 
became   in    1838   editor   of    the    ''Providence 
Journal,"  was  governor  of  Rhode  Island  in  1849  j 
and   1850,  and  declined  a  reelection  in  1851. 
In  1859  he  was  elected  United  States  senator  i 
as  a  republican,    succeeding  Philip   Allen,    a  j 
democrat;  was  reflected  in  1864,  and  again  in  j 
1870.     He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Philadelphia  ! 
convention  of  1866,  and  president  pro  tempore 
of  the  senate  for  some  time  in  1869  and  1871. 

ANTHONY,  Saint.  I.  Surnamed  the  Great, 
born  in  Upper  Egypt  in  251,  died  in  356.  He 
was  rich  and  well  educated,  but  sold  all  his 
possessions,  gave  the  money  to  the  poor,  and 
retired  into  the  desert,  where  he  spent  a  great 
many  years  in  ascetic  solitude.  At  the  age  of 
54  he  was  persuaded  to  become  the  director  of 
a  number  of  anchorets  who  wished  to  enjoy 
his  instructions.  They  dwelt  in  detached  cells 
in  Eayoom,  near  Memphis,  and  from  this  estab 
lishment  dates  the  foundation  of  the  monastic 
system.  St.  Anthony  twice  left  his  retreat 
and  visited  Alexandria :  once  during  the  per 
secution  by  Maximian  in  311,  when  he  hoped 
to  obtain  the  crown  of  martyrdom ;  and  again 
in  355,  to  'support  his  friend  Athanasius  against 
the  Arians.  During  his  seclusion  he  is  said  to 
have  neglected  ablutions,  clothed  himself  simply 
in  a  hair  shirt,  and  fought  with  devils.  He 
was  reported  to  have  cured  a  cutaneous  disease 
known  before  his  time  as  the  "sacred  tire," 
but  afterward  as  St.  Anthony's  fire,  and  later 
as  erysipelas.  On  this  tradition  an  order  bear 
ing  his  name  was  founded  (1095)  for  the  care 
of  patients  with  this  disease  by  Gaston,  a  rich 
French  nobleman,  at  St.  Didier-la-Mothe,  in 
gratitude  for  a  supposed  cure  wrought  on  his 
son  by  the  reputed  bones  of  the  saint.  II.  Of 
Padua,  born  in  Lisbon,  Aug.  15,  1195,  died  in 
Padua,  June  13,  1231.  He  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  newly  established  order  of  Fran 
ciscan  monks,  and,  desirous  of  martyrdom, 
embarked  for  Africa,  was  shipwrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Italy,  and  preached  with  wonderful 
eloquence  and  success  in  the  cities  of  Mont- 
pellier,  Toulouse,  Bologna,  and  Padua.  He 
was  canonized  by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  in  1232, 
and  is  honored  especially  in  Portugal  and  Italy. 

ANTHONY,  Susan  Brownell,  an  American  re 
former,  born  in  South  Adams,  Mass.,  Feb.  15, 
1820.  Her  father  was  a  member  of  the  society 
of  Friends.  She  was  employed  in  his  cotton 
factory,  completed  her  education  in  a  school  at 
Philadelphia,  and  from  1837  to  1852  was  a 
teacher  in  the  state  of  New  York.  She  be 
came  interested  in  the  cause  of  temperance, 
and  an  admission  to  a  convention  being  denied 
to  her  on  account  of  her  sex,  she  called  a  conven 
tion  of  women  (1849),  and  since  that  time  has 
been  conspicuous  in  various  philanthropic  and 
reformatory  movements.  She  has  identified 


herself  especially  with  the  agitation  for  female 
suffrage,  in  the  interest  of  which  she  has  visited 
many  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  delivered 
numerous  lectures  and  addresses.  In  1868  she 
founded  in  New  York  a  journal  called  "The 
Revolution,"  which  she  conducted  for  some 
time  in  conjunction  with  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Cady 
Stanton  and  Parker  Pillsbury.  She  has  acted 
on  several  occasions  as  delegate  of  the  New 
York  working  women's  association. 

ANTHRACENE  (C14  ILo),  formerly  called  para- 
naphthaline,  a  solid  hydrocarbon  which  accom 
panies  naphthaline  in  the  last  stages  of  the 
distillation  of  coal  tar,  and  which  has  acquired 
great  importance  as  the  material  from  which 
artificial  alizarine  is  now  manufactured.  In 
an  experiment  made  on  a  large  scale  it  was 
found  that  100  tons  of  tar  yielded  0'63  ton  of 
anthracene,  or  one  ton  of  anthracene  can  be 
obtained  from  the  distillation  of  about  2,000 
tons  of  coal,  not  reckoning  the  quantity  of 
anthracene  contained  in  the  pitch.  The  prep 
aration  of  anthracene  is  conducted  as  follows: 
The  semi-fluid  product  of  the  fractional  distil 
lation  of  coal  tar,  commonly  called  green 
grease,  is  placed  in  a  centrifugal  machine  in 
order  to  expel  mechanically  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  oil,  and  the  residue  is  pressed  between 
hot  plates.  The  crude  material  is  carefully  dis 
tilled,  rejecting  the  portion  which  comes  over 
between  340°  and  350°  C.,  and  the  portion 
remaining  in  the  retort  is  exhausted  with  rec 
tified  petroleum  at  a  boiling  heat,  filtered,  and 
cooled.  The  crystalline  mass  is  expressed  and 
the  entire  operation  repeated  several  times. 
On  recrystallization  from  alcohol,  the  nearly 
pure  anthracene  is  obtained  in  rhomboidal 
plates.  If  these  be  carefully  sublimed,  a  chem 
ically  pure  product  is  obtained.  Pure  anthra 
cene  occurs  in  bluish-white  foliated  crystals, 
having  a  beautiful  violet  fluorescence.  These 
crystals  are  rhomboidal  tables.  A  little  above 
200°  C.  it  melts  to  a  limpid  liquid,  which  be 
comes  rapidly  dark-colored.  It  is  not  per 
ceptibly  volatile  at  100°  C.,  but  between  210° 
and  220°  C.  it  sublimes  easily,  yielding  a  fetid 
and  irritating  vapor.  Distilled  at  350°  C.,  it 
is  partially  altered.  It  is  quite  soluble  in 
boiling  alcohol,  and  in  light  naphthas,  from 
which"  it  crystallizes  out  on  cooling.  Heated 
slightly  with  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  it  dissolves 
gradually,  giving  a  greenish  solution  of  the 
sulphanthracene  acid.  The  green  color  appears 
to  be  due  to  a  trace  of  nitrous  compounds  of 
the  acid.  Nitric  acid  attacks  anthracene  vio 
lently,  and  chlorine  and  bromine  act  upon  it, 
yielding  substitution  products.  Anthracene 
has  been  made  artificially  from  toluole  and 
from  benzole. — The  chief  use  of  anthracene  is 
in  the  artificial  production  of  alizarine.  Sev 
eral  patents  have  been  taken  out  for  this  pur 
pose  by  Grabe  and  Liebermann,  who  were  the 

i  original  discoverers  in  1869  of  the  methods  of 
its  manufacture.     (See  ALIZARINE.) 

ANTHRACITE  (Gr.  avOpadr^  like  coals,  from 

!  avdpaf-,  coal),  the  most  condensed  variety  of 


MAP   OF   THE    AXTHKAriTE    KEGTOX   OF    PENNSYLVANIA 

BY    S.  HARRIES   I)AOD« 


IXHIBITINC    ITS    RELATIONS    TO    THE    PRINCIPAL   MARKETS. 

ENGINEER   OF   MIXES.  &o. 


ANTHRACITE 


mineral  coal,  containing  the  largest  proportion 
of  carbon  and  the  smallest  quantity  of  volatile 
matter.     Excepting  the  diamond,  anthracite  is 
fie  purest  form  of  carbon  in  its  natural  state. 
The  best  specimens  contain  95  per  cent,  car 
bon,  but  the  average  production  of  the  purest 
beds  of  this  coal  will  not  exceed  90  per  cent., 
and  generally  not  more  than  80  to  87  per  cent, 
carbon.     The  volatile  matter  in  the  dense,  hard 
varieties  is  almost  exclusively  water  and  earthy 
impurities,  but  in  common  varieties  the  volatile 
portion  consists  of  water,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  nitrogen ;  while  the  ash  or  incombustible 
matter   contains  oxide  of  iron,   iron  pyrites, 
silica,  alumina,  magnesia,  lime,  &c.    The  grada 
tion  of  anthracite  is  arbitrary;  there  is  no  fixed 
limit  in  the  descending  scale  at  which  anthracite 
becomes  semi-anthracite.    A  coal  containing  80 
per  cent,  carbon  may  be  and  often  is  termed 
anthracite,  while  other  coals  containing  80  per 
cent,  carbon  are  truly  semi-bituminous.     The  ; 
superior  density,  irregular  fracture,  and  general 
appearance   of    anthracite    are    distinguishing  , 
features  to  common  observation ;  while  water  : 
and  ash  take  the  place  of  hydrogen  and  oxy 
gen,   or   bituminous   matter.     But   anthracite  j 
which  contains  only  80  per  cent,  carbon,  with  ' 
20  per  cent,  water  and  incombustible  matter, 
is  the  lowest  grade  of  commercial  coal,  and  of  | 
little  value  as  fuel. — The  constituents  of  an 
thracite,  as  determined  by  ordinary  analyses,  j 
and  generally  published,  are  only  approximate,  i 


They  are  generally  made  from  picked  speci 
mens,  by  many  men  and  many  methods,  each 
giving  widely  diverse  results  even  from  the 

j  same  coal,  and  the  mere  aggregates  of  carbon, 
volatile  matter,  and  ash,  while  the  distinguishing 
features  and  chemical  constituents  are  seldom 
given.  The  change  from  anthracite  to  semi- 
anthracite  is  gradual  and  imperceptible  in  the 
coal  beds  of  the  prominent  anthracite  fields. 
There  is  no  fixed  point  at  which  the  one  ter 
minates  or  the  other  commences.  The  same 
uncertainty  is  manifest  in  all  published  analyses 
of  mineral  coal.  Xo  commonly  adopted  limit 
is  assigned  to  the  various  gradations.  Those 
called  semi-anthracite  in  one  place  are  termed 
anthracite  in  others,  and  vice  versa.  The  same 
indefinite  relations  are  observable  between 
semi-anthracite  and  semi-bituminous,  and  be- 

\  tween  semi-bituminous  and  bituminous  coals ; 

'  while  the  gradations  of  all  carbon  compounds 

;  are  alike  indefinite  and  unsettled,  down  through 
cannel  coal,  bitumen,  asphaltum,  petroleum, 
naphtha,  and  carburetted  hydrogen  gases.  The 

;  uncertainty,  however,  exists  in  the  mean  and 
not  the  extreme  varieties.  Hard,  dense  anthra 
cite  could  not  be  mistaken  for  any  other  class ; 

:  and  while  light,  volatile  semi-anthracite  might 

•  be  readily  termed  semi-bituminous,  it  could  not 
be  mistaken  for  anthracite.  The  following  table 
gives  the  average  aggregate  constituents  of 
the  prominent  varieties  from  the  chief  anthra 
cite  districts  of  the  world : 


ANALYSES    OF    ANTHRACITE. 


LOCALITY. 

1 

By  whom  analyzed,    j 

§  i 

£  -H 
£  "3 

Carbon. 

Volatile 
matter. 

Ashes. 

2-70 
3-30 
2-25 
1-28 
2-90 
6-95 
4-50 
4-30 
7.00 
8-30 

3-66 
G-40 
?1-60 
1-76 
?    -94 
4-57 
? 

9 

6-052 

7-204 

Density. 

1  Color  of 
ashes. 

1 

No. 

li 

0. 
1. 
2. 
B. 
4 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 

10. 

!  !. 
12. 

i:', 

i  I. 
15. 
16. 

Lackawanna.  Carbondale  
Lehigh  District,  Mauch  Chunk 

Rogers1  Reports.  .  .  I 
Olmsted                    1 

E 
E 
E 
E 
E 
M 
E 
B 

9 

B? 

? 
? 
? 

9 
? 
? 

9 

9 

9 

90-23 
90-10 
92-60 
92-30 
92-07 
86-09 
94-10 
85-70 
76-10 
59-25 

85-84 
87-40 
92-42 
86-24 
90-72 
83-54 
94-234 
63-694 
74-372 
84-103 

7-07 
6-60 
5-15 
6-42 

5-03 
6-96 
1-40 

10-00 
16-90 
2-44 
water. 
10-50 
6-20 
5-97 
12-00 
8-34 
6-89 

9 
9 

19-576 
8-693 

1-400 
1-550 
1-553 
1-630 
1-570 
1-460 
l-5(iO 
1-416 
1-350 
1-370 

1-S50 
1-690 

1-870 

9 
9 
9 
? 

Whit*. 
i. 

.1 

Red. 
White. 
Red. 

9 

Pink. 

? 

9 
9 
9 
9 
? 
9 
9 

:    Pink. 
Gray. 

Dr.  J.  Perey  1 

"        Beaver  Meadow  
Pottsville  District,  Tamaqua  
11       Delaware  mines,  mean  of  40  varieties 
"      Mammoth  coal  bed  
West'n  Dist..  Lykens  Valley,  semi-anthracite 
"          '"      Dauphin,  semi-bituminous.  .  .  . 
Virginia,  Price's  Mountain  

Rhode  Island.  Portsmouth  
Massachusetts.  Mansfield  
South  Wales,  hard  anthracite 

Johnson  | 
Rogers1  Reports.   . 
Johnson  
Rogers'   Reports  .  : 
M/C.  Lea  
Johnson  | 
A.  H.  Everett  

Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson  .  i 

De  Schaufhauelt.J 
Taylor 

'•           "        semi-anthracite  

French.  Mayence  
Jurassic.  Lamure  
Russia.  Donetz  
"        Titlis  

Dr.  A.  Fvfe  
M.  V.  Regnault.  .. 
M.  Voskressensky. 

Henry  M.  Smith.. 

New  Mexico.  Santa  Fe.  lignitic  anthracite.. 
Sonora,  Les  Brouces,            "           •  '• 

The  above  table  is  compiled  from  the  best 
available  sources ;  and  though  the  analyses 
are  generally  from  hand  specimens,  and  there 
fore  not  commercially  useful,  they  are  char 
acteristic,  and  indicate  the  chief  constitu 
ents  of  the  prominent  anthracites. — The  an 
thracites  of  Pennsylvania  are  generally  de 
nominated  white-ash  or  red-ash  coals,  but 
the  color  of  the  incombustible  residue  varies 
from  pure  white  to  gray,  rose-pink,  pink,  light- 
red,  brick-red,  and  brown ;  and  this  variation 
of  color  is  as  marked  in  the  ash  of  bituminous 


and  all  intermediate  varieties  of  coal  as  in 
anthracite.  The  color  of  the  ash  is  obtained 
from  the  oxide  of  iron,  and  is  no  criterion  of 
the  character  or  value  of  the  coal,  because 
these  colors  exist,  from  white  to  brown,  in  the 
lowest,  oldest,  and  hardest  anthracite,  as  well 
as  in  the  upper,  latest,  softest,  and  most  volatile 
semi-anthracite  and  bituminous  coals. — The 
nomenclature  proposed  by  Prof.  J.  P.  Lesley 
and  adopted  in  "  Coal,  Iron,  and  Oil,"  the  latest 
standard  work  on  anthracite,  in  which  the  beds 
are  identified  in  the  Pennsylvania  anthracite 


550 


ANTHRACITE 


fields  and  connect 
ed  with  the  bitu 
minous  coal  beds 
of  the  Alleghany 
field,  designates 
the  lowest  work 
able  and  consistent 
bed  as  A  and  the 
highest  as  X.  But 
this  nomenclature 
denotes  series  or 
groups  of  coal 
beds,  rather  than 
single  beds.  Fig. 
1  presents  the  gen 
eral  type  of  the 
Pennsylvania  an 
thracite  strata. 
The  figures  in  the 
column  and  in  con 
nection  with  the 
letters  indicate 
thickness  in  feet. 
A  number  of  small 
unworkable  seams 
are  not  here  repre 
sented.  The  15 
groups  from  A  to 
N  include  30  beds 
above  2  ft.  thick 
and  20  seams  less 
than  2  ft.  This 
mode  of  grouping 
the  beds  in  the  an 
thracite  fields  was 
suggested  by  the 
natural  divisions 
of  massive  sand 
stone  and  con 
glomerate  strata 
in  the  coal  meas 
ures,  and  the  fre 
quency  with  which 
some  of  the  promi 
nent  groups  united 
as  a  single  bed  or 
divided  into  two 
or  three  beds.  In 
the  southern  an 
thracite  field  of 
Pennsylvania  a 
few  imperfect,  ir 
regular,  and  im 
pure  "nests"  or 
pockets,  rather 
than  beds,  of 
graphitic  anthra 
cite  are  occasion 
ally  found  below 
A  ;  but  these  local 
deposits  have  no 
general  horizon, 
and  are  valueless 
for  commercial 
purposes.  Though 
pockets  of  good 


III 


N 


— 'ptN^fO^t 

• 


5 


10 


12 


11 


15 


H 


25  I™ 


10 


FIG.  1. — ANTUKACITE  STRATA 


coal  are  sometimes  found  from  5  to  20  ft,  thick, 
they  vary  to  as  many  inches,  and  do  not  exist 
as  regular  and  consistent  beds.  A  is  usually  a 
small  bed  of  red-ash  coal,  but  two  or  three  thin 
seams  are  frequently  found  in  this  group  which 
|  exist  in  the  conglomerate,  or  close  to  it,  every- 
j  where.  The  coals  of  A  generally  contain  from 
10  to  20  per  cent,  of  earthy  matter,  and  are  sel 
dom  workable.  B  is  generally  a  large  bed  from 
10  to  30  ft.  thick,  but  frequently  two  beds  of  5 
to  10  ft.  each.  The  lower  part  produces  red- 
ash  coal,  and  the  upper  gray  or  pink.  The  coal 
is  excellent,  and  valued  for  blast  furnances, 
though  it  contains  more  silica  than  the  coal  of 
any  other  workable  bed  higher  in  the  measures. 
C  is  usually  a  group  of  small  unworkable  beds, 
producing  white  or  gray-ash  coals.  D  is  a 
single  bed  of  pure  white-ash  coal,  generally 
from  5  to  10  ft.  thick.  E  is  the  celebrated 
mammoth,  which  is  a  single  bed  from  20  to  70 
ft,  thick  in  some  localities,  and  a  group  of  two 
and  three  in  others.  The  coal  is  always  of  the 
white-ash  variety,  and  is  hard,  dense,  pure,  and 
lustrous.  Fully  eight  tenths  of  the  present 
anthracite  production  is  from  this  group.  F 
is  composed  of  two  small  beds  of  white-ash 
coal,  and  is  not  of  much  value ;  it  is  oi'ten 
known  as  the  "  rough  vein."  G  is  generally  a 
large  bed  from  7  to  10  ft.  thick,  and  always  a 
single  one,  though  the  lower  stratum  produces 
white-ash  and  the  upper  pink  or  gray-ash.  It 
'  is  locally  known  as  the  gray-ash  or  primrose 
vein,  and  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
Pittsburgh  bed  in  the  bituminous  field.  All 
the  workable  beds,  from  A  to  G  inclusive,  pro 
duce  blast  furnace  coal ;  but  the  coals  of  the 
beds  frc-m  G  to  N  are  less  dense  and  contain 
less  carbon  and  more  volatile  matter  than  the 
lower  coals,  and  crumble  under  a  high  temper 
ature.  They  are  therefore  not  used  for  steam 
|  and  furnace  purposes  generally,  but  are  much 
valued  for  household  uses,  excepting  large  fur- 
|  nace  heaters.  They  evolve  an  intense  heat,  and 
•  are  free-burning,  but  will  often  "clinker"  un- 
i  der  a  strong  draught.  In  the  preceding  analyt 
ical  table  the  highest  percentage  of  carbon  is 
1)4*10  (No.  6),  which  is  a  hand  specimen  from 
the  mammoth  bed,  E,  in  the  Pottsville  district ; 
but  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  mammoth 
coals  of  the  Lehigh  district  are  equally  as  pure 
and  generally  more  dense  than  any  other  an 
thracite.  The  average,  therefore,  of  Nos.  1,  2, 
3,  4,  and  6  -will  give  the  mean  of  the  hardest 
and  purest  anthracite;  while  No.  5  (M)  is  a 
type  of  the  upper  coals,  and  approaches  the 
limit  of  the  true  anthracite,  as  shown  by  7  and 
8,  which  are  semi-anthracite  and  semi-bitumi 
nous.  The  density  and  hardness  of  the  coal  de 
crease  from  A  to  N  in  the  ascending  order,  while 
the  volatile  matter  increases  from  N  to  A  in 
the  descending  order ;  and  the  proportions  of 
carbon  increase  and  decrease  in  the  same  ratio 
and  order.  The  coals  of  the  lower  beds  are 
most  hard  and  dense.  The  middle  beds  pro 
duce  the  purest  coal,  and  the  coal  of  the  upper 
i  beds  is  most  soft  and  friable  under  heat.  The 


ANTHRACITE 


551 


same  description  would  apply  to  the  general 
decrease  of   carbon   and   increase  of  volatile 
matter  in  these  coal  beds  from  east  to  west.  ! 
There  is  a  gradual  decrease  also  in  the  dimen 
sions  of  the  beds  in  the  same  direction.     The 
same  gradual  change  from  hard  anthracite  to 
semi-anthracite  and  bituminous  is  as  marked  a 
feature  in  the  South  Wales 
(English)    coal    fields   as 
in  the  Pennsylvania  coal 
fields.     The  general  fea 
tures    and    fractures    of 
hard  anthracite  are  pecu 
liar  and  noticeable  to  the 
common  observer.    They 
are  massive,  hard,  dense, 
amorphous  or  conchoidal 
in    fracture,    with    fine, 
sharp    edges   when   bro 
ken,  and  a  rich  satin  or 
an  iron-black  sub-metal 
lic   lustre.      With    some 
local  exceptions,  the  soft 
er  varieties,  both  red  and 
white-ash,  are  less  mas 
sive,    hard,    and    dense, 
more  regular  and  cubical 
in  fracture,   and,    exclu 
sive  of  the  upper  red-ash 
beds,   less  rich  and   lus 
trous. —  The     prominent        '^  f."ffl  5 
anthracite  fields   of   the         £<j  tH  < 
world  are  those  of  Penn 
sylvania  and  South  Wales, 
which       produce       nine 
tenths    of    the    quantity 
used.    The  developed  coal 
fields  of  the  world  em-         s-J       1\\       <5 
brace  an   area  of  about        ^        £3  .:  5       §• 
350,000  sq.  m.,  of  which                   EfP'/       I 
over  300,000  are  in  the                   \v\|  | 
United   States,  exclusive 
of  lignite.      (See  COAL.) 
About  2,000  sq.  m.  of  this 
entire   area   contain   an 
thracite,  of  which  half  is 
in  the  United  States,  in 
cluding     the     somewhat 
doubtful    New    England 
coal   fields.      The    entire 
coal    production    of   the 
world   in    1871  was  be 
tween  225  and  250  mil 
lion  tons,  of  which  Eng 
land   produced    110  mil 
lions     and     the     United 
States  41  millions.   About 
20  millions  of  the  entire 
amount    was   anthracite, 
of  which  15  million  tons 
were  produced  in  Penn 
sylvania,  and  the  remain 
der  in  South  Wales,  France,  and  other  conn- 
tries.— The  South  Whales  coal  field  lies  on  the 
northwest  of  the   Bristol  channel,   extending 
from  St.  Bride's  bay  in  the  east  to  Pontypool 


in  the  west,  a  distance  of  90  m.,  with  a  maxi 
mum  breadth  of  00  m.  Its  mean  breadth  is 
less  than  20  m.,  presenting  an  area  of  about 
1,500  sq.  m.,  of  which  only  1,000  contain  work 
able  coal  beds.  It  is  divided  by  an  axis  parallel 
to  its  strike,  and  divided  also  into  numerous 
intermediate  basins,  while  the  measures  undu 
late  both  from  E.  to  W.  and  from  N.  to  S.  The 
deepest  part  of  the  field  is  supposed  to  be  8,000 
ft.  Most  of  the  mining  has  been  done  by 
"drifts,"  and  but  few  shafts  had  been  sunk  to 
any  great  depth  up  to  186-i.  Twenty-three 
workable  seams  exist  in  the  principal  basins, 
averaging  altogether  92  ft.  of  coal.  Of  these, 
12  are  from  3  to  9  ft.  thick,  and  11  from  18  in. 
to  3  ft.  Besides  these  there  are  numerous 
smaller  seams  from  6  to  18  in.  thick.  On  the 
N".  side  of  the  field  the  coal  is  anthracite  in 
character,  and  resembles  the  anthracites  of 
Pennsylvania,  though  generally  containing  more 
hydrogen  or  volatile  matter ;  on  the  E.  or  N.  E. 
the  coal  is  semi-bituminous,  and  is  used  exten 
sively,  both  raw  and  coked,  in  the  blast  furna 
ces  of  the  region.  On  the  S.  side  the  coal  is  of 
a  bituminous  character.  The  change  from  an 
thracite  to  semi-bituminous  and  bituminous  is 
gradual,  and  much  the  same  in  its  metamorphic 
phases  as  we  find  existing  in  the  coal  fields  of 
Pennsylvania.  There  are  1 6  thin  seams  of  iron 
stone  interstratified  with  the  coal ;  the  general 
yield  of  this  ore  is  nqt  over  30  per  cent,  of 
metal  in  the  furnace.  The  coal  production  of 
South  Wales  in  1854  was  8,550,270  tons ;  of  this 
amount  only  1,000,000  tons  was  anthracite, 
the  total  being  the  products  of  245  collieries. 
— The  anthracites  of  Pennsylvania  exist  in  four 
parallel  coal  fields,  in  the  counties  of  Schuyl- 
kill,  Carbon,  Columbia,  Northumberland,  and 
Luzerne,  embracing  an  area  of  470  sq.  m. 
Within  these  fields  numerous  parallel  basins  or 
synclinal  troughs  are  formed  by  the  peculiar 
undulations  of  the  strata,  which  dip  at  every 
angle  from  horizontal  to  perpendicular.  Fig.  2 
represents  the  general  grouping  of  the  principal 
basins  of  the  southern  Pennsylvania  anthracite 
field,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  middle  field, 
without  reference  to  local  peculiarities  and 
abrupt  dips. 

PENNSYLVANIA    ANTHRACITE    FIELDS. 
"Wyoming  or  Northern  Coal  Field 19S  sq.  m. 

Lackawanna  Region 

Wyoming  Keg-ion 

Middle  or  Second  Coal  Field 91      " 

Shamokin  Region 

Mahanoy  Region 

Lehigh  Coal  Field 37     " 

Hazleton  Basin 

Beaver  Meadow 

Big  and  Little  Black  Creek 

Lower  Black  Creek 

Green  Mountain  and  other  smal 

basins 

Southern  or  Schuylkill  Coal  Field 146 

Lehigh  Region  (E.  extremity)  . . . 

Pottsville  Lykens  Valley  Region.. 

Middle  Region  (semi-anthracite)... 

Dauphin  Region  (semi  -bituminous) 


100  sq.  m. 

93  " 

50  " 

41  " 

10  " 

8  " 

9  " 
5     " 


Total 


16 

99 
16 
15 

470 


Coal  was  discovered  in  the  Wyoming  valley 
soon  after  its  settlement,  but  the  first  authentic 


552 


ANTHRACITE 


account  which  we  find  of  the  use  of  anthracite  | 
in  the  United  States  was  in  !768-'9,  when  it 
was  used  by  two  blacksmiths  from  Connecticut  . 
named  Gore.      One   of  these   brothers,   Jude  | 
Obadiah  Gore,  related  the  facts  to  Judge  Jesse 
Fell  of  Wilkesbarre,  who  subsequently  commu 
nicated  them  to  Silliman's  "  Journal  "  and  Haz 
ard's  "Register."     In  1776  coal  was  quarried  j 
from  the  Baltimore  bed  near  Wilkesbarre  and 
the  Smith  mine  near  Plymouth,  and  taken  down 
the  Susquehanna  in  arks  to  the  government 
arsenal  at  Carlisle.     This  trade  was  continued 
during  the  revolutionary  war,  and  anthracite  ! 
was  used  by  the  blacksmiths  and  gunsmiths  of  j 
the  lower  Susquehanna  from  that  time  forth;  I 
but  from  the  difficulty  of  making  it  burn  it  | 
was  not  used  for  domestic  purposes  till  1808, 
when  Judge  Fell  succeeded  in  burning  "stone 
coal "  in  a  grate  of  his  own  construction.     An 
thracite  was  sold  in  the  vicinity  of  Wilkesbarre 
to  the  smiths  at  $3  a  ton,   and   in  Marietta, 
on  the  lower  Susquehanna,  at  $8  to  $9  a  ton 
from  1810  to   1814.     This  was  probably  the 
first  successful  use  of  anthracite  for   general 
purposes  in  the  world.     The  earliest  record  of 
the  production  of  anthracite  in  France,  as  given 
by  Taylor,  is  in  1814;  while  Mr.  Blakewell,  an 
English  geologist,  says  the  Welsh  coals  were 
"inferior"  and  not  used  for  domestic  purposes 
in  1813,  and  but  "little  used"  in  1828.— The 
northern  or  Wyoming  coal  field  is  naturally  di 
vided  into  two  regions,  the  Lackawanna  and 
the  AVyoming,  and  these  into  several  districts. 
The  Lackawanna  region  includes  the  districts 
on  the  Lackawanna  creek,  which  empties  into 
the  Susquehanna  at  Pittston.     The  districts  are 
the  old  or  original  Lackawanna,  at  and  around 
Carbondale,  the    Scranton,  and  the    Pittston. 
Around  these  centres  the  early  developments 
of  the  Lackawanna  region  were  made,  and  j 
collieries  clustered.     The  Carbondale  district  | 
was  opened  in  1829  by  the  Delaware  and  Hud 
son  company's  canal  and  railroad ;  the  Scran- 
ton  district  by  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and 
Western  railroad,  in  1854;    and  the  Pittston  | 
district  by  the  Susquehanna  canal  in  1843,  and  j 
the  Pennsylvania  coal  company's  railroad   in 
1850.      The  production  of   the   Wyoming   or 
northern  coal  field  in  1871  was  6,481,171  tons. 
Of  this  amount  2,867,598  tons  was  sent  from 
the  Wyoming  region,  and  3,613,573  from  the 
Lackawanna.     There  are  now  (1873)  nine  rail-  | 
roads  and  two  canals  employed  in  transporting  j 
coal  from  these  regions.     The  coal  beds  in  the  j 
Wyoming  portion  extend  to  K  (fig.  1),  but  in  the  j 
Lackawanna  the  number  is  less,  extending  only 
to  II  or  I.     The  coal  of  the  entire  field  is  an 
thracite. — The   first   or   southern  and   middle 
anthracite  fields  are  the  next  in  size  and  im 
portance,  and  in  order  of  development.     Their 
topography  and  geology  differ  materially  from 
the  northern  field,   as  shown  by  fig.  2  from 
Lesley.     The  valleys  in  which  the  coal  exists 
are  comparatively  narrow,  while  both  anticli- 
nals  and  synclinals  and  the  strata  of  the  meas- 
•ures  are  more  abrupt  than  those  of  the  former. 


This  field  terminates  in  the  east  on  the  Lehigh 
river,  in  a  single  point  or  synclinal  trough.  In 
the  west  are  two  terminal  points  or  prongs, 
which  are  wide  apart  at  their  extremities  near 
the  Susquehanna.  Its  extreme  length  is  73  m. 
to  the  end  of  the  Dauphin  or  south  fork,  and 
10  m.  less  by  the  Lykens  Valley  or  north  fork. 
Its  mean  breadth  is  2  m.,  and  its  maximum,  at 
Pottsville,  5  m.  The  number  of  coal  beds  is 
greater  in  this  than  in  any  of  the  other  anthra 
cite  fields.  The  coal  of  the  E.  end  is  hard  an 
thracite  ;  of  the  Lykens  Valley  fork,  semi-an 
thracite;  and  of  Dauphin  fork,  semi-biturninous. 
The  middle  anthracite  field  is  divided  longitu 
dinally  by  the  Locust  mountain  anticlinal,  over 
which  the  coal  beds  connect  at  several  points. 
It  is  divided  into  two  regions.  The  Mahanoy  re 
gion  is  25  in.  long,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  nearly 
2  m.  Its  basins  are  narrow  and  deep,  and  the 
strata  abrupt.  The  Shamokin  or  northern  part, 
not  shown  in  fig.  2,  is  20  m.  long,  with  a  mean 
breadth  of  2^  m.  The  basins  are  wider,  of  lens 
depth,  and  the  strata  of  less  inclination,  than 
the  former.  The  highest  bed  in  this  field  is  K. 
The  coal  is  generally  anthracite,  except  at  the 
W.  extremity,  where  it  is  semi-anthracite.  The 
earliest  records  we  find  of  the  existence  of  coal 
in  the  southern  and  middle  coal  fields  are 
those  on  Soul's  map  of  Pennsylvania  and  Fa- 
den's  "Atlas  of  North  America"  (1810-'17). 
The  first  discovery  for  practical  purposes,  how 
ever,  was  made  in  1791  by  a  hunter  named 
Philip  Ginter  on  the  Lehigh  end  of  the  south 
ern  coal  field,  and  on  the  site  of  the  since  fa 
mous  Lehigh  coal  quarry  at  Summit  Hill.  In 
the  following  year  the  "Lehigh  Coal  Mine 
Company "  was  formed  by  Robert  Morris,  J. 
Anthony  Morris,  Cist,  Weist,  Hillegas,  and 
others,  who  secured  6,000  acres  of  land  and 
opened  the  quarry  the  same  year  (1792)  to  test 
the  character  and  value  of  the  coal.  In  1798 
a  charter  was  obtained  by  this  company  for  a 
sluice  navigation  on  the  Lehigh,  and  in  1803 
six  arks  with  600  tons  of  coal,  from  the  Sum 
mit  Hill  quarry,  were  started  down  the  river ; 
but  only  two,  with  less  than  100  tons  each, 
reached  Philadelphia.  The  city  authorities 
purchased  the  coal  to  supply  a  steam  engine 
used  at  the  water  works,  then  in  Broad  street; 
but  it  could  not  be  made  to  burn,  probably 
because  it  was  tried  in  large  lumps,  and  was 
broken  up  to  gravel  the  walks  of  the  grounds. 
In  1806  another  ark  load  was  taken  to  Phila 
delphia  with  no  better  success.  It  appears, 
however,  from  a  brief  account  of  "The  Dis 
covery  of  Anthracite  on  the  Lehigh,"  in  the 
memoirs  of  the  historical  society  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  written  by  Dr.  T.  C.  James  of  Phila 
delphia,  who  had  visited  the  mines,  that  he  had 
commenced  using  stone  coal  in  the  winter  of 
1804,  and,  having  laid  in  a  supply  from  this  and 
the  former  cargoes,  continued  to  use  it  to  the  day 
of  publication  in  1826.  About  this  time  (1800) 
William  Morris,  whose  mines  were  near  Port 
Carbon,  Schuylkill  county,  took  a  load  of  coal 
to  Philadelphia,  but  did  not  succeed  in  selling 


ANTHRACITE 


553 


or  bringing  his  new  "stone  fuel"  into  notice,  j 
In  1814  two  arks  of  coal  reached  Philadelphia, 
of  five  which  were  started  from  the  mines,  and  , 
these  two  cargoes  were  sold  to  Messrs.  "White  and 
Hazard  at  the  Schuylkill  Falls  wire  manufac 
tory,  at  $21  per  ton.     But  previously,  in  1812,  j 
Col.  George  Shoemaker  of  Pottsville  had  taken  ; 
nine  wasron  loads  of  coal  from  his  mines  at  ; 
Centreville,    near   Pott.^ville,  to  Philadelphia, 
and  had  disposed  of  two  loads  at  the  cost  of  ; 
transportation  to  these  gentlemen,  who  desired 
to  succeed  in  using  it  at   their  manufactory,  j 
Mr.  "White  and  his  firemen  spent  half  a  day  in  : 
the  attempt  to  burn  it  without  success.     At  j 
noon  they  closed  the  furnace  doors  and  went  j 
to  their  dinner  in  disgust  with  "stone  coal;" 
but  on  their  return  they  were  astonished  to 
find  the  doors  red-hot  and  the  furnace  in  dan 
ger  of  melting.     Since  then  anthracite  has  been  | 
a  desirable  and  eminently  available  fuel  for  all  j 
purposes.     Col.  Shoemaker,  however,  had  dis-  ' 
posed  of  the  other  seven  loads  to  others  who 
did  not   succeed    in  making  the   coal    burn, 
though  this  was  the  free-burning  red-ash  vari 
ety,  and  they  obtained  a  writ  from  the  city 
authorities  for  his  arrest  as  an  impostor  and 
swindler,  who  had  sold  them  rocks  for  coal.   The 
Lehigh  navigation  was  improved  in  1820,  and 
during  that  year  365  tons  of  anthracite — which 
heads  the  column  of  the  trade — was  sent  to  Phil 
adelphia  and  sold  at  $8  50  a  ton.     From  this 
time  the  anthracite  trade  has  steadily  increased. 
Previous  to  1847  most  of  the  Lehigh  coal  was 
obtained  from  the  open  quarry  in  the  mammoth 
or  E  bed  (not  an  accumulation  of  beds,  as  is 
generally  supposed),  on  the  spot  where  the  coal 
was  first  discovered.     In  1847  about  2,000,000 
tons  had  been  sent  from  this  quarry,  and  30  to 
40  acres  had  been  excavated  from  the  bed,  which 
is  here  50  ft.  thick.     Since  this  date  the  quarry 
method  has  been  abandoned  for  regular  mining 
operations  by  tunnels  and  slopes.     The  original 
"Coal  Mine  Company"  leased  in  1817  their 
whole  property  and  privileges  to  Messrs.  White, 
Hazard,  and  company,  for  20  years,  at  an  an-  | 
nual  rental  of  one  ear  of  corn !   but  they  were 
bound  to  deliver  for  their  own  benefit  40,000 
bushels  of  coal  annually  in  Philadelphia.    These 
gentlemen  formed  their  interests  into  a  stock 
company — the  "Lehigh  Coal  Company" — and 
also  organized  the  Lehigh  navigation  company, 
afterward  incorporated  as  the  Lehigh  navigation 
and  coal  company,  and  subsequently  changed  to 
the  Lehigh  coal  and  navigation  company.     The 
stock  of  the  old  coal  mine  company  was  bought  > 
up   by   the   new    organization.      At   first   the 
shares,  representing  50th  parts  of  the  whole 
property,  were  bought  at  $150  each ;    the  last  j 
brought  $2,000.     The  number  of  tons  shipped  | 
by  the  Lehigh  canal  in  1871  was  740,630,  and  the  i 
total  amount  by  canal  from  the  commencement  j 
of  the  trade  is  26,139,540  tons,  of  which,  how-  i 
ever,  a  considerable  portion  was  mined  in  other 
regions.     The  Schuylkill  canal  was  projected  I 
in  1814,  and  so  far  completed  in    1822  that  j 
1,480  tons  were  shipped  over  it  to  Philadelphia,  i 


Since  then  28, 700,015  tons  have  passed  through 
it,  of  which  1,010,171  tons  were  shipped  in  1871. 
The  first  railway  built  in  the  United  States,  ex 
cept  one  of  three  miles  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  was 
a  gravity  road  from  the  Lehigh  quarry  at  Sum 
mit  Hill  to  the  canal  at  Mauch  Chunk,  a  dis 
tance  of  9^  m.  This  was  used  from  1827  to 
1872  for  the  transportation  of  anthracite;  but 
on  the  completion  of  the  Nesquehoning  tun 
nel  through  the  Locust  mountain  the  old  gravity 
line  was  abandoned  as  a  coal  road,  and  is  now 
devoted  to  pleasure  excursions,  for  which  it 
has  long  been  famous  on  account  of  the  novelty 
of  the  ride  and  the  picturesque  grandeur — 
sometimes  beauty — of  the  rapidly  changing 
scenes.  The  view  from  the  top  of  Mt.  Pisgah, 
which  towers  over  the  waters  of  the  Lehigh, 
is  remarkably  wild  and  grand.  The  numerous 
railroads  built  as  feeders  to  the  Lehigh  and 
Schuylkill  canals  and  the  principal  trunk  lines 
will  be  found  in  an  accompanying  table.  The 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  railroad,  opened  from 
Pottsville  to  Philadelphia  in  1841,  had  trans 
ported  62,128,735  tons  of  anthracite  up  to  1872, 
of  which  4,584,450  tons  were  shipped  during 
1871.  The  Lehigh  Valley  railroad  was  opened 
from  Mauch  Chunk  to  East  on  in  1853,  and  trans 
ported  2,889,074  tons  in  1871,  and  a  total  of 
22,981,252  since  its  completion.  This  line  has 
since  been  extended  through  the  Wyoming 
valley  and  into  th*  state  of  Xew  York,  on  the 
line  of  the  Susquehanna  river.  The  Lehigh  and 
Susquehanna  railroad,  opened  from  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  Lehigh  into  the  Wyoming 
region  in  1846,  was  extended  to  Easton  as  a 
great  trunk  line  in  1867,  and  during  the  next 
year  1,058,054  tons  were  transported  over 
it.  The  term  "Lehigh  coal  region"  originally 
designated  only  that  portion  of  the  southern 
anthracite  field  which  extended  from  Tamaqua 
on  the  Little  Schuylkill  to  the  Lehigh  river ; 
but  since  the  completion  of  the  Beaver  Meadow 
and  Hazleton  feeders  to  the  main  line  of 
canal  the  name  has  been  applied  to  all  the 
small  middle  basins,  of  which  there  are  six, 
though  three  of  these — the  Little,  Big,  and 
Lower  Black  Creek  basins — are  on  a  tributary 
of  the  Susquehanna,  and  cannot  properly  be 
termed  Lehigh  basins.  They  produce  a  hard, 
dense,  amorphous  coal,  resembling  the  original 
Lehigh  coal  in  both  feature  and  character. 
The  geology  of  these  small  basins  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  E.  end  of  the  southern  and  middle 
anthracite  fields.  They  are  long,  narrow,  canoe- 
like  troughs,  nearly  parallel  in  strike  with  them 
selves,  and  with  the  larger  fields  to  the  south, 
north,  and  east.  The  upper  productive  coal 
bed  in  these  small  basins  is  E.  Xo.  3  in  the 
preceding  analytical  table  represents  the  gen 
eral  type  of  these  basins.  The  small  percent 
age  of  ash,  however,  is  an  exception. — The 
number  of  collieries  in  these  anthracite  regions 
in  1871  was  437,  and  their  entire  production,  in 
cluding  home  consumption  (not  in  the  tables), 
was  17,000,000  tons  ;  and  52,227  men  and  boys 
were  employed  in  and  about  the  mines. 


554: 


ANTHRACITE 


TABLE     OP     ANTHRACITE     PRODUCTION    IN    PENNSYLVANIA. 
(From  Bannan  and  Ramsey's  "Coal  Trade  Statistical  Register.") 


YEARS. 

Schuylkill. 

Wyoming  and 
Lackawanna. 

Lehigh. 

Lykens  Valley. 

Shainokin. 

Trevorton. 

Aggregate. 

18°fl 

365 

365 

1821 

1  073 

1  073 

1  48') 

2  240 

3  720 

1823 

1  '128 

5.823 

6,951 

1S24 

1  5(57 

9,541 

11.108 

6  500 

28  393 

84,893 

18''(> 

1  6  707 

81  280 

48,047 

1S'?7 

31  360 

3l>  074 

63434 

4"  >->Sl 

30  232 

77  516 

1829 

7'J  '173 

7000 

25  110 

112083 

1^30 

186.059 

8V>  (i84 

7,000 
43  000 

166.131 

41  750 

359.190 
174  734 

1831 

81  854 

54  000 

40  906 

170  820 

1832  
1833 

209,271 

20''  971 

84.600 
111  777 

70,000 
123  000 

363.871 

487.748 

1834 

22(5  6:)2 

43  700 

106  1>44 

87(5  636 

1835 

339  5(18 

90  000 

131.250 

560,758 

183(5  

432,045 

103.861 

148,211 

084.117 

5'*3  15'' 

115387 

223  M02 

802441 

1^38 

433875 

78207 

213  615 

725097 

1839 

442  008 

122  300 

221,025 

11,930 

797,863 

1S40 

8,218,019 
4,~y>  ••")! 

846,832 

148  470 

1.319,963 

2^5318 

11,930 
15505 

5,210,685 

841  584 

1841 

585542 

192  270 

143  037 

21.463 

932  312 

1842  

184-3 

541,504 

077  312 

252,599 
285,605 

272.546 
267  793 



10.000 
10  000 

1,070.049 
1  240  710 

1844 

840373 

365  911 

377.002 

13,087 

1,596.453 

1845 

1  (183  796 

451  836 

429453 

10,000 

1  975,085 

184(5 

1  •''36582 

518389 

517116 

12572 

2  284  659 

1847 

1  583  374 

583067 

633.507 

14,904 

2  814.852 

1848 

1  052  835 

685196 

670321 

19,356 

3027708 

1849 

1  005  120 

732910 

781  656 

25325 

19650 

3  164  661 

1850  
1;?51  

10.258,740 
1,712,007 
2.229,426 

'4,216,253 

827,823 
1,156,167 

4,317.749 
690.456 
964,224 

,      25.325 
87.763 
54.200 

146.937 
19,921 
24,899 



18.954.678 

3,287,970 
4,428,916 

1S52  
1853  

2.450,950 
2.470.943 

1,284,500 
1  475  732 

1,072,136 
1,054.309 

59.857 
69.007 

25,846 
15.500 

4,893.289 
5,086.391 

1854 

2.895,208 

1  603  478 

1,207,186 

107500 

63,  500 

5,876  S72 

1855 

331S  555 

1  771  511 

1  284113 

1  1  7  i?21 

116  117 

6  607  517 

1856  
1&57  

1853 

3.25S.356 
2.9»5.541 
2  ^66  449 

1,972.581 
1.952.603 

2  186  094 

1.351,970 
1,318.541 
1  380  030 

102.926 
121.739 
I9  7  815 

210,518 
266,517 
242579 

78,112 
110,711 
106686 

6,896,351 
6,044.941 
6  802  967 

1859  

3,004,953 

2,731,236 

1,628,311 

138,712 

305,043 

124,290 

7.808,255 

1860... 
1861 

27.192,388 
3!270.51  6 
2  697,489 

16,961,725 
2.941,817 
8  055  140 

11,951,276 

1,821,674 
1  738  377 

936,770 

178.860 
172380 

1,291,040 
800.256 
290928 

414,799 
90,148 
49  477 

58.333,469 
8,513.123 
7  954.314 

1862 

2  890  598 

3  145  770 

1  351  054 

177  1'71 

864865 

63  223 

7  869403 

1863  
1864  

3,433.265 
3  642.218 

3.759,610 
3  960  836 

1,894,713 
2  054  669 

141.282 
129  973 

837.136 

889779 

62,200 
56  301 

9,566,006 
10177475 

1865 

3  735  802 

3  955  658 

1  822  535 

186900 

484,257 

27  095 

9  485  152 

1866  
1867  

4.633,487 
4  334.820 

4.736.616 
5  328  322 

2,128,867 
2  062  446 

219,913 
293  036 

610,809 
533815 

53.648 
48  118 

13,829.692 
12,552,489 

1868 

4414356 

5  990  813 

2  507582 

380  383 

911  787 

88728 

13  834  132 

1869  

4,748,969 

6,068369 

1  929,523 

384749 

974  015 

45612 

13051.747 

1870.. 

37.801,521 
0.720.403 

42.243,951 

7,554,909 

19,311,440 

2  990  878 

8,151.352 

453818 

4,897,391 
1  025  515 

534,550 

67847 

106.883.488 
15  274,029 

1871 

5,124.780 

6481,171 

2,249  356 

481  328 

1  1>13  096 

14  965  501 

Totals  

87,501,909 

78,308,841 

42,306,793 

4,121,843 

8,585,909 

219,981,040 

CANALS    BOLT    EXCLUSIVELY     OR     CHIEFLY   FOR 
THE    TRANSPORTATION    OF    ANTHRACITE. 

CAPITAL    INVESTED    IN   MINING  AND   TRANSPORT 
ING    ANTHRACITE. 

Coal  lands,  300,000  acres,  at  $250  per  acre  $75.000.000 
Collieries,  437,  average  $100.000  each  43.700.000 
Canals,  673  m..  average  cost  $70,000  per  mile.  .  .       47.000,000 
Railroads,  2,290  m.  single  track,  $56,000  pr.  m.  .  .     128,000,000 

NAMES.                                 Lc°£/n 

Cost. 

Schnvlkill  Navigation                                 103 

$13,207.752 
4,455,000 
2,438.850 
2,000.000 
7.164.420 
6.907.850 
4,857.104 
7,000,000 
512,000 

Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  43 
Delaware  Division  i       60 

Total                                                            ..    $293,700,000 

—The  New  England  anthracite  field,  embracing 
the  Portsmouth  basin  in  Rhode  Island  and  its 
continuation,  the  Mansfield  basin  in  Massachu 
setts,  is  greater  in  area  than  all  the  Pennsyl 
vania  anthracite  fields,  but  its  value  for  com 
mercial  purposes  bears  no  comparison.      The 

"Wyoming  Valley                                            64 

Delaware  and  Hudson  103 

Union                                                      :      77 

Susquehanna  and  Tide-  water  ...         i      45 

Pennsylvania  ....                           i     151 

Wicinisco           .                                              12 

Total  673 

$47,537,476 

ANTHRACITE 


555 


RAILROADS    BUILT    EXCLUSIVELY    OR    MAINLY    FOR    THE    TRANSPORTATION    OF    ANTHRACITE. 


LENGTH   IN   MILES. 

Cost. 

NAMES.                                                                                  Sidings 
and 
Brandies. 

Double 
Track. 

Main 
Track. 

Philadelphia  and  Reading:  (total  length,  including  leased  lines,  1,2(50  m.)  i     153 

151 

85 
32 
75 

&<% 

9 

15 

:::: 

3% 
29 

7 
2^ 
47 

"5" 

260 

115 
45 
105 
16i£ 
6 
101 
75 
S3 
104 
45 
7 
2S 
3% 
2.) 
1 
*-% 
100 
54 
11 
28 
5# 

I3S.677.075 
IS  S25.000 
3384.306 
12.041,781 
U52.'J63 
160,500 
19.230.730 
8,000.000 
8.000.000 
5.231.8S3 
1,850,600 
891,608 
416J87 
323.375 
3,905.600 
208,259 
282,815 
2.000,000 
1,2S3.490 
576.640 
1,569.450 
160.500 

Lehi<Th  and  ^u^qnclnnna                                                                                                :        8% 

*  Central  Railway  of  \e\v  Jersey  (approximated}  ? 

*  Morris  and  Kss'ex  (approximated)  ? 

Danville   HazletO'i  and  Wilke*barre                                                                                     2% 

Little  SchuylkMll                              19 

Mill  Creek'and  Mine  Hill                                                                                                             9 

Mine  Hill  and  Schuvlkill  Haven  ;     100 

Mount  Carbon         "                          .    .                                         2 

Mount  Carbon  and  Port  Carbon                                                                                            Qi^" 

Pennsylvania  Coal  Company's  Eailroad  10 
Schuvlkill  and  Susquehanna  .         9 

Schuvlkill  Valley  Navigation  Railroad     .         .                                                                    3 

Shaniokin  Valley  and   Potts  ville  41^ 

McC'auley  Mountain  Eailroad  

Totals  520X 

538%  j  1,231& 

$128.167,912 

general  formation  of  the  beds  resembles  that  of  j 
the  lower  irregular  beds  or  pockets  in  the  south-  j 
ern  Pennsylvania  field  below  A ;    and  the  im-  I 
pure,  graphitic   character  of  the   coal   is   the  ; 
same.    In  both  the  coal  exists  in  "nests  "  rather  j 
than  beds,  sometimes  10  and  even  20  ft.  thick,  | 
but  often  not  as  many  inches,  and  frequently  j 
they  disappear  entirely.     In  the  Pennsylvania  j 
anthracite  fields  the  palaeozoic  sedimentary  stra-  I 
ta,  between  the  coal  measures  and  the  igneous  | 
rocks,  are  between  5  and  7  m.  in  thickness;  | 
while  the  sedimentary  strata  below  the  New  I 
England  field  are  comparatively  thin,  and  so 
highly  crystallized  or  metamorphosed  by  heat 
as  to  have  been  mistaken  by  the  early  geologists 
for  the  gneissic  rocks.     Dr.  Edward  Hitchcock, 
however,  maintains  that  the  whole  region,  em 
bracing  not  less  than  500  sq.  m.,  is  a  true  coal 
field,  which  has  experienced  more  than  ordi 
nary  metamorphic  action  both  mechanical  and 
chemical.     lie  says:    "The  mechanical  forces 
seem  to  have  operated  on  the  strata  containing 
the  coal  in  a  lateral  direction,  so  as  not  only  to  I 
raise  them  into  highly  inclined  positions,  but  also 
to  produce  plaits  or  folds.  .  .  .  The  chemical 
metamorphoses  which  these  rocks  have  experi 
enced  consist   mainly  in  such  effects  as  heat 
would  produce."    Prof.  Silliman,  Prof.  Jackson, 
and  Dr.  Hitchcock  have  given  favorable  opin 
ions  in  regard  to  the  probable  future  produc 
tiveness  of  this  field  and  the  commercial  value 
of  the  coal.     The  developed  coal  beds  are  three 
in  number.      Their   dimensions   are   variable, 
but  may  be  averaged  from  3  to  7  ft.  respective 
ly,  when  in  their  best  condition.     At  Ports 
mouth  the  principal  bed  has  been  mined  by  a 
slope  of  GOO  ft.  in  length,  inclining  at  30°  to 
35°,  to  a  vertical  depth  of  300  ft. ;   from  the 

*  This  table  is  from  official  sources,  excepting  the  Morris 
and  Essex  and  the  Central  railway  of  New  Jersey,  which 
were  not  built  exclusively  as  coal  transportation  lines. 


bottom  of  which  gangways  were  driven  1.000 
ft.  in  length  on  the  strike  of  the  bed,  which 
increased  and  decreased  from  16  inches  to  as 
many  feet.  Mining  operations  have  been  at 
tempted  in  many  localities  in  this  field,  but  all 
have  ended  in  failure,  owing  to  the  disappear 
ance  or  faulty  character  of  the  coal  beds.  The 
amount  of  coal  mined  from  the  field  has  been 
insignificant,  and  no  trustworthy  statistics  have 
been  recorded.  The  product,  however,  when 
pure  and  solid,  compares  favorably  with  the 
Pennsylvania  anthracite,  though  usually  the 
best  of  it  contains  more  water,  graphite,  and 
earthy  impurities.  It  is  probable  that  deep 
and  well  conducted  mining  operations  will 
eventually  develop  this  field  in  a  remunerative 
manner.  The  diamond  drill  can  now  be  used 
before  incurring  the  cost  of  pits  and  mining 
operations,  and  it  may  reasonably  be  anticipated 
that  purer  coal  and  more  regular  beds  will  be 
found  at  greater  depth. — The  Virginia  anthra 
cite  field,  which  may  be  appropriately  termed 
the  Xew  river  coal  field,  in  Montgomery  and 
Pulaski  counties,  in  S.  "W.  Virginia,  consists 
of  two  narrow,  parallel  basins  on  Price's  and 
Brush  mountains.  Price's  mountain  is  a  nar 
row,  short  synclinal  ridge,  which  rises  in  the 
Silurian  limestones  of  the  great  valley  range, 
and  is  part  of  the  watershed  between  the  James 
and  Xew  rivers.  In  this  ridge  the  coal  is  en 
closed  as  a  narrow  trough  or  basin,  with  an 
eastern  dip  of  30°,  while  the  true  western  dip 
is  inverted  and  dips  E.  at  an  an<rle  of  80°  or 
85°.  Thus  the  bottom  slate  of  the  lower  bed 
is  the  roof  of  the  upper  bed,  and  the  basin 
may  be  generally  represented  by  an  Italic  capi 
tal  V ;  but  the  force  which  tilted  and  folded 
the  strata  in  this  inverted  manner  distorted 
the  coal  measures  and  crushed  and  ruined  a 
large  part  of  the  coal,  while  slips  and  other 
forms  of  fault  render  the  operations  of  mining 


ANTHRACITE 


in  this  basin  uncertain  and  precarious.  The 
coal  of  Price's  mountain  basin  is  a  true  anthra 
cite,  but  less  dense,  lustrous,  and  pure  than 
that  of  Pennsylvania.  The  Brush  mountain 
basin  lies  at  the  E.  base  of  the  North  mountain, 
and  resembles  the  opposite  Price's  mountain 
basin  in  lithological  structure ;  but  the  inverted 
strata  of  the  W.  side  have  been  destroyed,  ex 
cept  in  a  few  localities,  by  erosion.  In  some 
few  phves  where  the  inverted  strata  exist  in 
this  basin,  they  are  folded  back,  so  that  the  coal 
beds,  which  in  their  normal  condition  must 
have  dipped  to  the  west,  are  now  lying  on  their 
opposite  dip,  and  the  strata  of  the  entire  basin 
in  such  localities  dip  cast,  abutting  abruptly 
against  the  underlying  sandstones  or  limestones. 
The  coal  of  this  basin  is  semi-anthracite.  Coal 
has  been  mined  in  a  small  way  from  numerous 
localities  in  these  basins,  but  to  the  present  time 
(1873)  it  has  all  been  drawn  in  wagons  from 
the  mines  to  the  Virginia  and  Tennessee  rail 
road,  a  distance  of  from  2  to  8  m.  The  total 
amount  mined  cannot  exceed  .15,000  to  20,000 
tons  up  to  the  year  1873.  It  has  been  used 
successfully  in  grates,  stoves,  cupola  furnaces, 
puddling  furnaces,  and  locomotives,  but  has 
not  been  tested  in  the  blast  furnace.  Near  the 
surface  the  coal  is  weak  and  friable,  but  at  con 
siderable  depth  it  becomes  more  dense,  solid, 
and  pure.  Much  aluminous  and  carbonaceous 
shale  exists  in  connection  with  this  coal, 
and  sometimes  excludes  it  entirely,  forming  a 
"fault."  The  entire  area  of  these  two  basins 
cannot  exceed  10  sq.  m.  They  arc  merely  nar 
row  synclinal  belts,  with  an  occasional  repeti 
tion  or  fold  forming  two  parallel  basins,  seldom 
more  than  500  yards  wide  inclusively.  The 
coal-bearing  strata  of  this  range  or  belt,  how 
ever,  are  much  more  extensive  than  those  em 
braced  in  the  New  river  coal  field,  and  extend 
over  200  m.  N.  E.  and  nearly  100  m.  S.  W.  It 
is  found  in  Sidelong  hill,  a  continuation  of  Blue 
or  North  mountains  in  Pennsylvania,  and  ex 
ists  in  a  basin  of  considerable  extent  on  North 
mountain,  a  short  distance  W.  of  Martinsburg, 
West  Va.  In  this  locality  there  are  two  basins, 
one  on  the  E.  side  of  the  mountain  and  another 
on  the  W.  side,  or  rather  on  the  summit  of  the 
mountain.  That  on  the  east  is  narrow  and 
folded  in  the  form  of  a  F,  the  left  or  E.  side 
inverted  in  the  usual  form  of  this  range ;  but 
that  on  the  summit  is  more  regularly  stratified, 
forming  a  comparatively  shallow  basin.  Here 
we  find  all  the  indications  of  a  true  basin  of 
the  carboniferous  era.  The  conglomerate  and 
the  red  shale  (Nos.  XII.  and  XL  of  the  Pennsyl 
vania  geological  survey)  are  in  regular  order  and 
position,  and  the  lower  beds  of  coal  are  identi 
cal  with  A,  I),  and  C  of  the  Pennsylvania 
fields,  in  the  order  of  stratification,  character 
of  bed,  and  color  of  ash.  The  area  of  this 
small  upper  basin  is  perhaps  5  sq.  m.  It  lies 
on  the  head  waters  of  Back  creek,  which  flows 
into  the  Potomac  W.  of  Martinsburg.  Yet 
notwithstanding  the  greater  regularity  and  or 
der  of  these  anthracite  beds,  they  are  faulty  and 


too  small  and  impure  to  be  mined  for  ordinary 
commercial  purposes.  The  beds  range  from  3 
to  5  ft.  in  thickness,  of  which  two  thirds  may 
produce  marketable  coal.  This  range  of  coal- 
bearing  strata  may  be  traced  with  occasional 
gaps  from  this  place  to  New  river.  The  coal 
beds  have  been  developed  in  a  small  way  at 
the  Dora  mines  on  the  North  fork  of  the  Shen- 
andoah,  W.  of  Staunton,  where  anthracite  of 


good  character  has  been  mined  for  local  use. 
!  The  next  point  at  which  the  coal  has  been 
\  mined  is  W.  of  Fincastle  on  Catawba  creek, 
i  From  here  it  has  been  dug  into  in  many  places 
to  the  Brush  mountain  basin  on  New  river,  and 
from  New  river  it  has  been  opened  at  many 
points  to   the  Tennessee  line ;    but   the  only 
localities  yet  developed,  where  this  range  con 
tains  beds  in  workable  condition  and  produc 
tive  of  good  coal  for  ordinary  purposes,   are 
I  those  particularly  described,  including  the  Dora 
|  mines,  which  however  are  the  most  doubtful. 
This  range  of   coal  deposits  has  always  been 
considered   by  geologists  as  belonging   to  the 
!  proto-carboniferous    or    false    coal    measures. 
i  Recent  investigations  have  cast  doubt  on  this 
classification,  and  those  most  familiar  with  the 
geology  of  the  region  are  inclined  to  place  it  in 
i  the  true  coal  measures  as  identical  with  the 
!  strata  of  the  Pennsylvania  coal  fields. — Besides 
.!  the  principal  anthracite  fields  already  described, 
there  are  other  small,  partially  developed,  and 
less  known  deposits  of  anthracite  in  Arkansas, 
New  Mexico,  Sonora,  and  Oregon. — Of  the  re- 
<  maining  anthracite  deposits  of  the  world,  those 
|  of  France  are  most  largely  developed.      The 
first  and  most  extensive  is  a  continuation  of  the 
Belgian   coal  field,  in  the  department  of  Le 
i  Nord.     The  coal  is  of  a  dry  or  semi-anthracite 
!  character  in  a  portion  of  the  French  extension, 
|  and  about  one  half  the  coal  products  of  this 
field  is  denominated  anthracite  in  the  French 
j  reports,  but  it  is  not  strictly  anthracite.     The 
I  other  French  fields  producing  anthracite  are 
named  from  the  departments  of  Pas-de-Calais, 
Calvados,   Sarthe,   Maine-et-Loire,   Loire-Infe- 
rieure,   Correze,    Puy-de-D6me,    Uaute-Saone, 
Tarn,  Haute-Loire,  Ardeche,  Isere,  and  Ilantes- 
Alpes.     The  total  annual  production  of  coal  in 
France  is  now  (1873)  over  10,000,000  tons,  of 
which  about  2,000,000  tons  is  anthracite  and 
j  semi-anthracite,  and  of  the  latter  more  than 
|  one  half  is  the  product  of  the  field  of  Le  Nord. 
The  European  anthracite  field  next  in  impor 
tance  to  these  is  that  of  Donetz  in  S.  Russia, 
between  the  Dnieper  and  Donetz  rivers,  which 
is  perhaps  the  largest  connected  field  contain 
ing  anthracite  yet  developed.    It  embraces  over 
8,000  sq.  m.  of  coal  area,  but,  like  the  South 
Wales  and  Pennsylvania  anthracite  fields,  one 
j  end  contains  anthracite  and  the  other  bitumi- 
I  nous  coal  beds,  according  to  Murchison ;  while 
|  anthracite  and  bituminous  beds  are  found   in 
the  same  locality,  and  the  undulations  of  the 
I  strata,  which  dip  from  20°  to  70°,  indicate  a 
close  resemblance  to  the  peculiarities  of  the 
!  Pennsylvania  anthracite  fields.     An  analysis  of 


ANTHRACITE 


this  anthracite  gave-  94*234  per  cent,  carbon.  | 
Anthracite  also  exists  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Ger 
many,  Austria,   Norway,  Persia,  India,  China,  j 
and  South  America ;    and  generally  anthracite 
is  found  in  connection  with  the  altered  or  met- 
amorphic   rocks,   which    accompany  all   great  j 
coal  formations  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. — 
Anthracite  undoubtedly  owes  its  existence  to 
a  superior  heat  or  a  comparatively  high  tern-  : 
perature    during   its  formation.      The    hardest 
and   most   dense    anthracite   is   always  found  I 
where  the  coal  has  been  subject  to  a  high  tern-  : 
perature ;    but  where  the  heat  has  been  most  j 
intense,  graphite  rather  than  coal  is  found.     In  ! 
the  New  England  Held  the  outcrops  of  the  coal  j 
beds  frequently  yield  plumbago,  which  is  col-  [ 
lected  and  sold  as  "British  lustre,"  and  nests  I 
of  pure  graphite  are  found  in  the  beds  at  con-  | 
siderable  depth.      An  analogous   condition   is  ; 
found  in  the  pockets  of  carbonaceous  coal  which  j 
exist  below  A  in  the  southern  Pennsylvania  field,  j 
The  proportions  of  carbon  are  due  to  the  vary-  i 
ing  degrees  of  heat  to  which  the  coal  or  the  I 
elements  forming  anthracite  have  been  subject-  | 
ed.     This  fact  is  fully  illustrated  in  the  Penn 
sylvania   anthracite   beds,    where   the    lowest  j 
contain  the  most  carbon  and  the  highest  (in  j 
the  measures)  the  most  volatile  matter.     Where  | 
the  coal  is  nearest  to  the  igneous  or  plutonic 
rocks,'   whether     granitic     or     metamorphic,  ; 
whether  in  the  deepest  parts  of  the  coal  basins  j 
or  on  their  edges,  the  conditions  are  the  same,  j 
and  all  true  coal  fields  are  alike  in  these  condi-  | 
tions.     It  is  true,  the  Richmond  (Va.)  bitumi 
nous  coal  field  is  formed  in  the  crater  of  an  | 
extinct  volcano ;  but  that  field  is  a  late  creation  i 
of  the  Jurassic  period,  and  was  deposited  when  j 
the  earth  and  the  rocks  beneath  it  were  com-  | 
paratively  cool,  and  even  there  a  trap  dike  is  ' 
intruded — evidently  long  after  the  completion 
of  the  coal  field — between  the  beds.     The  ef 
fect  of  this  heated  and  volcanic  mass  of  rock 
has  been  to  coke  a  coal  bed  GO  ft.  beneath  it,  and 
burn  one  10  ft.  above  it  to  a  graphitic  cinder. 
The  general  effect  of  trap  intrusions  seems  to  j 
be  the  same  in  all  cases,  but  the  altered  bitu-  { 
minous  coal  under  such  circumstances  is  rather  i 
a  coke  than  an  anthracite,  which  differs  greatly 
in  appearance,  though  the  constituents  are  the  I 
same.     Prof.  II.  D.  Rogers  explains  the  forma-  I 
tion  of  anthracite  by  supposing  it  to  be  the  re-  | 
suit  of  altered  bituminous  coal  metamorphosed  ! 
by  intense  heat,  and  of  course  by  heat  induced  • 
subsequent  to  the  formation  of  the  bituminous  j 
beds;  and  he  further  explains  the  escape  of  the 
volatile  portion  of  the  latter  as  gas  through 
cracks  and  openings  caused  by  the  plication  of  \ 
the  anthracite  strata.     This   plication  follows  ; 
closely  the  general  type  of  the  eastern  palseo-  ' 
zoic  rocks,  which   are  intensely  crushed  and  i 
folded  near  the  contact  of  their  edges  with  the 
igneous  or  granitic  rocks,  and  much  less  plica-  \ 
ted  and  distorted  in  a  western  direction.     This  i 
fact  undoubtedly  led  to  the  above  theory,  which 
seems  as  natural  as  it  is  ingenious ;  but  the  facts 
do  not  sustain  the  theory.     1st.  The  upper  beds 


and  strata  are  more  dislocated,  distorted,  and 
crushed  than  the  lower  beds,  as  plainly  demon 
strated  by  the  plication  of  the  strata  on  the  apex 
of  the  leading  anticlinals  in  the  southern  field. 
2d.  The  measures  are  more  plicated  and  crushed 
at  the  western  extremity  of  this  field,  in  the  Dau 
phin  or  south  prong,  than  at  the  eastern  extrem 
ity  ;  yet  the  coal  of  the  latter  is  a  dense,  hard 
anthracite,  while  that  of  the  former  is  semi- 
bituminous.  3d.  The  heat  must  have  been 
most  intense  during  the  early  stages  of  coal 
formation.  In  view  of  these  facts,  it  has  re 
cently  been  contended  that  true  anthracite  is 
not  a  metamorphosis  of  bituminous  coal,  but 
as  much  a  normal  creation  as  the  bitumi 
nous  variety  itself  from  a  combination  of  its 
constituents  under  superior  heat,  however  the 
original  elements  were  produced.  (See  COAL.) 
— The  faults  and  irregularities  of  the  anthra 
cite  beds  and  strata  are  the  result  of  crust 
movements,  and  the  plication  of  the  distorted 
and  crushed  rocks  indicates  contraction,  both 
lateral  and  perpendicular,  as  the  cause.  The 
effects  of  a  combined  lateral  and  perpendicular 
movement  are  simply  those  which  are  evident 
in  the  plication  of  the  anthracite  beds  of  the 
southern  Pennsylvania  fields,  and  their  accom 
panying  shales ;  but  the  crust  movements  have 
been  slow  and  uniform,  bending  rather  than 
breaking  the  strata,  except  in  cases  of  sharp 
foliation  of  anticlinals  or  synclinals.  Where 
the  folding  has  been  most  abrupt  the  strata 
are  inverted,  and  the  coal  is  crushed  and  par 
tially  destroyed.  The  coal  beds  thus  distorted 
are  always  subject  to  faults  of  the  peculiar 
character  described  in  the  New  England  and 
New  river  coal  fields,  as  well  as  those  of  Penn 
sylvania.  Such  faults  are  more  frequently  met 
with  in  the  upper  than  in  the  lower  beds  of 
the  latter.  A  fault  is  rarely  met  with  in  the 
great  white-ash  beds  B,  D,  and  E,  except  where 
they  are  inverted  or  seriously  dislocated  by  the 
plicating  movements.  The  dislocations  of  Amer 
ican  coal  beds  are  rarely  vertical,  and  never 
to  any  great  extent,  as  in  the  English  fields, 
where  this  form  of  fault  is  peculiar.  The  near 
est  approach  to  this  in  the  former  is  a  "slip" 
which  may  slide  one  portion  of  a  bed  over  the 
other,  or  remove  it  a  few  feet  up  or  down.  In 
the  anthracite  fields,  however,  faults  are  much 
more  numerous  than  in  the  bituminous  fields 
of  England  or  the  United  States,  but  these  are 
generally  of  the  characteristic  form  peculiar  to 
highly  plicated  strata  before  described.  There 
are,  however,  other  less  frequent  forms  of  fault, 
such  as  the  occurrence  of  large  areas  of  soft 
carbonaceous  shale  in  place  of  the  coal ;  long 
ribbon-like  streaks  of  rock  or  slate  in  the  coal 
from  the  top  of  the  bed,  apparently  to  fill  a 
crack  in  the  same ;  or  the  interposition  of  rock 
and  slate  between  the  strata  of  a  bed,  dividing 
it  so  as  to  render  valueless  sometimes  one  or 
both  divisions.  These  faults  do  not  affect  the 
accompanying  beds.  The  preceding  are  such 
as  are  strictly  denominated  faults  in  the  Penn 
sylvania  anthracite  fields ;  but  the  ever-varying 


558 


ANTHRACITE 


dip  of  the  strata,  the  change  of  strike  incident 
thereto,  and  the  general  irregularities  of  both 
coal  bed  and  accompanying  strata,  would  be 
denominated  faults  in  the  great  bituminous 
fields  of  the  United  States  or  England. — The 
use  of  anthracite  as  a  common  fuel  is  recent. 
It  was  long  supposed  to  be  an  inferior  kind  of 
coal,  and  the  creation  of  an  earlier  period  than 
the  true  carboniferous;  even  now  there  are  a 
few  professional  men  who  adhere  to  this  ex 
ploded  theory.  The  first  attempts  to  use  it  as 
fuel  were  as  a  substitute  for  wood  or  the  free- 
burning  bituminous  coals,  where  a  draught  of  air 
through  the  mass  is  not  absolutely  necessary, 
as  in  the  case  of  anthracite.  On  account  of  this 
difficulty  of  ignition,  and  the  prevailing  igno 
rance  in  regard  to  the  best  methods  of  using  it, 
anthracite  was  slow  to  be  appreciated.  In  1813 
it  was  considered  inferior  in  Wales,  and  was  but 
little  used  for  any  purpose ;  and  though  known 
and  tested  as  a  valuable  fuel  in  the  United 
States  arsenal  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1770,  and  by 
smiths  on  the  Susquehanna  generally  even  at 
an  earlier  date,  it  was  only  in  1812  that  it  was 
successfully  used  in  Philadelphia,  and  there  the 
mode  of  burning  it  was  discovered  by  accident. 
The  general  trade  only  commences  with  a  few 
tons  in  1820.  (See  table.)  At  first  the  increase 
of  consumption  was  slow,  but  so  soon  as  its  use 
and  advantages  became  generally  understood, 
it  assumed  the  first  place  in  the  list  of  combus 
tibles.  For  household  purposes  it  is  preferred 
not  only  on  account  of  its  cleanliness  and  the 
absence  of  smoke  and  the  peculiar  odor  of  bitu 
men,  but  also  on  account  of  its  durability  and 
long  continued  and  uniform  heat.  For  war 
steamers,  where  the  conspicuous  smoke  of  bi 
tuminous  coal  is  exceedingly  objectionable  dur 
ing  hostile  movements,  anthracite  has  been 
fully  tested  and  found  superior,  not  only  because 
of  the  absence  of  smoke,  but  of  its  good  steam- 
producing  qualities,  its  duration  at  high  tem 
peratures,  and  the  consequent  maintenance  of 
a  steady  uniform  steam  power.  For  the  eco 
nomical  combustion  of  anthracite  a  strong 
draught  rather  than  an  abundant  supply  of  air 
is  required.  In  common  use,  however,  where 
chimney  draught  is  ordinarily  employed,  these 
two  requirements  are  antagonistic,  as  far  as 
economy  is  concerned.  To  obtain  a  draught 
strong  enough  to  pass  sufficient  air  through  the 
coals,  a  high  and  hot  chimney  is  required, 
which  absorbs  and  carries  off  the  largest  pro 
portion  of  caloric  from  furnaces  as  commonly 
constructed.  The  coal  is  rarely  burned  to 
carbonic  acid  by  direct  combustion  in  this  man 
ner,  but  rather  to  carbonic  oxide,  which  is  lost, 
and  more  than  half  the  fuel  is  thus  wasted. 
The  first  or  direct  combustion,  producing  car 
bonic  oxide,  generates  about  1300°  C.,  while  the 
carbonic  oxide  is  capable  of  producing  over 
2100°  C.  of  heat  in  addition  ;  but  when  anthra 
cite  is  burned  to  carbonic  acid  direct  in  properly 
constructed  gas-burning  furnaces,  the  tempera 
ture  is  increased  to  2400°  C.  The  volume  of 
heat  or  total  heating  effect  is,  however,  in  favor 


of  carbonic  oxide  as  fuel,  and  it  would  b^  much 
more  economical  and  generally  useful  to  con 
vert  anthracite  or  bituminous  coal  to  carbonic 
!  oxide  before  using  it  as  a  fuel.     In  the  blast 
furnace,  however,  where  anthracite  is  preemi- 
j  nent,  the  coal  must  be  used  in  its  solid  condi- 
I  tion ;    but  here,  in  well  constructed  furnaces, 
the  total  heating  effect  of  the  coal  is  utilized. 
But  it  cannot  be  claimed  that  anthracite  is  a 
superior  fuel  for  all  purposes,  because  bitumi 
nous  coal  can  be  used  in  all  cases,  while  an- 
j  thracite  cannot  be  used  in  the  present  state  of 
the  arts  for  the  production  of  illuminating  gas, 
!  Where  a  long  hot  fiame  is  required,  as  in  pud 
dling  furnaces,  hydrogenous  coal  is  more  avail- 
j  able ;  and  for  welding  heats,  where  hollow  fires 
1  are  desirable,  the  latter  class  of  coal  is  also  used. 
But  under  proper  combustion,   anthracite,   as 
|  the  purest  form  of  carbon  available  for  fuel, 
!  will  yield  a  higher  temperature  than  any  other 
kind  of  fuel. — The  earliest  record  of  the  use  of 
anthracite  for  the  production  of  iron  is  in  1826, 
when  a  small  furnace  built  under  the  direction 
of  Messrs.  White  and  Hazard  of  the  Lehighcoal 
company,  near  Mauch  Chunk,  Pa.,  was  tried 
with  anthracite  and  cold  blast;   but,   though 
I  several   pigs    of  anthracite    iron  were   made, 
I  the  furnace  chilled  and  the  attempt  proved  a 
failure.    Several  other  experiments  were  made 
j  both  on  the  Lehigh  and  the  Schuylkill,  which 
were  successful  in  the  production  of  anthracite 
iron,  but  failed  of  practical  results.     Attempts 
I  had  been  made  prior  to  this  time  to  use  anthra 
cite  for  the  production  of  iron  in  the  blast  fur 
naces  of  AA^ales ;  but  nothing  definite  is  given 
in  regard  to  the  date  of  these  experiments  until 
j  after  the  introduction  of  the  hot  blast  by  Neil- 
|  son  in  1831,  or  its  more  general  use  in  1833. 
Mr.  David  Thomas  then  conceived  the  idea  of 
!  using  anthracite  with  hot  blast,  and  induced  his 
1  employer  to  try  the  experiment.     A  coke  fur- 
|  nace  was  accordingly  altered  during  1836,  and 
provided  with  a  hot-blast  arrangement ;  and  in 
February,   1837,  anthracite  iron  was  success- 
!  fully  made  in  Wales  for  the  first  time.     In  1837 
!  the  Lehigh  coal  and  navigation  company,  at 
tracted  by  the  success  of  the  Welsh  furnace, 
I  sent  one  of  their  directors  to  Wales,  who  en 
gaged  Mr.  Thomas  to  start  a  furnace  on  the 
i  Lehigh,  which  was  successfully  accomplished  in 
i  June,  1839.    The  "Pioneer Furnace"  at  Potts- 
j  ville,  built  by  William  Lyman  of  Boston,  had 
been  put  in  blast  a  few  months  previous,  after 
the  directions  of  Mr.  Thomas.     For  this  Mr. 
Lyman  was   awarded    a  premium    of  $5,000 
which  had  been  offered  by  Burd  Patterson  of 
Pottsville  and  Nicholas  Biddle  of  Philadelphia 
for  the  profitable  production  of  anthracite  iron, 
and  which  was   paid  at  a   banquet   given  at 
Mt.  Carbon   early  in  1840.      Since   then   the 
Thomas  and  Crane  iron  works  on  the  Lehigh 
have  grown  to  mammoth  establishments,  and 
are  now  capable  of  producing    100,000   tons 
j  of  pig  iron  per  annum ;  and  the  total  annual 
j  production  of  anthracite  iron  has  now  (1873) 
!  reached  875,000  tons. 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


ANTICOSTI 


559 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  the  science  of  man.  See 
ANATOMY,  ARCH/EOLOGY,  COMPARATIVE  ANAT 
OMY,  ETHNOLOGY,  MORAL  PHILOSOPHY,  PHI 
LOSOPHY,  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

ANTHROP03IORPHITES  (Gr.  Mpaxos,  man, 
and  popffj,  form),  those  who  helieve  that  God 
possesses  a  human  shape.  Audius,  a  Syrian  lay 
man  (340),  taught  that  God  essentially  exists  in 
human  form,  and  opposed  the  authority  of  the 
clergy.  He  was  excommunicated,  and  his  sect 
disappeared  after  about  a  century.  In  the  10th 
century  anthropomorphism  was  revived,  but 
did  not  attain  any  prominence  as  a  doctrine. 

AYTIBES  (anc.  Antipolits),  a  town  and  sea 
port  of  France,  department  of  Alpes-Haritimes, 
built  on  a  promontory  jutting  into  the  Mediter 
ranean,  15  m.  S.  W.  of  Nice;  pop.  in  1866, 
6,829.  It  has  fortifications  erected  by  Vauban 
and  some  Roman  antiquities,  including  an  aque 
duct  in  good  preservation.  The  chief  industry 
and  trade  are  in  salted  fish,  dried  fruits,  wine, 
and  olive  oil.  The  town  was  founded  by  the 
Greeks  of  Massilia  (Marseilles)  in  the  4th  cen 
tury  B.  0.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  a  mili 
tary  station  and  an  important  seat  of  commerce, 
but  it  was  ruined  by  the  barbarians  and  Sara 
cens.  In  later  times  it  was  strongly  fortified, 
and  successfully  withstood  a  siege  of  the  Eng 
lish  and  Imperialists  in  1746. 

ANTICHLOR,  in  chemistry,  any  substance  ca 
pable  of  eliminating  the  excess  of  chlorine  or  of 
free  hypochlorous  acid  left  in  goods  and  paper 
after  the  process  of  bleaching  by  chloride  of 
lime.  Several  agents  can  be  employed,  and 
they  generally  act  by  converting  the  chlorine 
into  an  innocuous  salt.  'One  of  the  first  sub 
stances  employed  for  this  purpose  was  the  sul 
phite  and  bisulphite  of  soda  patented  by  Henry 
Donkin  in  1847.  In  1853  these  salts  were 
superseded  by  the  hyposulphite  of  soda,  which 
has  now  become  the  principal  antichlor  of 
commerce.  Sulphide  of  calcium,  prepared  by 
boiling  sulphur  with  milk  of  lime,  has  also 
been  used  as  an  antichlor;  so  likewise  has  a 
solution  of  protochloride  of  tin  in  hydrochloric 
acid.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  it  is  neces 
sary,  after  the  completion  cf  the  bleaching  pro 
cess,  to  add  carbonate  of  sodium,  in  order  to 
neutralize  the  free  hydrochloric  acid,  which 
would  otherwise  act  as  injuriously  as  the  free 
chlorine  itself.  The  precipitate  of  oxide  of  tin 
thereby  produced  is  quite  white  and  soft,  and 
does  not  interfere  with  the  subsequent  stages 
of  the  paper  manufacture.  Coal  gas  was  also 
used  as  an  antichlor  in  paper  making  as  early 
as  1818,  but  it  is  not  so  convenient  as  the 
agents  mentioned  above.  The  products  formed 
by  the  action  of  chlorine  (or  hypochlorous 
acid)  on  sulphite  or  hyposulphite  of  sodium  are 
sulphate  and  chloride  of  sodium,  both  of  which 
are  innocuous  and  easily  removed  by  washing. 

ANTICHRIST  (Gr.  avri,  against,  or  in  place  of, 
and  Xp«<rr<5f,  Christ),  a  term  which  occurs  five 
times  in  the  Bible,  but  only  in  the  first  and 
.second  epistles  of  John.  These  passages  recog 
nize  the  previous  teaching  that  "Antichrist 


shall  come ;"  declare  the  existence  even  then 
of  "many  Antichrists,"  who  "went  out  from" 
the  Christians,  but  "were  not  of"  them;  and 
characterize  as  an  Antichrist  him  "  that  de- 
nieth  the  Father  and  the  Son,"  or  "confess- 
eth  not  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh." 
Most  interpreters  identify  Antichrist  with  the 
"man  of  sin"  (2  Thess.  ii.  3);  many  also  with 
the  "little  horn"  of  Daniel's  fourth  beast  and 
the  "king  of  fierce  countenance,"  with  the 
Apocalyptic  beast  and  false  prophet,  and  with 
the  false  Christs  and  false  prophets  foretold 
in  Matt.  xxiv.  5,  11 ;  but  all  these  are  con 
troverted  points.  The  numerous  representa 
tions  of  Antichrist  given  by  Biblical  critics  and 
theologians  may  be  arranged  under  the  follow 
ing  five  heads:  1.  An  individual  yet  future. 
Thus  most  of  the  early  Christian  fathers  rep 
resent  the  "many  Antichrists"  of  the  apostle's 
day  as  forerunners  or  types  of  a  terrible  future 
Antichrist — a  person  (of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  ac 
cording  to  Aretas,  Bede,  &c.)  armed  with  Sa 
tanic  powers  (Satan  himself,  say  some) — who 
is  to  come  just  before  the  final  and  glorious 
appearance  of  Christ,  and  then  to  be  destroyed 
by  Christ.  2.  A  polity  or  system.  Thus  the 
Waldenses,  Wycliffites,  reformers  of  the  16th 
century,  and  others,  make  Antichrist  to  be  the 
papal  system,  or  the  pope  as  representing  the 
Roman  Catholic  polity  ;  others,  imperial  or  pa 
gan  Rome ;  others,  Mohammedanism,  or  popery 
and  Mohammedanism,  or  Judaism  and  pagan 
Rome  and  papal  Rome,  &c.  3.  An  individual 
already  past.  Thus  Antichrist  has  been  found 
by  different  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 
expositors  in  one  or  another  heathen  emperor 
of  Rome,  Jewish  leader,  false  Messiah,  or 
heresiarch.  4.  A  class  united  in  opposition  to 
Christ.  This  opinion,  held  by  Bengel,  Mac- 
knight,  Bishop  Wordsworth,  &c.,  makes  Anti 
christ  a  collective  term,  equivalent  to  the 
"many  Antichrists"  of  1  John  ii.  18,  or  the 
embodiment  or  representative  of  a  limited  or 
unlimited  class  of  those  who  set  themselves  up 
against  Christ,  as  the  false  prophets  or  teachers 
about  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
or  all  false  teachers  in  every  age,  or  the  partic 
ular  class  who  deny  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ, 
or  all  heretics,  &c.  5.  An  evil  principle  per 
sonified.  This  opinion,  held  by  Koppe,  Nitzsch, 
and  others,  is  naturally  connected  with  the 
view  that  Satan  is  not  a  person,  but  only  evil 
personified. — It  may  be  added  that  Jewish  rab 
binical  books  describe  Antichrist  under  the 
name  of  Armillus,  who,  it  is  said,  will  defeat 
and  slay  the  Messiah  Ben  Joseph,  but  will  him 
self  be  defeated  and  slain  by  Messiah  Ben 
David  ;  and  that  Mohammedan  traditions  rep 
resent  the  Jewish  Messiah  Ben  David  as  him 
self  Al-Dajjal  (Antichrist),  who  will  be  slain 
by  Jesus. 

ANTICOSTI,  an  uncultivated  island  in  the  gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  120  m.  long  and  30  m.  wide 
in  the  centre,  narrowing  toward  both  ends. 
It  divides  the  gulf  into  a  N.  and  a  S.  channel. 
The  E.  point  is  in  lat,  49°  5'  N.,  Ion.  62°  AV. ;  the 


560 


ANTICYRA 


ANTIETAM 


W.  point  in  lat,  49°  48',  Ion.  04°  35'.  Along  a 
great  part  of  the  coast  there  is  a  dangerous  belt 
of  reefs  uncovered  at  low  tide.  There  are  two 
harbors  comparatively  safe  at  all  times:  one  at 
Gramache  or  Ellice  bay,  near  the  W.  end,  and 
the  other  at  Fox  bay  on  the  northwest.  The 
coast  line  on  the  S.  side  rises  from  20  to  80 
feet  above  the  water ;  on  the  N.  a  succession  of 
ridge-like  elevations,  separated  by  depressions, 
rise  from  200  to  500  feet.  On  the  S.  side  there 
are  excellent  peat  beds  80  m.  in  length  and  2 
in  width,  with  a  depth  of  from  3  to  10  feet, 
and  marl  beds  of  considerable  thickness.  There 
are  three  lighthouses  on  the  island. 

AiNTIClKA.  I.  An  ancient  city  of  southern 
Thessaly,  on  the  Spercheus,  famous  for  produc 
ing  the  best  hellebore,  which  was  regarded  by 
the  ancients  as  a  cure  for  madness.  II.  A  city 
of  Phocis  on  the  Corinthian  gulf,  also  cele 
brated  for  the  production  of  hellebore.  The 
Anticyrteans  are  said  to  have  been  expelled 
from  their  city  by  Philip  of  Macedon  after  the 
close  of  the  sacred  war.  It  was  taken  in  a 
subsequent  age  by  the  Roman  general  Lievinus, 
and  given  up  by  him  to  the  ^Etolians.  It  was 
occupied  during  the  Macedonian  war  by  the 
consul  Flamininus,  for  the  sake  of  its  harbor, 
which  afforded  a  secure  retreat  for  the  Roman 
fleet.  The  site  of  Anticyra  is  still  discernible 
on  the  shore  of  the  Corinthian  gulf,  and  known 
as  Aspra  Spitia,  or  "the  white  houses." 

ANTIDOTES  (Gr.  avri,  against,  and  6i66vat,  to 
give),  a  term  formerly  used  to  signify  reme 
dies  or  preservatives  against  sickness,  but  now 
applied  only  to  means  for  counteracting  the 
effect  of  poisons.  To  get  rid  at  once  of  the 
poisoning  substance,  to  hinder  its  absorption, 
or  to  counteract  its  effects,  are  the  general  re 
sults  to  be  sought  for.  The  first  of  these  ob 
jects  is  attained,  when  the  poison  is  in  the 
stomach,  either  by  the  stomach  pump  or  an 
emetic.  If  a  stomach  pump  is  not  at  hand,  an 
ordinary  elastic  syringe  with  a  stomach  tube 
may  be  made  to  do  duty  in  washing  and  pump 
ing  out  the  stomach.  The  best  emetics  are 
those  which  act  rapidly,  especially  mustard, 
which  is  almost  always  at  hand,  sulphate  of 
copper  (blue  vitriol),  or  sulphate  of  zinc  (white 
vitriol),  the  vomiting  being  encouraged  and  kept 
up  by  tickling  the  fauces,  giving  large  draughts 
of  warm  water,  &c.  If  the  poison  has  been 
thrown  into  or  under  the  skin,  as  by  the  bites 
of  serpents  or  mad  dogs,  or  wounds  from  poi 
soned  weapons,  it  may  be  sucked  out  by  the 
mouth  or  a  cupping  glass;  the  wounded  part 
may  be  excised,  or  a  ligature  placed  so  as  to 
hinder  the  entrance  of  the  poison  into  the  sys 
tem.  Dr.  Fayrer's  elaborate  experiments  have 
shown  that  these  procedures,  to  be  of  any 
avail,  must  be  put  in  force  with  the  utmost 
promptness,  since  only  a  few  seconds  suffice 
for  the  poison  of  venomous  serpents  to  enter 
the  circulation.  The  cauterization  of  such 
wounds  either  with  the  hot  iron  or  powerful 
chemical  agents,  such  as  nitric  acid,  nitrate  of 
silver^  and  ammonia,  has  been  practised. — 


Many  substances  may  be  rendered  insoluble  or 
comparatively  inert  in  the  stomach  by  appro 
priate  chemical  reagents.  Strong  acids  may 
be  neutralized  by  magnesia,  chalk,  or  soap; 
caustic  alkalies  by  vinegar.  We  may  use  for 
arsenic  freshly  precipitated  sesquioxide  of  iron, 
which  every  druggist  should  have  the  materials 
at  hand  for  preparing  at  short  notice.  That 
which  has  been  kept  under  water,  or  the  so- 
called  subcarbonate,  may  be  used  in  case  the 
first  is  not  ready.  The  light  magnesia,  or  freshly 
precipitated  gelatinous  magnesia,  has  also  been 
used.  A  mixture  of  chalk  and  castor  oil,  of 
the  consistence  of  cream,  is  said  to  envelop  the 
particles  of  arsenic  still  adherent  to  the  stom 
ach  after  it  lias  been  washed,  and  render  them 
harmless.  For  bichloride  of  mercury,  albumen 
(eggs),  gluten  (wheat  flour),  or  caseine  (milk) 
may  be  used,  but  should  at  once  be  followed 
by  an  emetic,  as  the  precipitate  formed  is  not 
absolutely  insoluble.  With  lead  and  baryta, 
sulphates  form  insoluble  precipitates;  with 
sulphate  of  copper  or  zinc  carbonate  of  soda, 
and  with  oxalic  acid  carbonate  of  lime  (chalk) 
may  be  used.  The  vegetable  astringents  (galls, 
tannic  acid,  strong  tea),  and  also  a  solution  of 
iodine  in  iodide  of  potassium,  form  insoluble 
precipitates  with  some  of  the  alkaloids. — The 
antidotes  which  fulfil  the  third  indication,  coun 
teracting  the  effects  of  poisons,  are  not  so  well 
determined.  Inflammation  from  irritant  poi 
sons  is  to  be  treated  on  general  principles. 
Opium  narcotism  is  to  be  treated  by  external 
irritants,  such  as  cold  affusion  or  forced  exercise 
and  strong  coffee.  The  efficacy  of  belladonna 
as  an  antidote  to  opium,  and  vice  versa,  is  not 
established.  For  prussic  acid  ammonia  may 
be  cautiously  used.  The  symptoms  of  nux 
vomica  and  strychnia  may  be  partially  con 
trolled  by  chloroform,  chloral  (if  there  is  time 
for  it  to  act),  or  bromide  of  potassium.  Aco 
nite  has  been  proposed.  Aconite  poisoning 
calls  for  stimuli,  as  alcohol  and  ammonia. 

ANTIETAM,  Battle  of,  fought  by  the  national 
army  of  the  Potomac,  under  Gen.  George  13. 
McClellan,  and  the  confederate  army  of  North 
Virginia,  under  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee,  between 
Sharpsburg  and  the  Antietam  creek,  an  af 
fluent  of  the  Potomac  river,  Sept.  16  and  IT, 
1862.  After  the  defeat  of  the  army  of  the  Po 
tomac  in  the  seven  days'  fighting  on  the  line 
of  the  Chickahominy,  the  confederates  prepared 
for  an  invasion  of  Maryland,  worsted  Pope's 
army  at  Cedar  Mountain,  in  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  and  at  Chantilly,  crossed  the  Potomac 
near  Leesburg,  and  concentrated  their  forces 
at  Frederick.  Meanwhile  the  national  army 
had  been  withdrawn  from  Harrison's  Landing 
and  consolidated  at  Washington  with  Pope's 
command,  and  the  whole,  under  McClellan, 
moved  out  to  meet  Lee.  The  right  wing,  con 
sisting  of  the  1st  and  9th  corps,  was  under 
Burnside ;  the  centre,  composed  of  the  2d  and 
12th  corps,  was  under  Sumner;  and  the  left 
wing,  composed  of  the  6th  corps,  was  under 
Franklin.  In  this  order  McClellan  marched 


ANTIETAM 


501 


by  the  Rockville  turnpike,  the  right  wing  of  ! 
his  army  extending  toward  the  Baltimore  and  j 
Ohio  railroad,  and  the  left  toward  the  Potomac,  i 
His  advanced  guard  entered  Frederick  as  the  ! 
confederate  rear  guard  was  leaving  it.    At  this 
place,   on    Sept.     12,    he   became    acquainted  | 
with  the  disposition  of  Lee's  forces,  as  well  as  j 
with  his  immediate  plans,  through  a  copy  of  i 
Lee's  marching  orders  which  one  of  the  con-  ! 
federate    commanders    had   inadvertently    left  ' 
behind  him.    Lee,  having  captured  all  the  out 
lying  detachments  of  the  national  army,  in- 
eluding   that   in   the    stronghold   of  Harper's  I 
Ferry,    and   thus   secured  his  communication  i 
with  Richmond,  concentrated  all  his  available 
forces,  choosing  his  position  in  front  of  Sharps- 
burg,  in  the  angle  between  the  Potomac,  which  j 
covered   his  rear,    and   the  Antietam,    whose  \ 
deep  bed   and   precipitous   sides   covered   his 
front.     Lee's  line,  forming  almost  a  semicircle  i 
about  the  village,  covered  all  the  roads  con-  i 
centrating  at  that  place ;  its  right  wing  rested  i 
on   the   heights   dominating    the    creek,    and 
stretched  along  it,  sweeping  all  the  crossings  ! 
for  more  than  half  a  mile ;  the  centre  occupied 
the  open  fields  and  patches  of  wood  extending  ! 
to  the  Hagerstown  road,  and  the  left  rested  j 
upon    the   Potomac.      McOlellan's    army  ap-  ' 
proached    the    battlefield    along  the  turnpike  | 
leading  from  Keedysville  to  Sharpsburg,   his  i 
main  body  going  into  position  on  the  left  bank  | 
of  the  Antietam  on  the  afternoon  of  Sept.  15.  j 
No  fighting  took  place  on  this  day.    The  great-  | 
er  part  of   the   16th  was  passed  in  harmless  j 
cannonading,  but  late  in  the  afternoon  McClel-  | 
Ian  threw  forward  Hooker's  corps,  with  orders  | 
to  force  a  passage  of  the  Antietam   by   the  : 
upper  one  of  the  four  stone  bridges  spanning  : 
the  creek  in  that  neighborhood.     This  bridge,  i 
being  beyond  the  reach  of  the  confederate  line,  | 
had  been  left  undefended,  and  Hooker's  cross 
ing  was   therefore   quickly   and  easily  made,  j 
Pushing   forward  at  once  through  a  narrow  | 
piece  of  woods,  he  soon  struck  the  confederate  | 
left  under  Hood,  and  after  a  sharp  skirmish,  j 
terminating   with   nightfall,  in   his   favor,    his 
corps  rested  on  their  arms  near  the  Hagers-  j 
town  road,  almost  in  contact  with  the  enemy's  \ 
line.     This  advance  served  to  place  one  corps  j 
of  18,000  men  in  a  good  position  to  give  battle  j 
as  well  as  to  uncover  the  other  crossings  of  I 
the  Antietam  as  far  down  as  the  Keedysville  ! 
road,  thus  rendering  it  easy  for  McOlellan  to  | 
secure   his   initiatory   movement,    by    sending 
Mansfield's  12th  corps,  under  cover  of  dark-  ! 
ness,  to  strengthen  Hooker.     On  the  morning 
of  the  17th  the  disposition  of  the  combatants 
was  as  follows :  Lee's  position  was  substantial 
ly  unchanged;    his  entire  army,  estimated  at 
about  65,000  strong,  was  formed  in   a  semi 
circular  line  covering  the  roads  converging  at 
Sharpsburg.      Hooker's  and  Mansfield's  corps 
of  McClellan's  army  had  crossed  the  Antietam 
and  held  advanced  positions  on  the  extreme 
right ;  Sumner's  corps  held  itself  in  readiness 
to  cross ;  Porter's  corps  was  in  reserve,  cover- 
VOL.  i. — 36 


ing  the  Keedysville  bridge,  but  separated  from 
the  enemy  by  the  creek ;  and  Burnside's  corps 
occupied  the  extreme  left,  and  was  also  sep 
arated  from  the  confederate  position  by  the 
Antietam.  The  aggregate  strength  of  these 
corps  was  about  85,000  men;  but  being  partly 
on  one  side  and  partly  on  the  other  side  of  a 
stream  which  could  hardly  be  crossed  any 
where  except  by  a  bridge,  and  which  was 
particularly  easy  to  defend,  the  superior 
strength  of  the  Union  army  counted  but  for 
little  in  the  bloody  conflict  which  followed. 
McClellan's  plan  was  for  Hooker  and  Mans 
field,  supported  by  Sumner,  to  attack  the  con 
federate  line,  and  engage  it  so  closely  as  to 
permit  Burnside,  advancing  simultaneously,  to 
force  a  passage  at  the  lower  bridge,  and  thus 
unite  all  the  corps  except  the  reserve  on  the 
further  side  of  the  Antietam,  with  their  entire 
strength  available  for  the  final  struggle.  Hook 
er's  corps  held  a  position  close  to  the  enemy's 
line,  and  was  therefore  forced  to  begin  skir 
mishing  almost  as  soon  as  it  was  light.  After 
gaining  some  slight  advantages  it  attacked 
with  great  fury,  and  succeeded  in  forcing  Lee's 
left  under  Jackson  backward  for  nearly  half  a 
mile  before  it  received  the  slightest  check. 
Hooker  gave  his  men  a  short  breathing  spell, 
and  dashed  forward  again ;  but  his  divisions 
were  already  fatigued  as  well  as  greatly  shat 
tered  by  their  bloody  work.  Meeting  the 
reserves  of  the  enemy's  left,  they  were  in  turn 
driven  back  to  the  position  from  which  they 
advanced  less  than  an  hour  before,  notwith 
standing  Mansfield  had  in  the  mean  time  has 
tened  forward  to  join  in  the  conflict.  This 
gallant  veteran  lost  his  life  in  trying  to  regain 
the  ground  lost  by  Hooker,  and,  although 
aided  by  a  terrible  fire  from  the  reserve  artil 
lery  of  the  Union  army,  stationed  near  the 
Keedysville  bridge,  his  corps  was  also  forced 
to  retire  to  the  position  from  which  it  had  ad 
vanced.  McClellan  now  ordered  Sumner  to 
advance,  and  this  resolute  commander  accord 
ingly  made  his  appearance  on  the  battlefield 
about  9  o'clock,  and  with  all  the  precision  of  a 
parade  moved  his  corps  of  four  divisions 
against  the  confederate  line,  over  a  part  of  the 
field  somewhat  to  the  left  of  that  covered  by 
Hooker  and  Mansfield,  but  directed  mainly 
against  the  woods  to  the  west  of  the  Dunker 
church  on  the  Hagerstown  road.  The  con 
federates,  having  had  time  to  rectify  and 
strengthen  their  lines,  received  this  formidable 
attack  with  steadiness;  but  so  fierce  was  the 
onset  of  Sumner's  right  division  under  Sedg- 
wick,  that  the  confederate  division  confronting 
him  was  driven  back  into  and  beyond  the 
woods,  when  it  was  strongly  reenforced  by 
troops  which  had  arrived  upon  the  field  only 
that  morning.  The  confederates  now  made  a 
spirited  counter  attack,  directing  their  move 
ment  mainly  against  Sedgwick,  who  was  in 
echelon  with  the  other  divisions  of  Sumner's 
corps,  and  therefore  poorly  supported  by  them. 
The  fighting  which  ensued  was  characterized 


.62 


ANTIETAM 


ANTIGONUS 


by  the  greatest  bravery,  but  wlien  it  ceased 
Simmer's  entire  corps  was  also  defeated,  and 
the  enemy's  line  completely  restored.  By  11 
o'clock  half  of  the  Union  army  and  nearly  all 
of  the  confederate  army  had  been  engaged. 
The  latter,  standing  in  a  close  and  compact 
line,  on  its  own  chosen  ground,  had  been  able 
to  act  as  a  unit,  while  the  former  at  the  out- 
start  was  divided  by  the  Antietam,  and  had 
spent  its  force  in  gallant  but  disconnected  at 
tacks,  resulting  in  defeat  by  detail,  accom 
panied  by  an  immense  loss  of  life.  Had  Lee 
known  at  any  time  during  the  afternoon  the 
extent  of  the  injury  he  had  inflicted  upon 
the  right  wing  of  the  Union  army,  and  as 
sumed  the  offensive,  it  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted 
that  he  would  have  gained  a  complete  victory 
notwithstanding  the  timely  arrival  of  Franklin's 
corps  on  that  part  of  the  field.  Neither  Burn- 
side's  nor  Porter's  corps  had  yet  been  seriously 
engaged,  although  the  former  had  been  ordered 
to  attack  simultaneously  with  the  other  corps. 
His  failure  to  carry  the  bridge  in  his  front  and 
to  effect  a  lodgment  beyond  was  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  was  swept  by  the  sharpshooters  of 
the  enemy's  right,  occupying  the  commanding 
hillocks  close  to  the  borders  of  the  creek.  The 
confederate  position  here  was  very  strong,  and, 
being  covered  by  the  Antietam,  almost  entire 
ly  impassable  in  this  portion  of  its  course,  was 
practically  unassailable.  Burnside  advanced 
promptly  as  ordered,  but  his  foremost  troops 
encountered  such  a  galling  fire  that  they  could 
not  even  reach  the  bridge,  miiQh  less  carry  it. 
After  several  hours'  delay  Burnside  succeeded 
in  throwing  one  brigade  across  the  creek  by  a 
ford  which  had  been  discovered  some  distance 
below,  thus  relieving  the  pressure  in  his  front, 
and  permitting  the  main  body  of  his  corps  to 
cross  by  the  bridge  and  to  secure  a  good  posi 
tion  on  the  right  bank  of  the  creek.  After 
reforming  his  lines  Burnside  advanced,  car 
ried  the  heights  beyond,  and  pressed  back 
the  enemy's  right  several  hundred  yards ;  but 
his  attack  not  being  supported  by  detach 
ments  from  the  other  parts  of  the  army,  as 
it  should  have  been,  he  was  defeated  and 
driven  back  almost  to  the  creek,  as  the  other 
corps  had  been.  Night  ended  the  conflict 
with  both  armies  concentrated  and  confront 
ing  each  other  on  the  W.  side  of  the  Antie 
tam.  On  the  18th  McClellan  stood  on  the  de 
fensive.  During  the  day  he  received  the  re- 
enforcement  of  two  strong  divisions  under 
Humphreys  and  Couch,  and  then  resolved  to 
attack  the  next  day;  but  meantime  Lee  had 
made  good  his  retreat  to  the  south  side  of  the 
Potomac.  McClellan's  loss  in  this  action  was 
2,010  killed,  9,410  wounded,  and  1,043  missing  ; 
total,  12,409.  Lee's  army,  having  fought  on  the 
defensive  throughout,  and  frequently  under  cov 
er,  is  estimated  by  confederate  writers  to  have 
lost  only  about  9,000.  This  battle  was  follow 
ed  rather  by  negative  than  positive  military  re 
sults.  The  confederate  army  retired  to  Vir 
ginia  and  assumed  a  defensive  attitude;  the 


people  of  Maryland  did  not  rise  in  rebellion, 
and  the  national  capital  did  not  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  invaders.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  political  measure  which  followed  it  was 
positive  ami  far-reaching  in  its  effects.  Presi 
dent  Lincoln  had  made  a  solemn  vow  that  if 
Gen.  Lee  \vas  driven  back  from  Maryland,  he 
would  crown  the  result  by  issuing  a  proclama 
tion  abolishing  slavery,  which  was  done,  at 
least  conditionally,  on  the  22d  day  of  Septem 
ber,  1802, 

AJNTIGONE,  one  of  the  tragic  characters  in 
the  Greek  legends,  a  daughter  of  (Edipus  by 
his  mother  Jocasta.  When  (Edipus,  after  dis 
covering  that  he  had  killed  his  father  and  mar 
ried  his  mother,  put  out  his  eyes  in  despair 
and  went  to  Attica,  Antigone  guided  him  on 
the  way  and  attended  on  him  till  his  death. 
She  then  returned  to  Thebes,  where  Ilrcmon, 
son  of  the  tyrant  Creon,  became  enamored  of 
her.  The  brothers  of  Antigone,  Polynices  and 
Eteocles,  having  fallen  in  the  war  for  the  pos 
session  of  Thebes,  and  she  having  attempted  to 
bury  Polynices  in  defiance  of  an  edict  of  Creon, 
the  tyrant  ordered  her  to  be  buried  alive  or  to 
be  shut  up  in  a  cave,  and  Hsemon  slew  himself 
by  her  side.  The  story  of  Antigone  was  a 
favorite  subject  with  the  great  tragic  poets  of 
Greece,  and  is  told  with  some  variations. 

AjYTIGOMS.     I.  The  Cyclops  (so  called  from 
having  lost  an  eye  in  battle),  a  Macedonian 
officer   of  Alexander   the   Great,    and    subse 
quently  king  of  Asia,   slain  at  the  battle  of 
Ipsus  in  Phrygia  in   301    B.  C.     At   the   dis 
tribution    of    Alexander's   empire,    Antigonus 
received    as    his   share    the    greater   Phrygia, 
|  Lycia,    and    Pamphylia.      Attacked    by   Per- 
!  diccas,  he  took  refuge  at  the  court  of  Antip- 
ater,  regent  of  Macedonia  and   Greece.      On 
!  the  death  of  Perdiccas  in   Egypt  (321),  An- 
i  tipater  made  a  new  distribution  of  the  Asiatic 
I  provinces.      Antigonus  had  Susiana  added  to 
i  his  former  dominions,  and  to  him  was  cornmit- 
1  ted  the  charge  of  annihilating  Eumenes,  the 
I  ally  of  Perdiccas.     By  bribing  one  of  his  offi- 
i  cers,  Antigonus  gained  a  victory  over  Eumenes 
i  and  shut  him  up  in  the  fortress  of  Nora  in 
;  Cappadocia.     In  the  mean  time  Antipater  died 
[  (319),  and  Antigonus  in  his  turn  began  to  as- 
|  pire  to  that  universal  dominion  at  which  Per- 
j  diccas  had  aimed.     First  destroying  Eumenes 
I  (310),  he  occupied  Susa,  the  Persian  capital, 
and  wrested  Babylonia  from  Seleucus.     A  co 
alition  was  now  formed  against  him  by  Seleu 
cus,  Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  Lysimachus  of  Thrace, 
and  Cassander,  the  son  of  Antipater;  but  An 
tigonus,  with  the  aid  of  Aristodemus  of  Mile 
tus,  succeeded  in  combining  many  of  the  Hel 
lenic  cities  in  his  support,  and,  though  Seleu 
cus  recovered  Babylonia,  the  Macedonian  gar 
risons  were  expelled  from  the  Peloponnesus, 
Euboea,  Thebes,  and  the  greater  part  of  Phocis 
and  Locris.     After  a  truce  of  one  year,  during 
which   Cassander  murdered  Roxana   and   the 
young  Alexander  (311),    the  war   broke   out 
again.     The  restored  Athenian  democracy  paid 


ANTIGONUS 


ANTI-LIBANUS 


563 


to  Antigonns  and  his  son  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
extravagant  honors.  Having  defeated  Ptolemy 
in  a  sea  light  off  Salamis  in  Cyprus  (300),  An- 
tigonus  threw  off  the  pretence  hitherto  kept 
up  by  the  generals  of  Alexander  that  they 
were  holding  merely  for  his  heirs,  and  as 
sumed  the  title  of  king.  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus, 
find  Seleucus  immediately  called  themselves 
kings  also.  Cassander,  general  of  Macedonia, 
held  hack  a  little  longer,  but  soon  followed. 
Cassander,  driven  out  of  Greece  by  Demetrius 
(303),  now  formed  a  league  against  Antigonns 
with  Seleucus  and  Ptolemy.  In  August,  301, 
the  armies  met  at  Ipsus.  Antigonus  and  his 
son  had  upward  of  70,000  foot,  10,000  horse, 
and  75  elephants;  the  coalition  had  64,000 
foot,  10,500  horse,  400  elephants,  and  120 
armed  chariots.  Demetrius  defeated  Antio- 
clms,  the  son  of  Seleucus,  but  pressed  him  too 
far  in  pursuit,  so  that  Seleucus  cut  him  off. 
The  Thracian  archers  of  Lysimachus  broke  the 
centre,  where  Antigonus,  now  at  the  age  of  81, 
was  commanding.  He  would  not  flee,  saying 
Demetrius  would  come  and  help  him,  and  died 
on  the  field  of  battle,  leaving  the  victory  to 
those  who  represented  the  principle  of  a  bal 
ance  of  power  in  the  world.  II.  Antigonus  Go- 
natts,  king  of  Macedonia,  grandson  of  the  pre 
ceding,  and  son  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  born 
in  319  B.  C.,  died  about  240.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  received  his  surname  from  his  native 
village  of  Gona  or  Gonni  in  Thessaly.  When 
his  father  was  captive  in  the  hands  of  Seleu 
cus,  king  of  Babylon,  Gonatas  offered  to  take 
his  place.  The  affairs  of  Macedonia  having 
fallen  into  confusion  after  the  invasion  of  the 
Gauls,  Ptolemy  Ceraunus  having  been  slain  by 
them,  and  Sosthenes  having  died,  Antigonus 
entered  Macedonia  with  a  small  force,  drove 
out  the  Gauls,  and  was  accepted  by  the  Ma 
cedonians  as  their  king,  277  B.  C.  But 
Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  expelled  him  in 
273,  and  he  fled  to  the  Peloponnesus.  On 
the  death  of  Pyrrhus  shortly  afterward  he 
recovered  Macedonia,  was  again  expelled  by 
Alexander,  son  of  Pyrrhus.  and  again  rein 
stated  by  his  own  son  Demetrius.  Xearly  all 
that  is  known  of  his  subsequent  reign  is  his  at 
tempt  to  prevent  the  formation  of  the  Acha?an 
league.  lie  was  succeeded  bv  his  son  Deme 
trius  If.  III.  Antigonns  Doson,  king  of  Mace 
donia,  born  in  280  B.  C.,  died  in  220.  His  sur 
name  was  given  him  to  signify  that  he  was 
always  promising  gifts  which  he  never  gave. 
He  was  an  illegitimate  grandson  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  and  in  220  was  named  guardian  of 
Philip,  the  young  son  of  Demetrius  II.,  whose 
widow  he  married.  The  Macedonian  nation 
preferred  his  rule  on  account  of  his  military 
talents,  and  chose  him  to  be  their  king.  lie 
was  successful  in  his  wars  for  the  suppression 
of  the  Dardanian,  Thessalian,  and  Moesian  re 
volts.  In  the  affairs  of  the  Peloponnesus  he  took 
the  part  of  Aratus  and  the  Achaean  league 
against  Cleomenes  and  the  Spartans.  He  de 
feated  Cleomenes  decisively  at  Sellasia  in  221, 


!  and  took  the  city  of  Sparta,  but  was  recalled 
I  by  a  revolt  of  the  Illyrians,  whom  he  defeated. 
I  He  was  succeeded  by  his  ward  Philip  V.  IV. 
j  King  of  the  Jews,  and  the  last  of  the  Asmo- 
j  neans,  born  in  80  B.  C.,  died  in  35.  He  was 
!  the  son  of  Aristobulus  II.,  and  was  made  pris- 
j  oner  and  sent  to  Rome  by  Pompey.  He  es- 
|  caped,  headed  a  revolt  in  Judea,  and  was 
j  taken  a  second  time  by  Gabinus,  who  sent  him 
again  to  Rome.  Julius  Caasar  permitted  him 
j  to  return.  He  was  placed  on  the  throne  of 
Judea  by  the  Parthians  in  40  B.  C.,  and  was 
|  besieged  in  Jerusalem  by  Herod  and  Sosius,  a 
j  lieutenant  of  Mark  Antony.  He  was  taken, 
j  sent  to  Antony,  scourged,  and  put  to  death. 

ANTIGUA,  one  of  the  British  West  India  islands, 
in  the  Leeward  group,  40  m.  N.  of  Guadeloupe, 
about  18  m.  in  diameter;  area,  108  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
j  in   1871,  with  the  adjacent  island  of  Barbuda, 
j  35,157,  including  2,146  whites.    It  is  the  resi- 
!  dence  of  the  governor  of  the  Confederation  of 
the  Leeward  Islands,  who  is  also  governor  of  An- 
!  tigua.    There  are  no  rivers,  and  the  coasts  are 
j  generally  dangerous  to  shipping;  but  there  are 
I  three  good  harbors:    St.  John's,   the  capital, 
i  on  the  W.  side ;    English  Harbor,  on  the  S., 
where  there  is  a  large  dockyard  and  a  royal  mail 
i  packet  station ;  and  Parham  on  the  X.    The  rev- 
|  enue  in  1869  amounted  to  £38,586,  the  expendi- 
I  ture  to  £39,252,  and  the  public  debt  to  £54,431. 
'  The  chief  products  consisted  in  1866  of  17,330 
hogsheads  of  sugar,  7,852  puncheons  of  molas 
ses,  and  696  of  rum;  and  the  total  tonnage  of 
vessels  entered  and  cleared,  exclusive  of  coast 
ing  trade,  was  43,906.     The  total  exports  in 
1869  were  £200,973,  and  the  imports  £174,- 
357. — Antigua  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1493.     A  few  English  settled  there  in  1 632.    In 
1666  a  grant  of  it  was  made  by  Charles  II.  to 
Lord  Willoughby.     After  an  interval  of  French 
occupation,  which  laid  waste  the  island,  it  was 
again  settled  by  Col.  Codrington  and  formally 
ceded  to  Great  Britain  (1667).     The  legislature 
liberated  the  slaves,  numbering  about  30.000, 
;  unconditionally  in   1834.      The  sum  awarded 
:  for  their  emancipation  was  nearly  £426,000, 
including  those  of  Amruilla.     The  island  con 
tains  besides  the  capital  five  towns,  and  about 
!  100   villages  of  emancipated  slaves.     Antigua 
is  one  of  the   Confederation  of  the  Leeward 
Islands.     This    Confederation    commenced    in 
May,    1872,   Sir   Benjamin   C.    C.    Pine   being 
governor. 

AMI-LIBAMS,  or  Anti-Lebanon,  a  mountain 
ridge  of  Palestine,  one  of  the  two  offsets  of  the 
Taurus  which  are  thrown  off  from  that  range 
as  it  passes  the  X.  E.  point  of  the  Mediterra 
nean  and  take  a  southern  direction  parallel  to 
each  other,  as  well  as  to  the  coast.  The  west 
ern  and  highest  of  these  ranges,  or  in  a  narrower 
sense  its  main  portion,  is  the  Libanus  or  Leba 
non;  the  eastern  is  the  Anti-Libanus,  called  by 
the  natives  Jebel  esh-Shurki.  In  the  central 
part  of  their  course  they  are  separated  by  the 
valley  of  Gale-Syria,  20  m.  in  breadth.  To 
the  south  the  Anti-Libanus  sends  off  a  spur 


564: 


ANTILLES 


ANTIMONY 


which  unites  with  the  Libanus,  and  so  sepa 
rates  the  inteiiying  valley  into  the  northern  or 
Syrian,  and  the  southern  or  valley  of  Jordan. 
Through  the  northern  tiows  the  Orontes  or 
Aasy.  In  the  heights  of  Ilermon,  the  uniting 
spur,  and  the  highest  land  of  the  Anti-Libanus 
range  (9,000  feet),  rises  the  Jordan,  which 
tiows  to  the  south  ;  between  it  and  the  Orontes 
rises  the  Leontes  or  Litany,  which,  coursing  to 
the  S.  W.,  enters  the  Mediterranean.  The  Anti- 
Libanus  range  is  lower  than  the  Libanus,  and  less 
continuous.  Geologically  it  is  less  fossiliferous, 
as  its  limestones  approach  a  crystalline  charac 
ter,  giving  more  striking  evidences  of  volcanic 
agency.  It  lacks  also  the  far-famed  cedars  of 
Lebanon,  its  foliage  being  mostly  of  white  pop 
lar.  It  abounds  in  small  lakes  enclosed  in  its 
small  table  lands,  a  characteristic  mostly  want 
ing  to  the  Libanus  range. 

ANTILLES,  a  name  of  somewhat  loose  appli 
cation,  but  generally  given  to  two  groups  of 
the  West  India  islands.  The  name  of  Antilla 
is  sometimes  supposed  to  have  been  applied  by 
Columbus  to  his  first  discoveries  in  the  new 
world,  because  a  continent  of  that  name  had 
previously  been  believed  to  exist  AV\  of  the 
Azores.  Others  derive  the  word  from  ante 
islas  (forward  islands),  and  apply  it  to  the 
Caribbean  group.  At  the  present  day  geog 
raphers  generally  distinguish  Cuba,  Ilayti, 
Porto  Rico,  Jamaica,  and  the  small  neighbor 
ing  islands  of  Caymanbrack,  Great  and  Little 
Cayman,  and  Isla  de  Pinos  as  the  Greater  An 
tilles  ;  and  the  Windward  group  or  Caribbeans, 
extending  in  a  semicircular  line  from  Porto 
Eico  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  as  the  Lesser 
Antilles.  (See  WEST  INDIES.) 

ANTI-MASONRY,  a  political  movement  which 
originated  in  the  state  of  New  York  in  1827. 
In  the  autumn  of  1826  AVilliam  Morgan,  a  me 
chanic  of  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  who  was  reported  to 
be  about  to  publish  a  volume  exposing  the  se 
crets  of  the  order  of  freemasons,  of  which  he 
had  been  a  member,  was  kidnapped  and  carried 
off.  Committees  of  vigilance  and  safety  were 
formed,  and  an  investigation  initiated,  which 
resulted  in  tracing  the  abductors  and  their  vic 
tim  westward  to  Fort  Niagara,  near  Lewiston, 
N.  Y.,  whence  it  appeared  that  Morgan  had 
been  taken  out  upon  Lake  Ontario  in  a  boat 
and  drowned.  This  was  the  final  conclusion  of 
those  who  prosecuted  the  investigation,  though 
reports  were  repeatedly  current  that  Morgan 
had  been  seen  alive  and  at  liberty  months  after 
his  reported  abduction.  One  of  these  accounts 
placed  him  in  Smyrna  in  Asia.  The  persons 
by  whose  aid  he  was  rapidly  and  quietly  con 
veyed,  in  a  carriage  drawn  by  relays  of  horses, 
from  Batavia  to  Fort  Niagara,  were  said  to  have 
been  freemasons.  Prosecutions  were  in  due 
time  instituted  against  those  whom  the  investi 
gation  showed  to  have  been  in  any  way  con 
cerned  in  the  abduction,  and  repeated  trials  re 
sulted  in  the  conviction  of  some  of  them  on 
minor  charges,  but  no  murder  was  ever  judi 
cially  established.  It  was  supposed  to  be  shown 


in  the  course  of  these  trials  that  the  masonic 
oath  disqualified  masons  in  certain  of  the  higher 
degrees  for  serving  as  jurors  in  any  case  where 
a  brother  mason  of  like  degree  was  a  party,  and 
his  antagonist  was  not.  The  anti-masonic  party 
was  thereupon  formed  in  western  New  York, 
and  polled  313,000  votes  for  its  candidate  for 
governor,  Solomon  Southwick,  in  1828.  This 
vote  rose  to  70,000  in  1829,  and  to  128,000 
for  Francis  Granger  for  governor  in  1830  ;  in 
which  aggregate,  however,  were  included  the 
suffrages  of  many  who  were  not  anti-masons. 
The  excitement  gradually  diffused  itself  into 
other  states,  and  in  1831  a  national  anti-mason 
ic  convention  was  held,  wherein  most  of  the 
free  states  were  represented,  and  William  Wirt 
of  Maryland  was  nominated  by  it  for  president 
of  the  United  States,  with  Amos  Ellmaker  of 
Pennsylvania  for  vice  president.  Mr.  Granger 
was  again  the  anti-masonic  candidate  for  gov 
ernor  of  New  York  in  1832,  and  received  the 
votes  of  nearly  all  opposed  to  the  reelection 
of  Gen.  Jackson,  but  was  defeated  by  about 
12,000  majority.  In  Pennsylvania  Joseph  Rit- 
ner  was  this  year  brought  forward  as  the  anti- 
masonic  candidate  for  governor,  and  beaten 
by  barely  3,000  votes  by  Gov.  Wolf,  who  had 
many  enemies  in  his  own  party ;  but  at  the 
presidential  election  in  the  same  year,  Gen. 
Jackson  carried  the  state  over  the  combined 
opposition  by  25,000  majority.  Anti-masonic 
state  and  electoral  tickets  were  supported  in 
many  if  not  most  of  the  free  states,  but  were 
successful  only  in  Vermont,  which  cast  her 
seven  electoral  votes  for  Wirt  and  Ellmaker. 
Vermont  remained  for  two  or  three  years  un 
der  anti-masonic  rule,  but  the  party  gradually 
faded  out,  and  was  absorbed  by  others  during 
the  political  and  financial  struggle  that  grew 
out  of  Gen.  Jackson's  veto  of  the  United 
States  bank  charter  in  1832,  and  the  removal' 
of  the  deposits  in  1833.  Until  then  western 
New  York,  the  theatre  of  the  Morgan  abduction 
and  the  cradle  of  the  anti-masonic  excitement, 
gave  large  anti-masonic  majorities ;  while  west 
ern  Pennsylvania,  northern  Ohio,  and  portions 
of  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  evinced  a 
preponderating  sympathy  therewith.  In  1835, 
during  the  struggle  which  followed  the  removal 
of  the  deposits,  Joseph  Ritner  was  chosen  gov 
ernor  of  Pennsylvania  as  an  anti-mason,  through 
a  division  in  the  democratic  ranks ;  but  the 
anti-masonic  party  gradually  lost  its  distinctive 
character,  and  soon  after  ceased  to  exist. 

ANTIMONY,  a  metal  first  extracted  from  the 
ore  in  1490  by  Basil  Valentine,  a  monk  of  Er 
furt,  It  is  of  a  silver- white  color,  slightly  bluish, 
of  strong  lustre,  and  of  a  peculiar  taste  and 
smell.  Its  texture  is  radiated  and  fibrous,  and 
the  metal  is  so  brittle  that  it  may  be  pounded 
to  powder  in  a  mortar.  For  this  reason  it  can 
not  be  used  alone  for  any  practical  purpose, 
but  combined  with  other  metals  it  forms  valua 
ble  alloys.  Its  specific  gravity  is  (5*7,  its  melt 
ing  point  842°  F.  At  common  temperature  it 
does  not  oxidize,  but  heated  moderately  in  the 


ANTIMONY 


565 


open  air,  it  takes  fire  and  burns  with  a  bright 
bluish-white  flame.  The  vapor  is  an  oxide, 
which  in  condensing  often  forms  beautiful  crys 
tals,  formerly  known  as  the  argentine  flowers 
of  antimony.  The  metal  also,  after  being  melt 
ed  in  close  crucibles  and  cooled  very  slowly, 
crystallizes  in  octahedral  forms.  The  name  is 
said  to  be  derived  from  anti-monachos,  or  anti- 
monks,  some  preparation  of  the  metal  havirfg 
proved  fatal  to  several  of  the  brotherhood,  not 
withstanding  it  had  been  observed  that  the 
same  mixture  had  a  fattening  effect  upon  hogs, 
after  purging  them.  A  more  probable  deriva 
tion  is  from  atimad,  its  Arabic  name.  The 
ancients  gave  the  name  stibium  to  some  com 
pound  of  the  ore  they  were  acquainted  with, 
which  was  without  doubt  the  common  ore 
of  commerce,  the  sulplmret.  This  name  is 
adopted  in  chemical  nomenclature  to  represent 
the  metal.  Its  symbol  is  Sb.  Antimony  is 
sometimes  found  in  a  metallic  state.  It  so 
occurs  in  the  Ilartz,  in  France,  and  in  Swe 
den.  The  only  important  natural  production 
of  it,  however,  is  the  sulphuret,  a  combination 
of  71-77  per  cent,  of  the  metal  and  28'23  of 
sulphur.  This  ore  is  of  a  lead-gray  color,  crys 
tallized  in  lamime  and  needles,  wrhich  are  very 
brittle  and  fusible  in  the  flame  of  a  candle.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  from  4'13  to  4'6 ;  hardness=r2.. 
It  is  easily  ground  to  a  black  powder,  and  in 
this  state  forms  a  pigment,  which  appears  to 
have  been  used  in  ancient  times  by  ladies  for 
coloring  the  eyebrows  and  edges  of  the  eyelids. 
The  ore  is  not  of  rare  occurrence  in  metallifer 
ous  districts ;  but  the  great  supply  of  it  is  from 
the  island  of  Borneo,  through  Singapore.  There 
are  mines  of  it  in  lower  Hungary,  France,  and 
Great  Britain.  A  large  vein  has  been  found  in 
Tulare  county,  California,  about  80  miles  from 
Los  Angeles,  in  a  high  granitic  range  that  bor 
ders  the  Tulare  valley  on  the  south.  Its  separa 
tion  from  the  sulphuret  is  now  effected  by  first 
melting  the  ore  in  crucibles,  perforated  at  the 
bottom,  and  placed  in  other  vessels.  As  the 
ore  melts,  it  flows  through  into  the  lower  ves 
sel,  unaltered  in  composition,.but  freed  from  its 
earthy  gangues.  This  is  the  crude  antimony  of 
commerce.  On  roasting  it  to  expel  the  sulphur, 
different  combinations  of  oxide  of  antimony 
and  sulphur  are  formed — as  the  glass  of  anti 
mony,  the  liver  of  antimony,  and  crocus.  The 
first-named  consists  of  8  parts  of  oxide  and  1  of 
sulphuret.  It  is  a  transparent  salt,  of  a  reddish 
yellow  color.  Crocus  contains  2  parts  of  sul 
phuret  to  8  of  the  oxide  ;  it  is  opaque  and  of 
yellow-red  color.  Liver  of  antimony  is  opaque 
and  deep  brown ;  it  consists  of  about  4  parts 
of  sulphuret  and  8  of  oxide. — Crude  anti 
mony  is  reduced  to  a  metallic  state  by  first 
carefully  roasting  it  to  obtain  the  oxide.  This 
is  then  mixed  with  crude  tartar,  or  with  car 
bonate  of  soda,  and  powdered  charcoal,  placed 
in  melting  pots,  and  heated  in  a  wind  furnace. 
An  impure  metal  is  thus  obtained,  called  the 
regulus  of  antimony.  This  is  again  melted  with 
a  small  proportion  of  oxide  of  antimony,  by 


which  it  is  freed  from  its  impurities.  Antimo 
ny  combines  with  oxygen  in  three  proportions, 
the  first  forming  the  peroxide,  Sb2O3 ;  the  third 
quinquioxide,  or  antimonic  acid  ;  and  the  sec 
ond  antimoniate  of  antimony,  or  quadroxide,  a 
compound  of  the  other  two. — The  most  impor 
tant  alloys  of  antimony  are :  type  metal,  con 
sisting  of  4  parts  lead  and  1  of  antimony,  which 
when  used  for  stereotyping  has  added  to  it  ^  to 
y-o  of  tin;  Britannia  metal,  100  parts  tin,  8 
antimony,  2  bismuth,  2  copper;  and  various 
white  alloys  used  for  teapots,  spoons,  and  forks. 
Pewter  may  be  made  of  12  parts  tin,  1  part  an 
timony,  and  a  little  copper. — Several  com 
pounds  of  antimony  are  used  in  medicine.  The 
pulvis  antimonialis,  corresponding  to  the  nos 
trum  James's  powder,  is  composed  of  1  part 
teroxide  of  antimony  and  2  parts  precipitated 
phosphate  of  lime.  Kermes  mineral  is  a  com 
pound  of  teroxide  and  tersulphide  in  varying 
proportion,  and  the  precipitated  sulphide  con 
tains  also  a  portion  of  teroxide.  The  most 
important  preparation  is  the  tartrate  of  anti 
mony  and  potassa,  or  tartar  emetic.  This 
drug  causes  vomiting  by  a  specific  effect  .upon 
the  nervous  centres.  It  has  a  peculiar  de 
pressing  effect  upon  the  heart  and  muscular 
system,  both  when  it  produces  vomiting  and 
when  tolerance,  as  it  is  called,  has  been  estab 
lished.  In  poisonous  doses  it  produces  burn 
ing  in  the  mouth,  throat,  and  stomach,  hic 
cough,  copious  secretion  of  mucus  and  saliva, 
colic  and  diarrhoea,  muscular  weakness,  some 
times  convulsions  and  cramp,  and  a  pulse  at  first 
weak  and  slow,  then  weak  and  rapid.  In  chron 
ic  poisoning  the  symptoms  are  similar,  but  less 
marked.  Frequently  repeated,  with  intervals 
of  comparative  ease,  they  lead  to  emaciation, 
loss  of  strength,  and  finally  fatal  depression. 
The  post-mortem  appearances  are  not  very 
characteristic,  and  for  medico-legal  purposes 
the  presence  of  the  drug  must  be  demonstrated. 
—There  are  various  processes  for  extracting 
antimony  from  suspected  matter,  which  consist 
essentially  in  oxidizing  and  dissolving  it  in 
acids.  Its  presence  may  be  demonstrated  by 
the  formation  of  characteristic  precipitates,  or 
by  its  deposit  in*a  metallic  form  by  Marsh's  or 
Reinsch's  test.  The  metallic  spot  formed  by 
antimony  in  Marsh's  test  is  less  volatile  than 
that  of  arsenic,  and  is  insoluble  in  hot  nitric 
acid  or  hypochlorite  of  soda,  both  of  which  dis 
solve  arsenic.  Tartar  emetic  is  much  less  used 
in  medicine  than  formerly,  but  still  finds  some 
favor  as  a  diaphoretic  and  expectorant,  and  as 
a  cardiac  sedative  in  inflammatory  diseases,  es 
pecially  pneumonia.  Statistics,  however,  do 
not  speak  in  its  favor  as  compared  with  less 
depressing  agents.  In  most  cases  other  sub 
stances  possess  advantages  over  this  drug  as  an 
emetic.  Externally,  in  the  form  of  ointment, 
it  produces  a  pustular  eruption.  In  poisoning 
by  tartar  emetic,  vomiting  should  be  encour 
aged  by  tickling  the  fauces  and  drinking  warm 
water,  or  the  stomach  pump  may  be  used. 
Tannin,  such  as  exists  in  galls  or  in  green  tea, 


566 


ANTINOMIAXS 


AOTIOCH 


renders  less  active  any  of  the  drug  which  may 
remain  in  the  stomach.  Subsequent  infiamma- 
tion  is  to  be  treated  on  general  principles. 

ANTIN09IIANS  (Gr.   avri,  against,  and   v<fyzof, 
law),  those  wlio  reject  the  moral  law  as  not 
binding  upon  Christians.     Some  go  further  and 
affirm  that  a  child  of  God  cannot  sin;  that  the 
moral  law  is  abrogated  as  a  rule  of  life ;  and 
that  good  works  hinder  salvation.     Wesley  de 
fines  antinoinianism  to  be  "  the  doctrine  which 
makes  void  the  law  through  faith."     Antino 
inianism  in  a  modified  form  early  showed  itself 
in   the    Christian   church,  as   appears  by  the 
Epistle  of  James,  and  later  in  the  writings  of 
Augustine,  by  whom  it  was  opposed.     Its  full 
development  is  due  to  John  Agricola  (1492- 
150(5),  one  of  the  early  coadjutors  of  Luther. 
He  maintained  that  the  moral  law  was  super 
seded  by  the  gospel ;  that  the  law  is  binding 
only  upon  unbelievers,  but  as  soon  as  a  man 
exercises  faith  in  Christ,  he  comes  under  a  new 
moral  economy  with  which  the  law  has  no  pos 
sible  relations ;  that  the  law  is  not  in  any  way 
instrumental  in  bringing  men  to  the  benefits  of 
the  new  dispensation,  but  that  faith  and  re 
pentance  are  to  be  secured  only  by  the  preach 
ing  of  the  gospel.     He  affirmed  that  these  con 
clusions   followed   as   necessary   consequences  j 
from  the  doctrines  taught  by  Luther,  and  that  | 
he  and  Melanchthon  were  inconsistent  in  not  } 
admitting    them.      The    controversy  between  ! 
Luther  and  Agricola  became  violent.     It  was 
partially  reconciled  at  a  conference  at  Torgau 
(1527),   when   after  a   sharp   debate   Agricola  ! 
retracted  his  doctrines ;  but,  according  to  Me-  I 
lanehthon,  "he  was  not  convinced,   but  over-  ! 
borne.''  In  1537  Agricola,  being  then  established  ! 
at  Wittenberg,  put  forth  anonymously  a  series  of  j 
theses  on  the  nature  of  repentance  and  its  re-  '•• 
lations  to  faith,  in  which  his  former  views  were 
more  strongly  expressed  :   "Art  thou  steeped  in  > 
sin,  an  adulterer  or  a  thief,  if  thou  believest, 
thou  art  in  salvation.     All  who  follow  Moses 
must    go   to    the  devil:  to  the   gallows  with 
Moses.''     Luther  replied  in  a  series  of  disputa-  j 
tions,  in  which  Agricola,  who  had  in  the  mean 
time  acknowledged  the  authorship  of  the  the-  j 
ses,  was  at  first  treated  tenderly ;  but   after-  ' 
ward    Luther   used   harsh   language,    classing  \ 
Agricola  with  the  Anabaptist  fanatics.    In  1540  : 
Agricola  again  retracted,  and  was  reconciled 
with  Luther.     The  controversy  was  however  \ 
carried   on  by  others   in    Germany. — Antino-  ! 
mianism  appeared  in  England  during  the  protec 
torate  of  Cromwell,  some  of  the  sectaries  main 
taining   that   "as  the  elect    cannot  fall   from  \ 
grace  nor  forfeit  the  divine  favor,  any  wicked  ' 
actions  which  they  may  commit  are  not  really  ; 
sinful ;  and  that,  consequently,  they  have  no 
need  to  confess  their  sins  or  to  break  them  off  j 
by  repentance."     In  the  17th  century  antino-  ! 
mianism  again  made  its  appearance  in  England,  • 
its  supporters  maintaining  that  it  was  a  logical 
consequence  from  the  doctrines  taught  by  Cal 
vin.     It  reappeared  in  the  18th  century  to  a 
considerable   extent    among  the  followers  of  ! 


Wesley.     It  was  earnestly  opposed  by  Wesley 
and  John  Fletcher,  the  latter  of  whom  wrote 
"Checks    to    Antinoinianism,"   probably   the 
ablest  of  his  works.     In  America  antinomian- 
|  ism  properly  so  called  has  never  been  main- 
!  tained  except  by  isolated  individuals,  although 
!  it  is  sometimes  used  by  polemics  as  a  term  of 
reproach.     Among  the   prominent  writers  in 
English  who  have  opposed  antinomianism  are 
John  Wesley,  John  Fletcher,  Robert  Hall,  and 
Andrew  Fuller. 

ANTINOUS,  a  beautiful  Bithynian  youth,  the 
favorite  of  the  emperor  Hadrian,  accompanied 
that  prince  on  his  journey  through  Egypt,  and 
was  drowned  in  the  Nile  A.  D.  132.  Accord 
ing  to  Dion  Cassius,  he  drowned  himself  under 
the  following  circumstances :  The  oracle  at  Besa 
had  informed  the  emperor  that  a  great  danger 
which  was  threatening  him  could  only  be 
averted  by  the  immolation  of  the  person  whom 
he  loved  most  fondly.  The  youth,  hearing  this, 
threw  himself  into  the  Nile  as  a  voluntary  sac 
rifice.  To  perpetuate  his  memory,  Hadrian 
built  near  Besa  the  magnificent  city  of  Antino- 
opolis  or  Antinoe  in  Middle  Egypt,  and  caused 
a  newly  observed  star  to  be  called  by  his  name. 
Antinous  was  deified,  mysteries  in  his  honor 
were  celebrated  at  Mantinea,  and  statues  of 
him  erected  throughout  the  Roman  world. 

AXTIOCH  (anc.  Antiofliia ;  Turk.  AntaMa  or 
AntaJcieK),  a  city  of  Syria,  was  the  most  mag 
nificent  of  16  cities  of  the  same  name  built  by 
Seleucus  Nicator,  about* 800  B.  C.,  in  memory 
of  liis  father  Antiochus.  It  was  distinguished  by 
the  appellation  Epidaplmes,  which  it  received 
from  the  neighboring  grove  of  Daphne,  con 
taining  a  magnificent  temple  of  Apollo.  (See 
DAPHNE.)  Antioch  was  advantageously  situ 
ated,  in  communication  with  all  the  trade  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  conveniently  approached  by 
caravans  from  the  east.  It  was  the  nourishing 
capital  of  the  Seleucid  empire,  and  subsequent 
ly  the  favorite  residence  of  wealthy  Romans. 
In  the  time  of  Chrysostom  its  free  population 
was  computed  at  200,000,  and  the  Christian 
church,  which  had  been  established  here  soon 
after  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen,  then  number 
ed  100,000.  The  inhabitants  were  distinguish 
ed  both  for  their  intellectual  and  their  luxuri 
ous  character.  A  high  Greek  civilization  was 
mingled  with  various  Asiatic  elements ;  a  pas 
sionate  love  of  frivolous  amusements  was  close 
ly  associated  with  a  strong  tendency  to  meta 
physics  and  a  solemn  faith  in  astrology.  To 
their  addiction  to  scurrilous  wit  and  the  in 
vention  of  nicknames  may  be  attributed  the 
appellation  "Christians"  first  given  in  this 
city  to  the  followers  of  Jesus  Christ.  For 
GOO  years  Antioch  deserved  the  title  which 
Pliny  gave  it  of  "queen  of  the  East."  About 
145  B.  C.  tens  of  thousands  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  had  revolted  against  Demetrius  II.  and  be 
sieged  him  in  his  palace,  perished  in  a  bloody 
struggle  with  the  Jewish  force  sent  for  his  res 
cue  by  Jonathan,  one  of  the  Maccabees.  In  A. 
D.  115  Antioch  was  almost  utterly  ruined  by  an 


ANTIOCII 


AXTIOCII  COLLEGE 


.567 


earthquake,  but  was  rebuilt  in  its  ancient  splen 
dor  by  the  contributions  and  influence  of  the 
emperor  Trajan.  In  155  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  restored  by  Antoninus  Pius.  On  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  empire  it  suffered  severely 
in  the  wars  with  Persia,  being  sacked  by  Sapor  I., 
Chosroes  I.,  and  Chosroes  II.  In  331  it  was  vis 
ited  by  a  famine  so  dreadful  that  a  bushel  of 
wheat  sold  for  400  pieces  of  silver.  The  same 
calamity  befell  the  city  in  the  reign  of  Julian, 
and  again  in  that  of  Theodosius.  The  inhabit 
ants  were  severely  punished  by  Theodosius  in 
387  for  resisting  the  payment  of  an  extraordi 
nary  tribute.  In  the  years  458,  520,  and  587 
Antioch  was  visited  by  earthquakes,  and  on 
each  occasion  nearly  ruined.  That  of  526  was 
the  most  destructive  of  life  of  any  on  record. 
Gibbon  states  that  250,000  persons  perished. 
In  638  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens, 
about  9 75  was  reannexed  to  the  Byzantine  em 


pire,  in  1098  was  taken  by  the  crusaders,  and 
in  1268  its  power  was  extinguished  by  Sultan 
Bibars.  (See  BOHEMOND.)  The  bishop  of  Anti 
och  in  the  5th  century  received  the  title  of  patri 
arch,  and  ranked  next  to  the  bishops  of  Rome, 
Constantinople,  and  Alexandria.  In  the  Greek 
church  he  still  ranks  immediately  after  the 
patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  Alexandria. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  church  four  bishops 
bear  the  title  of  patriarch  of  Antioch,  those  of 
the  Maronite,  United  Greek,  LTnited  Syrian, 
and  Latin  rites.  None  of  the  present  patri 
archs  of  Antioch  reside  in  Antakieh. — Anta- 
kieh,  or  modern  Antioch,  is  situated  on  the 
S.  bank  of  the  Orontes,  which  at  this  place 
is  about  120  feet  wide,  55  m.  W.  of  Aleppo; 
pop.  about  12,000.  S.  of  the  city  is  a  high 
mountain,  the  sides  of  which  Ibrahim  Pasha 
fortified  to  command  the  town.  It  has  a  num 
ber  of  insignificant  mosques  with  low  mina- 


City  of  Antioch. 


rets,  and  several  Christian  churches.     Most  of  I 
the  Christians  in  Antioch  and  the  neighboring  j 
mountains  are    Armenians,  among  whom  the  j 
American  missionaries  have  made  many  con-  \ 
verts.     Silk  is  much  cultivated  here,  and  ex-  j 
ported  in  a  raw  state  to  France.     Oil,  soap,  j 
and  leather  are  also  manufactured,  and  grain. 
honey,  and  butter  are  exported  in  large  quan 
tities.      The  fertile  plains  of  Antioch  are  quite 
uncultivated,   being    subject   to    raids    by  the 
Turcoman  robbers,  who  are  more  dreaded  by 
the  peasantry  than  the  Bedouins;    but  on  the 
hills  around  are  numerous  plantations  of  figs, 
olives,  and  vines.      Large  herds  of  horses  in  a 
half  wild  state  roam  the  plains;  they  are  reared 
by  the  Turcomans  for  the  Syrian  markets.     In 
1822  the  town  again   suffered   severely  from 
an  earthquake;  and  on  April  3  and  10,  1872, 
heavy  shocks  occurred,  overthrowing  part  of  i 


the  walls,  rending  the  ancient  Roman  bridge  in 
several  places,  and  destroying  a  great  number 
of  the  houses  in  the  city  and  in  the  surround 
ing  villages  and  several  thousand  lives. 

AXTIOCH  COLLEGE,  a  seat  of  learning  at 
Yellow  Springs,  Green  county,  Ohio,  75  m. 
IN.  E.  of  Cincinnati.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1852,  and  its  buildings,  erected  at  an  expense 
of  $150,000,  occupy  a  beautiful  and  health 
ful  situation.  The  college  is  designed  to  give 
education  as  cheaply  as  possible  to  the  people 
of  the  West ;  to  open  every  opportunity  equally 
to  men  and  women;  and  to  be  religious  but 
not  sectarian.  It  requires  sound  moml  char 
acter  in  the  students,  not  less  than  scholarship. 
Horace  Mann  was  its  president  from  1853  till 
his  death  in  1859,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Thomas  Hill,  D.  D.,  who  held  the  position  until 
elected  president  of  Harvard  college  in  1862. 


568 


ANTIOCIIUS 


In  1866  George  W.  Hosmer,  D.  D.,  of  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  was  chosen  president,  but  resumed  the 
office  in  1872,  and  was  succeeded  by  Prof.  Ed 
ward  Orton.  The  education  of  the  two  sexes 
together  has  proved  successful.  About  one  third 
of  the  pupils  have  been  women,  and  the  moral 
tone  of  the  students  has  been  excellent.  The 
average  number  in  attendance  in  all  depart 
ments  for  the  last  five  years  has  been  about  1  (55. 
The  highest  cost  of  tuition  in  the  college  course 
is  $30  a  year.  There  are  seven  professors  and 
four  assistant  female  teachers.  The  college  has 
an  endowment  of  $103,000.  By  a  recent  vote 
of  the  board  of  trustees,  an  offer  is  made  to 
the  high  schools  of  Ohio  of  free  tuition  to  one 
young  man  and  one  young  woman  in  each 
school  yearly,  who  shall  be  well  prepared  to 
enter  the  freshman  class.  A  preparatory  school 
and  a  musical  institute  are  attached  to  the  col 
lege,  and  under  the  supervision  of  the  faculty. 
ANTIOCIHS,  the  name  of  several  kings  of 
Syria,  of  whom  the  following  are  the  most  im 
portant  in  its  history:  I.  Antiodms  I.,  Soter, 
born  about  325  B.  C.,  died  in  261.  He  was 
the  son  of  Seleucus  Nicator  and  Aparna,  the 
daughter  of  the  Persian  satrap  Artabazus.  At 
the  battle  of  Ipsus  he  commanded  the  cavalry 
of  his  father,  and  was  routed  by  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.  lie  fell  ill  through  love  for  his 
stepmother  Stratonice,  and  his  father  not  only 
abandoned  to  him  the  object  of  his  desire,  but 
abdicated  a  portion  of  his  dominions  in  his  fa 
vor,  lie  joined  his  father  in  his  expeditions 
into  the  countries  lying  between  the  Indus 
and  the  Caspian.  On  the  assassination  of  Se 
leucus  in  Thrace  (280)  he  inherited  all  his  do 
minions.  In  his  reign  a  division  of  the  Gauls, 
who  had  ravaged  Macedonia,  Hellas,  and 
Thrace,  penetrated  into  Asia  Minor,  and  set 
tled  permanently  in  northern  Phrygia,  subse 
quently  known  as  Galatia.  Antiochus  gained 
a  brilliant  victory  over  them  in  275,  from 
which  he  took  his  surname  of  Soter  (Saviour). 
He  disputed  the  throne  of  Macedon  with  An- 
tigonus  Gonatas,  the  son  of  Demetrius  Polior 
cetes ;  but  the  matter  was  arranged  by  Anti- 
gonus  retaining  the  throne  and  marrying  the 
daughter  of  Antiochus.  After  an  unsuccessful 
war  with  Eumeiies,  king  of  Pergamus,  he  put 
to  death  his  eldest  son,  Ptolemy,  who  had  re 
volted  against  him.  He  was  killed  by  a  Gaul 
in  a  battle  near  Ephesus.  II.  Antiochns  HI.,  the 
Great,  son  of  Seleucus  Callinicus  and  Laodicea, 
born  about  2o8  B.  C.,  slain  in  187.  He  suc 
ceeded  his  brother  Seleucus  Ceraunus  at  a  time 
when  his  kingdom  was  in  a  disorganized  con 
dition.  After  reducing  a  revolt  of  the  govern 
ors  of  Media  and  Persia,  and  of  Artabazanes, 
governor  of  Atropatene,  he  was  defeated  by 
Ptolemy  Philopator  near  Gaza  (217)  in  an  at 
tempt  to  secure  possession  of  Coele-Syria  and 
Palestine,  but  recovered  his  laurels  by  suppress 
ing  the  rebellion  of  his  cousin  Achteus,  whom 
he  besieged  in  Sardis,  captured  by  treachery, 
and  put  to  death,  thus  reannexing  a  consider 
able  portion  of  A^ia  Minor  to  the  Syrian  mon 


archy  (214).  In  pursuance  of  his  scheme  of 
restoring  his  kingdom  to  the  position  it  held  at 
the  death  of  its  founder,  Seleucus  Xicator,  he 
turned  his  arms  against  Parthia,  and  reduced 
Arsaces  III.  to  vassalage,  lie  was  unsuccessful 
against  Euthymedus,  king  of  Bactria.  Crossing 
the  mountains  of  Paropamisus  (Hindoo  Koosh) 
into  India,  he  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the 
king  of  the  Punjaub,  and  directed  his  march 
homeward  through  the  provinces  of  Arachosia, 
Drangiana,  and  Carmania,  and  reestablished  the 
Syrian  supremacy  in  those  regions.  Eor  this 
seven  years'  expedition  he  received  from  his  sub 
jects  the  surname  of  the  Great.  Soon  after  his  re 
turn  to  Antioch  (205),  Ptolemy  Philopator  died, 
and  his  sou  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  then  five  years 
old,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Egypt.  Anti 
ochus  thereupon  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Philip  of  Macedon  to  overrun  and  partition 
Egypt.  He  quickly  gained' possession  of  Pales 
tine  and  Coele-Syria,  and  after  a  great  victory 
near  Paneas  was  received  by  the  Jews  in  Jerusa 
lem  with  great  enthusiasm.  Learning  the  defeat 
of  his  ally  Philip  by  the  Romans  at  Cynoscepha- 
Ia3  in  197,  he  made  peace  with  Ptolemy,  pro 
ceeded  with  a  fleet  along  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  reducing  many  of  the  Greek  cities  there, 
crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  took  possession  of 
the  Thracian  Chersonese.  The  Roman  senate 
sent  an  ambassador  in  196  to  demand  that  he 
should  restore  what  he  had  taken  from  Philip 
and  Ptolemy,  whose  guardianship  the  Roman 
people  had  just  assumed.  They  also  demanded 
immunity  for  their  ally  Attains,  king  of  Per 
gamus.  Antiochus  replied  that  as  he  did  not 
seek  to  interfere  with  what  the  Romans  did 
in  Italy,  they  must  not  trouble  him  in  Asia. 
In  the  following  year  (195)  Ihmnibal,  driven 
from  Carthage,  took  refuge  with  Antiochus  at 
Ephesus.  Hannibal's  advice  was  to  carry  the 
war  immediately  into  Italy,  but  Antiochus  did 
not  move  till  192.  Then  he  crossed  over  into 
Greece  at  the  invitation  of  the  ^Etolians,  who 
were  in  arms  against  the  Romans.  He  brought 
only  10,000  men  with  him,  but  was  chosen  com- 
mander-in-chief  by  the  .Etolian  assembly,  and 
began  by  making  Philip  of  Macedon  his  enemy 
instead  of  his  friend.  After  capturing  Euboca, 
instead  of  pressing  forward,  he  wasted  his  time 
in  treating  about  the  surrender  of  a  number  of 
little  cities,  fell  in  love  with  a  Euba>an  damsel 
and  married  her,  and  spent  the  winter  at  Chal- 
cis  in  a  round  of  dissipation,  in  which  his  army 
shared.  The  Roman  consul  Acilius  Glabrio, 
with  Cato  for  his  legate,  now  advanced  upon 
him.  He  made  a  stand  at  Thermopyla3,  was 
entirely  routed,  and  barely  escaped  with  his 
new  wife  (191).  The  next  year  Lucius  Corne 
lius  Scipio  took  the  conduct  of  the  war,  with 
his  brother  Africanus  as  his  lieutenant.  Dis 
heartened  and  panic-struck  by  the  defeat  of  his 
fleet,  Antiochus  withdrew  his  troops  from  Ses- 
tos  and  Ahydos,  and  the  other  fortified  mari 
time  cities  of  Asiatic  Greece,  which  might 
have  held  the  Romans  in  check.  Thus  the  lat 
ter  had  free  passage  into  Asia.  The  two  ar- 


ANTIOQUIA 


ANTIPATER 


569 


mies  mot  at  Magnesia  nearMt.  Sipylus  ;  that  of 
Antiochns  numbered  70,000  men,  that  of  the 
Romans  30,000.  The  Syrians  were  thoroughly 
defeated  and  cut  to  pieces,  and  Antiochns  was 
compelled  to  submit  to  whatever  terms  the 
Romans  chose  to  impose.  These  terms  were 
to  resign  the  provinces  west  of  the  Taurus,  to 
pay  a  large  sum  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  to 
deliver  up  to  the  Romans  his  elephants  and 
ships  of  war,  and  to  surrender  Hannibal  and 
the  other  anti-Roman  refugees.  Hannibal  and 
another  were  allowed  to  save  themselves  by 
flight;  the  rest  were  given  up  together  with 
hostages  for  the  execution  of  the  treaty. 
One  of  these  hostages  was  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes,  the  king's  younger  son.  In  collecting 
means  to  pay  the  indemnity,  he  plundered  a 
wealthy  temple  in  the  province  of  Elymais, 
upon  which  the  indignant  people  rose  and 
massacred  him  and  his  attendants.  III.  An- 
tioelms  IV.,  Epiphancs,  or  the  Illustrious,  second 
son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded  his  elder  bro 
ther  Seleucus  Philopator  in  175  B.  C.,  died  in 
164.  He  was  kept  as  hostage  at  Rome  until  his 
brother  sent  his  own  son  Demetrius  to  replace 
him.  He  recovered  Coele-Syria  and  Palestine 
in  a  single  campaign  (171),  overran  all  Egypt 
except  Alexandria,  took  captive  the  young 
king,  Ptolemy  Philometor,  and  in  170  sacked 
Jerusalem  and  plundered  the  temple,  as  related 
in  the  book  of  the  Maccabees.  He  undertook 
four  expeditions  into  Egypt,  and  would  have  an 
nexed  that  country  had  not  the  Roman  ambas 
sadors  met  him  on  the  last  occasion  (168)  and 
ordered  its  immediate  evacuation.  On  his  re 
turn  home  he  commenced  that  great  persecu 
tion  of  the  Jews  which  is  related  in  the  2d 
book  of  the  Maccabees,  during  which  time  the 
service  of  the  temple  was  broken  off  for  three 
years.  He  set  up  the  statue  of  Jupiter  Olym 
pus  there,  and  desired  to  introduce  the  wor 
ship  of  the  Greek  deities,  but  was  thwarted 
by  the  insurrection  of  Mattathias  and  his  sons 
the  Maccabees.  After  a  frustrated  attempt  to 
plunder  a  temple  in  Elymais,  he  became  raving 
mad,  in  which  condition  he  died.  His  subjects 
called  him,  in  parody  on  his  surname,  Epiina- 
nes,  the  madman. 

ANTIOQUIA,  one  of  the  nine  states  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  between  lat.  5°  3' 
and  8°  9'  K,  and  Ion.  74°  3'  and  76°  13'  W., 
touching  the  gulf  of  Darien  on  the  X.  "W.,  and 
bounded  by  the  states  of  Bolivar,  Santander, 
Cundinamarca,  Tolima,  and  Cauca;  area,  24,823 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  365,974,  about  20  per  cent. 
white,  the  remainder  mestizos  (mixed  white 
and  Indian),  mulattoes,  and  Indians,  chiefly  civ 
ilized.  The  central  range  of  the  Andes  spreads 
put  over  nearly  the  whole  state,  terminating  in 
its  E.  and  N.  E.  portions.  The  river  Cauca 
flows  through  its  entire  length,  and  the  Magda- 
lena  forms  the  -E.  boundary,  and  is  navigable 
for  steamers  of  light  draught.  Antioquia  is 
rich  in  gold,  and  although  the  mines  and  wash 
ings  are  but  little  worked,  the  annual  produce 
is  estimated  at  $2,500,000.  The  soil  is  ex 


tremely  fertile,  and  the  valleys  lying  between 
the  various  mountain  ranges  abound  in  cat 
tle.  Springs  impregnated  with  iodine  abound 
throughout  the  state,  to  which  is  attributed  the 
exemption  of  the  inhabitants  from  goitre,  which 
prevails  in  other  parts  of  the  republic.  The 
principal  cities  are  Medellin,  the  capital,  Ca- 
ceres,  Remedios,  and  Zaragoza. 

AMIPAROS  (anc.  Oliarus  or  Olearus),  an 
island  of  the  Grecian  archipelago,  one  of  the 
Cyclades,  forming  part  of  the  eparchy  of  Naxos, 
Greece,  about  3  by  7  m.,  separated  from  Paros 
by  a  strait  1^  m.  wide;  pop.  about  1,000. 
Cotton,  barley"  and  wine  are  produced  in  small 
quantities.  The  island  contains  masses  of  w  bite 
marble,  and  is  celebrated  for  a  grotto,  120 
yards  long,  113  wide,  and  60  feet  high,  situated 
2  m.  from  the  sea,  at  an  elevation  of  500  feet. 
It  consists  of  an  immense  marble  arch,  the  roof, 
sides,  and  centre  of  which  are  covered  with 
stalactites  and  dazzling  crystallizations  assum 
ing  the  shapes  of  columns,  screens,  flowers, 
trees,  &c.  The  stalactites  hanging  from  the 
roof  unite  in  several  places  with  stalagmites 
rising  from  the  floor,  so  that  the  arch  is  appa 
rently  supported  by  a  continuous  series  of  pil 
lars.  The  grotto  is  entered  by  a  natural  arch 
of  rugged  rock,  overhung  with  trailing  plants. 

AMIPAS,  Herod.     See  HEROD. 

AMIPATER,  a  Macedonian  general,  one  of 
the  successors  of  Alexander,  born  about  390 
B.  C.,  died  in  319.  He  was  educated  by  Aris 
totle.  Appointed  viceroy  of  Macedonia  and 
Greece  when  Alexander  made  his  expedition 
into  Asia,  he  defeated  the  Spartans  and  slew 
their  king  Agis  in  331.  Alexander  became  dis 
trustful  of  him,  and  ordered  him  to  be  super 
seded,  but  died  before  the  change  could  be 
made.  At  the  division  of  the  empire,  Antip- 
ater  received  Macedonia  and  Greece,  and  the 
guardianship  of  the  future  child  of  Alexander 
by  Roxana.  When  the  death  of  Alexander  be 
came  known,  the  Athenians  determined  to 
strike  again  for  liberty,  and  made  an  alliance 
with  the  ^Etolians,  Thessalians,  and  all  the 
Greeks  north  of  the  isthmus  except  the  Bceo- 
tians,  and  with  the  Peloponnesians  who  were 
not  of  the  Lacedemonian  party.  The  allies, 
under  the  Athenian  Leosthenes,  were  at  first 
successful ;  but  Antipater,  having  been  reen- 
forced,  gave  them  battle  in  322  at  Crannon  in 
Thessaly,  and,  though  the  victory  was  not  com 
plete,  compelled  them  to  sue  separately  for 
peace.  The  Athenians  and  JEtolians,  deserted 
by  their  allies,  were  unable  to  continue  the 
struggle.  Antipater  demanded  the  surrender 
of  Demosthenes  and  Hyperides,  the  two  demo 
cratic  orators,  put  a  Macedonian  garrison  in 
Munychia  to  act  in  concert  with  Phocion 
and  the  Athenian  conservative  party,  broke  up 
the  democratic  constitution  of  Athens,  and  left 
the  government  in  the  hands  of  about  9,000 
citizens  who  were  possessed  of  a  property  qual 
ification,  and  were  disposed  to  peace,  banishing 
most  of  the  other  citizens  to  various  parts.  He 
\  drove  the  ^Etolians  into  their  mountains,  and 


570 


ANTIPIION 


ANTI-EENTISM 


starved  them  into  submission.  After  the  death 
of  Perdiccas  (321),  Antipater  made  a  new  di 
vision  of  the  provinces,  giving  a  part  of  the  ter 
ritory  of  Perdiccas  to  Antigonus,  part  to  Lyshn- 
achus,  and  part  to  Seleucus. 

ANTIPHOS,  an  Athenian  orator,  son  of  So- 
pliilus  the  sophist,  born  at  Rhamnus  in  Attica 
about  480  B.  0.,  died  in  411.  lie  taught  rhet 
oric  at  Athens,  composed  orations  for  others, 
was  the  first  who  received  money  for  such  ser 
vices,  and  is  believed  to  be  the  first  who  sub 
jected  the  art  of  oratory  to  strict  theoretical 
rules.  He  was  the  most  active  leader  in  the 
revolution  which  established  the  oligarchy  of 
the  400  in  411;  and  his  only  public  speech  was 
the  one  he  delivered  in  his  own  defence  on  its 
overthrow  in  the  same  year.  Tlmcydides 
called  it  the  ablest  that  was  ever  made  in  simi 
lar  circumstances,  but  it  is  now  lost.  Antiphon 
was  condemned  to  death.  There  are  15  of  his 
orations  extant,  the  best  edition  of  which  is 
that  of  Dobson  (London,  1828). 

ANTIPIIOXY  (Gr.  av-ijuwia,  response),  the  re 
sponse  which,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  service, 
one  side  of  the  choir  makes  to  the  other  in  the 
chant.  Antiphonal  or  responsive  singing  is  the 
most  ancient  form  of  church  music,  and  is  said 
by  the  historian  Socrates  to  have  been  first  in 
troduced  among  the  Greeks  by  Ignatius,  and 
among  the  Latins  by  St.  Ambrose.  The  chant 
ing  of  the  psalms  alternately  is  doubtless  older 
than  Christianity,  and  prevailed  in  the  temple 
service  of  the  Jews,  many  of  the  psalms  being 
composed  in  alternate  verses  as  if  with  a  view 
to  this  mode  of  singing.  In  the  cathedral  wor 
ship  of  the  Catholic  church,  two  full  choirs  are 
stationed  one  on  each  side  of  the  sanctuary, 
one  of  which,  having  chanted  a  verse,  remains 
silent,  while  the  opposite  choir  replies  in  the 
verse  succeeding;  and  at  the  end  of  each 
psalm  the  Gloria  Patri  is  sung  by  the  united 
choirs  in  chorus. 

ANTI-REffTISM,  The  Dutch  West  India  com 
pany  authorized  its  members  in  New  York  to 
take  up  land  upon  the  banks  of  the  streams 
and  rivers,  on  condition  of  introducing  within 
a  limited  time  50  settlers  for  every  mile  of  land. 
The  proprietor  was  invested  with  the  title  and 
privileges  of  a  lord  patroon  or  protector,  and 
his  colony  or  manor  was  governed  by  the  same 
customs  and  laws  as  were  the  feudal  manors  of 
the  United  Provinces.  After  the  revolution  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  land  in  the  settled 
parts  of  New  York  was  held  by  the  patroons, 
and  the  cultivators  occupied  their  farms  on 
leases  for  one  or  more  lives,  or  from  year  to 
year,  stipulating  for  the  payment  of  rents,  dues, 
and  services,  copied  from  the  feudal  tenures  of 
England  and  Holland.  In  1770  and  1785  laws 
were  enacted  by  the  legislature  of  the  state 
abolishing  feudal  tenures,  but  the  proprietors 
of  manor  grants,  unwilling  to  give  up  all  their 
feudal  claims,  contrived  a  form  of  deed  by 
which  the  grantees  covenanted  to  perform 
services,  and  pay  rents  and  dues,  precisely  sim 
ilar  to  the  feudal  incidents  thus  abolished. 


The  counties  of  Albany,  Rensselaer,  Columbia, 
Greene,  Ulster,  Delaware,  Schoharie,  Mont 
gomery,  Herkimer,  Otsego,  and  Oneida  include 
within  their  limits  most  of  these  manors.  In 
1839  associations  were  formed  to  devise  means 
for  getting  rid  of  these  burdens,  and  soon  be 
came  known  as  anti-rent  associations.  The 
anti-rent  feeling  manifested  itself  in  open  re 
sistance  to  the  service  of  legal  process  for  the 
collection  of  manorial  rents.  The  first  conflict 
which  awakened  general  attention  happened  in 
the  town  of  Grafton,  Rensselaer  county,  where 
a  band  of  anti-renters  in  disguise  killed  a  man 
named  Smith  during  an  altercation  on  the 
highway.  A  legal  investigation,  at  which 
more  than  200  persons  were  from  time  to  time 
examined,  failed  to  disclose  the  author  of  the 
deed.  In  his  messages  of  1841  arid  1842,  Gov. 
Seward  discussed  the  grievances  complained  of 
by  the  tenants.  He  recommended  a  reference 
of  the  matters  in  dispute  to  arbitrators,  and 
appointed  three  men  to  investigate  and  report 
to  the  legislature.  This  commission  failed  to 
accomplish  anything.  The  disaffection  arid  ex 
citement  increased,  until,  after  a  tragical  affair 
at  Andes  in  Delaware  county  in  1845,  Gov. 
Wright  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  the 
county  in  a  state  of  insurrection.  The  trials 
and  convictions  at  Delhi  in  that  county,  and 
the  convictions  of  certain  anti-renters  at  Hud 
son,  Columbia  county,  for  conspiracy  and  re 
sistance  to  law,  put  an  end  to  operations  by  the 
disguised  bands.  The  anti-rent  associations 
determined  to  form  a  political  party,  whose 
policy  should  be  to  elect  jtll  town  and  county 
officers  from  their  own  ranks,  and  to  vote  for 
no  state,  civil,  judicial,  or  executive  officers 
unfriendly  to  them,  or  unpledged  to  their 
cause.  In  the  legislatures  of  1842-"7  about 
one  eighth  of  the  members  were  elected  in  the 
interest  of  the  anti-renters.  In  the  constitu 
tional  convention  of  1846  some  of  the  ablest 
men  were  avowedly  anti-renters,  or  advocates 
of  their  measures  and  principles.  Their  influ 
ence  procured  the  insertion  of  a  clause  in  the 
new  constitution  abolishing  all  feudal  tenures 
and  incidents,  and  forbidding  the  leasing  of 
agricultural  land  for  a  term  exceeding  12  years. 
The  legislature  at  successive  sessions  passed 
laws  which  bore  heavily  upon  the  landlord 
interest,  and  tended  gradually  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  the  tenants.  In  1846  Gov.  Wright, 
who  was  a  candidate  for  reelection,  was  de 
feated  by  10,000  majority  for  John  Young, 
whom  the  anti-renters  hud  nominated.  Gov. 
Young  pardoned  from  the  state  prison  all  the 
so-called  anti-rent  convicts,  on  the  ground  that 
their  offences  were  rather  political  than  crimi 
nal, -and  that  it  was  the  wise  policy  of  all  good 
governments  to  forgive  and  restore  to  citizen 
ship  political  offenders,  after  the  law  had  been 
vindicated  and  order  and  peace  restored.  After 
1847  the  excitement  died  out,  the  anti-rent  in 
fluence  ceased  to  be  a  disturbing  force  in  poli 
tics,  and  the  anti-rent  organization  contented 
itself  with  efforts  to  contest  in  the  courts  the 


ANTISANA 


ANTISPASMODICS 


571 


validity  of  the  titles  of  the  landlords,  and  the 
legality  of  the  conditions  and  covenants  con 
tained  in  the  manor  grants. 

ANTISANA,  a  volcanic  mountain  of  Ecuador,  in 
the  eastern  Cordillera,  35  m.  S.  E.  of  Quito,  ac 
cording  to  Humboldt,  10,148  ft.  high ;  according 
to  Wisse,  1(.),279.  An  eruption  in  1590  is  re 
corded  ;  and  Humboldt  saw  smoke  issuing  from 
several  openings  in  1802.  Four  immense  lava 
streams  descend  from  the  snowy  summit,  one 
of  which,  the  Volcan  de  Ansango,  is  10  m.  long 
and  500  ft.  deep.  The  lava  is  mainly  a  black, 
cellular,  trachytic  porphyry.  But  the  volcano 
is  now  dormant,  if  not  extinct.  On  its  side  is 
Lake  Mica,  near  which  is  the  celebrated  Haci 
enda,  one  of  the  highest  habitations  in  the 
world  and  the  centre  of  an  extensive  corral. 
Humboldt  made  its  altitude  13,465  feet;  Bous- 
singault,  13,356;  Orton,  13,300. 

ANTI-SCORBUTICS.     See  SCURVY. 

ANTISEPTICS  (Gr.  am',  against,  and  o^rr-rdf, 
putrid),  substances  or  means  which  prevent  or 
arrest  putrefaction.  Putrefaction  is  a  process 
which  highly  complex  organic  bodies  undergo 
when  subjected  to  the  proper  conditions  of 
heat,  moisture,  and  air,  and  no  longer  con 
trolled  by  the  laws  of  vital  chemistry.  Nitro 
genous  or  albuminoid  bodies  are  essential  to 
this  process,  in  which  they  play  the  double 
part  of  being  themselves  decomposed  and,  by 
an  imperfectly  understood  action  called  catal 
ysis,  exciting  allied  changes  in  other  bodies. 
The  growth  of  living  infusorial  organisms  hold 
ing  a  very  low  position  in  the  scale  of  animal 
or  vegetal  >le  life,  called  vibrios  and  bacteria,  is 
a  frequent  if  not  invariable  accompaniment  of 
this  process ;  but  it  is  still  a  question  how  es 
sential  they  are  in  its  production.  The  meth 
ods  of  preventing  organic  decomposition  de 
pend  upon  the  removal  of  some  one  or  more 
of  the  conditions  necessary  for  its  accomplish 
ment.  The  temperature  may  be  above  or  be 
low  the  limits  at  which  putrefaction  can  go  on. 
The  preservative  effect  of  cold,  and  especially 
of  dry  cold,  is  well  known,  and  exemplified 
in  the  keeping  of  meat  and  fruit  on  ice  or 
in  ice  houses.  Anim?ls  have  been  found 
undecornposed  in  the  ice  of  Siberia,  which 
belong  to  extinct  species  and  which  must  have 
been  embalmed  in  ice  for  ages.  A  boiling  tem 
perature  coagulates  albumen,  kills  infusorial 
organisms,  and  temporarily  arrests  putrefac 
tion,  until  the  material  receives  a  new  ferment 
from  without.  The  exclusion  of  air,  as  in  the 
process  of  canning  fruit  and  meat,  renders  the 
result  more  permanent.  Many  substances  with 
draw  water  from  the  tissues,  and  also  from  the 
infusorial  organisms,  thus  causing  them  to 
shrivel  up  and  lose  their  activity.  Such  are 
sugar,  glycerine,  alcohol,  and  many  salts,  as 
common  salt,  saltpetre  (nitrate  of  potassa),  and 
alum.  Fruits  ai  j  largely  preserved  in  sugar  ; 
many  medicinal  fluid  extracts  may  be  made 
with  glycerine ;  and  anatomical  specimens  may 
be  preserved  almost  indefinitely  in  glycerine 
or  alcohol.  Salt  and  saltpetre  are  of  the 


|  highest  value  in  the  preservation  of  meat.     If 
the  water  is  simply  driven  off  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun  and  atmosphere,  meat  may  be  kept  un 
changed  for  a  long  time  in  a  dry  climate      Sev- 
j  eral  of  the  agencies  first  mentioned,  such  as 
boiling  water,  alcohol,  and  some  salts,  as  well 
as  corrosive  sublimate,  chloride  of  zinc  (Bur 
nett's  disinfecting   fluid),   and  tannin,   act  by 
I  coagulating    and    rendering    chemically   inert 
I  albuminous  substances.     Corrosive  sublimate  is 
!  used  but  little  except  for  anatomical  purposes. 
I  Chloride  of  zinc  is  an  excellent  disinfectant  for 
|  ships,  hospitals,   dissecting  rooms,   and  water 
I  closets,  and  is  also  used  to  preserve  bodies  for 
I  dissection.     Tannin  forms  with  the  gelatine  of 
!  the  skin,  in  leather,  one  of  the  most  enduring; 
I  of    organic    compounds.      Prof.    Brimetti    of 
Padua  has  used  tannic  acid  very  successfully 
I  in  the  preservation,  as  anatomical  specimens, 
I  of  various  internal  organs.     Bodies  have  been 
i  found  perfectly  preserved  in  peat  bogs,  that 

•  must  have  been  undergoing  the  tanning  process 
for  hundreds  of  years.     Many  of  the  most  use- 

j  ful  antiseptics  act  not  only  in  one  or  more 
;  of  the  ways  mentioned,  but  also  either  as  poi- 
i  sons  to  the  infusoria  accompanying  decornposi- 

•  tion,  or  as  opposing  the  catalytic  action  of  fer 
ments.      Quinia,  for  instance,  has  been  found 

!  to  have  both  these  properties  in  a  high  degree, 
killing  infusoria  immediately  in  the  proportion 
i  of  one  part  to  800,  in  some  minutes  at  1  to 
:  2,000,  in  some  hours  at  1  to  20,000,  and  pre- 
i  venting  or  retarding  the  formation  of  carbonic 
!  acid  from  sugar,  the  reaction  of  emulsine  upon 
amygdaline,  and  of  ozone  upon  guaiacum.    As  a 
preservative  against  actual  putrefaction,  it  was 
found,  weight  for   weight,    less  efficient   than 
i  corrosive   sublimate.     Carbolic  acid,   creasote, 
chloroform,  and  perhaps  the  volatile  oils,  act  in 
this  way.     Carbolic  acid  has  been  largely  used 
of  late  years  as  a  surgical  antiseptic  dressing,  in 
I  watery  solution,  1  to  30;  diluted  with  glyce 
rine,  with  alcohol,  with  oil,  as  putty,  or  as  plas 
ter  with  shellac.     The  antiseptic  treatment  de 
mands  that  all  wounds  should  be  carefully  pro- 
i  tected  from  the  air  by  some  of  the  forms  of 
carbolic  acid  dressing  just  mentioned,  even  a 
finger  used  in  examination  or  an  amputating 
I  knife  being  dipped  in  carbolic  acid  oil,  lest  they 
!  should  carry  living  germs  to  the  wounded  sur- 
;  face.     The  action  of  creasote  finds  useful  appli- 
i  cation  in  the  smoking  of  meat.     Volatile  oils 
:  and  resins  were  probably  the  active  agents  in 
the  ancient  process  of  embalming.     Chlorine, 
i  and  sometimes  iodine,  act  as  disinfectants  by 
;  withdrawing  hydrogen  from  products  of  putre 
faction,  allowing  the  nascent  oxygen  and  other 
remaining  elements  to  form  simpler  and  more 
stable  combinations,  and  as  antiseptics  by  poi- 

•  soning  infusoria  or  destroying  the  activity  of 
ferments. 

AXTISPASMODICS,   the   means    of    removing 

spasm.     Spasm  or  cramp  occurs  in  muscular 

i  structures,   and  is  caused  by  irritation  of  the 

!  nerves.     Spasm    consists   in  an   irregular  and 

;  sometimes  excessive  action  of  a  group  of  mus- 


572 


ANTISPASMODIOS 


ANTIUM 


cles,  or  a  single  muscle,  or  some  particular 
fibres  only  of  a  muscle;  and  various  names  are 
applied  to  spasms  of  the  different  muscles  or 
sets  of  muscles.  The  conditions  giving  rise  to 
spasm  are  various,  and  affect  one  or  more 
parts  of  the  nervous  circuit,  which  may  be  con 
ceived  to  consist  of  an  afferent  or  sensitive  fibre 
conveying  sensitive  impressions  to  a  nervous 
centre,  the  latter  transforming  them  into  motor 
impulses,  which,  passing  out  by  an  efferent  or 
motor  fibre  to  a  muscle,  stimulates  it  to  con 
traction.  When  these  contractions  take  place 
irregularly,  or  in  a  degree  disproportionate  to 
the  stimuli  giving  rise  to  them,  or  when  they 
arise  from  stimuli  which  should  not  normally 
occasion  them,  and  more  especially  when  they 
take  place  unconsciously  or  involuntarily,  they 
become  spasms.  They  often  arise  from  organic 
disease  of  the  nervous  centres,  as  in  inflamma 
tion  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  or  their  mem 
branes,  from  tumors  and  haemorrhages,  as  pos 
sibly  in  chorea  or  St.  Vitus's  dance.  A  poi 
soning  of  the  centres  by  abnormal  constituents 
of  the  blood,  as  in  Bright' s  disease,  also  gives 
rise  to  them.  The  nervous  centres,  especially 
the  spinal  cord  and  medulla  oblongata,  and  the 
sensitive  nerves,  may  become  too  sensitive,  as 
in  tetanus  or  lockjaw,  poisoning  by  strychnia, 
and  epilepsy.  Other  forms  of  spasm  are  due 
to  special  local  irritations,  as  colic  to  improper 
food,  uterine  colic  to  the  introduction  of  fluids 
into  the  uterus  for  therapeutic  purposes,  asth 
ma  to  certain  states  of  the  atmosphere,  cramps 
of  the  feet  and  legs  to  cold  or  constrained  posi 
tions.  In  treating  these  various  affections,  va 
rious  drugs  may  be  used,  which  so  far  deserve 
the  name  of  antispasmodics.  Heat  often  re 
lieves  many  spasms,  as  colic,  cramps  of  the 
legs  and  feet,  and  the  general  convulsions  of 
children  from  intestinal  irritation,  and  may  be 
applied  in  the  form  of  hot  baths  or  hot  fomen 
tations.  Abnormal  excitability  of  the  spinal 
cord  and  medulla  oblongata  is  diminished  by 
bromide  of  potassium,  which  does  excellent  ser 
vice  in  epilepsy,  and  sometimes  by  belladonna. 
The  newly  discovered  hydrate  of  chloral  has 
also  the  same  property.  Opium  relieves  the 
intense  pains  of  uterine  or  other  colic,  and  re 
laxes  spasmodically  contracted  intestinal  or 
uterine  fibres.  Ether  and  chloroform,  inhaled, 
not  only  diminish  but  nearly  destroy  the  activ 
ity  of  the  nervous  centres;  they  control  all  the 
voluntary  muscles,  and  are  the  most  powerful 
antispasmodics  which  can  be  used  in  any  form 
of  spasmodic  disease.  Unfortunately,  their  ef 
fect  is  often  temporary.  It  is  possible  that  the 
physostigma  (Calabar  bean)  and  woorara  (South 
American  arrow  poison)  may  be  practically 
used  in  some  convulsive  diseases.  In  organic 
diseases  of  the  brain  and  cord,  the  disease 
rather  than  the  symptom  deserves  attention. 
The  substances  to  which  the  name  antispas 
modics  in  the  narrowest  sense  is  applied  are 
used  either  in  the  treatment  of  colic,  of  some 
children's  diseases,  in  many  hysterical  affec 
tions,  and  some  others.  They  are  the  "  volatile 


oils,"  such  as  mint,  lavender,  &c.,  derived 
chiefly  from  the  tribe  of  plants  called  labiatce  ; 
cajeput  oil,  from  the  myrtaccce ;  dill,  anise, 
fennel,  &c.,  from  the  urribelliferce — from  which 
tribe  also  are  derived  the  foetid  gurn  resins, 
such  as  asafcetida,  galbanum,  ammoniac,  &c. 
These,  with  valerian,  myrrh,  and  camphor,  de 
rived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  musk  and 
castoreum,  from  the  animal  kingdom  ;  cyanide 
of  iron  and  the  oxides  of  bismuth  and  zinc, 
from  the  mineral  kingdom,  are  among  the  most 
valuable  antispasmodics.  In  the  treatment  of 
hysteria,  moral,  tonic,  hygienic,  and  sometimes 
surgical  measures  are  of  far  greater  importance 
than  antispasmodics,  which  at  the  most  can 
only  temporarily  relieve  symptoms. — Spasmodic 
affections  may  be  complicated  with  inflamma 
tion,  and  in  that  case  they  require  most  careful 
and  somewhat  different  treatment.  They  may 
also  occur  in  debilitated  constitutions,  or  in 
persons  of  full  habit;  and  here  again  the  treat 
ment  differs.  Thus  the  medicines  classed  un 
der  the  head  of  antispasmodics  are  of  small 
importance  in  comparison  with  a  correct  diag 
nosis  and  an  appropriate  mode  of  treatment  in 
each  special  form  of  spasmodic  affection. 

ANTI-SLAVERY.     See  SLAVEEY. 

ANTISTHENES,  an  Athenian  philosopher,  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Cynics,  flourished 
about  380  B.  0.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Gor- 
gias,  and  afterward  one  of  the  most  faithful 
disciples  of  Socrates,  remaining  with  him 
through  all  his  sufferings,  and  being  present  at 
his  death.  He  began  to  teach  his  new  doc 
trines  in  the  Oynosarges,  a  gymnasium  near 
the  temple  of  Hercules,  set  apart  for  the 
instruction  of  the  sons  of  Athenians  by 
foreign  wives ;  Antisthenes  himself  was  the 
son  of  an  Athenian  citizen  and  a  Thracian  (or 
according  to  some  authorities  a  Phrygian) 
woman.  From  this  gymnasium  the  followers 
who  soon  surrounded  him  probably  took  their 
name  of  Cynics.  He  taught  that  the  highest 
virtue  consisted  in  self-denial,  independence  of 
outward  forms,  social  usages,  and  the  comforts 
and  luxuries  of  civilization,  and  in  despising 
riches,  honors,  and  human  knowledge.  His 
principal  disciple  was  Diogenes.  His  works, 
of  which  only  trifling  fragments  remain,  were 
of  a  polemic  character,  bitterly  assailing  many 
of  his  contemporaries. 

ANTITAIRUS.     See  TAURUS. 

ANTITRINITARIANS.     See  UXITABIANISM. 

ANTIUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Latium,  built  on 
a  rocky  promontory  which  projects  into  the 
Mediterranean,  82  m.  S.  of  Rome.  One  legend 
ascribed  its  foundation  to  a  son  of  Ulysses  and 
Circe,  another  to  Ascanius.  No  authentic 
record  shows  even  by  what  people  it  was 
founded.  In  the  time  of  Tarquinius  Superbus, 
who  annexed  it  to  the  Latin  league,  it  was  in 
habited  by  a  mixed  race  who  practised  piracy 
and  carried  on  a  limited  legitimate  commerce. 
They  favored  the  Volscians,  and  were  only 
kept  among  the  cities  subject  to  Rome  by 
strong  garrisons  and  bodies  oV  Roman  colonists, 


ANT  LION 


ANTOMMARCHI 


573 


who  were  sent  to  Antinm  from  time  to  time. 
Later,  though  at  exactly  what  period  is  not 
known,  it  loll  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the 
Volscians,  and  for  some  time  vigorously  aided 
them,  according  to  Livy,  in  their  wars  again>t 
the  Romans.  In  468  B.  C.  it  was  retaken  by 
the  latter,  and  held  till  459,  when  it  again  re 
volted.  For  a  century  it  was  the  chief  Vol- 
scian  city,  but  in  338  it  was  a  third  time  over 
come  and  garrisoned  by  Rome.  The  city  con 
tinued  prosperous,  partly  because  of  its  excel 
lent  harbor,  partly  because  of  its  popularity  as 
a  summer  resort  for  the  citizens  of  Rome.  Cali 
gula  and  Nero  were  born  in  Antiuin,  and  Cicero 
had  a  villa  there.  A  vast  circus,  and  temples 
of  Venus,  ^Eseulapius,  Apollo,  and  Fortuna,  as 
well  as  one  which  was  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
oracle,  added  to  the  magnificence  of  the  city. 
Its  prosperity  declined  with  the  decline  of  the 
western  empire,  and  it  was  laid  waste  by  the 
Saracens  during  their  incursions,  so  that  by 
A.  D.  950  it  had  become  a  petty  fishing  village. 
Pope  Innocent  XII.  (1091-1700)  made  an  at 
tempt  to  restore  something  of  its  beauty,  but 
with  only  temporary  success ;  and  the  town, 
known  in  modern  times  by  the  name  of  Porto 
d'Anzo,  remained  almost  deserted  until  the  ac 
cession  of  Pius  IX.  This  pope  built  there  a 
very  beautiful  church  and  a  villa  which  was 
for  many  years  his  favorite  summer  residence. 
Other  beautiful  villas  have  sprung  up  around 
it,  and  Porto  d'Anzo  is  no\v  a  town  of  about 
1,000  inhabitants,  occupying  almost  the  centre 
of  the  site  of  ancient  Antium,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  everywhere  visible.  Among  these 
ruins  were  found  the  Apollo  Belvedere  and  the 
''Fighting  Gladiator"  of  the  Borghese  collec 
tion,  with  other  art  treasures. 

AXT  LION,  or  Lion  Ant,  a  species  of  neuropter- 
ous  insect,  of  the  genus  myrmeleon  (Linn.), 
which  has  become  celebrated  for  the  singular 
manner  in  which  the  larva  obtains  a  living 
prey.  The  perfect  insect  (J/.  formicarium, 
Linn.)  resembles  a  small  dragon  fly,  has  a  good 
power  of  flight,  and  is  generally  found  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  Europe.  The  larva  is  about 


half  an  inch  long,  of  an  oval  depressed  form, 
and  grayish  sandy  color ;  the  small  head  is 
armed  with  two  strong  and  long  mandibles, 
serrated  and  pointed,  with  which  it  seizes  and 


sucks  the  juices  of  its  prey.  The  powers  of 
locomotion  being  small,  it  has  recourse  to  arti 
fice  to  entrap  insects.  It  makes  a  funnel-shaped 
excavation  in  sandy  soil,  with  loose  and  crum 
bling  sides,  and  buries  itself,  all  but  the  head, 
at  the  bottom,  waiting  for  a  victim.  If  an  ant 
or  small  insect  approaches  the  edge,  the  sand 
gives  way  and  it  rolls  down  within  reach  of 
the  expectant  jaws ;  after  the  body  has  been 
drained  it  is  cast  out  by  a  toss  of  the  head.  If 
the  insect  be  large  or  likely  to  escape,  the  ant 
lion  throws  repeated  showers  of  sand  upon  it 
by  means  of  the  head,  until  it  falls  exhausted 
and  defenceless  to  the  bottom  of  the  pitfall. 
Sometimes  a  revengeful  wasp,  well-armed  bee, 
or  mail-clad  beetle  falls  into  the  snare,  and  the 
sting  of  the  first  two  or  the  powerful  jaws  of 
the  last  often  prove  fatal  to  the  ant  lion.  The 
larva  state  continues  about  two  years,  when  a 
cocoon  is  spun,  in  which  it  is  changed  into  an 
inactive  nymph  ;  the  perfect  'insect  comes  out 
in  two  or  three  weeks,  and  lays  the  eggs  for  a 
new  brood  in  dry  and  sandy  places  suited  for 
the  operations  of  the  larvae.  There  are  other 
species  both  in  the  old  world  and  the  new,  all 
with  similar  habits. 

AXTOINE  DE  BOIRBOX,  duke  of  Vendome, 
and  afterward  king  of  Xavarre,  the  father  of 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  born  in  1518,  died  Nov. 
17,  1502.  He  married  in  1548  Jeanne  d'Albret, 
only  child  of  Henry  II. ,  king  of  Navarre,  and 
assumed  the  title  of  king  in  her  right.  Like 
his  brother,  the  duke  of  Conde,  he  embraced 
Protestantism.  After  the  accession  to  the 
throne  of  France  of  the  young  king  Francis  II. 
(1559),  he  endeavored  to  obtain  the  control  of 
the  affairs  of  that  country,  but  failed  through 
his  want  of  energy  and  perseverance.  On  the 
death  of  Francis  in  1500,  he  was  made  lieu 
tenant  general  of  the  kingdom,  and  adviser  to 
the  queen  mother  (Catharine  de'  Medici),  dur 
ing  the  minority  of  Charles  IX.  He  then  aban 
doned  his  former  associates  and  religion,  and 
allied  himself  with  the  duke  of  Guise  and  the 
constable  de  Montmorency.  Upon  the  break 
ing  out  of  the  civil  war  in  1502,  he  commanded 
the  royal  forces,  and  died  of  a  wound  received 
at  the  siege  of  Rouen. 

ANTOMMARCHI,  Carlo  Francesco,  physician  to 
Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,  born  in  Corsica,  died 
at  San  Antonio  de  Cuba,  April  3,  1838.  He 
was  professor  of  anatomy  at  Florence,  where 
in  1818  Letitia  Bonaparte  sent  Cardinal  Fesch 
to  induce  him  to  go  to  St.  Helena.  The  em 
peror  at  first  treated  him  with  marked  cold 
ness,  but  afterward  honored  him  with  implicit 
confidence,  and  in  his  will  left  him  100,000 
francs.  On  the  emperor's  death  Antommarchi 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  published  Les  dcrniers 
moments  de  XapoUon  (2  vols.  *  8vo,  1823). 
Nearly  nine  years  after  Napoleon's  death  An 
tommarchi  produced  a  cast  of  his  head,  which 
purported  to  have  been  taken  after  death.  The 
authenticity  of  this  cast  was  hotly  contested, 
especially  by  the  advocates  of  phrenology, 
against  whom  it  was  used  as  an  argument. 


ANTONELLI 


ANTONINUS 


Antoramarclii  in  consequence  of  these  disputes 
came -to  America  about  1830,  and  practised 
homoeopathy  at  New  Orleans  and  Havana. 

MTOJVKLLI,  Giacomo,  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
statesman,  born  at  Sonnino,  near  Terracina, 
April  2,  1806.  He  was  educated  at  the  great 
seminary  of  Rome,  and  having  early  distin 
guished  himself  by  his  ability,  he  was  raised  to 
the  prelacy,  after  taking  orders,  and  appointed 
by  Gregory  XVI.  to  various  civil  offices,  attain 
ing  in  1845  to  the  post  of  minister  of  finance. 
After  the  accession  of  Pius  IX.  he  was  made 
cardinal  (June  12,  1847),  and  in  1848  prime 
minister,  in  which  position  he  won  at  first  the 
favor  of  the  popular  party.  Though  continuing 
to  be  the  pope's  chief  political  adviser,  the  op 
ponents  of  innovations  soon  compelled  him  to 
make  place  for  Mamiani.  After  the  assassina 
tion  of  the  latter's  successor,  Rossi,  Antonelli 
urged  Pius  IX.  to  leave  Rome,  and  joined  him 
at  Gaeta  (November,  1848),  where  he  conducted 
the  negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  pope's 
return  to  his  capital  (April  12,  1850)  under  the 
protection  of  the  French  army  of  occupation. 
Antonelli  was  now  made  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs,  in  which  capacity  his  retrogressive  pol 
icy  exasperated  the  liberals,  and  even  led  to 
remonstrances  on  the  part  of  foreign  powers, 
but  without  shaking  his  position.  He  protested 
in  vain  against  the  progress  of  events  in  Italy, 
reorganized  the  civil  administration  on  the  most 
reactionary  basis,  and  was  opposed  in  his  abso 
lute  policy  even  by  some  of  his  colleagues  in 
the  papal  government,  the  principal  of  whom, 
Mgr.  de  Merode,  minister  of  war,  was  removed 
in  18G5.  In  1807  he  was  made  curator  ad  in 
terim  of  the  university  of  Rome.  In  January, 
1808,  by  the  death  of  "Cardinal  Ugolino,  he  be 
came  dean  of  the  order  of  cardinal  deacons. 
After  the  evacuation  of  Rome  by  the  French  in 
August,  1870,  he  appealed  to  various  foreign 
powers  for  assistance,  and  remonstrated  against 
the  success  of  Victor  Emanuel,  who  made  his 
formal  entry  into  Rome  Nov.  21,  1871.  An 
attempt  upon  his  life  was  made  in  1855. 

AftTOiXKLLO  DA  MESSINA,  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Messina  in  1414,  died  about  1493. 
According  to  Vasari  and  other  authorities,  he 
was  the  first  Italian  who  painted  in  oil,  learn 
ing  the  art  under  Van  Eyck  at  Bruges.  Be 
fore  his  journey  to  Bruges,  he  had  already  ac 
quired  some  fame  at  Messina,  Rome,  and  Paler 
mo,  which  became  more  firmly  established  on 
his  return,  when  he  worked  for  some  time  at 
Milan  and  at  Venice  to  some  extent  in  portrait 
painting,  but  chiefiy  in  religious  pictures. 

AJVTOALMS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  Roman  empe 
ror,  son-in-law  and  successor  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
born  A.  I).  121,  ascended  the  throne  in  101, 
died  March  17,  180.  His  original  name  was 
Marcus  Annius  Verus.  After  the  death  of 
Ceionius  Commodus,  better  known  as  Verus, 
Hadrian  selected  Antoninus  Pius  to  succeed 
him,  and  caused  the  latter  in  his  turn  to  adopt 
Marcus  Annius  and  Lucius  Verus,  the  son  of 
Commcius,  as  his  ultimate  successors.  During 


the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  who  had  given  to 
him  his  daughter  Faustina  in  marriage,  Marcus 
'  distinguished  himself  principally  by  his  studies 
I  in  philosophy,  having  assumed  the  mantle  of 
!  the  Stoics  in  his  12th  year;  while  Verus  so  far 
j  disgraced  himself  by  his  early  profligacy,  that 
i  his  adoptive  father  disinherited  him,  and,  pro- 
!  curing  the  nomination  of  Marcus  Aurelius  as 
I  sole  successor  by  the  senate,  associated  him  with 
;  himself  in  the  empire.  On  his  accession,  how- 
|  ever,  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  now  assumed  the 
|  name  of  Antoninus,  gave  Verus  an  equal  share 
j  of  the  government.  Shortly  after  his  acces- 
i  sion  a  war  broke  out  with  the  Parthians  in  the 
I  east,  the  command  of  which,  nominally  given 
I  to  Verus,  was  virtually  held  by  his  lieutenants, 
I  the  principal  of  whom,  Avidius  Cassius,  over- 
|  ran  Mesopotamia,  destroyed  Seleucia,  and  pene- 
i  trated  as  far  as  Babylon,  while  one  of  his  col- 
|  leagues  made  himself  master  of  Armenia,  re- 
i  placed  the  rightful  king  of  the  Parthians,  Sozi- 
I  mus,  on  the  throne,  and  reduced  Vologeses,  his 
|  rival  and  the  instigator  of  the  war,  to  sue  for  a 
|  dishonorable  peace.  This  outbreak  was  follow- 
|  ed,  or  rather  interrupted,  by  yet  more  danger- 
|  ous  hostilities  in  the  north,  extending  from  the 
j  sources  of  the  Danube  to  the  Illyrian  frontier, 
i  where  the  barbarous  tribes  of  the  Marcomanni, 
I  Alani,  Jazyges,  Quadi,  Sarmatians,  and  others, 
i  all  took  arms  at  once  in  such  force  as  compelled 
\  both  the  emperors  to  proceed  to  the  frontiers. 
;  Here  they  were  so  successful,  that  in  109  the 
|  enemy  sued  for  peace,  and  the  colleagues  set 
|  out  on  their  return  for  home ;  but  Verus  dy 
ing  of  apoplexy  on  their  journey,  and  the  war 
being  renewed,  Marcus  Aurelius  again  turned 
his  face  northward,  and  for  the  next  five  years 
|  carried  on  the  war  in  person  in  Pannonia,  with- 
j  out  ever  returning  to  Rome ;  enduring  the 
j  greatest  hardships  with  the  serenity  of  a  philos- 
I  opher,  while  he  conducted  his  campaigns  with 
|  the  skill  of  a  soldier.  On  one  occasion  a  fierce 
I  battle  was  fought  on  the  surface  of  the  frozen 
I  Danube ;  but  tbe  most  remarkable  victory  was 
I  one  gained  over  the  Quadi  in  consequence  of  a 
|  sudden  and  terrific  thunder  storm,  by  which 
{  the  Romans  were  saved  from  apparently  immi- 
!  nent  defeat,  and  the  superstitious  savages  were 
j  confounded  and  put  to  rout.  This  victory  was 
I  generally  ascribed  to  divine  interposition,  the 
j  emperor  and  his  Romans  attributing  it  to  Jn- 
j  piter  Tonans,  and  the  Christians,  who  com- 
I  posed  the  12th  or  Meletine  legion,  to  the  influ- 
|  ence  of  their  prayers.  Eusebius  goes  so  far  as 
|  to  assert  that  the  emperor  gave  to  that  body  of 
|  men  the  title  of  the  "thundering  legion;  "  but 
j  in  spite  of  his  virtues,  Marcus  Aurelius  per- 
|  secuted  the  Christians.  His  wife  Faustina, 
!  learning  the  danger  of  her  husband's  situation, 
|  and  fearing  that  in  case  of  his  death,  and  the 
|  long  minority  of  her  young  son  Commodus,  she 
|  should  sink  into  a  private  station,  entered  into 
!  an  intrigue  with  Avidius  Cassius,  the  empe- 
|  ror's  deputy  and  general  in  Syria,  promising 
i  him  her  hand  in  case  of  the  death  of  Aurelius, 
I  and  encouraging  him  in  that  event  to  seize  the 


AXTOXIXUS  PIUS 


AXTOXIUS 


575 


reins  of  the  government.  A  false  report  of 
the  defeat  and  death  of  Aurelius  following, 
Avidius  Cassius  assumed  the  purple.  Despair 
ing  of  pardon  when  he  learned  the  falsity  of  the 
report,  he  persisted  in  his  rebellion,  and  rapid 
ly  made  himself  master  of  several  Roman  prov 
inces  in  Asia.  While  the  emperor  was  making 
preparations  to  reduce  him,  the  usurper  was 
assassinated  by  a  centurion  of  his  own  army. 
The  conduct  of  Marcus  Aurelius  was  magnani 
mous  in  the  extreme.  lie  put  no  one  to  death 
in  consequence  of  the  overt  treason,  punished 
but  few,  and  burned  the  letters  of  Cassius,  in 
order  to  avoid  learning  who  had  seconded  or  in 
stigated  him  in  his  proceedings.  Faustina,  who 
had  remained  in  her  husband's  company  during 
these  compromising  events,  and  whose  privity 
lie  either  did  not  suspect,  or,  more  probably, 
did  not  choose  to  perceive,  died  in  Cilicia,  it 
was  supposed  by  suicide.  In  176  the  emperor 
visited  Rome  after  an  absence  of  eight  years, 
and  celebrated  his  victories  by  a  splendid 
triumph,  and  by  a  largess  to  every  Roman  citi 
zen  of  eight  pieces  of  gold;  then  having  as 
sociated  with  himself  in  the  sovereignty  his 
unworthy  son  Cornmodus,  and  celebrated  the 
young  man's  nuptials  with  Crispina,  he  inarch 
ed  in  company  with  his  expectant  successor  to 
conclude  the  war  with  the  northern  barbarians, 
and,  in  the  midst  of  a  career  of  uninterrupt 
ed  triumph,  died  at  Vindobona,  now  Vienna. 
Oommodus  was  suspected  of  hastening  his  end. 
Marcus  Aurelius  was  an  excellent  man  and  an 
admirable  monarch.  His  whole  life  was  a  prac 
tical  example  of  his  own  philosophic  doctrines. 
The  only  blot  on  his  character  was  a  cruel  per 
secution  of  the  Christians  in  Gaul;  and  this  is 
so  inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of  his  own  char 
acter,  with  his  general  principles  of  mildness 
and  toleration,  and  with  the  example  of  his 
predecessor,  by  which  he  was  for  the  most 
part  strongly  influenced,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
explain.  His  "Meditations,''  which  are  "still 
extant,  would  be  an  honor  to  any  writer  of 
any  age,  and  breathe  the  very  spirit  of  the  re 
ligion  which  he  persecuted.  The  best  edition 
is  Gataker's  (4to,  Cambridge,  1652).  The  best 
English  translation  is  that  of  George  Long, 
"  Thoughts  of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus." 

AXTOmiS  PIUS,  Titns  Anrelins  Fnlvins,  a  Ro 
man  emperor,  born  near  Rome,  Sept.  19,  A.  D. 
86,  began  to  reign  in  138,  died  in  161.  He 
was  descended  from  a  respectable  provincial 
family  of  Xemausus  (Ximes)  in  Gaul.  He  rose 
during  the  reign  of  Hadrian  to  the  administra 
tion  of  Asia,  arid  afterward  to  the  manage 
ment  of  one  of  the  four  regions  of  Italy,  and 
was  selected  by  Hadrian  as  his  successor,  whol 
ly  on  account  of  his  fitness  for  the  dangerous 
eminence.  His  reign  was  eminently  happy  and 
prosperous,  and  so  peaceful  that  it  passed  away 
leaving  no  striking  mark  upon  the  page  of  his 
tory.  He  made  no  effort  to  advance  the  limits 
of  the  empire,  but  by  his  firmness  and  wisdom 
deterred  the  barbarians  on  his  frontiers  from 


disturbing  the  peace  of  the  realm.  The  Ger 
mans,  the  Dacians,  the  Mauritanians,  the 
Greeks,  the  Egyptians,  all  exhibited  at  times 
some  tendency  to  give  trouble ;  but  their  ag 
gressions  were  easily  frustrated  by  military  de 
monstrations.  The  only  commotion  of  any  real 
consequence  was  that  of  the  Brigantes  in  the 
northern  part  of  Yorkshire,  who  repeatedly 
invaded  the  central  parts  of  the  British  prov 
ince,  but  were  severely  defeated  by  the  legate 
Lollius  Urbicus  (141),  who  built  a  strong  ram 
part  of  turf  and  stone,  the  ruins  of  which  can 
be  still  traced,  and  are  to  this  day  known  as  the 
wall  of  Antoninus,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Esk 
to  that  of  the  Tweed,  some  distance  to  the 
north  of  that  of  Hadrian,  which  had  been 
erected  to  prevent  the  incursions  of  the  Cale 
donians,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  to  that  of 
the  Solway.  The  Parthians  gave  up  their  hos 
tile  views  against  Armenia,  owing  solely  to  his 
remonstrances;  the  Scythians  submitted  their 
disputes  to  his  arbitration  ;  and  the  barbarians 
on  the  upper  Danube  received  a  king  of  his  ap 
pointment.  At  home  he  promoted  literature 
and  education,  and  made  up  for  the  losses  of 
citizens  through  public  calamities  out  of  his 
private  purse.  He  was  fond  of  country  life,  and 
passed  much  of  his  time  at  his  Campanian  vil 
las,  never  after  his  accession  appearing  at  the 
head  of  his  armies,  and  refusing  to  travel  in  his 
provinces,  in  order  that  they  might  not  be  sub 
jected  to  the  expenses  of  a  royal  progress.  He 
died  in  the  75th  year  of  his  age.  His  reign  of 
peace  and  order,  and  his  observance  of  reli 
gious  rites,  procured  for  him  the  title  of  the  sec 
ond  Xuma,  while  he  owed  his  surname  Pius  to 
the  zeal  with  which  he  advocated  in  the  senate 
the  granting  of  divine  honors  to  his  paternal 
predecessor.  He  tolerated  and  protected  the 
Christians,  and  received  with  favor  the  first 
apology  for  the  Christian  religion,  addressed  to 
him  by  Justin  Martyr.  By  his  wife  Faustina 
he  had  two  sons,  both  of  whom  died  before 
their  father,  and  two  daughters.  One  of  the 
latter,  a  second  Faustina,  inherited  both  the 
beauty  and  the  profligacy  of  her  mother ;  she 
was  married  to  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus. 

ANTONIO,  Nicolas,  a  Spanish  bibliographer  of 
Flemish  origin,  born  at  Seville  in  1617,  died  in 
Madrid  in  1684.  He  lived  in  Rome  20  years 
(1659-179)  as  agent  of  Philip  IV.  and  in  other 
official  capacities,  and  collected  a  library  there 
said  to  have  been  only  second  in  importance  to 
that  of  the  Vatican.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
Bibliothcca  Ilispana  Nova  and  Bibliotheca 
Hupana  Vetns,  which  comprehend  all  the  liter 
ary  names  of  Spain,  and  in  some  cases  of  Portu 
gal,  from  the  1st  century  to  nearly  the  end  of 
the  17th.  In  many  instances  biographies .  are 
given  of  the  various  authors. 

AMOMIS,  Marens,  a  Roman  orator,  born  in 
143  B.  C.,  killed  in  87.  In  104  he  was  prastor, 
in  99  consul,  and  in  97  censor.  He  was  famed 
for  his  eloquence  in  the  forum,  rendering  Italy, 
according  to  Cicero,  the  rival  of  Greece.  As 
an  aristocrat,  he  adopted  the  party  of  Sylla, 


5T6 


ANTONY 


ANTRAIGUES 


and  was  put  to  death  by  Marius  and  Cinna 
when  they  triumphed,  lie  is  one  of  the  inter 
locutors  in  Cicero's  J)e  Oratorc.  lie  was  the 
grandfather  of  Mark  Antony. 

AXTONY,  Mark  (MARCUS  AXTOXIUS),  the  Ro 
man  triumvir,  horn  in  83  B.  C.,  died  in  30.  He 
was  the  son  of  Marcus  Antonius  Oreticus  and 
Julia,  daughter  of  the  former  consul  Lucius 
Julius  C;csar.  During  his  hoy  hood,  and  while 
he  was  receiving  a  good  education  under  his 
tutor  Epidius,  his  father  died,  and  his  mother 
married  Puhlius  Lentulus,  afterward  strangled 
for  his  share  in  Catiline's  conspiracy.  In  his 
stepfather's  house  he  met  the  most  profligate 
young  men  of  Rome,  and,  sharing  their  habits 
of  extravagance,  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge 
from  his  creditors  in  Greece,  where  he  com 
pleted  his  studies.  After  serving  with  much 
distinction  under  Gabinius  in  Syria  (57), 
and  in  Egypt  (50-55),  and  under  Cajsar  in 
Gaul,  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  made  a 
tribune  of  the  people ;  but  having  strongly 
espoused  the  cause  of  C;esar,  and  vetoed  the 
senate's  decree  commanding  that  leader  to 
disband  the  armies  he  had  with  him  in  Gaul, 
Antony  was  obliged  to  leave  Rome  in  the  dis 
guise  of  a  slave  and  take  refuge  in  Cesar's 
camp.  He  warmly  seconded  Cnesar  in  his  sub 
sequent  subjection  of  Italy,  and  when  his  chief 
became  dictator  was  appointed  by  him  com 
mander  of  the  cavalry,  and  governor  of  Italy 
during  the  absence  of  the  victorious  leader, 
who  was  pursuing  Pompey.  During  his  gov 
ernorship,  Antony  gave  himself  up  to  the  most 
open  licentiousness,  repudiating  his  wife,  ap 
pearing  publicly  in  his  chariot  with  a  common 
courtesan,  and  surrounding  himself  with  de 
bauchees  of  every  class.  He  subsequently  mar 
ried  Fulvia,  widow  of  Clodius.  In  44  B.  C. 
Caesar  appointed  him  his  colleague  in  the  gov 
ernment,  and  lie  in  return  aided  his  patron  in 
many  ways  ;  once  testing  the  popular  feeling  by 
publicly  offering  him  an  imperial  crown  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Lupercalia.  On  Cresar's  death, 
Antony  at  first' feigned  submission  to  the  assas 
sins  ;  but  afterward,  seizing  the  opportunity 
given  by  their  allowing  him  to  deliver  the  fu 
neral  oration,  he  so  eloquently  incited  the 
people  to  avenge  the  dictator's  murder  that  the 
conspirators  were  driven  from  Rome.  lie  was 
now  the  most  powerful  man  in  the  state  ;  but 
his  plans  for  the  dictatorship  were  checked  by 
Cicero,  who  urged  the  claims  of  Octavius  Cae- 
sar;  the  surname  Caesar  proved  an  excellent 
popular  catchword,  and  Antony,  opposing  this 
new  choice,  was  declared  an  enemy  of  the  re 
public  and  banished  from  Rome,  while  the 
senate  supported  Octavius.  After  raising  an 
army,  fighting  several  battles,  and  suffering  de 
feat  at  Mutina  —  from  which  place  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  to  his  friend  Lepidus,  who  was 
preserving  an  armed  neutrality  beyond  the 
Alps — Antony  finally  effected  a  reconciliation 
with  Octavius,  with  whom  he  at  once  joined  in 
a  scheme  for  the  complete  subjection  of  Rome. 
The  triumvirate  was  formed  soon  after  by  Octa 


vius,  Antony,  and  Lepidus  (43).  In  the  general 
slaughter  of  their  enemies  which  followed,  An 
tony  caused  Cicero  to  be  murdered  among  the 
first  victims.  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  speedily 
defeated  at  Philippi  (42)  by  the  army  of  the  tri 
umvirs,  and  the  latter  now  divided  the  empire, 
Antony  receiving  Asia,  Macedonia,  Syria,  and 
Greece.  He  next  carried  on  a  Avar  against  the 
Parthians,  and,  when  finally  obliged  to  retire 
from  their  country,  effected  one  of  the  most 
skilful  retreats  recorded  in  history.  While  ad 
justing  the  affairs  of  his  department  of  the  em 
pire,  he  met  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt,  and 
from  that  moment  became  the  complete  slave 
of  her  caprices,  extending  her  dominions,  ruling 
as  she  dictated,  and  deserting  his  wile  (Octavia, 
the  sister  of  Octavius,  whom  he  had  married 
after  the  death  of  Fulvia),  to  lejid  a  life  of  un 
exampled  luxury  and  sensuality  with  his  new 
mistress  at  the  Egyptian  capital.  The  Romans 
were  enraged.  Octavius  sent  a  fleet  and  army 
against  him,  and  defeated  him  in  the  naval  battle 
of  Actium  (31),  partly  through  Antony's  fatuity 
in  following  Cleopatra  when  she  retired  from 
the  engagement,  in  which  she  at  first  acted  as 
his  ally.  .For  a  time  he  abandoned  himself 
again  to  his  old  excesses.  In  a  few  months  Oc 
tavius  again  completely  defeated  him  in  Egypt. 
His  resources  were  now  at  an  end,  and,  ren 
dered  desperate  by  his  failure  and  by  a  false 
report  that  Cleopatra  had  committed  suicide, 
he  stabbed  himself,  and  died  in  her  presence, 
having  been  carried  to  her  wounded  as  soon 
as  he  discovered  that  the  report  of  her  death 
was  untrue. 

MTRAIGIES,  Emmanuel  Louis  Henri  dc  Lannay, 
count  d',  a  French  adventurer  and  secret  agent, 
born  at  Yilleneuve-de-Berg  about  1755,  assas 
sinated  near  London,  July  22,  1812.  He  was 
a  patron  of  science,  letters,  and  art,  figured  con 
spicuously  in  aristocratic  circles,  where  in  1788 
he  was  called  the  handsome  conspirator,  and 
wrote  against  the  nobility.  Alter  his  election 
in  1789  as  deputy  to  the  states  general  he  soon  re 
turned  to  royalist  doctrines,  and  leaving  France 
in  1790,  was  subsidized  by  foreign  governments 
to  intrigue  against  the  revolution.  His  name 
became  notorious  in  the  conspiracies  against 
Napoleon,  who  had  him  arrested  in  Italy  in 
1797,  with  documents  incriminating  Pichegru. 
He  escaped,  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  joined 
the  orthodox  Greek  church,  and  received  a 
pension  and  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  Rus 
sian  legation  at  Dresden  (1803),  whence  he  was 
expelled  by  order  of  Napoleon,  against  whom 
he  had  published  a  famous  diatribe  (Fragment 
du  18"lc  litre  tie  Polyltc,  trouce  sur  le  Mont 
AthoK).  He  next  betrayed  Russia  by  revealing 
to  Canning  the  secret  articles  of  the  treaty  of 
Tilsit,  and  received  a  large  pension  from  the 
English  government ;  but  Napoleon's  detectives 
having,  as  was  supposed,  received  copies  of 
these  documents  through  his  valet  Lorenzo,  the 
latter,  fearing  the  consequences  of  his  treach 
ery,  assassinated  his  master  and  his  wife,  and 
then  shot  himself. 


ANTRIM 


ANTWERP 


577 


ANTRIM.  I.  A  county  forming  the  N.  E. 
extremity  of  Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Ulster, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  E.  by  the 
North  channel,  S.  by  Belfast  Lough  and  county 
Down,  and  W.  by  Lough  Neagh  and  county  Lon 
donderry;  area,  1,191  sq.  rn. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
419,782.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  near  the 
E.  and  N.  E.  coasts  there  are  several  consid 
erable  elevations,  from  which  the  country 
slopes  gradually  inland  to  the  level  of  Lough 
Neagh."  There  are  no  considerable  rivers 
except  the  Bann,  which  flows  between  this 
county  and  Londonderry.  The  seacoast  is 
bold  and  rugged,  formed  of  lofty  basaltic  cliffs, 
and  presenting,  between  Bengore  Head  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Bann,  the  singular  formation 
known  as  the  Giant's  Causeway.  (See  GIANT'S 
CAUSEWAY.)  In  the  X.  E.  part  of  the  county, 
called  "the  Glens,"  are  picturesque  and  fertile 
valleys,  and  the  scenery  is  varied  and  pleas 
ing.  Besides  agriculture,  the  linen  manufacture 
is  the  chief  employment  of  the  people ;  and 
along  the  coasts  an  extensive  fishery  is  carried 
on.  The  principal  towns  are  Belfast,  the 
county  town  (a  part  of  which,  however,  be 
longs  to  county  Down),  Antrim,  Ballymena, 
Carrickfergus,  Larne,  and  Lisburn.  II.  A  mar 
ket  town  of  the  preceding  county,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Six-Mile  Water,  less  than 
a  mile  from  its  embouchure  into  Lough  Neagh, 
and  13  m.  N.  W.  of  Belfast;  pop.  in  1871, 
2,131.  It  is  a  principal  seat  of  the  linen  man 
ufacture.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  consists 
of  little  more  than  one  long  street,  with  its 
short  cross  streets.  Near  it  are  Antrim  castle 
and  Shane's  castle,  one  of  the  celebrated  round 
towers  of  Ireland.  Qn  June  7,  1798,  a  battle 
was  fought  here  between  the  English  troops 
and  the  United  Irishmen,  resulting  in  a  victory 
for  the  former. 

ANTRIM,  a  county  of  Michigan,  in  the  N.  W. 
of  the  main  peninsula,  bordering  on  Grand 
Traverse  bay,  Lake  Michigan ;  area,  700  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,985.  There  are  several  small 
lakes  in  the  county.  The  productions  in  1870 
were  8,596  bushels  of  wheat,  10,005  of  Indian 
corn,  4,270  of  oats,  45,098  of  potatoes,  22,920 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  16,208  of  maple  sugar. 
There  were  12  school  houses  and  399  children 
attending  school. 

ANTWERP  (Fr.Anvers;  Spun.  AmMres  ;  Ger. 
and  Flem.  Antwerperi).  I.  A  province  of  Bel 
gium,  bounded  N.  by  Holland,  and  E.,  S.,  and 
W.  by  the  Belgian  provinces  of  Limburg,  Bra 
bant,  and  East  Flanders;  area,  1,094  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1809,  485,83:5,  nearly  all  Roman  Cath 
olics.  The  province  is  almost  an  uninterrupted 
flat,  but  chiefly  composed  of  fertile  soil,  ex 
cepting  some  barren  districts  in  the  N.  and  N. 
W.  The  district  called  the  u  polders,"  extend 
ing  along  the  Scheldt  from  Antwerp  to  Zand- 
vliet,  originally  a  swamp,  has  been  drained  and 
converted  into  rich  pasture  and  arable  land. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Scheldt,  which 
borders  it  on  the  west,  and  its  navigable  tribu 
taries,  the  Ilupel,  the  Dyle,  and  the  Great  and 
VOL.  i.— -37 


Little  Nethe.  The  province  is  rich  in  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  flax,  hemp,  fruit,  cattle,  horses, 
fish,  honey,  and  tobacco,  and  in  manufactures 
of  cotton,  lace,  woollens,  linens,  silks,  soap, 
spirits,  refined  sugar,  salt,  leather,  and  oil. 
The  principal  towns  are  Antwerp,  Mechlin, 
Lierre,  Turnhout,  Boom,  Gheel,  and  Zandvliet. 
II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  preceding  province, 
and  the  principal  seaport  of  Belgium,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Scheldt,  45  m.  from 
its  mouth,  and  29  m.  by  railway  N.  of  Brussels, 
in  lat.  51°  13'  N.,  Ion.  4°  24'  E. ;  pop.  in  1809, 
126,608.  The  recent  removal  of  the  old  forti 
fications  has  vastly  extended  the  area  of  the 
city.  The  old  citadel,  long  regarded  as  a 
model  fortress,  has  been  razed,  and  the  greater 
part  of  its  site  was  sold  in  1870  to  the  Prussian 
railway  contractor  Strousberg  for  14,000,000 
francs,  under  the  condition  that  about  half  of 
the  space  should  be  reserved  for  the  construc 
tion  of  basins,  docks,  and  wharfs.  The  rest 
of  the  ground  is  to  serve  as  a  site  for  a  new  rail 
way  station.  A  new  city,  with  fine  boule 
vards,  squares,  and  promenades,  has  sprung  up 
on  the  site  of  the  old  ramparts  and  bastions. 
The  newr  fortifications,  constructed  in  1862-'5, 
extend  over  an  area  of  nearly  20  in.  The  new 
citadel  (citadelle  du  nord)  commands  the  river 
and  is  connected  with  the  principal  old  fort  by 
a  new  curved  line  of  walls.  The  outer  circle 
of  detached  forts,  each  provided  with  about 
135  guns,  are  linked  together  by  a  military 
road  beyond  the  reach  of  shells  from  an  enemy 
outside.  About  one  half  of  the  enceinte  is  de 
fensible  by  inundations  produced  by  cutting 
the  dikes.  The  wrhole  enceinte  is  expected  to 
afford  room  for  about  30,000  men  in  bomb 
proof  barracks.  The  cost  of  the  new  work  is 
estimated  at  about  12,000,000  francs.  Gun 
carriages  and  artillery  appendages  are  made  in 
the  arsenal,  and  ammunition  for  ordnance  and 
small  arms  in  the  pyrotechnic  school.  The 
magnificent  dockyards  constructed  under  the 
direction  of  Napoleon  I.  were  demolished  in 
1814  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
but  the  two  great  basins  were  preserved  and 
have  been  converted  into  docks,  which  are 
lined  with  warehouses.  New  dock  basins 
(Kattendyk)  were  opened  in  1800.  An  exten 
sive  system  of  canals  affords  facilities  for  inland 
traffic.  The  old  part  of  the  city  retains  its 
quaint  Flemish  characteristics.  The  Flemish 
language  is  spoken  by  the  mass  of  the  peo 
ple  and  French  by  the  cultivated  classes.  On 
the  Place  Verte  is  a  conspicuous  statue  of 
Rubens,  who  lived  and  died  here.  Vandyke's 
is  near  the  museum,  and  one  of  Teniers  was 
erected  in  1807.  The  cathedral  of  Antwerp, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  Gothic  edifices  of 
Europe,  contains  master  works  of  Rubens  and 
other  celebrities.  The  churches  of  the  Augus- 
tines,  St.  James,  St.  Anthony  of  Padna,  and 
others,  contain  also  remarkable  paintings  of 
the  great  masters.  In  the  church  of  St. 
George,  opened  in  1853,  are  frescoes  by 
Guffens  and  Swecrts.  The  works  of  Rubens 


578 


ANTWERP 


ANUBIS 


and  Vandyke  give  the  highest  celebrity  to 
the  academy  or  museum  of  painting.  The 
old  bourse,  which  served  as  a  model  for  the 


London  exchange,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1858.  The  new  bourse  is  near  the  hotel  St. 
Antoine.  The  hotel  de  ville  contains  fine 
paintings.  Among  the  other  public  buildings 
are  the  library  and  the  botanical  arid  zoologi 
cal  gardens.  The  city  is  connected  by  rail 
ways  with  all  parts  of  the  continent,  has  regu 
lar  steam  communication  with  English,  Dutch, 
and  German  ports,  and  is  a  point  of  departure 
for  emigrants  to  the  United  States.  In  1840 
the  tonnage  was  about  850,000  ;  in  185"0,  900,- 
000;  and  in  1871,  over  2,000,000.  About 
7,000  vessels  annually  enter  find  leave  the  port. 
The  navigation  and  commerce  of  the  United 
States  with  Antwerp  for  1870  comprised  50 
vessels  entered  and  48  cleared ;  the  inward 
cargoes,  chiefly  guano  and  petroleum,  were 
estimated  at  $4,528,093,  and  the  outward  at 
$2,040,147.  The  larger  portion  of  the  Belgian 
import  and  export  trade,  valued  in  the  aggre 
gate  at  5,000,000,000  francs,  passes  through 
this  port. — Antwerp  was  a  place  of  im 
portance  as  early  as  the  llth  century,  and 
was  at  the  zenith  of  its  prosperity  in  the 
15th  and  10th,  with  a  population  estimated 
as  high  as  200,000,  and  a  commerce  ex 
tending  all  over  the  world ;  and  the  Scheldt 
was  filled  with  shipping  of  all  nations,  2,500 
vessels  being  there  at  one  time.  Charles  V., 
to  protect  himself  against  the  citizens,  added 
in  1507  a  citadel  to  the  original  fortifications 
of  1540.  A  conflict  in  157b-'7  between  the 


local,  German,  and  Spanish  troops,  resulted  in 
the  death  of  10,000  persons  and  in  the  surren 
der  of  the  citadel  by  the  citizens.  In  1583  the 
latter  defeated  the  attempted  seizure  of  the 
city  by  the  duke  of  Anjou.  On  Aug.  17,  1585, 
the  citadel  capitulated  after  13  months1  siege, 
one  of  the  most  eventful  in  history,  to  the  duke 
of  Parma,  Spanish  viceroy  of  the  Netherlands. 
The  prosperity  of  the  place,  shaken  by  these 
vicissitudes,  was  almost  annihilated  by  the 
closing  of  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt  in  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century.  Rotterdam  and 
Amsterdam  during  this  period  superseded  Ant 
werp  in  importance,  and  its  commerce  did  not 
begin  to  revive  till  after  the  acknowledgment 
of  the  freedom  of  the  Scheldt  navigation  by 
Holland  in  1795.  The  citadel  was  captured 
in  1740  and  1792  by  the  French,  in  1793  by 
the  Austrians,  and  in  1794  once  more  by  the 
French.  In  1809  Bernadotte  protected  the 
city  against  Lord  Chatham's  attempt  to  de 
stroy  the  port  and  the  forts.  In  1814  it  was 
defended  against  the  English  by  Carnot,  the 
French  governor,  and  surrendered  only  after 
the  conclusion  of  peace,  May  5.  Alter  the 
union  of  Belgium  with  Holland  (1815)  Antwerp 
carried  on  an  extensive  trade  with  .lava,  which 
has  since  been  diverted  to  Dutch  ports.  In  1830, 
during  the  Belgian  revolution,  the  city  was  bom 
barded  from  the  citadel  by  the  Dutch  general 
Chasse,  who  was  finally  forced  to  surrender  his 
stronghold  Dec.  23,  1832,  after  a  siege  by  a 
French  army  of  50,000  men  under  Marshal  Ge 
rard.  This  ended  the  contest  with  Holland,  and 
on  Dec.  30,  1832,  the  citadel,  almost  wholly  de 
stroyed  by  the  bombardment,  was  occupied  by 
the  Belgian  troops,  since  which  period  the  city 
has  become  the  great  commercial  emporium  and 
military  stronghold  of  Belgium.  The  abolition 
by  settlement  in  1803  of  the  Belgian  Scheldt 
dues  had  a  happy  effect  upon  the  prosperity  of 
Antwerp.  In  September,  1871,  a  great  part 
of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  rap 
idly  rebuilt. — The  remarkable  former  artistic 
achievements  of  Ant 
werp  are  described  in 
Schnaase's  Niederlan- 
dixclie  Brief e  (Stuttgart, 
1834) ;  and  among  the 
more  recent  historical 
works  relating  to  the 
city  is  UHi&toire  de  la 
villa  cTAnvers,  by  Gens 
(Antwerp,  1801). 

AiMBIS  (Eg.  Ane.pn\ 
one  of  the  principal 
Egyptian  deities  of  the 
second  cycle.  lie  was 
represented  either  as  a 
dog  or  a  man  with  a 
dog's  or  a  jackal's  head. 
Sometimes  he  wore  a 
double  crown.  A  white 
and  yellow  cock  was 
sacrificed  to  him.  The 
town  of  Cynopolis,  in  Anubis. 


ANVIL 


APACHES 


579 


the  lower  Thebais,  built  in  his  honor,  was  the  ; 
special  seat  of  his  worship.  He  is  said  to  have 
represented  the  horizon.  The  name  signifies 
gilded,  and  his  images  were  either  of  solid  gold 
or  gilt,  lie  was  supposed  to  be  the  illegitimate 
son" of  Osiris  by  Xephthys,  and  was  the  atten 
dant  and  guardian  of  Osiris  and  Isis.  When 
Osiris  \vas  murdered  by  Typhon,  Anubis  help 
ed  Isis  to  find  his  body.  He  accompanied  the 
souls  of  the  deceased  to  their  place  of  judg 
ment,  and  weighed  their  actions  before  the 
tribun  il  of  Osiris.  In  the  Greek  mythology 
he  was  identified  with  Hermes. 

ANVIL,  an  iron  block  with  a  smooth  face  on 
which  smiths  hammer  and  shape  their  work.  ' 
The  smallest  anvils,  called  bickerns,  are  mostly  : 
made  of  steel.      The  largest,   used  with    tilt, 
trip,  or  steam  hammers,  are  of  cast  iron,  and 
of  a  very  uniform  and  simple  shape.     They  are  "• 
truncated  quadrangular  pyramids,  placed  with 
the  small  end  up,   the  large  resting   upon    a 
block  of  wood  fixed  in  the  ground.     The  mid-  '! 
die-sized  anvils,  on  which  the  forging  is  per-  ! 
formed  with  sledge  hammers,  are  made  of  cast  ! 
or  wrought  iron.     Formerly  extra  good  anvils 
were  made  of  wrought  iron  covered  with  steel,  j 
the  fibres  of  which  were  placed  vertically.     To  ; 
do  this  the   bars  of  steel  were  cut  in  pieces  i 
about  an  inch  long,  which  were  placed  stand 
ing  side  by  side,  bound  by  a  wire,  and  welded 
into  a  steel  plate,  which  was  itself  welded  to  ! 
the  anvil.      The  heat   necessary  for  welding 
very  often  altered  the  steel,  which  was  brought 
back  to  its  original  state  by  the  anvil  being 
warmed  for  a  few  hours  in  a  box  full  of  ce-  . 
ment.     It  was  afterward  hardened  by  pouring 
a  stream  of  water  upon  the  steel  face  till  the  ' 
whole   block    was   cooled.       The    best    anvils 
made  in  the  United   States  are   of  cast   iron 
covered  with  steel ;  they  possess  most  of  the 
advantages  above  described,  and  are  compara 
tively  cheap.     The  covering  of  steel  is  placed  ! 
at  the   bottom  of  a  mould,    and  cast  iron   is  I 
poured  upon  it.     Some  makers  place  a  core  in  • 
the  mould  so  as  to  leave  a  deep  recess  nearly 
reaching  the  steel  covering  in  the  centre  of  the  | 
anvil.     The  air  penetrates  into  this  recess,  and  j 
the  metal  is  cooled  more  uniformly. 

ANVILLE,  Jean  Baptiste  Bonrgniguon  d\  a  French  j 
geographer,  born  at  Paris  in  1097,  died  there  j 
in  1782.     At  the  age  of  15  he  published  a  map  ; 
of  ancient  Greece.     In  his  22d  year  he  was 
appointed    royal    geographer.       He   published 
211  maps  and  plans,  and  78   memoires.     One  ! 
of  his  best  maps  is  that  of  ancient  Egypt.     His 
Orbis  Veteribus  Xotns  and  his  Orb  is  Romanits  \ 
have  become  standard  guides  for  students  of  ' 
ancient   history.      His    "  General   Atlas,1'    his 
Atlas  Antiquus  Major,  and  his  maps  of  Gaul, 
Italy,  and  Greece  during  the  middle  ages,  are  \ 
celebrated.     In  1779  the  French  government  ' 
purchased  for  the  royal  library  his  large  collec-  \ 
tion,  which  consisted  of  10,500  maps. 

AORTA  (Or.  aoprrj,  air  vessel),  the  largest  ar-  ' 
tery  in  the  body.     The  aorta  and  arteries  were 
first  named  air  vessels  by  Greek  anatomists. 


because  until  the  time  of  Galen  they  were  sup 
posed  to  contain  air  instead  of  blood.  The 
aorta  arises  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart, 
ascends  a  short  dista-nce  toward  the  neck,  and 
then  curves  obliquely  backward  and  toward 
the  left  in  a  semicircular  bend,  at  the  level  of 
the  second  dorsal  vertebra,  funning  the  k'arch 
of  the  aorta."'  It  then  passes  downward 
through  the  posterior  part  of  the  chest  and  ab 
domen,  to  the  point  where  it  divides  into  the 
two  common  iliac  arteries,  which  are  each  in 
turn  divided  on  either  side  into  an  internal 
branch,  ramifying  into  the  lower  regions  of  the 
trunk,  and  an  external  branch,  descending  to 
the  lower  limbs.  The  carotids  arise  from  the 
arch  of  the  aorta  to  supply  the  head  and  face, 
and  the  subclavian  arteries  derive  from  the 
same  arch,  to  supply  the  different  regions  of 
the  neck  and  the  upper  limbs.  Numerous 
large  arteries  arise  from  the  aorta  or  main 
trunk  as  it  descends  from  the  upper  to  the 
lower  portions  of  the  trunk  ;  and  these  divide 
again  into  innumerable  branches  as  they  ram 
ify  minutely  and  extensively  within  the  body. 

AOSTA  (anc.  Augusta  Pretoria},  a  town  of 
Piedmont,  in  the  province  and  49  in.  X.  X.  W. 
of  Turin,  on  the  Dora-Baltea,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Great  St.  Bernard,  and  the  southern  termina 
tion  of  the  Alpine  pass  of  that  name  :  pop. 
6,000.  It  contains  many  Roman  remains,  and 
was  the  birthplace  of  Anselm.  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  the  scene  of  the  labors  of  St. 
Bernard,  founder  of  the  hospice  bearing  his 
name,  who  held  the  archdeac*  nry  of  Aosta. 
The  valley  in  which  it  stands  is  famous  for  its 
immense  pine  forests,  mines  of  copper,  lead, 
and  iron,  and  marble  quarries.  Cretinism  and 
goitre  prevail  among  its  inhabitants.  The 
third  son  of  the  king  of  Italy  (Amadeus,  late 
king  of  Spain)  derives  his  title  of  duke  of  Aosta 
from  this  town,  which  has  been  greatly  im 
proved  during  the  last  15  years. 

APACHES,  a  fierce  nomadic  nation  of  the  great 
Athabascan  family,  roaming  over  portions  of 
Texas,  Xew  Mexico,  and  Arizona  in  the  United 
States,  and  Sonora,  Chihuahua,  and  Durango  in 
Mexico.  The  Apaches  proper  have  only  tem 
porary  war  chiefs,  and  do  not  cultivate  the 
soil,  while  the  Lipans,  a  tribe  of  the  same  race 
and  language,  have  their  regular  chiefs  whom 
they  obey ;  and  the  Xavajos,  another  tribe  of 
the'  same  language,  cultivate  the  ground  and 
manufacture  excellent  blankets.  The  Apaches 
comprise  the  Jicarillas,  in  the  Sacramento 
mountains;  the  Gila  Apaches,  on  the  San 
Francisco ;  the  Tonto  Apaches,  on  the  Sierra 
del  Mogoyen.  their  impregnable  position  ;  the 
Mimbrenos,  in  the  Sierra  de  los  Mimbrcs;  the 
Copper  Mine  Apaches,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
for  part  of  each  year  in  Chihuahua  and  Sonora; 
the  Mascalero  Apaches,  ranging  from  the  Sierra 
de  Guadalupe  to  that  of  San  Andres  and  west 
to  the  Rio  Grande ;  with  some  smaller  bands. 
As  the  Spanish  settlements  advanced  the  Apa 
ches  became  the  scourge  of  the  frontier,  repel 
ling  all  attempts  to  civilize  and  convert  them. 


530 


APACHES 


APE 


No  mission  was  ever  established  among  them, 
and  they  drew  to  them  tribes  who  shook  off 
the  Spanish  yoke.  A  document  on  Sonora  in 
1762  estimates  the  mining  towns,  stations,  and 
missions  depopulated  by  the  Apache  inroads 
into  that  province  at  174.  Since  the  annex 
ation  of  the  Apache  territory  to  the  United 
States  the  tribe  have  given  great  trouble,  es 
pecially  those  under  Mangas  Colorado,  who 
for  50  years  led  very  large  bands  to  war,  till  he 
was  finally  captured  and  killed  while  attempt 
ing  to  escape,  in  1803.  Within  a  few  years  an 
effort  has  been  made  by  the  government  to 
gather  the  Apaches  upon  t reservations  under 
the  superintendency  of  Nevv  Mexico,  and  there 
feed  them.  The  sum  of  $125,000  was  appro 
priated  for  the  support  of  these  Indians  in 
1871,  and  the  experiment  of  confining  them  to 
particular  localities  is  believed  to  have  been 
attended  with  some  success.  The  commis 
sioner  estimates  that  in  the  event  of  a  com 
plete  adoption  of  the  plan,  it  will  require  an 
expenditure  of  $25,000  a  month,  or  $300,000 
a  year.  The  plan  of  establishing  the  Apaches 
on  reservations  and  feeding  them  for  a  time 
was  much  opposed  by  the  people  on  the 
frontiers,  Mexican  and  American,  wrho  had 
long  been  victims  of  their  ravages.  This 
led  to  a  massacre  at  Camp  Grant,  Arizona, 
April  30,  1871,  of  more  than  100  Apa 
ches  who  were  actually  prisoners  in  the 
hands  of  the  United  States  troops.  Cochise, 
the  great  Apache  chief,  however,  submitted, 
visited  Washington,  and  seemed  well  dis 
posed.  The  numbers  of  the  Apaches  proper 
in  the  United  States  are  variously  estimated. 
Mr.  Bartlett  thought  SchoolcratVs  statistics 
too  high.  By  the  Indian  commissioner  in 
1871  they  were  estimated  at  7,500,  though 
Cremony  in  1808,  from  eight  years'  stay  in 
their  country,  thinks  their  number  at  least 
25,000. — The  language  of  the  Apaches  abounds 
in  guttural,  hissing,  and  indistinct  intona 
tions.  Mr.  Bartlett  in  his  "  Report  on  the 
Boundary  Commission,"  and  others,  give  vo 
cabularies  that  establish  its  connection  with 
the  Athabascan  family.  Their  lodges  arc  built 
of  light  boughs  and  t\vigs.  The  captain  of  the 
band  wears  a  kind  of  helmet  made  of  buckskin, 
ornamented  with  a  feather.  Their  arrows  are 
very  long,  usually  pointed  with  iron.  All  are 
mounted  on  small  ponies,  capable  of  great  en 
durance.  The  Spanish  bit,  or  simply  a  cord  of 
hair  passed  between  the  ja\vs,  forms  their 
bridle.  Panniers  for  holding  provisions  are 
generally  carried  on  the  horses  of  the  women. 
The  shells  of  the  pearl  oyster,  and  a  rough 
wooden  image,  are  the  favorite  ornanfents  of 
both  sexes.  Their  feet  are  protected  by  high 
moccasons  of  buckskin,  and  the  smallness  of 
the  foot  resulting  from  this  has  always  dis 
tinguished  their  trail  from  that  of  other  Indians. 
Their  principal  articles  of  clothing,  formerly  of 
deerskin,  are  now  made  of  coarse  cotton  cloth. 
Many  of  them  dress  in  the  breech-cloth  only, 
but  they  arc  beginning  to  wear  the  blanket 


I  and  straw  hat.     The  women  wear  a  short  pet 
ticoat,  with  their  hair  loose.     Those  in  mourn 
ing  for  husbands  killed  in  battle  cut  their  hair 
short.    The  younger  children  go  almost  entirely 
naked.     Those  under  the  age  of  two  years  are 
i  carried  in  a  kind  of  osier  basket  by  the  mother, 
i  in  which  the  child  is  fastened   in  a  standing 
posture.     When   on   horseback,   the  basket  is 
fastened  to  the  saddle.     They  do  not  scalp  their 
|  enemies.     They  are  fond  of  card-playing  and 
j  of  smoking,  and  when  idle  are  given  to  a  mo- 
j  notonous  kind  of  singing.     When  fighting  they 
i  keep  their  horses    in   rapid  motion,    and   are 
never  at  rest  in  the  saddle.     In  their  religious 
ideas  they  seem  to  favor  the  belief  in  one  God ; 
I  and  Montezuma,    or  his   spirit,  is  blended  in 
their  minds  with  a  certain  crude  religious  as 
piration.     They  have  a  superstitious  reverence 
|  for  the  eagle  and  owl,   and  for  all  perfectly 
white  birds.     They  equally  respect  the  bear, 
and  refuse  to  kill  it  or  to  partake  of  the  flesh. 
To  the  hog  they  have  the  same  repugnance  as 
the  Jews  and  other  Asiatic  tribes. 

APE,  a  quadrumanous  animal  of  the  class 
mammalia,  nearly  approaching  the  human  race 
in  anatomical  structure.  A  common  distinc 
tion  between  the  monkey,  baboon,  and  ape  is, 
that  the  first  has  a  long  and  prehensile  tail,  the 
second  a  short  one,  and  the  third  none  at  all. 
According  to  the  modern  zoological  definition, 
however,  the  genus  ape,  or  pit?iecus,  comprises 
those  quadrumanous  mammals  which  have  the 
teeth  of  the  same  number  and  form  as  in  man, 
and  which  possess  neither  tails  nor  cheek 
pouches.  This  definition,  while  it  excludes 
certain  tailless  baboons  and  monkeys,  compre 
hends  the  three  sub-genera  of  orangs,  chim 
panzees,  and  gibbons.  Their  arms  almost 
touch  the  ground  when  they  stand  erect  on 
their  hind  legs;  but  the  legs  are  scarcely  a 
third  part  of  the  entire  height.  The  legs  are 
not  on  the  same  line  with  the  thighs ;  the 
knees  arc  turned  outward,  and  the  soles  of  the 
feet  turn  inward,  so  as  to  be  opposed  to  one 
another.  The  apes  are  thus  enabled  to  grasp 
the  trunks  of  trees  with  much  greater  force 
than  if  their  members  were  constructed  like 
man's.  The  fingers  and  toes  are  long,  flexible, 
and  deeply  separated  from  one  another ;  and 
|  the  thumb,  or  anterior  finger,  is  completely  op 
posite  to  the  other  four,  as  well  on  the  hind  as 
on  the  fore  limb.  Thus  their  hands  and  feet 
are  equally  well  formed  for  grasping,  and  can 
j  be  used  indiscriminately.  Hence,  apes  are 
j  neither  two-legged  and  two-handed,  like  the 
human  race,  nor  four-footed,  like  quadrupeds, 
but  four-handed  (quadrumanous).  When  they 
walk  erect,  which  they  rarely  do  without  the 
I  aid  of  a  staff  or  of  their  forearms,  owing  to 
the  oblique  articulation  of  the  lower  extremi 
ties,  they  rest  only  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
feet.  This  gives  them  a  tottering  and  uncer 
tain  motion,  to  remedy  which  they  place  the 
fists  of  their  long  arms  on  the  ground,  and 
move  in  the  attitude  and  at  the  pace  of  a  lame 
man  going  on  crutches.  Consequently,  while 


APELDOORN 


APENNINES 


581 


on  the  ground,  they  are  slow,  inert,  and  help 
less  animals,  although  in  their  native  forests, 
passing  from  bough  to  bough  and  from  tree  to 
tree,  they  are  the  most  agile  of  all  creatures. — 
The  character  and  habits  of  the  great  apes  in 
a  state  of  nature  are  little  understood.  Not 
withstanding  the  gentleness  and  docility  of 
those  brought  young  from  their  native  climates, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  their  native 
wilds  they  become  as  they  grow  old  fierce, 
dangerous,  and  perhaps  even  carnivorous ;  for, 
although  the  number  of  their  teeth  and  the 
formation  of  the  molars  and  incisors  precisely 
resemble  those  of  the  human  being,  the  canines 
are  developed  in  the  same  relative  proportion 
as  in  the  carnivora,  so  much  so  that  the  tusks 
of  a  full-grown  orang-outang  are  fully  equal  to 
those  of  a  lion.  In  confinement,  however,  they 
are  almost  wholly  free  from  the  mischievous 
and  petulant  curiosity  and  violent  fits  of  pas 
sion  which  characterize  the  smaller  monkeys  ; 
are  deliberate  in  their  actions,  circumspect,  in 
telligent,  and  susceptible  of  a  high  degree  of 
attachment  to  those  who  take  care  of  them,  or 
with  whom  they  consort.  They  have  two  sin 
gular  points  of  resemblance  to  man  in  their 
habits,  which  are  worthy  to  be  contrasted 
with  the  structural  dissimilarities  which  have 
been  insisted  on  above  :  1.  They  do  not  repose, 
like  the  other  monkeys,  squatting  on  their 
hams,  but  stretch  themselves  on  their  sides, 
like  human  beings,  and  support  their  heads  on 
their  hands,  or  find  some  natural  substitute  for 
a  pillow.  2.  Alone  of  animals,  they  use  other 
means  of  defence  or  attack  than  their  own  nat 
ural  means,  strength,  and  weapons,  readily  be 
taking  themselves  to  the  use  of  stones  and 
clubs,  which  they  wield  with  considerable 
dexterity,  either  hurling  them  as  missiles,  or 
using  them  hand  to  hand.  In  their  mental 
powers,  or  intelligence,  the  apes  in  nowise  ap 
proach  the  dog,  the  elephant,  or  the  horse, 
although  their  natural  facility  of  imitating  hu 
man  action  has  obtained  for  them  the  credit 
of  approaching  nearly  to  human  comprehen 
sion. — See  CHIMPANZEE,  GIBBON,  GOEILLA,  and 
ORANG-OUTANG. 

APELDOORX,  a  town  of  Holland,  province 
of  Gelderland,  15  m.  X.  of  Arnhem ;  pop.  in 
1868,  12,087.  In  1871  it  had  42  manufactories 
of  papier  mache.  Near  it  is  the  royal  castle 
of  Loo. 

APELLES,  the  most  celebrated  of  Greek 
painters,  born,  according  to  Pliny  and  Ovid,  m 
the  island  of  Cos ;  according  to  Suidas,  at  Co 
lophon.  Strabo  and  Lucian  call  him  an  Ephe- 
sian,  but  he  appears  to  have  been  such  only  by 
adoption,  and  to  have  studied  at  Ephesus.  His 
instructors  were  Ephorus  the  Ephesian,  Pam- 
philus  of  Amphipolis,  Melanthus,  and,  accord 
ing  to  Athenreus,  Arcesilaus.  The  masterpiece 
of  Apelles  was  his  Venus  Anadyomcne,  or 
"  Venus  Rising  from  the  Sea,"  the  model  for 
which  is  believed  to  have  been  either  Phryne 
or  Campaspe,  one  of  the  royal  mistresses  whom 
Alexander  the  Great  resigned  to  the  painter. 


This  painting  was  ultimately  placed  by  Augus 
tus  in  the  temple  of  Julius  Cajsar,  where  it  was 
gradually  destroyed  by  age.  It  is  said  that 
Alexander,  whom,  according  to  some.  Apelles 
accompanied  in  his  expedition  to  Asia,  would 
allow  no  one  but  Apelles  to  paint  his  portrait ; 
and  one  of  his  paintings  representing  Alexan 
der  holding  a  thunderbolt  was  sold  for  a  sum 
equal  to  about  $200,000.  He  was  accustomed, 
when  he  had  completed  a  piece,  to  expose  it  to 
the  view  of  passers-by,  and  to  hide  himself 
behind  it  in  order  to  hear  the  remarks  of  the 
spectators.  On  one  of  these  occasions  a  shoe 
maker  censured  the  painter  for  having  given 
one  of  the  slippers  of  a  figure  a  less  number  of 
ties  than  it  ought  to  have  had.  The  next  day 
the  shoemaker,  emboldened  by  the  success  of 
his  previous  criticism,  began  to  find  fault  with 
a  leg,  when  Apelles  indignantly  put  forth  his 
head  and  desired  him  to  confine  his  criticism 
to  the  slipper.  Hence  arose  the  expression 
Ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam,  "Let  not  the  cobbler 
go  beyond  his  last." 

APELT,  Ernst  Friedrich,  a  German  metaphy 
sician,  born  at  Reichenau,  March  3,  1812,  died 
in  Jena,  Oct.  27,  1859.  He  was  a  professor  at 
Jena,  and  a  disciple  of  Jacob  Friedrich  Fries, 
whose  theories  he  supported  in  various  works, 
especially  in  the  2d  volume  of  his  EpocJien 
der  Geschichte  dcr  Menschheit  (Jena,  1845). 
He  edited  Fries's  posthumous  Politik,  oder 
philosopMsche  Staatslelire  (1848),  and  wrote 
Thcorie  der  Induction  (Leipsic,  1854),  Me- 
taphysilc  (1857),  and  Die  Reformation  der 
SternJcunde  und  Religionsphilosophic  (1860). 
His  philosophical  method  has  been  described 
as  combining  the  theories  of  Kant  with  the 
ideas  of  Jacobi,  and  is  fully  explained  in  Kuno 
Fischer's  Die  beidcn  Kanfschen  Schulen  in 
Jena  (Stuttgart,  1862). 

APENNINES,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  Italy, 
extending,  with  but  trifling  intervals  between 
its  principal  groups,  through  the  entire  length 
of  the  Italian  peninsula,  from  the  Maritime 
Alps  to  the  straits  of  Messina,  a  distance  of 
800  m.  Through  the  greater  part  of  its  extent 
the  chain  is  about  equally  distant  from  the 
Adriatic  and  the  Mediterranean.  Xo  part  of 
it  is  above  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow;  its 
highest  peak,  Monte  Corno,  near  Aquila,  rises 
only  9,542  ft.  above  the  sea;  while  the  average 
height  of  the  range  does  not  exceed  4,200  ft. 
To  the  height  of  3,000  ft.  the  Apennines  are 
generally  covered  with  forests ;  above  this 
their  sides  are  bare  and  rugged,  and  their  sum 
mits  rough  and  broken,  not  rising  into  sym 
metrical  peaks  or  needles,  like  those  of  the 
Alps. — The  range  is  divided  by  the  best  geog 
raphers  into  five  portions,  the  Ligurian,  Tuscan, 
Roman,  Neapolitan,  and  Calabrian  Apennines. 
These  are  in  turn  divided  into  smaller  groups. 
1.  The  Ligurian  Apennines,  which  are  not  in 
reality  separated  at  their  western  extremity 
from  the  Maritime  Alps,  are  generally  consid 
ered  as  beginning  near  the  source  of  the  Bor- 
mida,  a  short  distance  W.  of  Savona,  though 


582 


APENNINES 


the  point  of  division  between  them  and  the 
Alps  is  differently  assumed  by  different  geog 
raphers.  They  run  N.  E.  as  far  as  the  pass  of 
the  Bocchetta,  N.  of  Genoa,  and  then  S.  E., 
following  the  trend  of  the  coast,  and  joining 
the  Tuscan  Apennines  a  short  distance  S.  of 
Monte  Pellegrino.  Their  entire  length  is  about 
130  m.  The  breadth  of  the  chain  varies  great 
ly  ;  in  the  north  its  spurs  extend  nearly  to  the 
Po.  West  of  the  Bocchetta  pass  the  summits 
are  low,  seldom  rising  more  than  2,000  ft.  ; 
but  beyond  this  to  the  eastward  the  height  of 
the  range  increases.  Its  principal  peaks,  all 
between  5,000  and  6,000  ft,  high,  are  Monte 
Antola,  N.  E.  of  Genoa;  Monte  Penna,  near 
Chiavari ;  Monte  Gottaro,  W.  of  Pontremoli ; 
and  Monte  Pellegrino,  N.  of  Castelnuovo. 
Several  important  roads  cross  the  chain  ; 
one  (with  a  railway),  at  the  pass  of  the 
Bocchetta,  is  the  means  of  communication 
between  Genoa  and  the  towns  N.  of  the 
mountains ;  a  second,  from  Parma  to  Pon 
tremoli,  crosses  by  the  pass  of  La  Cisa  ;  another, 
at  the  western  extremity  of  the  range,  leads 
from  Millesimo  to  Savona;  while  smaller  pass 
es  are  found  at  different  points.  The  pass  of 
the  Bocchetta  is  famed  for  the  grandeur  of  its 
scenery  ;  and  the  Avhole  aspect  of  the  Ligurian 
Apennines  is  more  picturesque  than  that  of  any 
other  portion  of  the  great  chain.  2.  The  Tus 
can  Apennines  begin  with  Monte  Cimone,  and, 
extending  S.  E.  for  about  80  in.,  end  with  the 
Alpe  della  Luna,  near  the  pass  through  which 
runs  the  road  from  the  valley  of  the  Tiber  to 
Urbino.  Monte  Cimone  (0,973  feet)  is  the 
highest  peak.  To  this  portion  of  the  chain 
belong,  besides  some  less  important  detached 
groups,  the  Alpi  Appuane,  which  rise  to  a 
height  of  5,800  ft.  (the  Pizzo  d'Ucello  being 
their  highest  summit),  run  nearly  parallel  with 
the  main  range,  and  extend  to  the  valley  of  the 
Arno.  In  these  mountains  is  found  the  cele 
brated  marble  of  Carrara ;  the  principal  quar 
ries  are  in  the  sides  of  Monte  Sairo,  near 
the  town  of  Carrara.  3.  The  Roman  or  Cen 
tral  Apennines  extend  S.  E.  a  distance  of  about 
150  m.,  and  include,  especially  in  that  portion 
best  known  as  the  mountains  of  the  Abruzzi, 
all  the  highest  peaks  of  the  whole  range.  Here 
lies  the  great  group  of  the  Gran  Sasso  d' Italia, 
whose  summit,  Monte  Corno,  or  Monte  Ca- 
vallo,  is  the  highest  point  of  the  Apennines, 
9,542  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  range  is  broader 
here  than  at  any  other  point;  the  mountain 
groups  of  the  Abruzzi  form  a  large  square,  and 
throw  out  spurs  in  all  directions.  The  lake  of 
Celano  lies  among  the  southern  mountains  of 
this  chain,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  2,200  ft. 
The  Roman  Apennines  are  traversed  by  many 
passes,  and  surround  fertile  upland  valleys  and 
elevated  plains.  Besides  Monte  Corno,  the 
principal  peaks  are  Monte  Amaro,  in  the  de 
tached  group  of  the  Majella,  which  rises  to  the 
height  of  nearly  9,000  ft. ;  Monte  Vellino,  8,183 
ft. ;  Monte  Vittore,  7,398  ft. ;  Monte  Sibilla, 
7,212  ft. ;  and  II  Terminillo  Grande,  7,034  ft. 


!  4.  The  Neapolitan  Apennines  begin  near  the 
southern  limits  of  the  Abruzzi,  and  extend  in 
a  broad  chain,  with  many  considerable  off- 
i  shoots,  to  Monte  Volture,  near  which  they 
begin  to  divide  into  two  branches.  One  of 
I  these  runs  S.  E.  as  far  as  the  gulf  of  Taranto. 
I  Beyond  the  river  Ofanto  it  dwindles  to  a  range 
!  of  low  hills,  and  finally  almost  disappears  in 
I  the  district  of  Otranto.  The  other  branch 
takes  a  southerly  direction,  to  the  pass  of  La- 
!  gonegro.  To  the  eastward  of  the  Neapolitan 
|  range,  but  so  widely  separated  from  it  as  to 
properly  form  a  distinct  ridge,  lies  Monte  Gar- 
i  gano  (5,450  ft,),  extending  into  the  Adriatic, 
and  forming  the  rugged  promontory  N.  of  the 
gulf  of  Manfredonia.  The  highest  peak  of  the 
chain  is  Monte  Miletto,  6,744  ft. ;  but  the  aver 
age  height  of  this  division  is  less  than  that  of 
the  others.  5.  The  Calabrian  Apennines,  be 
ginning  at  the  pass  of  Lagonegro,  fill  the  penin 
sula  of  Calabria,  and  terminate  in  the  moun 
tain  promontory  of  Aspromonte,  the  highest 
summit  of  which  rises  4,500  ft.  above  the  sea. 
A  singular  and  almost  complete  break  is  made 
in  them  by  a  deep  valley,  which  runs  from  the 
gulf  of  Santa  Eufemia  to  the  gulf  of  Squillace, 
and  divides  the  chain  into  two  distinct  groups. 
The  Calabrian  Apennines  have  no  very  lofty  or 
noteworthy  peaks,  but  their  scenery  is  rugged 
and  picturesque.  They  are  granitic,  and  differ 
in  their  geological  features  so  entirely  from  the 
rest  of  the  Italian  chain  that  most  geographers, 
|  while  applying  the  name  Apennines  to  them 
in  compliance  with  general  usage,  really  class 
them  as  a  separate  system. — West  of  the  Apen 
nines,  and  filling  much  of  the  country  between 
|  them  and  the  Mediterranean,  lies  a  separate 
!  system  of  lower  mountains,  different  from  them 
|  both  in  appearance  and  geological  formation. 
These  are  called  the  Sub-Apennines.  They  in 
clude  many  mountains  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
are  the  result,  according  to  the  best  authori 
ties,  of  a  much  later  convulsion  than  that  Avhich 
undoubtedly  threw  up  the  more  massive  pile  of 
the  main  range.  1.  The  Tuscan  Sub- Apen 
nines  occupy  the  space  between  the  Arno  and 
the  Tiber,  reaching  their  greatest  height  in  the 
S.  E.  part  of  this  tract.  They  surround  a  great 
part  of  the  plain  of  the  Arno.  Among  their 
best  known  groups  are  the  Ciminian  hills.  2. 
The  Roman  Sub-Apennines  are  almost  all  of 
volcanic  origin ;  they  extend  from  the  Tiber, 
and  surround  the  principal  part  of  the  Cam- 
pagna  di  Roma.  The  Alban  hills  are  a  part  of 
this  division,  which,  running  southward  along 
the  coast,  ends  at  the  promontory  of  Gaeta, 
3.  The  Neapolitan  Sub- Apennines  include  in 
their  southern  portion  the  volcanic  group  of 
which  Mt.  Vesuvius  is  the  great  centre,  and 
extend  to  the  Punta  della  Campanella. — The 
mountains  of  Sicily  undoubtedly  form,  with 
few  exceptions,  a  part  of  the  system  of  the 
Apennines.  (See  SICILY.) — Limestone,  chalk, 
and  sandstone  are  the  basis  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Apennines,  and  of  most  parts  of 
the  main  chain  through  the  entire  peninsula; 


APENRADE 


APHIS 


583 


tertiary  formations  containing  abundant  fossils 
distinguish  many  of  the  offshoots,  and,  as  has 
been  already  noticed,  groups  of  purely  volcanic 
mountains  appear  in  many  places'  among  the 
Sub- Apennines,  and  even  approach  the  main 
range,  to  the  system  of  which  they  in  no  way 
belong.  This  volcanic  formation  is  found  only 
on  the  western  side  of  the  chain. — For  the 
vegetation  of  the  Apennines,  the  rivers  flow 
ing  from  their  sides,  the  methods  of  cultiva 
tion  employed  on  their  fertile  lower  slopes, 
and  the  people  inhabiting  the  mountain  coun 
try,  see  ABRUZZO,  CALABRIA,  and  ITALY. 

APEXRADE,  a  seaport  town  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Schleswig,  situated  on  the  Baltic, 
20  m.  N.  of  Flensburg;  pop.  in  1871,  5,932. 
On  March  30,  1848,  there  was  here  an  en 
counter  between  the  Prussians  under  Wrangel 
and  the  Danes.  Near  the  town  is  the  castle 
of  Brundlund. 

APHIS,  the  plant  louse,  or  puceron,  a  genus 
of  insects  included  in  the  order  liomoptera.  The 
number  of  species  is  very  large ;  326  are  de 
scribed  in  Francis  Walker's  list  of  specimens  of 
homopterous  insects  in  the  collection  of  the 
British  museum.  Almost  every  sort  of  plant 
furnishes  a  living  to  a  different  kind  of  aphis. 
The  attacks  of  these  insects  are  often  ruinous  to 
certain  crops.  The  A.  rosce  is  most  destructive 
to  the  rose  tree,  on  which  it  is  constantly  found. 
Apple  trees  and  pear  trees  are  attacked  by  a 
species  of  aphis  which  injures  their  fruit.  Cab 
bage  and  turnip  crops  are  sometimes  destroyed 
by  swarms  of  the  A.  brassier.  Their  attacks 
on  all  plants  seem  to  be  regulated  by  the  health 
of  the  plant  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  season. 
If  atmospheric  conditions  render  the  plant  un 
healthy,  then  the  aphis  appears  ;  if  these  cease, 
the  aphis  disappears ;  and  one  crop  of  plants 
may  be  attacked  several  times  in  the  same 
year.  Most  species  of  this  insect  are  green ; 
but  a  dark  species,  the  bean  dolphin,  or  A. 
fabce,  attacks  the  bean,  whole  acres  of  the  plant 
being  suddenly  covered  by  these  black  insects. 
They  have,  however,  many  destructive  foes. 
The  larvas  of  the  lady-bird  (coccinellidce),  the 
%yrphu8  or  bee-like  fly,  the  chrysopa  or  lace- 
wing,  and  several  species  of  ichneumonidce, 
pursue  and  eat  them  very  greedily.  Tobacco  is 
the  principal  remedy  against  destructive  swarms 
of  the  aphis.  In  conservatories,  or  where  plants 
can  be  placed  under  cover  of  any  kind,  they 
may  be  easily  exposed  to  clouds  of  tobacco 
srnoke,  and  that  is  the  simplest  way  of  destroy 
ing  the  aphis ;  but  in  the  open  air,  where  the 
fumes  of  tobacco  easily  disperse,  the  best  way 
is  to  apply  the  tobacco 'in  water.  The  affected 
parts  may  be  syringed  with  the  infusion  of 
tobacco,  and  after  the  effect  is  produced,  the 
plant  may  be  washed  by  the  rain  or  with  pure 
water. — These  insects  'have  a  soft,  roundish 
body,  a  small  head,  complete  and  half-globular 
eyes,  antennas  of  from  6  to  11  joints,  longer 
than  the  head  and  often  hairy.  The  beak  has 
its  origin  from  the  lower  part  of  the  head,  be 
tween  the  fore  legs,  and  in  the  act  of  sucking 


[  is  held  nearly  perpendicular.  The  wings,  when 
|  developed,  are  4  in  number.  The  legs  are  very 
j  long  and  slight.  Near  the  extremity  of  the 
abdomen  above,  most  kinds  of  aphis  are  pro 
vided  with  a  pair  of  tubular  horn-like  process- 
|  es,  through  which  they  eject  a  sweet,  thickish 
i  fluid,  commonly  called  honey-dew,  of  which 
I  ants  and  many  other  insects  are  very  fond. — At 
i  the  end  of  autumn  many  of  the  species,  such 
|  as  the  A.  quercus  and  the  A.  rosce,  of  both  sexes, 
•  are  numerous,  some  winged,  and  some  without 
,  wings.  While  some  can  fly  to  a  distance,  others, 
without  wings,  are  restricted  to  the  neighbor- 
!  hood  of  their  native  plant.  As  soon  as  she  has 
paired,  the  mother  aphis  deposits  her  eggs  or 
larva?  in  a  place  fit  for  passing  the  winter,  dif- 
'  ferent  places  being  selected  by  different  species. 
I  Some  prefer  the  oak,  and  leave  their  eggs  on 
some  waving  bough  high  in  the  air ;  others  in 
i  the  crevices  of  the  bark,  or  in  a  subterraneous 
receptacle.  Bonnet  supposes  that  the  aphides 
|  are  always  viviparous,  and  never  lay  eggs ; 
!  what  are  commonly  called  eggs,  produced  in 
|  the  autumn,  being  a  sort  of  cocoon,  containing 
|  the  young  aphis  enclosed  in  an  envelope.  This, 
i  however,  is  not  universally  admitted.  The  pa- 
|  rents  die  after  disposing  of  their  eggs  or  co- 
I  coons,  and  these  remain  torpid  during  the  win- 
I  ter.  All  the  aphides  which  appear  in  spring 
!  are  females,  which  are  endowed  with  a  most 
|  wonderful  spontaneous  fecundity,  no  pairing 
!  being  possible,  as  no  males  appear  till  autumn. 
j  Latreille  states  that  one  female  during  the  sum- 
!  mer  months  will  produce  25  daily,  each  of  which 
!  will  in  turn  do  the  same,  and  so  on  for  several 
|  generations  in  a  single  season.  Reaumur  cal- 
!  culated  that  one  aphis  may  be  the  progenitor 
I  of  about  6,000,000,000  descendants  in  its  own 
|  lifetime.  The  A.  lanigera  produces  each  year, 
|  says  Prof.  Owen  in  his  "Lectures  on  Compara- 
|  tive  Anatomy,"  10  viviparous  broods,  and  one 
I  which  is  oviparous  ;  and  each  generation  aver- 
1  ages  100  individuals.  The  progression  is  1,  100, 
10,000,  1,000,000,  100,000,000,  10,000,000,000, 
1,000,000,000,000, 100,000,000,000,000, 10,000,- 
!  000,000,000,000,  1,000,000,000,000,000,000,  for 
'  the  10  viviparous  broods;  and  by  adding  the 
\  oviparous  generation,  the  result  is  30  times 
|  greater.  The  female  aphides  thus  produced 
j  are  considered  as  larvae,  presenting  a  more  de- 
;  veloped  condition  than  the  larvae  of  coleoptera 
and  lepidoptera.  The  compound  eyes  are  com- 
'  pletely  developed  ;  the  antenna?  have  attained 
their  perfect  shape  and  proportions,  the  6  tho 
racic  legs  their  full  size  and  power.  The  only 
|  subsequent  change  of  these  fertile  larvae  is  an 
'  additional  size  and  the  manifestation  of  the  or- 
|  gans  of  reproduction.  In  the  last  generation, 
which  is  the  7th,  the  9th,  or  the  llth,  accord- 
;  ing  to  the  species  of  aphis,  the  spontaneous 
I  power  of  reproducing  their  species  is  totally 
I  lost ;  wings  are  developed,  and  winged  male 
!  insects  now  make  their  appearance.  The  fe- 
I  males  of  the  present  generation  are  the  winged 
!  insects  which  produce  eggs  and  deposit  them 
!  where  they  may  be  hatched  by  the  sun  in  time* 


584 


APHRODITE 


APOCALYPSE 


of  blight.  The  number  of  aphides  which  ap-  | 
pear  in  spring  must,  of  course,  depend  on  the 
number  of  eggs  laid  in  the  preceding  autumn  ; 
but  countless  swarms  of  them  being  ushered 
into  life  at  the  same  time  has  led  to  the  notion 
that  they  are  generated  by  the  atmosphere. 

APHRODITE.     See  VENUS. 

APICIIS,  the  name  of  three  noted  Roman  epi 
cures.     I.  Lived  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  1st 
century  B.  C.     He  spent  much  of  his  time  at 
intervals  in  Latiurn,  on  account  of  its  excellent  i 
lobsters,  but  having  heard  that  the  African  lob 
sters  were  larger,  set  sail  for  that  continent. 
Several  fishermen  came  off  to  his  vessel  with 
the  finest ;  but  seeing  that  they  were  inferior 
to  those  of  Minturnse,  he  ordered  the  pilot  to 
steer  for  Italy.    He  is  said  to  have  procured  the 
banishment  of  Rutilius  Rufus  in  92.     II.  Mar- 
ens  Cabins,,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
and  Tiberius,  established  a  school  where  the 
art  of  good  cooking  was  taught.     In  the  culti 
vation  of  his  own  appetite  and  that  of  his  schol 
ars,  he  had  expended  more   than  $3,000,000, 
when  he  settled  up  his  accounts,  and  perceiving  j 
that  but  about  $800,000  remained,  concluded  ; 
that  he  could  not  live  as  he  wished  upon  that  j 
sum,  and  poisoned  himself.  He  invented  several  j 
sauces  and  cakes  which  long  bore  his  name. 
Apion,   the  grammarian,  made  his  life  and  la 
bors  the  basis  of  a  volume ;  and  all  cooks  for 
centuries   belonged   to  the  Apician    or    anti-  [ 
Apician  faction.     III.  A  .contemporary  of  Tra 
jan,  who  taught  the  world  how  to  pickle  oys 
ters. — A    treatise,   De   Re    Culinaria,   or   De 
Obsoniis  et  Condimentis,  &c.,  bearing  the  name 
of    Caelius   Apicius,    by    an    unknown    writer 
(probably  a  Coalius  who  added  to  his  own  the 
famous  name  of  Apicius),  is  the  most  ancient  j 
cookery  book  in  the  world. 

APIS  (Egyp.   Hapi,   a  name  closely  resem 
bling  that  of  the  Nile),  a  bull  worshipped  by 
the  Egyptians.     In  their  mythology  the  soul 
of  Osiris,  murdered  by  the  evil  spirit  Typhon, 
migrated    into   this   bull.      It    was    therefore 
the  symbol  of  creative  productivity  and  fertil-  j 
ity.     The   calf    was  born   from   a   cow  made 
pregnant  by  a  ray  of  the  sun  and  one  of  the 
moon.  It  must  be  black,  with  a  white  triangu 
lar  or  square  spot  on  the  forehead,  a  vulture  or  an 
eagle  on  the  back,  various  other  mystical  signs 
on  various  parts  of  the  body,  and  a  scarabams 
under  the  tongue.     Its  principal  worship  was 
in  Memphis,  in  the   temple  of  Phthah   (He 
phaestus,  Vulcan,  or  fire).  When  such  a  calf  was 
found,  the  priest  transported  him  in  a  chariot  | 
with  great  pomp  to  Heliopolis,  where  he  was 
kept  in  a  temple  accessible  to  the  worship  of  ! 
the  people  for  40  days.     After  that  lapse  of 
time  no  one  could  approach  him,  and  he  was 
transported  to  Memphis,  where  he  had  his  own 
t?ir.plo,   with  chapels  and  courts  for  exercise, 
and  his  own  priests.     The  lifetime  of  Apis  was 
25  years,  in  harmony  with  one  of  the  theo-  I 
logico-astronomicnl   cycles    of  the   Egyptians.  | 
After  the  death  of  one  and  before  the  finding  i 
of  another  Apis,  the  whole  land  was  in  mourn-  1 


ing.  Apis  in  heaven  was  placed  in  the  con 
stellation  of  Taurus. 

APLANATIC  LENS  (Gr.  a  privative  and  ^avrj- 
Tix.6q,  wandering),  a  lens  made  in  such  a  way  as  to 
correct  the  spherical  aberration.  When  rays 
come  from  a  great  distance,  this  may  be  done  by 
making  the  curve  of  a  lens  parabolic  in  place 
of  spherical,  and  in  telescopes  it  is  accomplish 
ed  by  careful  repolishing  by  hand  and  testing. 
For  microscopic  and  photographic  lenses,  how 
ever,  a  system  of  two  or  even  more  double 
achromatic  lenses  is  employed,  of  which  the 
curves  are  such  that  all  the  rays  emitted  from 
one  point  come  to  a  single  focus  in  a  corre 
sponding  point.  Such  a  microscopic  lens  is  said 
to  consist  of  an  aplanatic  system  of  lenses,  and 
perfection  in  this  respect  is  the  great  problem, 
now  being  solved  by  manufacturers  of  micro 
scopes  and  photographic  cameras. 

APOCALYPSE  (Gr.  airoK&^wpi^  unveiling),  or 
Revelation  of  St.  John,  the  name  of  the  last 
book  of  the  New  Testament.  The  church  at 
an  early  period  appears  to  have  ascribed  the 
authorship  of  the  book  to  John  the  evangel 
ist.  Papias  and  Melito  of  Sardis,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  Eusebius,  regarded  the 
Apocalypse  as  inspired.  Justin  Martyr  and 
Irena?us  expressly  quote  the  Apocalypse  as 
the  work  of  the  apostle  John;  and  the  third 
council  at  Carthage,  in  397,  admitted  it  into 
its  list  of  canonical  books.  On  the  other 
hand,  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  testi 
fies  that  some  church  writers  before  him  re 
pudiated  the  Apocalypse  as  a  forgery  of  Cerin- 
thus  ;  and  he  himself  undertakes  to  prove  that 
it  was  not  the  work  of  the  apostle  John,  but 
of  some  other  John  who  lived  in  Asia.  That 
this  opinion  was  shared  by  other  prominent  men 
of  the  church  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact 
that  the  Apocalypse  is  absent  from  the  ancient 
Peshito  version.  Jerome  moreover  states  that 
the  Greek  church  felt  with  regard  to  the 
Apocalypse  a  doubt  similar  to  that  entertained 
by  the  Latins  with  regard  to  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews.  The  rejection  of  the  canonical 
and  apostolical  character  of  the  book  was  chiefly 
prompted  by  opposition  to  chiliasm ;  and  when 
the  interest  in  the  chiliastic  controversies  de 
clined,  the  church  generally  recognized  the 
Apocalypse  as  a  work  of  the  apostle  John.  In 
modern  times  the  question  of  the  apostolic  ori 
gin  of  the  book  was  revived  by  Semler,  and 
many  of  the  prominent  exegetical  writers  of 
the  Protestant  churches  (in  particular  De  Wette, 
Ewald,  Lticke,  and  Baur)  undertook  to  prove 
that  the  Apocalypse  and  the  Gospel  of  John 
could  not  possibly  have  been  written  by  the 
same  author.  While,  however,  most  of  these 
writers  deny  that  it  was  written  by  the  apos 
tle  John,  Baur,  Hilgenfekl,  and  other  critics 
of  the  Tubingen  school,  ascribe  the  Apocalypse 
to  him,  but  not  the  fourth  Gospel.  Among 
those  who  have  recently  undertaken  to  prove 
that  neither  the  fourth  Gospel  nor  the  Apoca 
lypse  was  written  by  St.  John,  Th.  Keim  (Ge- 
schichte  Jesu  wn  Nazara,  vol.  i.,  1867)  and 


APOCALYPSE 


APOCRYPHA 


585 


Scholten  (De  Apostcl  Johannes  in  Klein- Azie,  I 
Leyden,  1871)  are  the  most  prominent.     The 
Johannean  origin  of  both  the  Apocalypse  and  j 
the  fourth  Gospel  was,  on  the  other  hand,  vin-  i 
dicated  against  the  critical  schools  by  Hengsten-  '. 
berg,  Hase,  Godet,  and  in  particular  by  Niermey-  | 
er  (Verhandeling  over  de  Echtheid  dcr  Johan-  \ 
neische  Schriften,  the  Hague,  1852). — No  book  j 
of  the  New  Testament  has  received  so  many  dif-  j 
ferent  interpretations.    Two  principal  classes  of  i 
expositors  may  be  distinguished,  the  historical  j 
or  continuous  and  the  preterist.     According  to  | 
the  opinion  of  the  former,  which  is  shared  by  ! 
nearly  the  entire  ancient  church,  the  Apoca-  I 
lypse  is  a  progressive  representation  of  the  en-  j 
tire  history  of  the  church  and  the  world.     Sir  j 
Isaac  Newton,  Bengel,  E.  B.  Elliott,  Words 
worth,  Hengstenberg,  Ebrard,  and  Alford  are 
prominent  representatives  of  this  class.     Writ 
ers  of  this  school  have  found  in  the  Apocalyptic 
visions  prophetic   references   to   nearly  every 
great  event  of  the  Christian  era,  such  as  the 
migration  of  nations,  the  reformation,  the  pope,  ! 
the  French  revolution,  and  Napoleon ;  and  the  j 
calculations  of  the  millennium  have  led  to  vary-  j 
ing  results,  and  in  some  instances  even  to  the  | 
establishment  of  particular  sects.     The  date  of 
the  Apocalypse  is   given  by  these  writers  as 
A.  D.  95-97.     The  preterist  mode  of  interpreta-  | 
tion,  according  to  which  the  Apocalypse   has  j 
been  almost  or  quite  fulfilled  in  the  time  which  j 
has  passed  since  it  was  written,  and  refers  prin-  [ 
cipally  to  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  Ju-  | 
daism  and  paganism,  found  able  advocates  in  j 
Grotius,  Bossuet,  and  Calmet,  and  since  Herder  j 
and  Eichhorn  has  become  the  exclusive  inter-  I 
pretation  of  all  the  liberal  Protestant  schools  i 
of  theologians.     Among  the   recent   champi-  j 
ons  of  this  school,  Ewald,  Lucke,  Bleek,  Stu-  I 
art,  Lee,  and  Maurice  are  best  known.     Ac-  j 
cording  to  their    view,  the   seven    heads  are  | 
seven  emperors.     As  Galba  was  accounted  as  j 
the   sixth   of  the  emperors,  the  book  is  sup 
posed  to  have  been  written  during  his  reign  (in 
68).    The  fifth,  who  will  return  as  the  eighth,  is 
Nero,  who  at  that  time  was  believed  not  to  be 
dead,  but  to  have  retired  to  Parthia,  whence  he  ! 
would  return.     In  the  symbolical  number  666  | 
these  writers  commonly  find  the  words   "Ne-  i 
ron  Kaisar,"  written  in  Hebrew  letters.    Some  ! 
writers,  chiefly  English,  believe  that,  with  the  ; 
exception  of  the  first  three  chapters,  the  book  j 
refers  wholly  or  principally  to  events  which  ; 
are  yet  to   come.      Swedenborg   regards  the  I 
Apocalypse  as  a  peculiar  revelation  of  divine 
truth,  the  book  of  all  books  which  is  least  en-  ! 
cumbered   b'y  literal   references   to   mundane 
things,  and  most  remarkable  for  the  complete 
ness  with  which  it  contains  the  heavenly  word. 

APOCRYPHA  (Gr.  a^Kpv^oc,  concealed),  hid-  | 
den  or  unpublished  books.     This  term  is  va-  j 
riously   applied  in   the   Roman  Catholic   and  I. 
Protestant    churches.      The   Roman   Catholic 
church  gives  the  name  Apocrypha  to   those 
books  to  which  a  reception  into  the  canon  of 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  was  refused. 


Protestant  theology  generally  designates  these 
books  by  the  name  pseudepigrapha,  and  calls 
Apocrypha  those  books  the  inspired  character 
of  which  was  long  a  subject  of  dispute  in 
the  church,  and  which  were  finally  declared 
by  the  council  of  Trent  to  be  a  part  of  the 
canon.  They  are  not  contained  in  the  Hebrew 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament ;  but  as  the  Sep- 
tuagint  embraced  them,  they  are  frequently 
quoted  by  early  church  writers  as  sacred 
books,  were  expressly  received  into  the  Chris 
tian  canon  by  a  synod  of  African  bishops  held 
at  Hippo  in  393,  and  were  thereafter  gener 
ally  accepted  as  canonical  books  by  the  Latin 
church.  By  the  Catholics  these  books  are 
called  deuterocanonical  or  antilegomena.  The 
following  books  are  included  in  this  class:  1 
Esdras,  2  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith,  Esther  x.  4- 
xvi.,  Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  Song  of 
the  Three  Holy  Children,  History  of  Susanna, 
Bel  and  the  Dragon,  Prayer  of  Manasses,  1  and 
2  Maccabees.  The  Protestant  churches  con 
tinued  to  print  the  apocryphal  or  deuteronomi- 
cal  books  of  the  Old  Testament  in  their  various 
editions  of  the  Bible  until  about  1821,  when 
discussions  arose  in  the  British  and  foreign 
Bible  society  which  resulted  in  1826  in  a  res 
olution  that  that  society  should  no  longer 
circulate  the  apocryphal  books.  German 
Protestants  are  divided  on  the  subject ;  some 
theologians,  as  Ebrard  and  Keerl,  declaring 
against  the  reception  of  the  Apocrypha  into 
the  Protestant  Bibles,  but  others,  including 
Hengstenberg  and  Stier,  in  favor  of  it.  The 
Greek  church,  at  the  synod  held  in  Jerusalem 
in  1672,  recognized  the  Apocrypha  as  inspired 
books. — That  class  of  books  to  which  the  Ro 
man  Catholic  church  exclusively  applies  the 
name  of  apocryphal  is  very  numerous.  The 
most  important  among  those  relating  to  the 
Old  Testament  are  the  third  and  fourth  books  of 
Esdras,  and  in  particular  the  book  of  Enoch, 
which  has  only  been  preserved  in  an  Ethiopia 
translation  (published  for  the  first  time  in  1838 
by  Laurence).  The  apocryphal  books  of  the 
New  Testament  comprise  a  number  of  spurious 
gospels,  acts,  epistles,  and  apocalypses,  many 
of  which  were  written  by  heretics  in  the  inter 
est  of  their  sects.  A  complete  collection  of  the 
apocryphal  literature  of  the  New  Testament 
was  begun  by  Thilo  (Codex  Apocryphus  Novi 
Testamenti,  vcl.  i.,  Leipsic,  1832,  containing 
nine  apocryphal  gospels).  After  the  death  of 
Thilo  the  work  was  continued  by  Tischendorf, 
who  published  in  succession  the  Apocryphal' 
Acts  (Acta  Apocrypha,  Leipsic,  1852),  a  new 
collection  of  Apocryphal  Gospels  (Evangelia 
Apocrypha,  1853),  and  the  Apocryphal  Apoca 
lypses  (Apocalypses  Apocrypha,  1866).  An 
English  translation  of  part  of  them  by  William 
Hone  was  published  in  London  in  1820. — See 
"  Contributions  to  the  Apocryphal  Literature 
of  the  New  Testament,"  by  W.  Wright,  and 
"Apocryphal  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  edited 
from  Syriac  MSS.,  with  an  English  translation, 
by  the  same  author  (2  vols..  London,  1871). 


586 


APOLDA 


APOLDA,  a  town  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  on  the  Thuringia  railway,  about  12  m. 
E.  N.  E.  of  Weimar;  pop.  in  1867,  8,882.  It 
is  remarkable  for  its  manufacture  of  hosiery, 
which  has  been  developed  chiefly  within  the 
last  ten  years.  Upward  of  1,200  looms  are  in 
operation  (1872),  employing  11,000  persons. 
Steam  power  is  used  in  the  two  principal  es 
tablishments.  There  are  also  iron  and  bell 
founderies.  There  is  a  mineral  spring,  discov 
ered  in  the  18th  century.  The  castle  near  the 
town  and  the  adjoining  domain  belong  to  the 
university  of  Jena. 

APOLLIMRIMS,  an  heretical  sect,  founded 
about  302  by  Apollinaris,  bishop  of  Laodicea, 
who,  in  his  zeal  against  the  Arians,  sought  to 
impress  the  following  modifications  on  the 
Nicene  creed:  1.  That  since  two  perfect  be 
ings  cannot  coalesce  in  one  person  without 
the  production  of  a  monster,  therefore  in  the 
nature  of  Christ  is  not  found  the  union  of  per 
fect  God  with  perfect  man.  2.  That  there  is 
no  human  vavg  or  rational  soul  in  Christ,  the 
divine,  or  perfect  God,  standing  in  place  of  it. 
3.  That  there  is  but  one  nature  in  Christ,  and 
that  lias  both  a  divine  and  human  side,  and  the 
connection  between  them  is  so  organic  that 
they  may  each  be  regarded  as  vested  with  the 
attributes  of  the  other.  Apollinaris  was  cen 
sured  by  the  councils  of  Alexandria  and  Constan 
tinople,  and  Athanasius  appeared  as  his  antago 
nist,  lie  died  about  390.  His  doctrine  is  one  of 
the  steps  in  that  great  movement  which  springs 
out  of  the  discussion  of  the  dual  nature  of 
Christ,  and  which  next  reappeared  in  Mono- 
physitism,  into  which  many  of  the  followers 
of  Apollinaris  naturally  fell,  while  others  re 
turned  to  the  communion  of  the  church. 

APOLLO,  one  of  the  principal  gods  of  Grecian 
mythology,  called  also  Phoebus,  and  in  Homer 
and  Hesiod  generally  designated  as  Phoebus 
Apollo.  He  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  La- 
tona,  and  twin  brother  of  Diana.  Homer  and 
Hesiod  give  no  details  about  his  birth ;  but 
later  writers  relate  that  Juno  had  put  under 
ban  all  lands  which  should  harbor  Latona,  who 
was  then  pregnant.  Delos  was  an  uninhabited 
rock  in  the  -ZEgean,  just  risen  above  the  surface 
of  the  sea.  There  Latona,  after  nine  days' 
labor,  brought  forth  Apollo  and  his  sister.  The 
earlier  mythology  of  the  Greeks,  as  reflected 
chiefly  in  Homer,  represents  Apollo  as  an 
archer  who  inflicts  vengeance  with  his  arrows ; 
as  a  god  of  song  and  stringed  instruments, 
in  which  character  he  is  said  to  have  invented 
the  phorminx ;  as  a  revealer  of  the  future,  a 
function  which  he  exercised  especially  at  the 
temple  of  Delphi ;  and  as  a  god  of  flocks,  in 
which  capacity  he  kept  the  herds  of  King  Ad- 
metus.  In  the  later  poets  he  is  the  same  as  the 
god  Helios,  or  the  sun,  but  in  the  earlier  Phoe 
bus  Apollo  and  Helios  are  quite  distinct.  With 
the  advent  of  the  lyrical  poets  Apollo  becomes 
a  patron  of  the  healing  art.  In  this  aspect  he 
is  the  father  of  JEsculapius.  He  was  the  presi 
dent  and  protector  of  the  muses.  He  is  usually 


APOLLONIA 

represented  in  the  prime  of  youth  and  manly 
beauty,  with  long  hair,  his  brows  bound  with 
the  sacred  bay  tree,  and  bearing  the  lyre  or  the 
bow.  The  most  celebrated  places  where  Apollo 
was  worshipped  were  Delphi  and  Aba3  in 
Phoc-is,  Ismenium  near  Thebes,  Delos,  Tenedos, 
Didyma  near  Miletus,  Patara  in  Cilicia,  and 
Clarus  near  Colophon.  The  hawk,  the  raven, 
the  swan,  and  the  grasshopper  were  his  favor 
ite  animals.  Apollo  was  the  peculiar  god  of 
the  Dorians,  lie  had  musical  contests  with 
Marsyas  and  Pan.  According  to  Herodotus, 
the  Egyptian  synonyme  of  Phcebus  Apollo  is 
Horus.  The  Romans  received  him  from  the 
Greeks.  We  first  hear  of  his  worship  at  Koine 
in  430  B.  C.,  when  a  temple  was  raised  to  him 
for  the  purpose  of  averting  a  plague.  During 
the  second  Punic  Avar,  in  212,  the  Ivdi  Apol- 
linares  were  established  at  Rome.  Every  cen 
tenary  anniversary  of  the  ludi,  they  celebrated 
in  his  honor  the  ludi  sceculares.  Horace  wrote 
the  Carmen  Sceculare  on  such  an  occasion. 

APOLLO  BELVEDERE,  a  statue,  perhaps  the 
greatest  existing  work  of  ancient  art,  repre 
senting  the  god  Apollo  at  the  moment  of  his 
victory  over  the  Python.  It  was  found  in  1503 
among  the  ruins  of  ancient  Antium  (now  Porto 
d'Anzo),  and  derives  its  name  from  its  position 
in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vatican,  where  it  was 
placed  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  who  had  purchased 
it  before  his  accession  to  the  papal  throne.  It 
was  removed  by  the  French  in  17-97,  but  re 
placed  after  1815.  The  statue  is  of  heroic 
size,  and  shows  the  very  perfection  of  manly 
beauty.  The  god  stands  with  the  left  arm 
extended,  still  holding  the  bow,  while  his  right 
hand,  which  has  just  left  the  string,  is  near  his 
hip.  This  right  hand  and  part  of  the  right 
arm,  as  well  as  the  left  hand,  were  wanting  in 
the  statue  when  found,  and  were  restored  by 
Angelo  da  Montorsoli,  a  pupil  of  Michel  An- 
gelo.  The  figure  is  nude ;  only  a  short  cloak 
hangs  over  the  left  shoulder.  The  breast  is 
full  and  dilated  ;  the  muscles  are  conspicuous, 
though  not  exaggerated;  the  body  seems  a 
little  thin  about  the  hips,  but  is  poised  with 
such  singular  grace  as  to  impart  to  the  whole 
a  beauty  hardly  possessed  by  any  other  statue. 
The  sculptor  is  unknown  ;  many  attribute  the 
statue  to  Agasias  the  Ephesian,  others  to 
Praxiteles  or  Calamis ;  but  its  origin  and  date 
must  remain  a  matter  of  conjecture. 

APCLLODORIS  OF  (HAR1STIS,  a  comic  poet 
of  the  new  Attic  comedy,  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  3d  century  B.  C.  Terence  took 
from  him  the  plots  of  several  of  his  plays. 

APOLLOMA.  a  city  of  ancient  Illyria  or  New 
Epirus,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Aous 
(now  the  Yoyutza  in  Albania).  It  was  founded 
by  colonists  from  Corinth  and  Corcyra.  The 
place,  having  suffered  much  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Illyrians,  sought  the  protection  of  the 
Romans,  and  remained  faithful  to  them  during 
the  Macedonian  war.  A  few  huts,  a  monastery, 
and  a  church,  together  with  the  remains  of 
two  temples,  are  the  vestiges  of  the  city. 


APOLLONIUS  PERGJSUS 


APOLLYON 


587 


APOLLOMIS  PERG.EUS,  an  ancient  geometer 
of  Alexandria,  born  at  Perga  in  Pamphylia, 
flourished  about  230  B.  C.  His  work  upon  the 
conic  sections  gained  for  him  from  his  contem 
poraries  the  title  of  the  Geometer.  Only  four 
books  of  this  work  have  come  down  to  us  in 
the  original  language.  Three  more  are  pre 
served  in  Arabic,  and  the  8th  is  lost. 

APOLLOKHS  RIIODUS,  the  author  of  the 
Argonautics,  an  epic  poem  on  the  voyage  of 
the  Argo,  flourished  at  the  close  of  the  3d 
century  B.  0.  He  spent  much  of  his  youth 
in  Alexandria,  of  which  he  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  native,  and  there  composed  his 
poem,  which  is  still  extant.  He  read  it  pub 
licly,  but  the  Alexandrians  treated  it  with 
contempt ;  and  this  so  angered  him  that  he 
left  the  city  and  went  to  Rhodes,  where  he 
long  resided,  taking  his  surname  from  the  town. 
The  Rhodians  received  his  work  with  the  great 
est  favor.  Later  in  life  he  returned  to  Alex 
andria,  and,  by  reading  the  revised  poem  in 
full,  so  changed  the  opinion  of  it  held  by  the 
Alexandrians  that  they  covered  him  with 
honors.  He  was  made  librarian  of  the  mu 
seum,  an  office  which  he  is  supposed  to  have 
held  till  his  death.  He  was  buried  in  the 
same  tomb  with  Callimachus,  with  whom  in 
his  youth  he  had  had  a  violent  quarrel  regard 
ing  the  merits  of  his  poem.  His  epic,  in  four 
books  (Argonautica),  gives  a  simple,  beautiful, 
and  vigorous  sketch  of  the  Argo's  expedition. 
Apollonius  also  wrote  epigrams  (of  which  one 
on  Callimachus  is  still  extant),  and  several 
works  which  are  lost. 

APOLLOM13  TYANEUS,  a  Pythagorean  phi 
losopher,  born  at  Tyana,  Cappadocia,  about  4 
B.  0.  He  travelled  for  many  years  through 
Asia  Minor  and  the  East,  disputing  everywhere 
concerning  the  mysteries  of  nature  and  religion. 
From  Babylon  he  journeyed  to  India,  where  he 
disputed  with  the  Brahmins  on  the  comparative 
merits  of  the  Alexandrine  and  oriental  philos 
ophers.  He  laid  claim  to  supernatural  power, 
and  is  said  to  have  received  from  priests  and 
people  divine  honors.  At  Athens  he  was  denied 
admission  to  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  because 
he  was  regarded  as  a  magician.  It  was  only 
by  force  that  he  obtained  an  entrance  into  the 
cave  of  Trophonius,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
found  the  theological  books  of  Pythagoras. 
At  Rome  he  was  arrested  and  brought  to  trial 
as  a  practiser  of  the  black  art,  but  acquitted. 
After  visiting  Spain,  Africa,  and  Greece  a  sec 
ond  time,  he  bent  his  course  to  Alexandria. 
Vespasian  was  then  in  Egypt  preparing  to  strike 
a  blow  for  the  imperial  purple,  and  hearing  of 
Apollonius's  arrival,  he  determined  to  turn  to 
account  the  influence  which  the  philosopher 
possessed  with  the  people  as  a  prophet  and 
thaumaturgist.  Accordingly,  when  Vespasian, 
on  his  entrance  into  the  city,  was  met  by  the 
magistrates  and  philosophers,  he  inquired  with 
affected  anxiety  whether  the  Tyamean  was  pres 
ent.  Being  answered  in  the  negative,  he  at 
once  proceeded  to  the  place  where  he  was,  and 


entreated  Apollonius  to  make  him  emperor. 
The  Pythagorean  rejoined  that  he  had  already 
done  it  in  praying  to  the  gods  for  a  just  and 
venerable  sovereign.  At  a  council  of  philos 
ophers  presently  held  in  Alexandria  to  consider 
the  claims  of  Vespasian,  Apollonius  warmly 
advocated  the  cause  of  his  new  patron.  Hav 
ing,  after  the  death  of  Titus  (81),  been  accused 
of  attempting  to  excite  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia 
against  the  tyrant  Domitian,  he  voluntarily 
surrendered  himself,  and  was  cast  into  prison 
at  Rome  loaded  with  chains.  His  biographer, 
Philostratus,  says  that  he  freed  himself  from 
captivity  by  the  exercise  of  his  supernatural 
powers.  Apollonius  himself,  at  a  subsequent 
period,  publicly  stated  in  Greece  that  he  owed 
his  liberty  to  the  clemency  of  the  emperor. 
Several  cities  contended  for  the  honor  of  having 
been  the  last  residence  of  Apollonius,  but  it 
seems  most  probable  that  his  old  age  was  spent 
at  Ephesus.  Tyana,  the  place  of  his  birth,  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  sacred  city,  and  invested 
with  peculiar  privileges,  and  here  during  the 
supremacy  of  paganism  a  temple  existed  in 
which  the  Pythagorean  was  worshipped.  He 
used  no  animal  food,  wore  no  woollen  garment, 
suffered  his  hair  to  grow,  and  abjured  the  so 
ciety  of  women.  As  a  philosopher  he  labored 
to  reconcile  the  oriental  and  Greek  systems 
with  the  symbolism  of  his  master.  As  a  re 
ligious  reformer  he  sought  to  restore  the  rites 
of  paganism  to  their  pristine  purity.  He  held 
that  all  sensible  objects  were  material  and  cor 
ruptible  ;  that  all  sacrifice  was  impure  in  the 
sight  of  the  gods  ;  and  that  even  prayer  itself 
became  polluted  when  it  passed  the  lips  of  the 
supplicant.  Except  some  letters  and  a  reply 
against  a  complaint  of  the  philosopher  Eu 
phrates,  all  his  works  have  perished. 

APOLLOS,  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  converted  to 
Christianity  about  A.  D.  54.  He  began  (Acts 
xviii.  24)  to  preach  at  Ephesus,  "  knowing  only 
the  baptism  of  John,"  and  was  afterward  in 
structed  by  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  and  sent  into 
Achaia.  At  Corinth  he  was  very  popular,  di 
viding  fame  with  Paul  and  Peter,  as  it  appears 
from  that  apostle's  reference  in  1  Cor.  i.  12 : 
"Every  one  of  you  saith,  I  am  of  Paul,  and  I 
of  Apollos,  and  I  of  Cephas." 

APOLLYON  (Gr.  'A-o/J.vuv,  the  destroyer), 
used  in  Rev.  ix.  11  as  a  translation  of  the  He 
brew  abaddon.  In  the  Old  Testament  al>ad- 
don  signifies  the  subterranean  region,  or  place 
of  the  dead,  equivalent  to  the  Greek  Hades. 
The  rabbins,  however,  divide  this  region  into 
two  portions,  the  upper  being  the  grave,  the 
lower  abaddon,  founding  this  distinction  espe 
cially  upon  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  11,  "Shall  thy  lov 
ing  kindness  be  declared  in  the  grave,  or  thy 
faithfulness  in  destruction  [abaddon]  ?  "  In 
Revelation  Apollyon  is  personified  as  the  angel 
who  has  dominion  over  the  bottomless  pit,  the 
chief  of  the  destroying  agents,  represented 
under  the  figure  of  locusts,  who  emerge  from 
the  abyss  at  the  sounding  of  the  fifth  trumpet, 
Some  apocalyptic  expositors  have  held  that 


588 


APOPLEXY 


APOSTOLICI 


the  locusts  represent  the  Saracens,  and  that 
Apollyon  means  especially  Mohammed;  but  it 
is  more  likely  that  the  figure  is  a  general  rep 
resentation  of  the  convulsions  attending  the 
breaking  down  of  paganism  and  the  establish 
ment  of  Christianity.  In  the  "  Pilgrim's  Prog 
ress"  Apollyon  is  the  name  of  the  evil  spirit 
encountered  by  Christian  in  the  valley  of  the 
shadow  of  death  ;  hence  the  word  has  come 
to  be  almost  a  synonyme  for  the  chief  of  the 
fallen  angels. 

APOPLEXY.     See  BKAIN,  DISEASES  OF  THE. 

APOSTLES  (Gr.  a~6aro%oi,  the  sent,  messen 
gers),  a  title  bestowed  in  the  New  Testament 
upon  all  who  were  commissioned  to  preach  the 
gospel  of  Christ,  but  especially  upon  the  twelve 
whom  Jesus  chose  from  the  whole  number  of 
his  disciples  to  be  his  heralds  among  Jews  and 
Gentiles.  Their  names  were — Simon  Peter, 
Andrew,  James  (son  of  Zebedee),  John,  Philip, 
Bartholomew,  Thomas,  Matthew  (Levi),  James 
(son  of  Alpheus),  Lebbeus  (Thaddens),  Simon, 
and  Judas  Iscariot.  They  were  mostly  Galile 
ans  and  laboring  people,  all  being  fishermen  but 
Matthew,  who  was  a  tax-gatherer.  Some  of 
them  were  connections  of  the  family  of  Jesus 
or  companions  of  his  youth,  and  they  had  been 
disciples  of  John  the  Baptist  before  Christ's  ap 
pearance.  They  accompanied  Christ  on  his 
journeys,  witnessed  his  works,  heard  his  pub 
lic  teaching  and  discussions,  and  the  more  in 
timate  of  them  (Peter,  James,  and  John)  were 
often  admitted  to  the  privacy  of  his  medita- 
tipns.  During  his  lifetime  the  apostles  under 
took  one  missionary  expedition  at  their  Mas 
ter's  bidding;  but  after  the  resurrection  the 
eleven  remained  in  Jerusalem,  not  openly  dis 
tinguished  from  other  Jews.  The  place  of 
Judas  was  filled  by  Matthias.  It  was  not 
until  the  day  of  Pentecost  that  their  work 
commenced  in  earnest  with  the  public  an 
nouncement  of  Christ  as  the  Messiah.  The  per 
secution  to  which  Stephen  fell  a  victim  scat 
tered  the  believers  (some  think  only  those  of 
Greek  extraction) ;  but  the  apostles  still  con 
tinued  in  the  city  or  in  Judea,  Peter  alone 
venturing  reluctantly  to  make  a  short  journey 
as  far  as  Cfesarea,  where  he  baptized  some  un- 
circnmcised  people. — The  work  assigned  by 
Christ  of  preaching  the  gospel  to  u  all  the 
world,"  left  unattempted  by  the  original  apos 
tles,  who  wished  to  confine  its  blessings  to  the 
circumcised  Jews,  was  first  fully  undertaken 
by  Paul,  a  man  who  had  never  seen  Jesus  on 
earth,  had  received  no  commission  from  him 
like  the  rest,  had  sought  from  Peter  and  his 
companions  no  authoritative  exposition  of  the 
Master's  truth,  and  was  at  first  an  object  of 
suspicion.  All  that  we  know  from  historical 
records  respecting  the  apostles  is  gathered  from 
the  letters  of  Paul  and  the  book  of  Acts,  though 
legends  about  all  of  them  were  early  current, 
recounting  their  voyages,  sufferings,  and  mar 
tyrdoms.  An  interesting  account  of  the  apos 
tles'  labors  is  found  in  Neander's  "  Plant 
ing  and  Training  of  the  Christian  Church." 


1  Schwegler's  Nacliapostolisclies  Zeilalter  should 

I  also  be  consulted. 

APOSTLES'  CREED,  the  oldest,  most  compre 
hensive,  and  most  universally  accepted  creed 
of  Christendom,  interesting  from  its  antiquity, 
and  still  more  from  its  general  adoption  by  the 
Greek,  Roman,  and  Protestant  churches.  It 
reads  as  follows:  "  I  believe  in  God  the  Father 
Almighty  (Maker  of  heaven  and  earth) :  and 
in  Jesus  Christ  his  only  Son  our  Lord;  who 
was  conceived  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  born  of  the 
Virgin  Mary;  suffered  under  Pontius  Pilate, 
was  crucified,  (dead,)  and  buried ;  (he  de 
scended  into  hell,)  the  third  day  he  rose  from 
the  dead  ;  he  ascended  into  heaven,  and  sit- 
teth  on  the  right  hand  of  (God)  the  Father 
(Almighty) ;  from  thence  he  shall  come  to 
judge  the  quick  and  the  dead.  I  believe  in 
the  Holy  Ghost ;  the  holy  (catholic)  church, 
(the  communion  of  saints  ;)  the  forgiveness  of 
sins  ;  the  resurrection  of  the  body ;  (and  the 
life  everlasting.)  Amen."  The  passages  en 
closed  in  parentheses  are  additions  to  the  origi 
nal  form,  which  was  complete  by  the  middle  of 
the  2d  century.  The  nucleus  of  the  creed  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  formula  of  baptism, 
"in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  to  which  the  other 
articles  were  appended,  the  whole  forming  a 
brief  summary  of  historical  statements  from 
the  New  Testament  in  regard  to  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Spirit.  The  creed  is  rather  an  epit 
ome  of  recorded  facts  than  a  system  of  specu 
lative  opinions,  and  was  never  designed  nor 
used  to  express  the  philosophical  thoughts  of 
the  church.  The  impression  that  this  vener 
able  symbol  was  regarded  as  a  secret  formu- 

|  la,  part  of  the  disciplina  arcani,  is  erroneous. 

I  The  tradition  that  it  was  made  by  the  apostles 
themselves,  who  at  a  meeting  in  Jerusalem 
contributed  each  an  article  toward  an  authen 
tic,  compendious,  and  unchangeable  rule  of 
faith,  rests  upon  no  historical  evidence. 

APOST<»LICI.  I.  A  sect  of  the  2d  century, 
mentioned  by  St.  Augustine,  concerning  which 
very  little  is  known.  They  considered  mar 
riage  and  individual  possession  of  property 
mortal  sins.  II.  A  sect  of  the  12th  century, 
mostly  from  the  lower  classes  of  society,  who 
would  not  take  an  oath,  nor  shave,  nor  cut 
their  hair,  nor  marry.  Although  their  lives 
were  blameless,  many  of  them  were  executed 
at  Cologne.  III.  A  sect  founded  about  1200 
by  Gerard  de  Segarelli  of  Parma,  a  young  man 
who  had  been  rejected  from  the  Franciscan 
order.  They  believed  that  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  was  soon  to  come,  and  went  barefoot 
through  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  France,  preach 
ing,  begging,  and  singing.  They  rejected  mar 
riage,  but  lived  in  intimacy  with  females  whom 
they  called  spiritual  sisters,  and  who  accom 
panied  them  on  their  journeys.  Segarelli  was 
burned  as  a  heretic  in  1300.  The  sect  con 
tinued  to  live  a  while  longer  under  Dolcino,  a 
Milanese,  but  soon  became  reduced  to  banditti, 
and  in  1307  the  movement  ceased. 


APOTHECARY 


APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS     589 


APOTHECARY  (Lat.  apothecarius,  from  Gr. 
airodt/K-rj,  a  shop  or  store),  one  who  prepares  and 
dispenses  medicines.  Apothecaries  formerly 
sold  herbs  and  drills  and  spices,  and  by  long 
practice  in  the  art  of  preparing  tinctures,  sir 
ups,  powders,  extracts,  pills,  and  medicated 
waters,  they  became  a  special  corporation,  dis 
tinct  from  grocers  and  in  some  places  from 
druggists,  and  were  organized  into  a  privileged 
body  in  the  civilized  parts  of  Europe,  during  the 
middle  ages.  In  England  the  corporation  still 
exists,  in  virtue  of  a  royal  charter,  and  with 
power  to  confer  licenses  on  its  members,  who 
are  invested  with  the  right  to  administer  medi 
cine,  as  well  as  to  prepare  it  and  sell  it  in  shops. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  medical  practitioners 
in  England  are  only  apothecaries ;  but  the  cor 
poration  enlarges  its  curriculum  of  studies  and 
examinations  as  occasion  may  require.  The 
royal  college  of  surgeons  in  London  also  has  a 
charter,  and  a  right  to  give  diplomas,  which  are 
honorary,  and  confer  no  legal  right  to  practise 
medicine  and  to  sue  for  payment.  Most  young 
apothecaries,  however,  now  obtain  them  before 
they  venture  to  practise  as  surgeons.  In  -France 
the  old  corporation  of  apothecary  druggists  has 
been  dissolved,  and  a  new  chartered  corpora 
tion  of  pharmaciens  has  been  substituted  in  its 
place.  These  keep  shops,  prepare  medicines, 
and  make  up  prescriptions,  but  have  no  legal 
right  to  practise  as  physicians.  In  the  United 
States  there  is  neither  law  nor  custom  to  pre 
vent  an  apothecary  from  practising  as  a  physi 
cian.  It  is  only  lately  that  any  legal  restric 
tions  have  been  placed  upon  the  dispensing  of 
the  most  powerful  drugs  by  any  boy  whom  the 
proprietor  of  an  apothecary's  shop  might  choose 
to  employ. — In  apothecaries'  weight,  used  in 
dispensing  medicines,  the  pound  (ft>)  is  divided 
into  12  ounces  (  § ),  the  ounce  into  8  drams 
(3),  the  dram  into  3  scruples  O),  and  the 
scruple  into  20  grains  (grs.).  In  the  whole 
sale  drug  trade  avoirdupois  weight  is  used. 

APPALACHEE  BAY,  a  large  open  bay  on  the 
S.  "W.  coast  of  Florida  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
having  a  breadth  of  about  45  m..  and  an  extent 
inland  of  18  m.  There  is  a  wide  passage  from 
the  bay,  10  feet  deep,  leading  to  the  town  of 
St.  Mark's,  which  furnishes  excellent  anchor 
age  ground. 

APPALACHEES,  an  Indian  tribe  of  Florida, 
living  on  a  bay  which  still  bears  their  name. 
They  were  of  the  same  family  as  the  Choctaws, 
and  were  very  numerous.  They  were  at  first  not 
friendly  to  the  Spaniards,  and  made  war  on 
them  at  intervals  down  to  1638.  A  Spanish 
post  was  established  there,  and  missionaries 
soon  won  them  over,  care  being  taken  to  in 
struct  the  chiefs,  many  ©f  whom  learned  to 
read  and  write.  The  oppression  of  the  Span 
ish  commanders  led  to  a  revolt  about  1687; 
and  the  Spaniards'  after  reducing  them  com 
pelled  many  to  work  on  the  fortifications. 
Their  appeal  to  the  king  in  1688,  signed  by  the 
chiefs,  is  still  extant.  While  this  discontent 
prevailed,  the  English  and  their  Indian  allies 


;  invaded  the  country  of  the  Appalachees,  de- 
|  stroying  many  towns  and  killing  or  carrying 
I  off  great  numbers  of  the  people.  In  1704  St. 
'  Mark's  was  taken  and  the  missionaries  were 
!  put  to  death.  The  tribe  was  now  reduced 
!  from  7,000  to  about  400.  On  the  settlement 
|  of  Louisiana  a  portion  removed  to  St.  Louis  in 
!  the  vicinity  of  Mobile,  while  the  Spaniards 
i  gathered  the  remainder  at  Soledad.  After 
I  1722  they  disappear  as  a  tribe,  being  probably 
|  absorbed  in  the  Choctaw  nation. 

APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS,  the  great  range  of 
mountains,  called  also  the  Alleghanies,  which 
extends  from  that  part  of  Canada  lying  between 
the  New  England  states  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
river,  through  the  whole  length  of  Vermont, 
across  the  western  part  of  Massachusetts  and 
the   middle  Atlantic   states,   to   the   northern 
part  of  Alabama.     The  name  Appalachian  was 
given  to  the  mountains  by  the  Spaniards  under 
i  De  Soto,  who  derived  it  from  the  neighboring 
Indians.     The  name  Alleghany,  given  by  the 
|  English    settlers   of  the    north,  was   received 
|  from  the  Indians,  and  supposed  to  mean  end- 
!  less.    The  White  mountains  of  New  Hampshire 
and  the  Adirondack  mountains  of  New  York 
are  really  outliers  of  this  range,  though  sepa 
rated  from  it  by  wide  tracts  of  low  elevation. 
I  In  their  Alpine  forms  and  more  metamorphic 
!  structure,  they  present  also  features  somewhat 
I  different  from  those  which  are  especially  pe- 
|  culiar  to  the  Appalachian   range.     The  Cats- 
j  kills  form   a  link  of  the  main  range.     These 
I  groups  will  all  be  found  described  under  their 
j  own  names.     Not  including  the  lateral  ranges, 
!  the  greatest  width  of  the  Appalachian  chain  is 
j  about    100  m.     This   is   in  Pennsylvania   and 
I  Maryland,    about  midway  of  its  course.     Its 
j  extreme  length  is  about  1,300  m.     At  either 
I  end  its   termination   is  not  well  defined,   the 
|  mountains  sinking  away  and  being  lost  in  the 
i  hilly  country  that  succeeds  to  them,  and  at  the 
I  south  its   gneissoid  and    other   ancient   rocks 
gradually  disappearing  beneath  the  cretaceous 
I  formations  of  this  region.     In  all  their  extent 
I  the  Appalachian   mountains   are   remarkable, 
!  not   for   their   great   elevation,  nor   for   their 
I  striking   peaks,   nor  for  any  feature  that  dis 
tinguishes  one  portion  of  them  from  the  rest, 
I  but  for  a  singular  uniformity  of  outline,  par- 
I  ticularly  of  that  which  defines  the  summit  of 
i  the  ridges,  as  well  as  that  which  marks  their 
direction.     While  varying  little  in  height,  the 
ridges   pursue    a  remarkably  straight   course, 
I  sometimes  hardly  diverging  from   a   straight 
;  line  for  a  distance  of  50  or  60  m.,  and  one 
|  ridge  succeeding  beyond  another,  all  continu- 
i  ing  the  same  general  course  in  parallel  lines, 
'  like  successive  waves  of  the  sea.    As  one  curves 
round  into  a  new  direction,  all  curve  with  it. 
Thus  the  valleys  between  the  ridges  preserve 
i  a  uniform  width,  and  are  as  remarkable  for 
their  parallelism  as  are  the  hills  which  bound 
i  them.     An   able   paper  upon    "  The  Physical 
Structure  of  the  Appalachian  Chain"  was  read 
before  the  American  association  of  geologists 


590 


APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS 


and  naturalists  in  1842,  by  the  Profs.  Rogers, 
who  were  at  the  head  of  the  geological  surveys 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  and  who  had 
extended  their  observations  into  the  continua 
tions  of  the  chain  N.  and  S.  from  these  states. 
This  paper  is  still  the  most  complete  treatise 
upon  this  subject.  Prof.  Guyot  has  also  given 
much  attention  to  the  physical  structure  of 
these  mountains,  and  made  careful  barometrical 
measurements  of  several  of  their  highest  sum 
mits,  both  near  their  northern  and  southern 
extremities. — The  general  course  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  is  that  of  the  coast  line  opposite  to 
them.  The  sea  makes  its  nearest  approach  to 
them  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river,  which 
is  only  50  m.  from  the  passage  of  this  river 
through  the  Highlands.  Thence  as  far  S.  as 
Cape  Ilatteras,  the  width  of  the  Atlantic  slope 
gradually  increases,  till  the  space  between  the 
coast  and  the  Blue  Ridge  is  about  200  m.  ;  and 
so  it  continues  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  mountains.  This  space  is  a  hilly  district, 
gradually  becoming  of  higher  elevation  as  it 
extends  back  from  the  coast.  In  New  England 
its  average  height  at  the  base  of  the  mountains 
is  about  500  ft.  above  the  sea ;  in  Pennsylvania, 
300;  in  Virginia,  500;  and  further  S.  1,200. 
From  the  mountains  to  the  lowest  falls  of  the 
streams  over  the  edge  of  the  granitic  platform, 
this  is  for  the  most  part  a  region  of  the  low 
est  stratified,  metamorphic,  and  granitic  rocks. 
These  lowest  falls  mark  the  head  of  navigation 
of  the  streams,  and  the  descent  to  the  lower 
and  more  level  platform  of  the  upper  second 
ary  and  tertiary  formations,  which  in  the  south 
ern  states  stretch  along  the  coast  in  a  belt 
sometimes  reaching  100  m.  in  width.  The 
eastern  ridges  of  the  chain,  rising  from  their 
elevated  base,  do  not  present  the  appearance 
of  the  height  above  the  sea  which  they  actu 
ally  reach  ;  and  on  their  western  slope,  which 
stretches  far  away  toward  the  Mississippi,  their 
height  is  still  more  completely  lost  in  the 
elevated  and  wide-spread  plateau.  Between 
Lake  Champlain  and  Lake  Ontario,  this  west 
ern  table  land  is  1,500  ft.  above  the  sea.  and 
from  it  as  a  base  rise  the  high  summits  of  the 
Adirondack  mountains.  In  Virginia  and  Ten 
nessee,  as  observed  by  Prof.  Guyot,  the  bot 
tom  of  the  valley  W.  of  the  Alleghanies  is 
from  1,000  to  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  be 
yond  it  for  100  m.  W.  extends  a  plateau  of 
1,500  to  2,000  ft.  elevation,  traversed  by  lon 
gitudinal  ridges.  All  the  cross  sections  from 
the  eastern  edge  of  the  granite  present  first 
the  slightly  undulating  profile  of  the  Atlan 
tic  slope,  which  is  succeeded  by  the  sudden 
rise  to  the  highest  elevation,  and  this  by  the 
wave-like  descent  and  ascent  across  the  valleys 
and  the  ridges,  and  finally  terminate  in  the 
gradual  descent  on  the  western  table  land.  As 
first  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Rogers,  the  same  law 
is  found  to  obtain  in  this  chain  and  in  the  Jura 
mountains,  of  steepest  general  slopes  toward  the 
east ;  but  of  individual  ridges  the  gentler  slopes 
are  toward  Ihe  east,  and  the  steepest  mclina- 


|  tions  toward  the  west.  In  the  mid-region  of  the 
chain — in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mary 
land — where  the  breadth  is  greatest,  the  height 
appears  to  be  correspondingly  diminished.  The 
'  summits,  valleys,  and  table  land  all  reach  here 
I  their  least  elevation.  The  highest  summits 
are  but  little  over  2,000  ft,  above  the  sea.  Still 
the  barrier  between  the  eastern  and  western 
waters  is  complete ;  and  no  clean  cut  through 
the  range  is  anywhere  found,  excepting  that 
of  the  Mohawk  river  in  New  York,  the  highest 
I  elevation  of  which  is  only  400  ft.  above  the 
|  sea.  Toward  the  north  and  the  south  from 
!  this  central  portion,  the  plateau  becomes  more 
|  elevated,  as  well  as  the  summits  that  rise  up 
j  from  it.  In  North  Carolina,  near  the  borders 
!  of  Tennessee,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  Bun 
combe  county,  the  base  of  the  Black  moun- 
!  tains,  which  have  been  an  especial  subject  of 
examination  by  Prof.  Guyot,  is  found  to  extend 
from  100  to  150  m.  in  length,  with  an  eleva 
tion  of  2,000  ft.  Above  this  many  summits 
are  found  reaching  more  than  4,500  ft.  high 
er,  as  the  Black  Dome,  the  height  of  which 
above  the  sea  is  0,7(>0  ft. ;  the  Balsam  Cone, 
6,668 ;  the  Black  Brother,  6,671 ;  Cat-tail  peak, 
6,595  ;  Hairy  Bear,  6,597,  &c.  The  great  ele 
vation  of  this  group  makes  it  the  culminating 
point  of  the  system.  Mt.  Washington  in  New 
Hampshire,  though  found  by  the  measurement 
of  Prof.  Guyot  to  be  but  6,288  ft,  above  the 
sea,  which  measurement  differs  only  three  feet 
|  from  that  made  by  the  officers  of  the  coast 
j  survey,  appears  much  more  elevated  than  the 
summits  of  the  Black  mountains,  from  its  ris 
ing  from  a  plateau  of  not  half  the  height  of 
the  base  of  this  group. — In  the  southern  part 
of  Pennsylvania  other  parallel  ridges  succeed 
to  the  Alleghany  mountains :  Negro  mountain, 
Laurel  hill,  and  Chestnut  ridge,  each  a  repeti 
tion  of  the  other,  at  distances  about  10  m. 
apart,  and  each  occupying  nearly  as  great  a 
breadth  as  the  valleys  which  separate  them. 
The  capping  of  their  summits  is  the  con 
glomerate  rocks,  which  underlie  the  coal  meas 
ures.  These  strata  arch  over  the  crests  of 
the  ridges,  projecting  in  bold  cliffs,  and  on 
each  slope  dipping  beneath  the  coal  measures, 
which  in  the  valley  hills  attain  their  greatest 
thickness.  Thus  the  same  strata  appear  upon 
the  summits,  and  in  undulating  lines  pass  be 
neath  the  valleys  to  reappear  upon  the  crest 
of  the  next  ridge,  and  so  on  till,  dipping  down 
the  western  slope  of  Chestnut  ridge,  the  coal 
measures  spread  in  nearly  horizontal  strata 
over  the  western  portion  of  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia.  Their  lowermost  lay 
ers  reappear  as  they  rise  to  the  surface  upon 
the  other  margin  of 'the  great  coal  basin,  as  far 
into  Ohio  as  Zanesville,  and  thence  along  a  line 
extending  to  the  mouth  of  the  Scioto.  In  the 
!  gentleness  of  the  dips  of  the  strata,  this  west- 
i  era  slope  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
highly  disturbed  stratification  of  the  Atlantic 
slope.  There  the  rock  formations,  nearer  the 
disturbing  causes  which  have  elevated  the 


APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS 


591 


mountains  and  metamorphosed  the  rocks  of 
the  most  eastern  ridges,  are  thrown  into  con 
fused  and  intricate  positions,  and  pressed  into 
folds  and  wrinkles,  the  prevailing  inclination 
of  which  is  toward  the  southeast — as  hori 
zontal  layers  of  heavy  cloth,  pressed  laterally 
by  irresistible  force  from  one  end  of  the  pile, 
would  be  lifted  into  folds,  whose  general  in 
clination,  by  the  falling  back  of  the  arches, 
would  be  toward  the  direction  where  the  force 
is  applied.  The  direction  of  the  line  of  force 
is  that  of  the  ridges  themselves,  or  rather  of 
the  anticlinal  and  synclinal  axes,  the  one  being 
the  crest  of  wave-like  form  into  which  the 
strata  are  thrown,  and  the  other  the  trough. 
This,  too,  is  the  line^  of  the  great  fissures, 
which,  now  filled  with 'metallic  ores,  constitute 
the  mineral  veins  of  the  chain.  It  is  the  line 
of  the  rents  caused  by  the  earthquakes  of  the 
present  period ;  and  it  is  regarded  by  the  Profs. 
Rogers  as  the  line  along  which  the  elevating 
force  that  lifted  the  mountains  extended,  mov 
ing  onward  at  right  angles  to  this  line,  with  a 
wave-like  motion,  till  the  result  was  attained 
of  placing  the  ridges  in  their  present  positions. 
Toward  the  southeast,  whence  the  movement 
proceeded,  the  axes  are  crowded  near  to 
gether.  Toward  the  northwest  they  are  re 
peated  at  distances  gradually  increasing,  till 
the  undulations  at  last  flatten  out  and  die  away 
in  the  horizontally  stratified  regions  of  the 
west.  The  straightness  or  regular  curvature 
of  these  axes,  and  their  parallelism  in  distinct 
groups,  continued  for  distances  sometimes 
amounting  to  over  100  m.,  without  change  in 
the  stratification  or  topography,  cannot  fail  to 
excite  the  astonishment  of  the  geological  ob 
server.  Among  these  axes  are  particularly 
noticed  by  the  Profs.  Rogers  the  straight  axis 
of  Montour's  ridge  in  the  Susquehanna  region, 
which  extends  about  80  m. ;  the  beautifully 
inflected  axis  of  Jack's  mountain,  in  the  Poto 
mac  region,  90  m.  long ;  and  that  of  the  Knob- 
ly  mountain,  nearly  a  continuation  of  the  last 
named,  itself  100  m.  long.  In  S.  "W.  Virginia, 
the  straight  axis  of  Clinch  mountain  is  traced 
for  more  than  120  m. — The  strata  of  the  Ap 
palachian  system  are  all  of  marine  or  ter 
restrial  origin.  The  fossils  they  contain  are  all 
of  families  belonging  to  the  salt  water,  or 
plants  of  terrestrial  growth.  The  latest  or 
uppermost  groups  are  those  of  the  coal  forma 
tion.  Throughout  the  whole  chain  none  of 
the  stratified  rocks  belong  to  a  later  epoch. 
Their  elevation,  then,  must  have  taken  place 
previously  to  those  periods,  when  the  upper 
secondary  rocks,  that  lap  upon  the  extreme 
eastern  border  of  the  Appalachian  formations, 
were  deposited,  and  previously  to  those  still 
later  periods  when  the  great  deposits  of  ter 
tiary  marls,  sandstones,  and  clays  were  pro 
duced,  which  cover  the  S.  E.  part  of  our 
country.  These  mountains  are  then  of  much 
older  date  than  the  Alps  or  the  Andes,  upon 
the  high  summits  of  both  of  which  rest  the 
rocks  of  these  later  formations,  containing 


their  characteristic  marine  fossils.  Raised 
probably  by  many  successive  impulses  exerted 
on  the  same  lines  (it  may  be  after  long  inter 
vals  of  rest),  the  rush  of  the  retreating  waters 
appears  to  have  opened  those  gaps  through 
the  ridges,  which  constitute  a  peculiar  and 
most  interesting  feature  in  the  topography  and 
scenery  of  these  mountains,  and  which  could 
not  have  been  produced  by  the  action  of  any 
existing  streams.  The  same  rush  of  waters, 
acting  upon  piles  of  strata  of  various  degrees 
of  hardness,  and  consequent  capacities  of  re 
sistance,  impressed  upon  these  the  forms  ap 
propriate  to  these  properties.  This  is  seen 
in  the  sharp  outline  of  single  beds  of  sand 
stone,  which  project  from  the  sides  of  the  hill, 
around  which  they  outcrop  ;  and  in  the  reced 
ing  of  the  profile  of  the  mountain  against  the 
beds  of  softer  shales  and  slates.  It  is  seen  on 
a  grander  scale  in  the  peculiar  forms  which 
each  of  the  rock  formations  gives  to  the  hills  or 
mountains  it  composes,  and  which  enables  one 
to  recognize  it  wherever  met  with  by  a  glance 
at  the  topography. — The  regular  arrange 
ment  of  the  rock  formations  throughout  all 
their  foldings  and  undulations  is  rarely  dis 
turbed  by  any  of  those  sudden  breaks  which 
are  common  in  other  countries,  and  which 
bring  into  contact,  by  the  displacement  of  por 
tions  of  the  series,  strata  usually  far  separated 
from  each  other.  These  "faults,1'  however, 
are  met  with  in  several  of  the  states,  but  par 
ticularly  in  S.  W.  Virginia,  where  they  extend 
for  about  100  m.  in  length,  their  course  being 
the  same  as  that  of  the  anticlinal  axes  out  of 
which  they  grow.  They  appear  to  have  re 
sulted  from  the  lateral  thrust  toward  the 
northwest  of  the  folded  piles  of  strata.  They 
are  observed,  always  beginning  on  the  N.  TV. 
side  of  the  anticlinal  axes,  in  tracing  these 
along  their  course,  the  strata  on  this  side  be 
coming  steeper  and  steeper,  till  at  last  they  are 
inverted,  and  dip  toward  the  southeast.  At 
this  point  the  strata  appear  to  have  burst  asun 
der  along  the  line  of  greatest  curvature,  and 
the  S.  E.  portion  to  have  been  lifted  up,  bring 
ing  its  lower  strata  against  the  higher  mem 
bers  on  the  other  side  of  the  line  of  fracture. 
The  depth  of  this  dislocation,  or  the  extent  of 
the  displacement,  increases  toward  the  centre 
of  the  line  of  fault ;  and  where  the  length  of 
this  line,  as  in  the  district  under  consideration, 
stretches  along  for  100  m.  or  more,  it  cannot 
appear  disproportional  that  the  vertical  dis 
placement  should  in  its  central  portions  amount 
to  -^  of  this  distance ;  and  that  the  lower 
groups  of  the  Appalachian  system,  usually  sep 
arated  by  intervening  strata  of  four  or  five 
miles  in  thickness,  should  be  brought  in  con 
tact,  so  that  the  edges  of  one  series  abut  against 
the  edges  of  the  other.  Thus  the  lower  lime 
stones  of  the  great  valley  of  Virginia  are  seen, 
in  Montgomery  county,  and  thence  westward 
along  the  line  of  the  Virginia  and  Tennessee- 
railroad,  in  vertical  position,  with  the  strata 
of  the  far  more  elevated  series  containing  eeal 


592 


APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS 


beds  dipping  toward  them,  as  if  the  more  re 
cent  formations  passed  beneath  these  ancient 
groups.  The  thermal  springs,  which  are  of 
frequent  occurrence  along  the  Appalachian 
chain,  and  particularly  so  in  Virginia,  flow  out 
almost  universally  on  the  lines  of  anticlinal 
axes,  or  of  the  faults.  Their  elevated  temper 
ature  indicates  the  great  depths  from  which 
they  rise,  and  consequently  that  to  which  the 
folds  and  fractures  of  the  stratification  reach. 
— The  geological  formations  of  the  Appalachian 
belt,  comprising  all  the  groups  from  the  granite 
to  the  coal,  are  abundantly  productive  in  the 
most  important  ores  and  minerals,  which  espe 
cially  belong  to  these  different  formations.  In 
the  ancient  granitic  rocks  which  skirt  the  edge 
of  the  lower  stratified  formations,  and  some 
times  spread  out  over  broad  areas,  as  in  the 
mountainous  region  W.  of  Lake  Ohamplain,  in 
the  highlands  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
are  found  inexhaustible  repositories  of  magnetic 
iron  ores,  which  already  are  worked  to  great 
extent  in  connection  with  the  valuable  beds  of 
hematite  ores  that  are  found  conveniently  near 
them,  ranging  from  Canada  to  Alabama  along 
the  line  of  the  great  Appalachian  valley.  These 
beds  occur  in  great  depressions  in  the  lower 
limestones  and  metamorphic  slates  of  this 
range,  and  sometimes  in  veins  in  the  same 
rocks,  and  are  worked  in  every  one  of  the 
states  through  which  this  passes,  everywhere 
presenting  the  same  peculiar  features.  They 
arc  frequently  of  extraordinary  extent,  and 
though  worked  in  several  instances  for  more 
than  100  years,  the  actual  depth  to  which  they 
reach,  and  their  real  nature,  have  never  been 
fully  explored.  Together  with  the  magnetic 
ores,  they  furnish  the  supplies  for  a  very  large 
proportion  of  all  the  iron  manufactured  in  the 
United  States;  and  the  numerous  bodies  of 
them  still  untouched  are  a  provision  for  still 
larger  demands  for  generations  to  come.  The 
value  of  these  repositories  can  hardly  be  over 
estimated,  particularly  when  considered  in  con 
nection  with  the  long  extent  of  their  range, 
not  far  back  from  the  coast,  and  the  enormous 
supplies  of  mineral  coal  that  can  be  conve 
niently  brought  to  effect  their  reduction.  Far 
more  valuable  are  they  than  the  gold  found  in 
the  granitic  and  metamorphic  rocks  of  the  east 
ern  ranges,  though  this,  judging  from  the  pro 
duction  of  certain  localities  in  the  southern 
states,  would,  if  exposed  by  the  great  irregu 
larities  of  the  surface,  like  those  of  California, 
be  found  as  rich  and  abundant  as  there.  It  is 
worked  in  alluvial  deposits  enriched  from  the 
auriferous  veins;  and  these  also  contain  ores 
of  copper  and  lead,  and  occasionally  of  silver. 
These  deposits  and  veins  are  met  with  in  the 
valley  of  the  Chaudiere  below  Quebec,  and  are 
again  seen  in  a  few  localities  in  Vermont;  but 
their  great  development  is  on  the  eastern  bor 
ders  of  the  Appalachians  S.  of  the  Potomac,  j 
The  copper  ores  met  with  in  the  rocks  of  the 
Appalachian  system  have  never  proved  of  great 
importance.  They  are  found  along  the  range 


j  of   the  talcose   and  micaceous   slates   of  the 
I  Blue  Ridge,  as  well  as  associated  with  the  gold 
I  further    toward    the   southeast.      In   Virginia 
,  these  slates  produce  some  workable  beds  of 
;  lead  ore,   and   display  occasionally  attractive 
j  appearances  of  copper.      In  New  Jersey  the 
I  same  range  produces  the  remarkable  red  ox- 
I  ides  of  zinc  associated  with  Franklinite,  which 
I  are  worked  together,  the  one  to  produce  the 
white  zinc  paint,  and  the  other  a  superior  qual 
ity  of  iron  for  the  manufacture  of  steel.     Fur- 
I  ther  S.  along  the  same  belt  are  found,  in  the 
j  Lehigh  valley  and  in  Lancaster  county,  Pa.,  the 
|  valuable  silicates  and  carbonates  of  zinc,  called 
calamine,  which  are  worked  for  the  same  pur 
pose  as  the  red  oxides  of  New  Jersey.     Veins 
of  lead  ore  are  found  m  several  of  the  forma- 
j  tions ;  and  in  Wythe  county  in  S.  W.  Virginia 
I  a  mine  in  the  great  limestone  formation  has 
I  been  worked  with  some  interruptions  for  more 
|  than  100  years.     These  lead  veins,  however,  of 
•  the  lower  members  of  the  Appalachian  sys 
tem,  have  for  the  most  part  proved  of  little 
importance;  indeed,  throughout  the  range  of 
the  mountains  none  of  the  formations  above 
the  metamorphic  rocks  are  rich  in  any  other 
metallic  ores  than  the  hematites  which  are  oc 
casionally  met  with,  the  red  fossiliferous  iron 
ores  of  Formation  No.  V.  of  the  Pennsylvanian 
survey,  called  in  New  York  the  Clinton  group, 
and  the  argillaceous  ores  of  the  coal  measures. 
No  rock  formation  is  more  useful  to  man  for 
the  variety  and  value  of  its  productions  than 
the  true  coal  formation.     It  furnishes  the  great 
supplies  of  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal,  beds 
of  fire  clay,  and  west  of  the  Alleghany  ridge 
abundant  beds  of  limestone.     Salt  water  is  ob 
tained  by  boring  artesian  wells  to  lower  mem 
bers  of  the  series,  and  the  brine  fiows  up  or  is 
pumped  up  into  the  valleys,  to  be  evaporated  by 
the  combustion  of  the  coal  found  in  the  neigh 
boring  hills.      In  many  localities,    where  the 
salt-bearing   rocks  approach   the  surface,   the 
brine  is  more  readily  obtained  in  large  quanti 
ties,  and  the  coal  is  transported  for  its  evapo 
ration.     The  formations  that  furnish  the  salt 
also  contain  great  beds  of  gypsum.     Onondaga 
county  in  New  York  is  famous  for  these  pro 
ductions,  and  in  Washington  county  in  S.  W. 
Virginia  solid  beds  of  salt  are  struck  in  the 
midst  of  the  most  extensive  plaster  deposits. 
— From  one  extremity  of  their  range  to  the 
other,  the  Alleghanies  have  furnished  large  sup 
plies  of  the  valuable  white  pine ;  and  many  of 
the   less  accessible  districts  of  the   belt   still 
abound  with  it.     Far  toward  the  north,  upon 
the  better  soils  of  the  mountains,  the  hard-wood 
forests  prevail — the  fine  sugar  maple,  of  the 
curly  and  bird's-eye  varieties,  and  the  white 
birch.     The  ash  and  the  beech  also  attain  their 
highest  state  of  perfection  in  the  most  fertile 
soil  of  these  northern  mountains.     Upon  the 
poorer  lands,   and   along   the   ravines  of  the 
mountains,  the  "  black  growth  "  flourishes— the 
evergreens,  as  the  different  species  of  the  pine 
family,   the  spruce,   the  hemlock,   cedar,   and 


APPALACIIICOLA 


APPARITION 


593 


balsam  fir;  and  in  the  swamps,  the  hackmatack  ! 
or  larch.     The  varieties  of  the  oak  appear  fur-  I 
ther  S.  upon  the  range,  these  and  the  chestnut 
taking  the  place  of  the  maple,  birch,  and  beech, 
and,  to  some  extent,   of  the  evergreens  also. 
The  large  cherry  tree,  so  valuable  for  its  tim 
ber,  is  met  with  in  Pennsylvania,  scattered  upon 
the   mountains;    in  W.  and  S.  W.  Virginia  it 
forms  forests   of   itself.     The  white  oak,   the 
white  poplar,  the  white  and  yellow  pines,  and 
the  chestnut  are  the  valuable  forest  trees  of 
the  mountains  of  Virginia.     In  some  localities  ' 
still   further  south,  the  dark   growth    of   the  ! 
conifers  covers  the  summits,  as  found,  for  in-  | 
stance,  by  Prof.  Guyot  in  the  group  in  North  i 
Carolina  named  the  Black  mountains  from  the 
dark   foliage   of   its   balsam   firs,   spruce,    and 
hemlock.     Among  the  flowering  shrubs,  none 
are  more  beautiful  than  the  varieties  of  kalmia, 
azalea,  and  rhododendron,  which  are  found  in 
the  greatest  profusion  upon  the  slopes  of  the 
Alleghanies  and  along  their  watercourses,  giv 
ing  to  the  rough  places  of  the  mountains  the 
rich  colors  of  cultivated  arardens. 

APPALACHICOLA.  I.  A  river  of  W.  Florida, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  Chattahoochee  and  j 
Flint  rivers  at  the  S.  W.  angle  of  Georgia,  ! 
flows  S.  about  75  m.  into  St.  George's  sound,  j 
through  an  estuary  called  Appalachicola  bay.  j 
It  is  navigable  for  steamboats  through  its  whole  ' 
course,  and  with  its  branches  is  supposed  to  i 
drain  not  far  from  20,000  sq.  m.  The  tide  runs  ! 
up  60  m.  lit  A  town  and  port  of  entry,  capi-  ; 
tal  of  Franklin  county,  Fla.,  situated  on  a  bluff  | 
at  the  mouth  of  the  preceding  river,  65  m.  S.  W.  ; 
of  Tallahassee ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,129;  in  1860,  | 
1,904.  Large  quantities  of  cotton  are  shipped  i 
here  by  steamboats.  In  1870  the  number  of  j 
vessels  registered,  enrolled,  and  licensed  was  21,  j 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  2,033  tons ;  of  these  ' 
7  were  steamers  with  a  tonnage  of  1,587  tons,  t 

APPAXOOSE,  a  S.  county  of  Iowa,  adjoining 
Missouri;    area,  510  sq.  m. ;    pop.  in  1870,  16,-  j 
450.     The  North  Missouri  railroad  traverses  it.  j 
The  river  Chariton,   which  flows  through  it,  i 
and  numerous  smaller  streams,  furnish  ample  < 
water  power,  while  the  rolling  prairies  which  ; 
cover  a  large  part  of  the  surface  are  fertile,  and  \ 
the  watercourses    are  bordered  by  tracts  of  j 
timber.     Large  beds  of  coal  have  been  found  at 
several  points.      In  1870  the  county  produced 
134,411  bushels  of  wheat,  986,280  of  corn,  322,- 
256  of  oats,  59,079  of  potatoes,  83,784  Ibs.  of 
wool,  484,147  of  butter*  22, 65 9  tons  of  hay,  and  i 
37,150  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.     Capital, 
Centreville. 

^  APPARATUS,  in  physiology,  a  group  or  collec-  j 
tion  of  different  organs,  which  are  associated  in 
the  performance  of    some  function  in  which 
each  one  bears  a  particular  part.      Thus,  the  : 
heart,  arteries,  veins,  and  capillaries  together 
constitute    the    circulatory    apparatus.       The  ! 
bones,  ligaments,  tendons,  and  muscles  of  the 
limbs  form  the  apparatus  of  locomotion.     The 
mouth,  teeth,  tongue,  stomach,  and  intestine, 
with  the   accessory  glandular  organs,  are  the 
VOL.  i.— 38 


digestive  apparatus.  An  apparatus  may  in 
clude  not  only  different  organs,  but  also  entire 
systems.  Thus  the  circulatory  apparatus  com 
prises  not  only  the  heart,  which  is  an  organ  by 
itself,  but  also  the  arterial  system,  the  venous 
system,  and  the  capillary  system.  All  of  these, 
however,  are  essential  to  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  and  each  performs  its  own  special  part 
in  the  function. 

APPARITION,  a  spectral  illusion,  by  which 
imaginary  objects  are  presented  to  the  senses 
with  such  vividness  that  they  are  believed  to 
be  real.  This  form  of  illusion,  the  result  of 
some  abnormal  state  of  the  brain,  concerning 
which  medical  science  has  given  thus  far  only 
incomplete  information,  has  been  the  cause  of 
much  superstition.  The  apparitions  seen  in  ac 
tual  delirium,  or  by  those  obviously  insane,  do 
not  of  course  fall  within  the  scope  of  this  arti 
cle  ;  and  the  well  authenticated  instances  in 
which  apparitions  have  been  seen  by  men  of 
ordinarily  clear  intellect,  and  apparently  in 
their  customary  good  health,  are  so  mingled 
with  impostures  and  exaggerations  that  it  is 
difficult  to  make  them  the  ground  of  scientific 
investigation.  But  there  are  some  cases  where 
men  of  the  highest  intellectual  power  have  had 
this  cerebral  affection,  yet  have  retained  enough 
acuteness  of  observation  to  investigate  their 
own  disease,  and  describe  the  apparitions  coolly 
and  accurately,  though  knowing  them  to  be 
illusory.  The  most  noteworthy  of  these  cases 
is  that  of  Nicolai,  an  eminent  publisher  in  Ber 
lin,  who  in  1791  was  for  some  months  con 
stantly  subject  to  spectral  illusions,  which  pre 
sented  to  him  the  figures  of  friends,  unknown 
persons,  and  singular  animals,  which  accompa 
nied  him  everywhere,  went  through  all  the 
movements  belonging  to  their  real  prototypes, 
and  even  spoke  to  him.  Conscious  of  their 
character,  he  observed  them  so  accurately  as 
to  be  able  to  write  a  scientific  paper  upon  them 
for  the  philosophical  society  of  Berlin.  He 
was  ultimately  cured  by  blood-letting.  Many 
similar  instances  are  recorded  in  the  volumes 
referred  to  at  the  close  of  this  article. — Some 
well  authenticated  accounts  of  apparitions  ap 
pearing  to  persons  a  short  time  before  death  do 
not  in  the  present  state  of  medical  inquiry  ad 
mit  of  so  satisfactory  an  explanation.  That 
both  the  apparitions  actually  seen  and  those  in 
which  the  superstitious  believe  should  most  fre 
quently  represent  the  forms  of  dead  friends,  is 
conceded  to  be  natural ;  for  the  brains  of  those 
who  see  or  fancy  they  see  them  are  generally 
excited  by  grief  or  filled  with  morbid  fears  of 
death.  Yet  these  causes,  and  the  natural  ten 
dencies  of  superstitious  minds  and  low  states 
of  knowledge,  gave  rise  to  the  popular  belief 
in  ghosts. — See  Dr.  John  Ferriar's  u  Essay 
toward  a  Theory  of  Apparitions 1'  (London, 
1813);  Dr.  Samuel  Hibberfs  u  Sketches  of  the 
Philosophy  of  Apparitions  "  (Edinburgh,  1824) ; 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  "  Letters  on  Demonology 
and  Witchcraft1'  (Edinburgh,  1830);  Mrs. 
Crowe's  "  Night  Side  of  Nature "  (London, 


APPEAL 


1848)  ;  Jung  Stirling's  GeisterJcundc,  translated 
into  English  under  the  title  u  Pneumatology  " 
(New  York,  1851) ;  Dr.  Brierre  de  Boismont's 
u  Hallucinations,  or  tlie  Rational  Theory  of  Ap 
paritions/'  etc.  (English  translation,  Philadel 
phia,  J85:3);  Robert  Dale  Owen's  ''Footfalls 
on  the  Boundary  of  Another  World  "  (Phila 
delphia,  18(')0),  and  his  '•  Debatable  Land  " 
(New  York,  1872).  See  also,  in  this  work, 
DEMOXOLOGY,  SPIRITUALISM,  and  WITCHCRAFT. 
APl'KAL,  in  law,  the  proceeding  by  which  a 
decision  of  a  court  or  judge  is  taken  to  a  supe 
rior  tribunal  for  review.  Though  appeal  is 
commonly  used  in  the  law  to  describe  all  revi 
sory  proceedings,  yet  the  word  strictly  belongs 
to  that  remedy  of  the  civil  law  which  takes  up 
the  whole  cause  to  the  higher  court  and  sub 
jects  facts  as  well  as  law  to  review.  At  com 
mon  law  an  appellate  court  takes  cognizance 
characteristically  only  of  matters  of  law.  Mat 
ters  of  fact  in  that  system  can  be  revised  only 
upon  a  new  trial.  For  example,  if  a  party  in 
a  suit  conceives  that  a  verdict  against  him  is 
not  sustained  by  the  evidence,  he  applies  to  the 
court  where  the  case  was  tried  for  a  new  trial. 
Upon  an  appeal  from  the  decision  on  that  mo 
tion,  the  appellate  court  may  or  may  not  sus 
tain  it ;  but  if  it  docs  not,  it  will  not  itself  pro 
nounce  a  verdict  on  the  facts,  but  remits  the 
cause  to  the  lower  court,  to  be  tried  there  again 
by  a  jury. — The  review  upon  points  of  law  is 
bad  at  common  law  upon  a  writ  of  error,  while 
the  appeal  is  used  in  courts  which  follow  the 
practice  of  the  civil  law.  The  distinction  be 
tween  the  two  modes  of  review  is  now  abol 
ished  in  many  of  our  states,  but  it  still  remains 
in  the  procedure  of  our  federal  courts.  In  ad 
miralty  and  equity  causes  in  those  courts,  mat 
ters  of  fact  as  well  as  of  law  are  ordinarily 
tried  in  the  first  instance  by  a  judge  without  a 
jury  ;  and  appeals  from  sentences  or  decrees 
in  such  causes  carry  up  the  whole  case,  and 
the  appellate  court  passes  upon  the  questions 
of  fact  and  of  law  alike.  But  common  law 
causes — the  ordinary  issues,  for  example,  which 
are  tried  with  a  jury — go  up  to  the  appellate 
court  upon  a  writ  of  error,  and  are  revised 
there  only  in  matters  of  law. — The  proceedings 
upon  appeal  are  in  all  our  states  regulated  by 
statutes.  Indeed,  without  some  such  authority 
the  right  of  appeal  docs  not  exist  at  all.  The 
subject  of  appeal  is  ordinarily  the  final  judg 
ment  or  action  of  the  inferior  court,  and  it 
must  be  the  final  decision  upon  the  substantial 
matter  and  merits  of  the  cause.  Orders  of  the 
court  upon  mere  points  of  practice  in  the  pro 
gress  of  the  action,  which  do  not  involve  its 
merits,  or  which  rest  in  the  pure  discretion  of 
the  court  below,  are  not  subjects  of  review. 
But  a  plain  abuse  of  judicial  discretion,  or  a 
clear  mistake  in  exercising  it,  may  give  good 
grounds  for  appeal ;  and  so  may  the  refusal  of 
the  court  below  to  exercise  a  discretionary 
power  on  the  mistaken  ground  that  it  did  not 
possess  it.  A  party  cannot  appeal  from  a  judg 
ment  entered  against  him  on  his  default  or  con 


sent,  nor  from  his  own  judgment  of  nonsuit, 
nor  where  he  has  agreed  that  the  judgment  of 
the  lower  court  shall  be  final.  The  right  to 
appeal  may  also  be  lost  by  taking  proceedings 
on  the  footing  of  the  decision,  and  especially 
by  accepting  any  benefit  under  it.  Properly, 
only  a  party  to  the  record  may  appeal,  and  he 
only  when  he  is  aggrieved  or  injured  by  the 
decision  ;  but  he  may  be  injured  by  a  judgment, 
even  in  his  favor,  which  is  less  favorable  to 
him  than  he  is  entitled  to,  and  in  such  a  case 
he  may  appeal.  A  party  to  the  record  loses 
his  right  of  appeal  when  he  ceases  to  have  any 
interest  in  the  subject  of  the  suit.  If  a  party  to 
the  record  dies,  the  right  of  appeal  does  not 
exist  in  his  legal  representative  until  he  is  sub 
stituted  as  a  party  in  the  action. — When  the 
matter  comes  before  the  appellate  court,  the 
presumption  is  in  favor  of  the  judgment  below, 
and  the  question  is  whether  for  any  cause  the 
judgment  shall  be  reversed.  Unless  there  is 
a  majority  or  other  controlling  vote  for  rever 
sal,  the  judgment  stands  affirmed  of  course. 
As  the  appellate  court  is  inclined  to  sustain 
the  decision  of  the  court  below  unless  there 
is  clear  reason  for  reversing  it,  it  will  not  look 
into  any  part  of  the  judgment  which  is  not  ap 
pealed  from,  nor  take  notice  of  any  defects  or 
insufficiencies  in  the  proceedings  below,  unless 
they  were  formally  objected  to  there — unless, 
indeed,  the  insufficiencies  not  objected  to  could 
not  have  been  cured  by  the  opposite  party  be 
low  if  the  objection  had  been  stated  ;  and  even 
a  ruling  to  which  the  appellant  did  object,  but 
which  has  done  him  no  substantial  harm,  will 
not  be  noticed.  An  erroneous  charge  of  the 
judge  below  which  is  wholly  extraneous  and 
immaterial  is  no  ground  for  reversal ;  nor 
will  a  verdict  be  set  aside  for  misdirectk.n  of 
a  judge,  if  the  court  can  see  from  the  whole 
evidence  that  the  result  would  have  been  the 
same,  if  the  objectionable  instruction  had  not 
been  given,  or  when  the  whole  evidence  justifies 
the  verdict.  If  a  judgment  is  right  in  point  of 
law,  it  is  no  reason  for  reversing  it  that  it  cannot 
be  sustained  on  the  ground  on  which  the  couit 
below  proceeded. — When  the  appeal  brings  up 
questions  as  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  evidence 
to  support  a  verdict,  an  appellate  court  is  dis 
inclined  to  disturb  the  finding  of  the  jury  un 
less  it  is  clearly  and  ceitainly  against  the 
weight  of  the  evidence,  the  theory  of  our  law 
being  that  the  jury  is  the  best  tribunal  for  de 
ciding  all  matters  of  fact.  The  same  principle- 
applies  to  findings  by  referees  or  by  judges 
trying  causes  without  juries;  and  in  such 
cases,  especially  when  the  evidence  was  con 
flicting,  the  conclusions  as  to  facts  will  not 
ordinarily  be  reversed. — In  all  our  states  the 
statutes  will  be  found  to  contain  provisions  re 
lating  to  the  conditions  of  appeals,  namely,  in 
respect  to  the  time  within  which  they  must  be 
taken,  the  security  which  must  be  given,  and 
the  effect  of  the  appeal  in  staying  proceedings 
on  the  judgment  appealed  from.  As  to  the 
time  for  taking  the  appeal,  if  it  is  prescribed 


APPEAL 


505 


by  statute,  it  cannot  be  extended  by  the  court ; 
and  if  an  appeal  is  not  taken  within  the  limit, 
it  is  lost.     Ordinarily,  the  appellant  does  not  se 
cure  his  right  of  appeal  until  he  Drives  a  bond  or 
some  such  undertaking  for  costs ;  and  he  does  not  ; 
stay  execution  on  the  judgment  against  him  un- 
less  he  gives  a  like  security  for  the  payment  of  ! 
the  amount  of  it  in  case  it  is  affirmed. — With  re-  ! 
spect  to  criminal  cases,  the  statutes  of  most  of  : 
the  states  provide  for  reviews  of  verdicts  upon  • 
writs  of  error  at  the  instance  of  the  convicted 
party.      But  there  is  ordinarily  no  appeal  or 
remedy  of  that  sort  allowed  to  the  people  to  j 
reverse  a  judgment  of  acquittal.     The  constitu-  j 
tion  of  the  United  States  provides  that  no  per 
son  shall  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  ! 
twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb,  and  no  j 
state  can  by  any  statutory  provision  take  away 
from  a  criminal  the  benefit  of  this  provision,  j 
Whenever  statutes  give  any  right  to  the  state 
to  have  a  review  of  a  criminal  trial,  they  must 
be  construed  with  regard  to  the  constitutional  j 
prohibition. — The  supreme  court  of  the  United  I 
States  exercises  an  appellate  jurisdiction  over  ! 
the  state  courts,* where  the  validity  of  a  treaty  j 
or  statute  of,  or  authority  exercised  under,  the  j 
United  States  is  drawn  in  question,  and  the  j 
decision  is  against  that  validity ;  or  where  the 
validity  of  any  state  authority   is   drawn   in  I 
question  on  the  ground  of  its  repugnancy  to  i 
the  constitution,  treaties,  or  laws  of  the  Uni-  | 
ted  States,  and  the  decision  is  in  favor  of  its  i 
validity ;  or  where  a  question  of  construction  j 
upon  the  constitution,  a  treaty,  or  a  statute  of  I 
the  United  States  arises,  and  the  decision  is  I 
against  the  claim  under  the  authority  of  either.  j 
All  civil  causes,  where  the  amount  involved  j 
is  sufficient,  may  be  carried  on  appeal  from  ' 
the  United  States  district  court  to  the  circuit  ; 
court,  and  thence  to  the  supreme  court.     The 
circuit  courts  exercise  an  appellate  jurisdiction  i 
over  all  cases  brought  in  the  district  courts,  J 
except  where  the  matter  in  controversy  is  of  a  > 
very  small  pecuniary  value.     Another  mode  of  ! 
review  in  the  supreme  court  is  that  upon  a  case 
certified  from  a  circuit  court.     As  this  court 
may  consist  of  two  judges,  they  may,  wrhen  ! 
they  fail  to  agree,  certify  to  the  supreme  court  i 
that  they  are  divided  in  opinion,  and  in  that  i 
event  the  case  is  entertained  by  the  higher  tri-  \ 
bunal  as  upon  an  appeal.     (See  COURTS  OF  THE  ! 
UNITED  STATES.) — In  New  York  the  court  of  j 
appeals  is  a  court  of  appellate  jurisdiction  only. 
It  lias  been  lately  reorganized  under  an  amend 
ment  to  the  Constitution  adopted  in  1869.   The 
amendment  provides  that  the  court  shall  con 
sist  of  a  chief  justice  and  six  associate  judges, 
to  be  chosen  by  the  electors  of  the  state,  and 
to  hold  office  for  14  years.     Five  members  of  j 
the  court  constitute   a  quorum,  and  the  con-  j 
currence  of  four  is  essential  to  a  decision.    The 
present  court  has  all  the  powers  and  jurisdic 
tion  which  were  possessed  by  the  late  court  of  I 
appeals,  which  it  displaced.     It  has  exclusive 
jurisdiction  to  review  upon  appeal  any  actual 
determination  made  at  a  general  term  by  the 


supreme  court,  by  the  superior  courts  of  New 
York  and  Buffalo,  and  by  the  court  of  common 
pleas  of  the  city  of  New  York  in  certain  speci 
fied  cases,  among  which  the  more  important 
are  the  following :  Upon  appeal  from  a  decision 
of  any  of  these  courts  on  final  judgments  in  an 
action  brought  originally  in  it  or  removed  into 
it  from  another  court,  it  may  reverse,  affirm, 
or  modify  such  judgment,  or  review  any  order 
in  the  case  which  involved  the  merits.  The 
court  also  entertains  appeals  from  orders  affect 
ing  substantial  rights  when  they  in  effect  deter 
mine  the  action  and  prevent  judgments  from 
which  appeals  might  be  taken ;  or  when  such 
orders  discontinue  actions,  or  grant  <;r  refuse 
new  trials,  or  strike  out  pleadings.  But  no 
appeal  lies  to  the  court  of  appeals  from  an 
order  granting  a  new  trial  on  a  case  or  excep 
tions,  unless  the  appellant  with  his  notice  of 
appeal  gives  also  a  consent  that  if  the  order 
appealed  from  be  affirmed,  absolute  and  final 
judgment  may  be  forthwith  entered  against 
him.  When  the  decision  of  any  motion  at  a 
special  term  of  the  supreme  court  involves  or 
is  rested  upon  the  constitutionality  of  any  law 
of  the  state,  an  appeal  may  be  taken  first  to 
the  general  term  of  that  court,  and  thence  to 
the  court  of  appeals.  No  appeal  to  this  court 
stays  execution  on  a  judgment  unless  it  is  ac 
companied  with  a  bond  securing  payment  of 
the  judgment  upon  an  affirmance  or  a  dismissal 
of  the  appeal. — In  England,  the  appellate  juris 
diction  of  the  court  of  chancery,  where  equity 
causes  are  heard  originally  by  the  master  of 
the  rolls  or  by  the  vice  chancellors,  is  exer 
cised  by  the  lord  chancellor  alone,  or  sitting 
with  one  or  both  of  the  lords  justices,  or  by 
these  two  alone.  With  respect  to  appeals  in 
civil  causes  tried  in  either  of  the  three  su 
perior  courts  (queen's  bench,  common  pleas, 
and  exchequer),  the  first  appeal  lies  to  the 
court  of  exchequer  chamber,  where  the  causes 
coming  from  either  of  the  three  are  heard 
by  the  judges  of  the  other  two.  In  criminal 
cases  appeals  on  questions  of  law  arising  in 
the  courts  of  over  and  terminer  or  quarter 
sessions  may  go  through  the  queen's  bench 
to  the  exchequer  chamber,  but  they  are  usu 
ally  taken  directly  to  the  court  for  crown 
cases  reserved.  This  latter  court  was  created 
in  1848,  and  is  composed  of  the  judges  of 
the  three  superior  courts.  It  has  final  au 
thority  on  questions  raised  by  evidence,  or 
in  arrest  of  judgment ;  but  on  more  impor 
tant  questions,  like  demurrers  to  indictments, 
the  appellant  may  go  through  the  queen's 
bench  to  the  exchequer  chamber,  and  thence 
to  the  house  of  lords.  The  house  of  lords  is 
the  supreme  appellate  judicature  of  the  realm. 
By  its  ancient  jurisdiction  it  reviews  all  errors 
brought  up  through  the  exchequer  chamber  from 
the  common  law  courts  of  England  and  Ireland, 
and  under  more  recent  authority  it  entertains 
appeals  from  judgments  of  Scotch  courts  on 
questions  of  law.  The  house  of  lords  also  takes 
cognizance  upon  appeals  of  errors  in  crimi- 


50G 


APPEAL 


rial  causes  from  all  the  inferior  jurisdictions,  | 
except  where  the  court  for  crown   cases  re-  ; 
served  has  the  final  decision ;  and  in  chancery  : 
cases  it  hears  appeals  from  all  the  English  and 
Irish    equity   courts.     By   recent   statutes  ap 
peals  may  also  be  taken  to  the  house  of  lords 
from  the  probate  courts  of  England  and  Ire 
land.     There  have  been  lately  some  emphatic  ; 
complaints  made    about  the  weakness  of  the 
house  of  lords  as  an  appellate  court.     Its  de 
cisions  upon  appeals  are  practically  left  entirely  j 
to  the  law  lords,  and  it  has  not  unfrequently  j 
happened  that  two  or  three  of  these  have  re-  i 
versed  judgments  which  had   been    sustained  j 
by  a  majority  of  the  judges  of  the  courts  be-  ! 
low.      In    one     case   of    a    recent    date    the  i 
prevailing   judgment    of    the  house  of   lords,  , 
given  in  fact  by  two  persons  only,  coincided  ! 
with  the  opinion  of  only  four    judges  below,  \ 
while  the  defeated  party  had  had  altogether  j 
seven  judges  in   his   favor.     In  another  case  j 
the  party  who  succeeded  in  the  house  of  lords 
had  had   in    the  course  of   the    suit    through 
all  the  courts  only  four  judges  in  all  in  his 
favor,    while   his    opponent    had    had    eight.  \ 
Another  supreme  appellate  tribunal  is  that  of  j 
the  queen  in  council.     The  judicial  functions 
of  the  crown  are  however  in  fact  delegated  to 
the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy   council. 
This  court  revises  judgments  of  the  colonial 
courts  throughout  the  empire,  and  sentences  of 
the  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty  courts.      The 
committee  after  consideration  make  their  re 
port  to  the  crown,  and  its  approval  is  signified 
by  an  order  in  council. — In  France,  incorrect 
decisions  are  also  held  in  check  by  a  system  of 
appeals.     The  first  regularly  organized  tribu 
nals  of  appeal  in  France  were  about  the  reign 
of  Louis   IX.     The   French    right   of  appeal, 
especially  in  criminal  cases,  seems  to  American 
or  English  observers  to  be  often  frivolously  ex 
ercised.    The  French  courts  of  appeal  may  dis-  | 
charge  or  amend  the  judgments  of  the  courts 
below,  and  may  reduce  or  increase  punishments  '• 
or  the  pecuniary  awards  of  juries.     The  theo-  I 
ry  of  the  French  appeal  seems  to  be  a  submis-  j 
sion  of  the  facts  as  stated  in  the  proceedings 
to  the  court  of  appeal,  to  whose  judgment  all 
deductions  whatsoever  are  referred.     Appeals 
from  justices  of  the  peace  lie  to  the  tribunals 
of  first  instance,   composed  of  from  three  to 
twelve  judges,  divided  into  chambers  of  civil 
and   criminal  jurisdiction.     The   decisions   of 
these   tribunals   and  of  the  tribunals  of  com-  i 
merce  are  reviewed  in  27  higher  courts,  taking 
their  names   from   the  cities  where  they  are  i 
established.     Each  of  these  courts  is  composed  ' 
of  at  least  24  judges,  and  is  usually  divided  ; 
into  three  chambers,  one  having  cognizance  of 
civil   causes,  one  of  criminal  accusations,  and 
one  of  police  matters.     In  the  civil  chambers  | 
seven  judges,  and  in  the  chamber  of  criminal  i 
accusations  five  judges  must  concur.     On  very 
important  or   difficult    questions    two   of  the  | 
chambers  combine,  a-nd  the  decision  must  be  j 
concurred  in  by  14  judges.    Appeals  from  these 


courts  go  to  the  court  of  cassation.  This  court 
has  49  judges,  and  may  on  appeal  annul  the 
judgments  of  any  of  the  inferior  courts  for 
any  error  of  law  apparent  on  the  face  of  the 
proceedings.  No  new  evidence  is  received  in 
this  court,  while  on  appeals  from  the  courts  of 
first  instance  the  proofs  may  be  changed  to  any 
extent. — In  Germany,  the  system  of  appeal 
was  commenced  in  1496,  and  is  now  greatly 
elaborated ;  the  courts  are  of  the  first,  second, 
and  third  instance.  The  appeals  may  be  based 
either  on  matters  of  law  or  fact.  Each  king 
dom  has  its  own  tribunals,  and  the  smaller 
principalities  are  associated  together  in  districts 
for  the  purposes  of  courts  of  appeal.  The 
proceedings  of  the  German  courts,  like  those 
of  the  English  court  of  chancery,  are  exces 
sively  prolix  and  tedious,  and  entirely  in  writ 
ing,  the  arguments  only  being  oral,  and  their  es 
sence  being  contained  in  the  pleadings,  as  de 
ductions  from  the  facts. — Besides  the  sense  in 
which  we  in  modern  parlance  use  the  word 
appeal,  proceedings  of  historical  interest  known 
as  appeals  were  formerly  recognized  in  English 
law,  wherein  the  term  was  used  as  derived 
from  the  French  appeler,  to  summon  or  to 
challenge.  An  offender  on  his  trial  might  by 
permission  of  the  court  confess  the  charge,  and 
"appeal"  another  person  as  the  instigator  or 
accomplice  of  his  crime,  who  thereupon  might 
be  put  on  his  trial,  or  fight  his  accuser.  If  he 
was  acquitted,  or  if  he  conquered,  the  accuser 
was  hanged  on  his  own  confession ;  if  convict 
ed  or  vanquished,  the  accuser  was  pardoned, 
as  for  service  done  to  the  state.  Sir  Matthew 
Hale  denounced  this  practice,  and  it  fell  into 
disuse,  although  by  various  statutes  now  re 
pealed  the  indemnity,  and  even  the  reward  of 
approvers,  wTas  long  maintained.  A  party  in 
jured  by  a  felony,  his  widow  or  heirs,  might 
also  appeal  the  offender  for  the  price  of  blood, 
and  subsequently  for  the  purpose  of  punish 
ment.  This  was  distinct  from  a  crown  prose 
cution.  The  appellee,  the  person  accused,  could 
then  demand  his  wager  of  battle,  which  the 
accuser,  if  a  peer,  a  citizen  of  London,  the 
widow,  a  priest,  an  infant,  or  person  above  60, 
might  decline.  The  appellant  might  also  de 
cline  to  fight  if  the  evidence  which  he  adduced 
raised  a  very  violent  presumption  of  the  guilt  of 
the  appellee.  The  combat  commenced  by  the 
appellee  throwing  down  his  glove,  which  was 
lifted  by  the  appellant,  whereupon  each  party 
affirmed  categorically  by  an  oath  the  truth  of 
the  accusation  and  denial,  concluding,  "and 
this  I  will  prove  against  thee  by  my  body." 
Thereupon  the  parties  must  proceed  to  fight, 
with  club  and  buckler,  in  the  presence  of  the 
court,  from  sunrise  to  the  appearance  of  the 
stars  in  the  evening.  If  the  appellant  was  van 
quished,  the  appellee  was  acquitted,  and  had 
his  action  against  the  appellant,  who  was  there 
upon  declared  infamous;  if  the  appellee  was 
vanquished,  he  was  hanged  forthwith.  The 
last  occasion  on  which  the  appeal  of  felony  and 
wager  of  battle  wrere  resorted  to  in  England 


APPENZELL 


APPETITE 


597 


was  no  longer  ago  than  the  year  1818,  when  j 
the  defendant  was  charged  on  such  an  appeal  I 
with  the  rape  and  murder  of  the  appellant's  i 
sister.     The  appellee  waged  his  battle,  where 
upon  the  appellant  claimed  that  the  evidence 
which  he  ottered  of  the  guilt  of  the  accused  j 
was  so  conclusive  as  to  exempt  him,  the  appel 
lant  from  the  necessity  of  lighting.     But  the 
judges  decided  that  the  evidence  was  insuffi-  j 
cient  to  sustain  the  claim,  though  they  offered 
to  consider  the  point  whether  the   wager  of  j 
battle  had  not  been  waived  by  the  form  of  the  I 
pleadings.    But  the  appeal  was  withdrawn,  and  ! 
the  accused  was  thereupon  discharged.     In  the  j 
next  year,  59  George  III.,  the  wager  of  battle  ! 
was  abolished  by  parliament.     The  case  here  j 
referred  to  (Ashford  v.  Thornton)  is  reported  j 
at  great  length  in  1  Barnewall  and  Alderson's  j 
Reports,  p.  405,  where,  in  the  elaborate  argu-  j 
ments  of  counsel  and  in  the  opinions  of  the 
judges,  will  be  found  interesting  matter  upon  \ 
this  now  obsolete  topic  of  the  law. 

APPENZELL,  a  ^T.  E.  canton  of  Switzerland, 
entirely  surrounded  by  the  canton  of  St.  Gall ;  j 
area,   163  sq.  in. ;    pop.  in  1870,  60,639.      The 
surface  is  irregular  and  hilly,  but  there  are  no  j 
considerable  mountains,  except  the  picturesque  ' 
range  of  the  Sentis  on  the  southern  border. 
Offshoots  of  the  Alps  form  parts  of  the  eastern  j 
and  western  boundaries  of  the  canton.     The  ! 
principal  stream  is  the  Sitter,  a  tributary  of  i 
the  Thur.     Since  1597  the  canton  has  been 
divided,  by  an  agreement  of  the  inhabitants, 
into  two  independent  half-cantons,  each  con-  j 
taining  a  certain  number  of  Rhoden  (a  Swiss 
word  for  communes  or  parishes).     The  north 
ern    and    Protestant    division,     called    Outar  , 
Rhodes  (Ausaerrhoden),  contains  about  100  sq. 
in.   and   48,726   inhabitants,   who  carry  on  a  j 
considerable  commerce,  and  manufacture  cot-  ; 
ton,   linen,   and  silks,  their   silk-weaving  and  • 
silk  embroidery  being  among  the  most  beauti 
ful  work  of  the  kind  in  Europe.     The  southern 
and    Roman   Catholic    division,    called    Inner 
Rhodes  (Innerrhoden),  contains  about  52  sq.  m.  j 
and  11,913  inhabitants,  who  devote  themselves  | 
almost  entirely  to  raising  cattle,  making  but-  i 
ter  and  cheese,  and  other  pastoral  industries. 
Outer  Rhodes  sends  two  members  to  the  fed 
eral  council,  and  Inner  Rhodes  one.    The  capital 
of  Inner  Rhodes  is  Appenzell,  a  scattered  vil 
lage  6  m.  S.  by  E.  of  St.  Gall ;  of  Outer  Rhodes,  j 
Trogen.     The  inhabitants  of  both  divisions  are  ' 
intelligent  and  quick  of  wit  to  a  degree  that 
has  given  them  a  celebrity  throughout  Switzer 
land  ;    their  habits  are  simple ;    they  are  fond 
of  athletic  exercises,  and  are  excellent  wrestlers 
and  marksmen. — The  canton  belonged  in  the 
8th  century  to  the  Helvetian  dominions  of  the 
Frankish  kings,  and  shared  their  fortunes,  un-  ! 
til  in  1292  it  was  placed  by  Adolphus  of  Nassau 
under  the  control  of  the  abbey  of  St.   Gall, 
which  had  been  founded  in  720,  and  had  al 
ways  exercised  great  authority  in  its  affairs. 
In  consequence  of  the  oppressions  of  the  abbots,  ' 
&  rebellion  broke  out  in  1401,  and  was  renewed 


at  intervals  for  50  years,  finally  resulting  in 
the  independence  of  the  people.  In  1452  the 
district  joined  seven  other  cantons  for  the 
sake  of  greater  safety,  and  in  1513  it  was  re 
ceived  as  a  canton  of  the  Swiss  confederation. 
It  derived  its  name  from  the  monastery  of  Ab- 
batis  Cella,  established  by  the  monks  of  the 
abbey  of  St.  Gall. 

APPERLEY,  Charles  James,  an  English  sporting 
writer,  born  in  Denbighshire  in  1777,  died  in 
London,  May  19,  1843.  After  serving  for  a 
short  time  in  a  cavalry  regiment,  he  began 
contributing  under  the  name  of  "  Nimrod  "  a 
series  of  articles  to  "The  Sporting  Magazine," 
which  through  his  contributions  soon  doubled 
its  circulation.  The  proprietor  paid  him  a 
handsome  annual  salary  and  kept  a  stud  of 
hunters  for  his  use.  His  habits  were  expen 
sive,  however,  and  after  the  death  of  this  lib 
eral  publisher,  Mr.  Pittman,  the  new  owners  of 
the  magazine  brought  suit  to  recover  moneys 
advanced;  and  to  escape  them  "Nimrod  "in 
1830  established  himself  in  a  chateau  near  Ca 
lais.  At  the  request  of  Lockhart  he  wrote  for 
"The  Quarterly  Review  "  in  1827  some  excel 
lent  papers,  which  were  afterward  collected 
under  the  title  of  "The  Chase,  the  Turf,  and 
the  Road."  Among  his  other  works  are: 
"Hunting  Reminiscences,"  "Life  of  a  Sports 
man,"  "Nimrod  Abroad,"  "Remarks  on  the 
Choice  of  Horses,"  and  "Treatise  on  the  Horse 
and  Hound."  His  method  of  summering  horses 
without  throwing  them  out  of  condition  is 
now  generally  adopted  in  England  for  hunters. 
It  consists  in  feeding  them  on  green  food,  in 
large  loose  boxes,  on  clay  floors,  their  shoes 
being  taken  off,  and  their  systems  lowered  by 
gentle  alteratives,  instead  of  the  old  method  of 
turning  them  out  to  grass. 

APPERT,  Benjamin  Nicolas  Marie,  a  French 
philanthropist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  At  the 
age  of  18  he  formed  the  idea  of  establishing 
schools  for  mutual  instruction  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Le  Nord,  and  applied  the  principle  in 
the  following  year  to  military  organizations, 
with  such  success  that  Marshal  Gouvion  St. 
Cyr,  minister  of  war,  in  1818  appointed  him 
professor  of  a  normal  school  for  officers  and 
non-commissioned  officers  in  Paris.  Within 
three  months  163  of  these  schools,  with  20,000 
pupils,  were  in  full  operation,  and  in  the  course 
of  two  years  100,000  soldiers  had  reaped  the 
benefits  of  them.  In  1822  he  was  imprisoned 
on  a  charge  of  favoring  the  escape  of  two  po 
litical  convicts.  After  his  release  he  devoted 
several  years  to  the  improvement  of  the  condi 
tion  of  prisons,  and  published  a  monthly  Journal 
des  prisons  (1825-'30).  After  the  revolution 
of  1830  he  became  the  queen's  almoner  and 
secretary  general  of  the  society  of  Christian 
morality.  He  was  the  author  of  several  works 
on  bagnios,  prisons,  criminals,  and  prison  edu 
cation,  and  a  series  of  Voyages  in  various  Euro 
pean  countries  for  examination  of  their  prisons. 

APPETITE  (Lat.  appetere,  to  desire  or  seek 
earnestly),  in  physiology,  the  natural  desire  and 


•98 


APPIAN 


APPLE 


relish  for  nutritious  food.     The  desire  for  food 
returns,   in  man  and  animals,  with  a  certain 
degree  of  regularity,   at   periodical   intervals. 
This  is  owing  to  the  continuous  alteration  and 
waste  of  the  ingredients  of  the  animal  tissues  < 
and  fluids  by  the  active  powers  of  life,  and  is  ! 
an  indication  that  the  time  has  arrived  for  the  j 
ingestion  of  food  to  reestablish  the  equilibrium 
between  nourishment  and  disintegration,  and  | 
thus  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  vital  powers. 
The  healthy  appetite,  in  persons  taking  a  prop 
er  amount  of  exercise,  is  the  best  guide  for 
determining   the  frequency  with    which   food 
should  be  taken,  as  well  as  for  its  quantity,  and  j 
the  kind  of  food  consumed.     If  not  satisfied  | 
within  a  reasonable  time,  the  appetite  becomes  | 
at  first  imperative  and  distressing,  and  is  then  > 
apt  to  fail  altogether ;  so  that  the  desire  for  j 
food  disappears  until  the  next  recurrence  of  its  j 
habitual  period  of  return.     A  morbid  appetite,  j 
or  a  craving  for  food  in  unnatural  quantity  or  of  \ 
unnatural  character,  is  sometimes  a  well  marked  i 
symptom  of  disease. 

APPIiX  (I. at.  Appiamis),  a  Greek  historian  j 
of  the  2d  century,  born  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  ! 
He  removed  to  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  \ 
and  continued  there  under  Hadrian  and  An 
toninus  Pius,     lie  was  by  profession  an  advo 
cate,  and  at  Kome  filled  the  office  of  procura 
tor,  and  had  charge  of  the  imperial  treasury. 
He  wrote  a  Roman  history  in  24  books.     Elev 
en  books  of  this  history,  together  with  some  j 
fragments,  have  come  down  to  us.     His  style 
is  unaffected,  and  his  work,  though  disfigured  ' 
by  blunders,  is  highly  important  as  a  repertory 
of  information.    The  best  edition  of  his  remains  •• 
is  that  of  Schweighauser  (3  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic, 
1785). 

APPIAM,  Andrea,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bosisio,  near  Milan,  in  1754,  died  in  1817  or 
1818.  His  best  works  are  frescoes  in  the  palace 
at  Milan  and  the  cupola  of  Santa  Maria  di  San 
Celso.  "  Apollo  and  the  Muses  "  in  the  Villa 
Bonaparte  is  also  an  admirable  specimen  of  his 
style.  Napoleon  and  most  of  the  members  of 
the  imperial  family  sat  to  him  for  their  por 
traits.  An  attack  of  apoplexy  in  181-3  ren 
dered  him  so  helpless  that  he  was  obliged  to 
sell  his  drawings  and  other  valuables,  and  he 
died  in  poverty. 

APPIAJVO,  the  name  of  an  Italian  family  which 
ruled  over  Pisa  and  Piombino  from  the  14th  to 
the  17th  century.  I.  Jat'opo  I.,  the  founder  of  ; 
the  family,  died  Sept.  5,  1398.  Having  at-  | 
tached  himself  to  the  Ghibelline  party,  he  con-  | 
spired  with  Galeazzo  Visconti,  sovereign  of 
Milan,  excited  in  1892  a  commotion  in  the  streets 
of  Pisa,  during  which  he  effected  the  massacre 
of  the  chief  magistrate,  Pietro  Gambacorti,  and 
his  two  sons,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  popular 
consternation  assumed  the  title  of  sovereign 
of  Pisa.  II.  Gherardo,  son  and  successor  of  the 
preceding,  sold  Pisa  to  Visconti,  duke  of  Milan, 
for  200,000  fiorins,  reserving  to  himself  only  the 
sovereignty  of  Piombino  and  the  isle  of  Elba, 
whither  he  withdrew  in  1399.  Ilis  descen 


dants  of  the  male  line  preserved  for  two  cen 
turies  the  principality  of  Piombino,  after  which 
it  was  surrendered  in  1031  by  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  to  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  III.  Ja- 
copo  III.,  ruler  of  Piombino,  died  in  1474.  A 
conspiracy  against  him,  aided  by  Galeazzo 
Maria  Sforza,  duke  of  Milan,  proved  unsuccess 
ful,  but  Jacopo  was  obliged  to  place  himself 
under  the  protection  of  Ferdinand,  king  of 
Naples.  He  consented  to  receive  a  Neapoli 
tan  garrison  in  Piombino,  and  in  return  was 
permitted  to  join  to  his  own  name  that  of 
Aragona.  IV.  Jacopo  IV.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
sovereign  of  Piombino,  died  in  1511.  lie  mar^ 
ried  a  daughter  of  the  king  of  Naples,  and  took 
a  command  in  the  army  directed  by  that  prince 
and  by  Sixtus  IV.  against  Lorenzo  dc1  Medici. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Florentines  and 
obliged  to  pay  a  ransom  for  his  liberty.  In 
1501  Caesar  Borgia  took  possession  of  Piom 
bino,  but  Jacopo  was  restored  by  an  insurrec 
tion  of  the  people. 

APPIAN  WAY  (Lat.  Via  Appia},  a  celebrated 
road  which  with  its  branches  connected  Rome 
with  all  parts  of  southern  Italy.  The  main 
road  was  laid  out  as  far  as  Capua  by  Appius 
Claudius  Csecus  (312-307  B.  C.),  and  was  sub 
sequently  continued  to  Brundusium.  It  was 
remarkable  for  its  substantial  pavement  of 
large  and  well  fitting  blocks,  and  was  the  most 
picturesque  of  all  the  approaches  to  Rome. 
Numerous  magnificent  sepulchres  lined  the 
road,  the  most  memorable  of  which  were  those 
of  Calatinus  and  the  Scipios.  Lntil  about  20 
years  ago,  the  greater  part  of  the  road  be 
yond  the  tomb  of  Caacilia  Metella,  or  between 
the  3d  and  llth  milestones,  was  hardly  dis 
tinguishable  from  the  surrounding  campagna, 
excepting  by  the  ruins  of  sepulchres;  but  ex 
cavations  in  1850-'53,  extending  over  the  Ap- 
pian  way  from  its  beginning  -at  the  Capena 
gate  as  far  as  the  ancient  site  of  Bovilla3,  have 
reopened  an  interesting  part  of  the  road.  Ca- 
nina,  who  carried  out  this  work  under  the 
auspices  of  the  papal  government,  describes 
these  discoveries  in  La  prima  parte  della  Via, 
Appia  dalla  porta  Capena  a  Bomlle  (  2  vols., 
Rome,  1851-'3).  The  restoration  of  the  an 
cient  road  is  called  the  Via  Appia  Nova,  and 
passes  in  a  straight  line  through  Albano  until 
it  reaches  the  viaduct,  completed  in  1853,  which 
spans  a  deep  ravine  between  Albano  and  Aric- 
cia.  The  railway  from  Rome  to  Naples  crosses 
the  Appian  way  near  the  llth  milestone. 

APPIUS  CLAIMI'S.     See  CLAL-DH-S. 

APPLE,  the  fruit  of  pyrm  mains,  of  the 
natural  order  rosacecp.  Although  the  apple 
is  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  by  Theophras- 
tus,  Herodotus,  and  other  ancient  writers, 
it  is  probable  that  other  fruits  were  desig 
nated  by  that  name.  Even  now  the  word 
apple  is  used  to  designate  a  fleshy  fruit,  as 
the  love-apple'  (tomato),  pine-apple,  rose-apple 
(myrtaccce).  The  derivation  of  the  word  is 
curious.  Anglo-Saxon  apl  (German,  Apfel), 
one  of  the  few  names  of  our  common  fruits 


APPLE 


;oo 


"he  Appian  AVay.    (See  p.  538.) 


not  derived  from  the  Latin  or  French,  is,  ac 
cording  to  Dr.  Prior,  of  common  origin  with 
the  Zend  and  Sanskrit  ab  or  ap,  water,  and 
l/hala,  fruit.  The  Latin  jjomum,  from  the 
root  po,  to  drink,  would  also  signify  "  a  watery 
fruit."  Whatever  he  the  parent  country  of 
the  apple,  it  was  doubtless  of  eastern  origin. 
Pliny  mentions  the  crab  and  wild  apples  as 
small  and  sour,  so  sour  "  as  to  take  the  edge 
from  off  a  knife ;  "  but  some,  he  says,  are  re 
markable  for  their  '*  tine  flavor  and  the  pun 
gency  of  their  smell."  Many  varieties  were 
cultivated  about  Rome,  and  they  usually  bore 
the  names  of  those  who  originated  them  or 
grafted  them.  More  than  20  sorts  are  men 
tioned  by  Pliny,  but  none  of  these,  if  in  exist 
ence  now,  can  be  identified  from  his  brief  and 
imperfect  description.  Probably  the  Romans 
introduced  the  apple  into  England  as  well  as  ; 
the  pear,  but  the  early  chronicles  are  silent  as  | 
to  its  subsequent  history  in  that  country  until  ! 
after  the  establishment  of  Christianity,  when  j 
the  monks  and  heads  of  religious  houses  plant 
ed  orchards,  and  henceforth  the  fruit  became 
common.  The  early  settlers  of  America 
brought  apple  trees,  and  an  island  in  Boston  | 
harbor  where  they  were  planted  still  bears  ; 
their  name.  The  Indians  helped  to  spread  the 
fruit  through  the  country,  and  "Indian  or 
chards"  are  common  throughout  Xe\v  England. 
— Whether  in  the  wild  state  or  cultivated,  the 
apple  is  by  no  means  a  handsome  tree.  The 
stem  is  slow-growing,  low-branching,  with 
rigid,  irregular  branches,  in  many  varieties 
pendent  to  the  ground  ;  the  bark  after  the  tree 
has  passed  its  early  youth  becomes  rough  and 
scaly ;  the  diameter  of  the  head  is  usually 
greater  than  its  height,  which  seldom  exceeds 
30  feet ;  the  leaves  are  broad,  tough,  and  rigid, 


those  of  sweet-fruited  trees  being  usually  of  a 
darker  green ;  the  blossoms  are  generally 
tinged  with  red  and  are  sweet-scented ;  the 
.fruit  is  more  or  less  depressed  at  the  insertion 
of  the  peduncle;  woody  threads  (10)  pass 
through  the  fruit,  being  regularly  disposed 
around  the  2—5  carpels,  which  contain  two 
seeds  each.  The  apple  tree  is  very  tenacious 
of  life,  many  specimens  bearing  fruit  in  this 
country  at  an  age  of  nearly  200  years,  and  the 
best  artificial  varieties  last  from  50  to  80  years. 
Various  species  of  the  genus  pyrus  grow  spon 
taneously  in  Europe;  the  P.  main*  is  found  as 
far  north  as  60°  in  western  Russia.  In  the 
United  States,  the  P.  coronaria  or  American 
crab  apple  is  abundant  in  the  middle  states  and 
southward ;  it  is  about  20  feet  high,  and  the 
blossoms,  which  appear  in  May  and  are  large, 
rose-colored,  and  sweet-scented,  are  followed 
by  a  greenish-yellow  fragrant  fruit  about  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  apple  does  not  grow 
well  in  warm  climates,  and  although  cultivated 
in  China  and  India,  it  is  only  in  the  cooler  and 
mountainous  parts  that  it  lives  long,  and  the 
fruit  is  less  abundant  and  inferior  in  quality. 
In  the  Hawaiian  islands  the  apple  trees  planted 
some  years  ago  seem,  to  have  entirely  changed 
their  habit  of  growth,  and  send  up  long,  verti 
cal,  almost  branchless  shoots.  Wherever  the 
apple  occurs  in  its  truly  wild  state,  it  is  usually 
armed  with  thorns  while  young. — Xew  and 
choice  varieties  of  apples  are  obtained  by 
planting  seed,  as  about  one  in  10,000  of  the 
resulting  trees  will  prove  better  than  the  origi 
nal,  and  a  desirable  kind  once  obtained  may 
be  continued  by  grafting  or  budding.  In  cul 
ture  deep  limestone  lands  are  the  best,  as  indi 
cated  by  the  analysis  of  apple  wood  and  bark 
by  Prof.  Emmons,  who  found  in  100  parts  of 


600 


APPLE 


the  ashes  of  sap  wood  16  parts  potash,  18  lime, 
17  phosphate  of  lime ;  in  100  parts  of  the  ashes 
of  bark,  4  parts  potash,  51  lime.  The  young 
trees  should  be  planted  in  holes  of  considerable 
size  and  depth,  setting  the  tree  at  the  same 
depth  it  was  in  the  nursery,  taking  care  to  re 
place  none  of  the  barren  subsoil,  and  covering 
the  surface  of  the  ground  with  a  mulching  to  re 
tain  water  or  liquid  manure,  which  may  then  be 
applied  without  danger  of  caking  the  earth  about 
the  rootlets.  The  distance  between  trees  should 
be  from  25  to  40  feet,  according  to  variety, 
some  spreading  much  more  than  others.  Usu 
ally  in  New  England  the  trees  are  planted  too 
closely;  and  the  system  of  lining  the  stone 
walls  with  these  trees  has  much  to  commend 
it,  as  the  walls  retain  moisture  and  also  allow 
the  leaves  and  snow  to  drift  and  accumulate 
at  their  sides,  thus  supplying  needed  nourish 
ment  to  the  trees  ;  and,  moreover,  as  the  rocks 
wear  away  they  replace  the  potash  in  the  soil, 
or,  if  it  be  a  limestone  rock,  the  limestone  which 
the  tree  so  much  needs.  Apple  trees  will  not 
grow  well  in  wet  soil,  nor  where  the  sod  sur 
rounds  them ;  the  ground  should  be  stirred  up 
about  the  trees  and  well  manured  with  plaster 
or  animal  manures,  as  indicated  by  the  soil, 
for  several  years  after  planting.  Alkaline 
washes  on  the  trunk  will  preserve  the  even 
green  bark  until  the  tree  is  10  or  15  years  old. 
The  rich  soils  of  the  western  states  yield  apples 
of  unequalled  size,  but  the  flavor  is  inferior  to 
those  produced  on  eastern  limestone  soils,  or 
where  the  proportion  of  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil  is  less  and  that  of  the  red  oxide  of  iron 
greater.  Dwarf  apple  trees  are  sometimes  cul 
tivated  for  hedges  or  ornament,  and  the  Chi 
nese  raise  the  tree  in  pots.  Many  varieties 
grafted  on  the  wild  crab  do  well  and  are 
dwarfed;  but  in  Europe  the  favorite  stock  for 
dwarfing  is  the  French  paradise  apple,  a  natu 
rally  small  tree,  or  the  English  doiizain.  In 
England  and  France  the  trees  are  trained  on 
walls,  as  espaliers  and  balloon-shaped,  to  insure 
ripening;  but  in  the  United  States  no  such 
precaution  ig  necessary.  Of  ornamental  blos 
soming  apple  trees,  the  common  crab  and  the 
double-flowered  Siberian  crab,  both  red  and 
white,  are  much  cultivated. — The  wood  of  the 
apple  tree  in  its  wild  state  is  fine-grained,  hard, 
and  of  a  light  brown  color ;  and,  in  exception 
to  the  general  rule,  the  cultivated  wood  is  of 
a  still  finer  and  closer  grain,  weighing  in  the 
proportion  of  about  66  to  45  of  the  wild  wood. 
In  a  green  state  the  wood  weighs  from  48  to 
66  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  and  it  loses  in  drying 
about  a  tenth  of  its  weight  and  from  an  eighth 
to  a  twelfth  of  its  bulk.  It  is  much  used  by  j 
turners  and  for  the  manufacture  of  shoe  lasts,  j 
cogs  for  wheels,  and  some  kinds  of  furniture  ; 
stained  black  and  polished,  it  passes  for  ebony;  -, 
and  the  wood  of  the  roots  is  cut  into  thin  sheets 
or  veneers  for  interior  decorations. — The  apple 
as  an  article  of  food  is  probably  unsurpassed 
except  by  the  banana  for  its  agreeable  and  nu 
tritive  properties.  Unlike  most  tropical  fruits, 


it  requires  no  training  to  become  acceptable  to 
the  palate,  and,  whether  baked,  boiled,  made 
into  jellies,  or  preserved  with  cider  in  the  Sha 
ker  apple  sauce   or  apple   butter,  is  popular 
everywhere.     The  exportation  of  New  England 
ice  was  accompanied  by  the   exportation  of 
I  New  England  apples,  which  are  better  suited 
I  for  this  purpose  than  western  ones;  and  at  the 
i  ice  ports  of  China  and  India  American  apples 
|  are  to  be  purchased  in  as  fine  a  condition  as  in 
our  own  markets.  American  apples  always  com 
mand  a  good  price  in  England.     Every  farmer 
|  cuts  and  dries  a  supply  of  apples  for  use  in  the 
late  spring  and  early  summer,  and  immense 
quantities  of  apples  are  pared  and  cut  by  ma- 
i  chinery,  and  slowly  dried  in  ovens  or  in  the 
|  sun,  furnishing  an  important  article  of  trade. 
The  flavor  is  much  injured  by  long  exposure  to 
j  the  sun.     When  properly  prepared,  dried  ap 
ples  will  remain  good  for  five  or  six  years  if 
kept  in  a  dry  place  ;  and  for  use  it  is  only  ne 
cessary  to  soak    them  in  water  a  short  time 
previous  to  boiling.     Crab  apples  make  the  best 
jelly,   and  are   also   much   used  for   a   sweet 
pickle.     The  raisine  compose  of  the  French  is 
;  made  by  boiling  apples  in  must  or  new  wine.  By 
I  mixing  the  juice  with  water  and  sugar  a  light 
fruit  wine  is  obtained.     Cider  in  the  United 
States  has  never  acquired  much  celebrity  from 
the  care  of  its  manufacture,  as  it  has  usually 
been  made   from  the  refuse  of  the  orchard. 
That  made  from  wild  apples   or  seedlings  is 
much  the  best.     In  England,  in  the  counties  of 
j  Herefordshire,  AVorcestershire,  and  Devonshire, 
much  cider  is  made  of  superior  quality.     (See 
CIDEE.)     To  these  uses  of  the  apple  it  may  be 
added  that  a  mixture  of  apple  pulp  and  lard 
j  was  the  original  pomatum. — The  orchard  prod- 
i  ucts  of  the  United  States  (mostly  apples)  are 
stated  in    the   census  returns  for  1870  to   be 
j  worth  $47,335,18!).     More  than  a  million  acres 
are  under  cultivation    as  orchards,  but  many 
;  more  acres  of  hilly  land  might  be  used  profit 
ably   for  this  purpose,   where   no  other   fruit 
j  would  grow  well.     In  New  England  the  crop 
!  is  apt  to  be  irregular,  and  some  years  the  abun- 
!  dance  is  so  great  that  the  fruit  will  not  pay  for 
i  picking  and  sending  to  market,  and  is  used  for 
|  cider  or  to  feed  swine.     The  apple  tree  is  not 
subject  to  disease,  and  years  ago  the  fruit  was 
perfectly  fair  and  uninjured  by  worm  or  cater- 
I  pillar  in  New  England,  as  still  in  Oregon  and 
the  West;   but  now  the  borer  (xaperdd  Invitta- 
ta)  attacks  the  stem,  perforating  it  a  little  above 
the  ground ;  the  woolly  aphis  attacks  the  tender 
shoots;  the  caterpillar  (clixiocampa  Americana) 
;  builds  its  cobweb  nests  and  devours  the  leaves ; 
the   canker-worm    (anisopteryx   vernata)   also 
devours  all  foliage  ;  the  apple  moth  (carpocapsa 
pometarid)  lays  its  egg  at  the  edge  of  the  calyx, 
and  the  larva  when  hatched  enters  the  fruit ; 
and  the  bark  louse  (coccus)  attacks  the  bark. 
The  borer  may  be  destroyed,   as  well   as  the 
bark    louse     and     aphis,    by    potash    washes 
(li  Ibs.  of  potash  to  2  gallons  of  water),  if 
applied  when  the  egg  is  unhatched ;  but  after 


APPLES  OF  SODOM 


APPLETON 


GC1 


the  borer  has  entered  the  stem  it  may  be  killed  I 
by  thrusting  a  wire  into  the  hole.     The  apple  i 
moth  is  destroyed  by  feeding  all  the  fallen  up-  j 
pies  to  swine,  thus  preventing  the  larvae  from  i 
entering  the  earth,  where  they  undergo  their  : 
transformations.     The  caterpillar  comes  from 
eggs  laid  in  the  fall  on  the  smaller  twigs,  encir-  j 
cling  them,  and,  as  the  whole  community  col 
lects  in  the  nest,  may  be  burned  by  torches  on  ; 
poles  thrust  among  the  branches.    The  canker- 
worm  is  not  so  easily  managed,  from  the  vast  ' 
number  of  its  armies.    As  the  females  are  wing-  i 
less,  they  may  be  prevented  from  ascending 
the  stem  to  lay  their  eggs,  when  they  issue  from  ; 
the  chrysalis  in  the  ground  at  the  base  of  the 
tree,  by  tar  or  any  viscid  substance  that  will 
entrap  them,  and  by  digging  around  the  trees 
in    the   fall    and   exposing  the    pupaa   to   the 
weather. — The  varieties  of  apple  suitable  for 
growth  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States 
have  been  made  the  subject  of  many  experi 
ments  by  the  best  pomologists ;  and  the  national 
pomological  society,  founded  in  1850  by  the  i 
late  A.  J.  Downing  and  others,  has  published 
the  results.     To  these  reports  and  to  the  pub-  • 
lications  of  local  societies  cultivators  are  re 
ferred  for  the  best  kinds  for  orchards  in  their 
vicinity.   For  general  cultivation,  the  Williams's  | 
favorite,  a  large  red  apple,  the  Porter,  New-  j 
town  pippin,  early  bough,  red  Astrakhan,  and  j 
Gravenstein   are   recommended   for    fall   use;  : 
while  for  winter  the  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island 
greening,  Danvers  winter-sweet,  fameuse,  Hub-  \ 
bardston  nonesuch,  northern  spy,  Spitzenberg, 
minister,  Vandevere,  and  Roxbury  russet  offer  ! 
a  variety  both  for  cooking  and  dessert.     Some 
of  these,  however,  do  not  flourish  in  Xew  Eng 
land  ;  others  do  not  bear  well  in  the  western 
states.     For  exportation  the  Baldwin,  Rhode 
Island  greening,  Xewtown  pippin,  Spitzenberg, 
and  Swaar  are  most  in  demand.     In  the  Bos-  j 
ton  market  native  apples  command  a  higher  ] 
price  than  western  ones,  although  the  latter 
are  usually  larger  and  fairer.     Apples  are  com-  i 
monly  brought  to  market  in  barrels  which  weigh 
about  150  )bs. ;  and  Pliny  says  that  this  was  | 
one  of  the  two  fruits  known  in  his  time  that  | 
could  be  preserved  in  casks.     On  the  western 
coast,  however,  apples  are  always  marketed  in  | 
boxes  somewhat  smaller  than  standard  orange 
boxes,  holding  about  a  bushel. 

APPLES  OF  SODOM,  a  fruit  supposed  to  grow  j 
near  the  Dead  sea,  fair  to  the  sight,  but  when  j 
plucked  dissolving  into  smoke  and  ashes.     A 
general  opinion,  supported  by  Hasselquist,   is  ; 
that  the  "apples  of  Sodom"  are  to  be  found  ; 
in  the  fruit  of  the  solarium  melongena  (night-  ! 
shade),  which  he  describes  as  tilled  with  dust  j 
or  ashes;    or  at  least,   when  punctured  by  a 
certain  insect,   as  it  frequently  is,  the  whole  , 
interior  of  the  fruit  is  converted  into  a  fine 
dust,  leaving  the  rind  entire  in  form  and  color,  j 
Robinson,  in  his  "Biblical  Researches,"  iden-  i 
tifies  the  apple  of  Sodom  with  the  asclejiias 
gigantea  rel  procera.     The  Arabs  call  it  other.  \ 
It  is  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  sea,  and 


Robinson  says  that  seeing  the  two  (the  osher 
and  the  nightshade)  growing  side  by  side,  the 
former  struck  him  at  once  from  its  agreement 
with  the  ancient  story,  while  the  latter  did 
not.  He  describes  the  osher  as  from  10  to  15 
feet  high,  having  a  grayish  cork-like  bark,  oval 
leaves,  flowers  similar  to  the  silkweed  of  the 
northern  United  States,  and  as  discharging  like 
that  plant  a  milky  fluid  when  broken.  The 
fruit  resembles  an  orange  in  size  and  color, 
but,  when  even  very  carefully  touched,  explodes 
like  a  bladder  or  puff-ball,  leaving  in  the  hands 
only  a  rind  and  a  few  filaments  by  which  the 
interior  was  traversed. 

APPLETON,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  capital  of 
Outagamie  county,  situated  on  an  eminence 
overlooking  Fox  river,  30  m.  from  its  mouth, 
and  5  m.  is",  of  Lake  Winnebago,  and  on  the 
Wisconsin  division  of  the  Chicago  and  North 
western  railroad,  214  m.  from  Chicago;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,518.  The  rapids  known  as  the  Grand 
Chute  have  here  a  descent  of  about  30  feet  in 
a  distance  of  1-J-  m.  The  city  is  the  seat  of 
Lawrence  university,  a  Methodist  institution, 
established  in  1847,  which  in  1871  had  9  in 
structors,  185  male  and  87  female  students,  and 
a  library  of  6,000  volumes. 

APPLETON,  Daniel,  the  founder  of  the  pub 
lishing  house  of  D.  Appleton  and  company,  in 
Xew  York,  born  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  Dec.  10, 
1785,  died  March  27,  1849.  He  commenced 
business  as  a  retail  trader  in  his  native  place. 
He  afterward  removed  to  a  larger  business 
field  in  Boston,  and  subsequently  to  Xew 
York.  In  the  latter  place  he  commenced 
the  importation  of  English  books,  and  in  the 
course  of  years,  by  his  energy  of  character, 
established  one  of  the  largest  importing  and 
publishing  houses  in  the  United  States,  which 
is  now  continued  by  his  sons. 

APPLETON,  Jesse,  D.D.,  president  of  Bow- 
doin  college,  born  in  Xew  Ipswich.  X.  II., 
Xov.  17,  1772,  died  in  Brunswick,  Me.,  Xov. 
12,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  col 
lege  in  1792,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1795, 
and  in  February,  1797,  was  ordained  the  pastor 
of  a  church  in  Hampton,  X.  II.,  where  he  re 
mained  10  years.  From  1807  till  his  death  he 
was  president  of  Bowdoin  college.  In  addi 
tion  to  the  duties  appertaining  to  his  office  of 
president,  he  was  often  called  upon  to  preach 
in  the  neighboring  towns,  besides  which  he 
preached  before  the  Bible,  missionary,  and 
peace  societies  of  Maine,  the  American  board 
of  foreign  missions,  the  Massachusetts  legisla 
ture,  and  numerous  other  public  bodies.  lie 
was  the  father-in-law  of  the  late  president 
Franklin  Pierce.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons, 
lectures,  and  addresses  have  been  published. 

APPLETON,  Nathan,  an  American  merchant 
and  political  economist,  born  in  Xew  Ipswich, 
X.  II.,  Oct.  6,  1779,  died  in  Boston,  July  14, 
1861.  In  1813  he  was  associated  with  Francis 
C.  Lowell  and  Patrick  T.  Jackson  in  establish 
ing  at  Wai th am  near  Boston  a  cotton  mill,  in 
which  was  set  up  the  first  power  loom  ever 


G02 


APPLETW 


APPONYI 


used  in  the  United  States.  In  1821  he  became 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Merrimack  manu 
facturing  company,  from  which  originated  the 
city  of  Lowell ;  and  he  was  the  projector  and 
chief  proprietor  of  the  Hamilton  company. 
lie  was  distinguished  as  n  steady  advocate  of 
the  protective  system.  In  1815  he  entered 
the  legislature,  and  was  several  times  re- 
elected.  In  1830  he  was  chosen  a  represen 
tative  in  congress  from  Boston,  and  during 
the  first  session  opposed  McDuffie's  report 
on  the  tariff,  in  a  speech  characterized  by 
Mr.  Webster  as  "a  model  of  close  reasoning  on 
an  abstruse  subject."  In  1842  he  was  again 
elected  to  congress,  and  aided  in  securing  the 
passage  of  the  protective  tariff  bill  of  that 
year;  but  after  the  close  of  a  single  session  lie 
resigned  his  seat.  His  little  treatise  entitled 
"Remarks  on  Currency  and  Banking"  (en 
larged  edition,  1857),  has  been  pronounced 
"  almost  worthy  of  being  studied  in  the  schools 
as  an  elementary  manual."  He  also  published 
an  account  of  the  introduction  of  the  power 
loom  and  the  origin  of  the  city  of  Lowell. 
He  accumulated  a  large  estate,  and  was  noted 
for  his  integrity  and  philanthropy. 

APPLETON,  Samuel,  an  American  merchant 
and  philanthropist,  brother  and  partner  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Now  Ipswich,  N.  II.,  June 
22,  1700,  died  in  Boston,  July  12,  1853.  His 
opportunities  for  study  were  confined  to  the  dis 
trict  schools,  and  at  the  age  of  17  he  became 
himself  a  teacher.  In  1794  he  established 
himself  in  trade  in  Boston.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  heavy  importer  of  English  goods,  and 
at  a  later  period  largely  engaged  in  the  cot 
ton  manufacture.  At  his  death  his  fortune 
amounted  to  nearly  $1,000,000,  and  he  had 
given  away  nearly  as  much  as  that  during  his 
lifetime.  He  endowed  the  academy  at  New 
Ipswich  with  a  fund  which  secured  its  perma 
nence,  and  founded  the  professorship  of  natural 
philosophy  of  Dartmouth  college,  with  a  gift  of 
$10,000.  In  his  old  age  he  became  more  and 
more  absorbed  with  a  desire  to  relieve  the  suf 
ferings  of  the  poor,  and  intrusted  physicians 
and  others  with  large  sums  for  that  purpose. 
By  his  will  he  placed  property  to  the  amount 
of  $200,000  in  the  hands  of  his  executors,  "•  to 
be  by  them  applied,  disposed  of,  and  distrib 
uted,  for  scientific,  literary,  religious,  and  chari 
table  purposes." 

APPLIISli,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  bounded 
N.  and  E.  by  the  Altamaha  river,  and  drained 
by  the  affluents  of  the  Santilla;  area,  1,060  sq. 
in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,08(5,  of  whom  970  were 
colored.  It  has  railroad  communication  with 
Brunswick  and  Macon.  The  surface  is  level 
and  sandy.  In  1870  the  county  produced 
63,003  bushels  of  corn,  39,508  of  oats,  38,100 
of  sweet  potatoes,  48,500  Ibs.  of  rice,  12,509 
gallons  of  molasses,  and  152  bales  of  cotton. 
Capital,  Holmesville. 

APPOLI),  J.  George,  an  English  inventor,  born 
in  1799,  died  at  Clifton,  Aug.  31,  1804.  The 
paying-out  apparatus  used  in  laying  submarine 


!  telegraphs  was  chiefly  his  invention.     His  cen- 

j  trifugal  pumps  for  drainage  purposes  attracted 

t  much  attention  at  the  international  exhibitions 

of  1851  and  1802.     In  his  own  house  and  its 

surroundings  almost  everything  was  automatic, 

;  doors  and  shutters  opening  and  closing  mechan- 

'  ically.     He  had  also  secured  a  monopoly  as  a 

:  dresser  of  furs  by  a  secret  process. 

APPOMATTOX,  a  county  of  Virginia  S.  E.  of 
the  centre  of  the  state,  bounded  N.  W.  by  the 
James  river,  and  drained  by  the  sources  of  the 
!  Appomattox;  area,  200  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,950,  of  whom  4,53(5  were  colored.  The  sur 
face  is  diversified  with  ranges  of  mountains 
and  covered  with  forests,  and  the  soil  is  fertile. 
The  county  is  intersected  by  the  South  Side  rail 
road,  running  from  Petersburg  to  Lynchburg. 
In  1870  the  county  produced  33,825  bushels 
of  wheat,  70,708  of  corn,  (15,858  of  oats,  and 
(556,944  Ibs.  of  tobacco.  Capital,  Appomattox 
i  Court  House,  or  Clover  Hill. 

APPOMATTOX  CGl'IiT  MOtSF,  a  Ullage,  capi- 
I  tal  of  Appomattox  county,  Ya.  (locally  called 
!  Clover    Hill),   20    in.   E.    of   Lynchburg.      On 
April  9,  1805,  Gen.   Lee  here  surrendered  the 
i  army  of  northern  Virginia  to  Gen.  Grant.    Of 
this   army  only    27,805    remained.      The   rest 
had  been  killed  and  taken  prisoners,  or  had 
:  deserted,  during  the  battles  around  Richmond, 
;  and  after  its  evacuation   on  the    2d.      There 
|  were  delivered  350  wagons,  about  10,000  mus 
kets,  and  30  pieces  of  artillery. 

APPOMA1TOX   KIYEK   rises   in   Appomattox 

and  Prince  Edward's  counties,  Va.,  and  flows 

i  circuitously  E.  about  120  in.  to  the  James  river 

at  City  Point.    It  has  a  narrow  and  deep  chan- 

i  nel,  and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  100  tons  to 

|  Petersburg,  about  20  m.  from  its  mouth.     By 

!  a  canal  round  the  falls  at  Petersburg,  vessels 

I  of  four  or  five  tons  ascend  to  Farmville,  about 

J  80  m.  further. 

APPOjVYI,  one  of  the  oldest  noble  families 
of  Hungary,  several  members  of  which  have 
!  achieved  considerable  prominence  in  the  Hun 
garian  or  Austrian  service,   among  them   the 
;  following:  I.  Gyorgy  Autal,  count,  born  in  1751, 
officiated  as  member  of  the  royal  lieutenancy 
in  Buda,  and  subsequently  as  lord-lieutenant 
of   the    county   of   Tolna,    but    chiefly   distin- 
\  guishcd   himself   as  founder  of   the   Apponyi 
|  library,  a  large  and  valuable  collection,  opened 
to  the  public  in  Presburg  in  1827,  ten  years 
after  his  death.     II.  Autai,  son  of  the  preced- 
I  ing,  born  in  1782,  was  equally  remarkable  as  a 
patron  of  literature  and  art  and  as  a  diplomat 
ist,  serving  successively,  as  a  representative  of 
|  Austria,  at  the  courts  of  St.  James,  Rome,  and 
!  Paris.     He  died  in  1852.     II!.  Rudolf,  the  son 
,  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1812,  chose  the  ca 
reer  of  his  father,  was  appointed  Austrian  min- 
|  ister  at  Turin  in  1849,  transferred  to  London 
j  in  1850,  made  ambassador  there  in  1800,  and 
relieved  in  1871  by  Count  Beust,  when  he  was 
sent  by  Count  Andrassy  as  ambassador  to  Oon- 
j  stantinople.    IV.  Gyorgy,  cousin  of  the  preceding 
and  grandson  of  Gyorgy  Antal,  born  in  1808, 


APPRAISEMENT 


APPRENTICE 


603 


was  a  conspicuous  member  of  the  conserva-  | 
tive  party  at  the  diet  of  Presburg  in  1843-'4,  j 
and   became    Hungarian   court    chancellor  in  j 
1847.     He  lived  in  retirement  during  and  after 
the  revolution  of  1848-'9,  and  accepted  in  1859 
a  position  in  the  wider  Reichsrath  of  Vienna,  j 
where   he   furthered    with   great   energy   and  | 
ability  various  schemes  for  the  restoration  of 
the  constitution  of  his  country.     In  1860  he  j 
was  madejudex  curia,  in  1801  opened  as  royal 
commissioner  the  diet  of  Pesth,  and  by  his  me 
diatory  position  was  in  the  following  years,  next 
>  Francis  Deak,  the  most  influential  person 


to 

in  bringing  about  the  reconciliation  between 
Hungary  and  the  court  of  Vienna,  which  in 
1867  culminated  in  the  transformation  of  the 
Austrian  empire  on  the  basis  of  nationality 
and  constitutionalism.  A  leading  conservative, 
Count  Apponyi  is  esteemed  by  all  parties  as 
a  patriot  and  a  statesman. 

APPRAISEMENT  (Lat,  appretiare,  to  set  a 
price  upon),  a  valuation  of  property  by  persons 
authorized  to  make  it  by  the  law  or  by  stipula 
tion  between  the  parties.  The  three  principal 
kinds  of  appraisement  known  to  American  law 
are :  of  the  inventoried  property  of  decedents 
and  insolvents;  of  property  taken  for  public 
use  ;  and  of  real  estate  seized  upon  execution. 
In  some  states  the  creditor  may  enforce  a  sale 
of  his  debtor's  lands  without  a  previous  ap 
praisement;  in  others  an  appraisement  is  a  ne 
cessary  prerequisite.  In  some  states  land  once 
sold  on  execution  is  irredeemable  by  the  debt 
or  ;  in  others  he  has  a  right  to  redeem  it  with 
in  a  reasonable  period,  six  months  or  a  year,  ! 
at  the  appraised  value,  with  interest.  There 
are  states  where  the  creditor  has  no  right  to 
sell  upon  execution,  but  may  take  the  property  | 
of  his  debtor  in  payment  so  far  as  it  goes,  at  | 
two  thirds  of  the  appraised  value ;  in  case  of  j 
refusal  the  levy  is  discharged,  and  the  creditor 
must  pay  costs. 

APPRENTICE  (Fr.  apprendre,  to  learn),  a  j 
person  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  | 
and  receiving  in  return  for  such  service  in-  ! 
struction  in  his  master's  business.  Apprentice 
ship  had  its  origin  in  the  system  of  associated 
trades  which  prevailed  in  almost  all  parts  of 
Europe  in  the  middle  ages.  Those  only  who 
were  free  of  the  fraternity  of  a  trade  were  al 
lowed  to  exercise  it;  and  the  usual,  if  not  the 
indispensable,  mode  of  acquiring  this  freedom 
was  through  an  apprenticeship  to  a  member  of 
the  body,  for  a  time  and  under  regulations 
varying  in  different  towns  and  in  different 
trades  in  the  same  town.  In  some  instances 
the  rules  designed  to  limit  the  numbers  of  the 
fraternity  were  so  strict  as  to  prohibit  the 
master  from  taking  any  apprentice  but  his  own 
son.  In  France,  the  apprentice,  after  having 
served  in  that  capacity  from  three  to  eight  or 
ten  years,  served  as  a  journeyman,  called  the 
compagnon  of  his  master,  a  number  of  years 
more,  after  which  he  was  entitled  to  admission 
as  a  master  into  the  communaute  or  corps  de 
inarchands,  if  the  chef-d'ceuvre  which  he  was 


required  to  deliver  to  the  jurande,  wardens  of 
the  company,  showed  him  to  be  a  proficient  in 
his  art.  Sons  of  merchants  living  with  their 
fathers  until  they  were  17  years  old  were  en 
titled  to  the  privileges  of  those  who  had  served 
their  apprenticeship.  These  companies  were 
abolished  at  the  revolution,  but  the  contract  of 
apprenticeship,  although  no  longer  imperative, 
is  still  frequently  entered  into  in  France,  and 
there  are  statutes  regulating  the  rights  and  du 
ties  of  the  parties  to  it.  In  Germany,  where 
the  system  exists  to  the  present  day,  in  a  more 
or  less  modified  and  legally  limited  form,  the 
term  of  apprenticeship,  Lehrjahre,  is  generally 
about  seven  years,  but  sometimes  less.  The 
apprentice,  after  serving  for  the  prescribed 
term,  becomes  a  Gesell,  like  the  French  com- 
pagnon,  and  is  entitled  to  receive  from  the  guild 
a  general  letter  of  recommendation,  armed 
with  which  he  commences  his  -travels.  Being 
recognized  and  employed  by  his  brethren  of 
the  same  craft,  he  works  his  way  from  town  to 
town,  and  on  returning  with  certificates  of 
good  conduct  during  his  Wanderjahre  is  en 
titled  to  become  a  master.  In  Italy  the  con 
tract  of  apprenticeship  resembled  that  in  use  in 
England.  In  Scotland  and  Ireland  the  regula 
tions  regarding  it  were  never  rigorous,  and 
those  existing  in  the  latter  country  were  early 
superseded  by  English  laws  designed  to  en 
courage  immigration.  —  In  the  12th  century 
guilds  were  formed  in  England,  and  shortly 
afterward,  without  doubt,  apprenticeships 
came  into  vogue,  although  there  is  no  notice 
of  them  in  the  statutes  until  the  year  1388. 
The  London  apprentices,  many  of  whom  were 
of  high  birth  or  had  wealthy  masters,  formed 
an  important  body  and  figure  in  history,  partic 
ularly  during  the  time  of  the  civil  wars.  The 
term  of  apprenticeship  was  fixed  at  seven  years, 
which  had  been  the  ordinary  period  of  service 
previously,  by  a  statute  passed  in  the  reign  of 
!  Elizabeth.  The  institution  became  so  wide- 
|  spread  that  acts  designed  to  limit  the  number  of 
!  apprentices  were  passed,  and  the  courts  showed 
no  favor  to  the  laws  which  recognized  and  sup 
ported  the  relation,  but  restricted  their  opera 
tion  to  trades  existing  at  the  time  of  their  pas 
sage  ;  a  doctrine  which,  while  giving  rise  to  some 
absurd  anomalies,  exempted  most  of  the  large 
manufacturing  towns  from  the  operation  of  the 
act  of  Elizabeth.  In  1813  numerous  petitions 
for  the  repeal  pf  this  statute  were  presented, 
and  shortly  afterward  apprenticeship,  as  a  ne 
cessary  means  of  access  to  a  trade,  was  abolished. 
The  English  law  on  the  subject  has  been  re 
vised  and  settled  in  the  master  and  servant 
1  act  of  1867  (30  and  31  Victoria,  ch.  141);  and 
in  almost  all  our  states  the  contract  of  ap- 
j  prenticeship  is  provided  for  by  express  statutes, 
j  most  of  them,  at  least  in  the  older  states,  being 
|  of  an  early  date.  The  statutory  law  of  New 
I  York  had  been  till  1871  very  little  changed 
since  the  original  act  of  1801. — The  contract 
of  apprenticeship  is  made  between  the  master 
on  one  side  and  the  infant  and  usually  his  par- 


604 


APPRENTICE 


ent  or  guardian  on  the  other.  It  is  commonly 
in  writing  and  under  seal,  and  is  to  be  regarded 
like  any  other  contract  of  that  sort.  It  has 
been  said  that  at  common  law  the  infant  is 
bound  by  an  engagement  of  this  sort,  because 
it  is  an  agreement  that  certainly  must  be  for 
his  benefit.  But  it  is  probable  that  this  is  not 
the  rule,  and  that  the  infant  is  not  bound  by 
his  contract  of  apprenticeship  more  than  he  is 
by  any  other  of  his  contracts.  The  statutory 
law  may  however  declare  that  he  shall  be 
bound  in  such  a  case,  and  it  usually  does.  It 
has  also  been  held  in  the  United  States,  though 
otherwise  in  England,  that  at  common  law  the 
parent  or  guardian  may  bind  the  minor  with 
out  his  joining  in  or  assenting  to  the  articles. 
But  the  statutes  of  almost  all  our  states  ex 
pressly  require  the  infant's  assent.  The  long 
existing  statute  of  New  York  on  the  subject 
may  be  referred  to  as  fairly  illustrating  the 
American  law  on  the  subject.  By  that  statute, 
every  male  infant  and  every  unmarried  female 
under  the  age  of  18  years  may  with  the  con 
sent  of  the  proper  parties  bind  himself  or  her 
self  in  writing  to  serve  as  clerk,  apprentice,  or 
servant  in  any  trade,  profession,  or  employ 
ment,  if  a  male  till  21  years  of  age,  and  if  a 
female  till  18  years  of  age,  or  for  any  shorter 
term;  and  such  engagement  is  as  binding  on 
the  infant  as  if  he  or  she  were  of  full  age. 
The  engagement,  however,  must  be  with  the 
consent  of  the  father ;  and  by  a  statute  of 
1862,  if  the  mother  be  living,  it  is  not  valid 
without  her  written  consent  also.  But  if  the 
father  be  dead,  or  incapable  of  giving  his  as 
sent,  or  have  neglected  his  family,  the  consent 
must  be  given  by  the  mother;  or  if  she  be 
dead,  or  incapable,  or  refuse,  then  by  the  le 
gally  appointed  guardian  ;  or  if  there  be  none, 
or  he  be  incapable,  then  by  the  overseers  of 
the  poor  or  any  two  justices  of  the  peace  of 
the  town  where  the  infant  resides.  The  con 
sent  in  either  instance  must  be  in  writing. 
The  executor  of  a  father's  last  will,  who  has 
been  directed  to  bring  up  the  child  to  some 
trade  or  calling,  may  also  bind  the  infant  to  an 
apprenticeship.  Superintendents  and  over 
seers  of  the  poor  of  counties,  or  overseers  of 
the  poor  of  a  town,  with  the  consent  of  two 
justices  of  the  peace,  or  of  the  mayor,  recorder, 
or  an  alderman,  may  also  bind  out  children 
who  are  charges  on  a  county,  town,  or  city. 
By  recent  statutes  idle  and  truant  children 
may  also  be  bound  to  apprenticeships  by  simi 
lar  officers.  The  age  of  the  infant  must  be 
stated  in  the  indentures,  and  will  be  taken  to 
be  the  true  age;  but  public  officers  authorized 
to  make  the  contract  must  inform  themselves 
of  the  true  age  fully.  Any  sum  of  money 
agreed  to  be  paid  by  the  master  must  be  men 
tioned  in  the  articles.  If  the  child  is  appren 
ticed  by  public  officers,  the  indentures  must 
contain  an  agreement  on  the  part  of  the  mas 
ter  that  he  will  cause  the  child  to  be  taught 
reading  and  writing,  and  if  a  male,  arithmetic. 
Any  person  coming  from  a  foreign  country 


may  bind  himself  to  service — if  an  infant,  until 
21  years  of  age;  and  if  the  agreement  is  made 
in  order  to  earn  the  price  of  his  passage  money 
to  this  country,  it  shall  not  be  for  a  longer 
term  than  one  year,  and  in  this  case  the  inden 
ture  must  be  acknowledged  by  the  apprentice 
on  a  private  examination  before  the  mayor, 
recorder,  alderman,  or  justice  of  the  peace.  An 
indenture  of  this  sort  may  be  assigned  by  the 
master  with  the  consent  of  either  of  these 
officers.  No  indenture  is  valid  against  the  ap 
prentice  unless  it  is  made  in  the  manner  here 
prescribed.  If  the  apprentice  absent  himself 
from  his  service,  he  must  serve  double  time, 
though  not  for  more  than  three  years  beyond 
the  original  term.  Complaints  by  the  master 
of  the  misbehavior  of  the  apprentice  are  to  be 
heard  by  certain  officers,  and  the  apprentice 
may  be  punished  by  confinement,  or  in  a 
proper  case  the  officers  may  discharge  the  ap 
prentice  from  his  service,  and  his  master  from 
all  obligation  to  him.  The  apprentice  may 
also  be  discharged  from  service  by  the  same 
officers  on  his  complaint  of  ill  usage  by  his 
master ;  and  in  such  a  case  the  master  may  be 
bound  over  to  answer  in  a  court 'of  sessions. 
The  law  in  these  respects  is  substantially  the 
same  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Ken 
tucky  as  in  New  York.  By  a  recent  statute 
of  New  York  (1869)  all  institutions  for  the  re 
ception  of  minors  must,  on  binding  children  in 
their  charge  to  apprenticeships,  take  bonds  to 
the  people,  in  which  the  master  shall  under 
take  to  treat  the  children  kindly.  By  the  stat 
ute  of  New  York  passed  in  1871,  it  is  provided 
that  it  shall  not  be  lawful  to  take  as  an  ap 
prentice  any  minor  without  first  obtaining  the 
consent  of  his  legal  guardians ;  nor  shall  any 
minor  be  taken  as  an  apprentice  unless  an  in 
denture  be  drawn  up  according  to  the  require 
ments  of  the  act ;  and  the  indenture  mutt 
be  under  seal,  and  signed  by  the  employer, 
the  apprentice,  and  his  parents  or  parent  if  liv 
ing,  or  if  not,  then  by  his  legal  guardians.  The 
indenture,  to  be  valid,  must  also  contain  cer 
tain  covenants  and  provisions  expressly  pre 
scribed  by  the  act.  The  apprentice  shall  engage 
to  serve  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than  five 
years,  and  shall  also  covenant  not  to  leave  his 
master  during  the  term  of  service.  The  master 
must  covenant  to  provide  the  apprentice  prop 
er  board,  lodging,  and  medical  attendance;  to 
teach  him  every  branch  of  the  business  for 
which  he  is  indentured;  and  at  the  end  of  the 
term  to  give  him  a  certificate  in  writing  stating 
that  he  has  served  his  full  time.  Any  person 
taking  an  apprentice  without  complying  with 
these  requirements  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor 
and  liable  to  a  fine  of  $500.  No  indenture  made 
under  the  statute  shall  be  cancelled  before  the 
expiration  of  the  term  except  in  case  of  death, 
or  by  an  order  of  a  court  for  good  cause.  If  the 
apprentice  leave  his  employer  without  his  con 
sent  or  without  good  cause,  and  refuse  to  re 
turn,  he  may  be  arrested  and  committed  to  a 
jail  or  house  of  correction  for  such  term  as  the 


APPRENTICE 


APPvICOT 


G05 


magistrate  may  think  just.  If  the  apprentice  | 
refuse  or  neglect  to  perform  his  part  of  the 
contract,  the  indenture  may  be  cancelled  for  ; 
the  benefit  of  the  master;  and  the  apprentice  ! 
forfeits  all  wages  then  due  him.  If  the  master 
refuses  to  perform  his  part  of  the  contract,  the 
parent  or  guardian  may  bring  an  action  for 
•lamages  against  him,  and  may  recover  not  less 
than  £100  nor  more  than  $1,000,  to  be  paid  to  the 
apprentice  or  to  his  parent  or  guardian  for  his  : 
benefit.  In  Vermont  minors  above  14  years  of 
age  may  be  bound  as  apprentices  by  their  father 
or  guardian,  and  the  consent  of  the  minor  must  j 
be  attested  by  his  signature  to  the  indentures.  ; 
The  law  on  this  point  is  similar  in  Rhode  j 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  j 
Missouri,  and  other  states.  In  Ohio,  if  the  ; 
guardian  binds  the  infant,  the  court  of  common 
pleas  must  approve  the  contract. — Among  the 
more  important  and  practical  points  which 
have  been  decided  in  respect  to  apprenticeship, 
it  has  been  held  that  as  the  agreement  on  the 
part  of  the  master  is  in  the  nature  of  a  personal 
trust,  the  indenture  cannot  be  assigned  by  him, 
at  all  events  not  without  the  infant's  consent, 
or  unless,  as  by  the  custom  of  London,  such 
assignment  be  sanctioned  by  settled  usage. 
But  an  assignment  without  the  infant's  con 
sent,  though  it  do  not  bind  him,  may  hold  the 
master  to  his  own  covenants.  In  some  of  our 
states  the  consent  of  both  father  and  infant  is 
made  essential.  The  apprentice  cannot  aban 
don  the  service  unless  his  master  desert  him. 
Nor  is  the  apprentice's  misconduct  in  general 
a  defence  for  the  master  in  an  action  against 
the  latter  on  his  covenants.  For  though  one 
may  dismiss  a  mere  servant  for  misconduct,  a 
master  cannot  turn  away  an  apprentice  for  or 
dinary  misbehavior,  such  as  idleness  or  drunk 
enness;  but  he  may  discharge  him  for  theft  or 
for  any  wilful  injury.  Illness  of  the  apprentice 
does  not  discharge  the  master;  and  in  a  recent 
case  in  Massachusetts  the  father  recovered  full 
wages  for  the  whole  period  of  the  apprentice's 
last  illness  and  up  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
The  master  is  also  bound  to  provide  proper 
medicines  and  care  for  the  apprentice  in  case 
of  his  sickness.  If  the  apprentice  run  away 
and  go  into  another  person's  service,  the  mas 
ter  is  entitled  to  recover  the  full  value  of 
his  labor,  without  deduction  of  the  wages  paid 
the  apprentice  by  his  new  employer.  The 
master  has  also  an  action  for  the  value  of  the 
apprentice's  services  against  any  one  who  en 
tices  him  away,  or  wilfully  harbors  him  after 
his  desertion,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  appren 
ticeship.  Though  the  master  may  chastise  the 
minor  as  a  parent  may,  yet  he  cannot  authorize 
any  one  else  to  inflict  the  punishment ;  and  it 
has  been  held  in  New  York  that  whipping  the 
apprentice  for  absenting  himself  at  a  trial 
where  he  was  required  as  a  witness,  was  as 
sault  and  battery.  Where  an  apprentice  was 
bound  to  the  master  and  his  executors,  they 
carrying  on  the  same  business,  it  was  held  that 
the  widow,  who  was  executrix  and  continued 


the  master's  business,  was  bound  to  instruct  the 
minor,  and  he  was  bound  to  render  her  service. 
As  the  infant  is  not  bound  at  common  law  by 
his  covenants,  it  is  usual  to  take  security  from 
some  responsible  person  for  the  performance 
of  the  contract  by  the  apprentice ;  and  in  such 
a  case  the  surety  must  be  a  party  to  the  arti 
cles.  The  contract  is  dissolved  by  consent  of 
all  parties.  The  death  of  the  master  also  dis 
charges  the  obligation  of  the  apprentice,  and 
so  does  his  bankruptcy  or  insolvency,  or  his 
abandonment  of  the  business  in  which  he  agreed 
to  instruct  the  apprentice. 

APRAXIN.  I.  ledor,  a  Russian  grand  admi 
ral,  born  in  1671,  died  Nov.  10,  1728.  He  was 
one  of  the  leading  men  of  the  reign  of  Peter 
the  Great,  and  is  especially  remarkable  as  the 
creator  of  the  Russian  navy.  During  the  war 
between  Sweden  and  Russia  he  expelled  the 
Swedes  from  Ingria,  in  1710  conquered  Viborg 
in  Finland,  and  when  war  with  Turkey  broke 
out,  in  1711,  he  commanded  in  the  Black  sea. 
In  1713  he  attacked  Finland  from  the  sea,  and 
devastated  the  shores  of  Sweden,  destroying 
hundreds  of  villages,  and  many  towns  and  iron 
works.  He  accompanied  Peter  in  his  warlike 
expedition  against  Persia,  and  served  on  the 
Caspian  sea.  He  always  enjoyed  the  entire 
confidence  of  Peter,  though  firmly  opposed  to 
his  reforms,  and  more  than  once  implicated  in 
extensive  malversations.  II.  fetcfan  Fedoroviteh, 
a  relative  of  the  preceding,  died  Aug.  31,  1758. 
When  young  he  served  in  the  army  of  Munnich 
against  the  Turks,  rose  rapidly,  and.  returning 
to  the  court  of  the  empress  Elizabeth,  distin 
guished  himself  by  his  decided  opposition  to  the 
policy  of  the  king  of  Prussia  and  his  diplomatic 
adherents,  including  Count  Lestocq,  the  favorite 
of  the  empress.  At  the  beginning  of  the  seven 
years'  war  Apraxin,  with  the  rank  of  field  mar 
shal,  commanded  an  army  against  Frederick  the 
Great.  In  May,  1757,  he  invaded  Prussia,  took 
Memel,  advanced  into  the  interior,  destroying 
everything,  and  on  Aug.  30  won  the  battle  of 
Gross-Jagerndorf  against  the  Prussian  general 
Lehwald.  Instead,  however,  of  marching  on 
Berlin,  to  which  capital  the  road  was  open, 
Apraxin  retreated  to  Courland.  having,  as  it  is 
pretended,  received  news  of  the  sickness  of  the 
empress  Elizabeth,  and  having  conspired  with 
the  grand  chancellor  Bestusheif  to  raise  to  the 
throne  her  grandnephew  Paul,  over  the  head 
of  his  father.  Peter  III.  After  the  empress  re 
covered,  Apraxin  was  tried  by  court  martial, 
but  died  in  prison  before  the  trial  ended. 

APRICOT  (old  Eng.  apricock,  Fr.  alricot,  Ger. 
Aprikose ;  probably  from  Lat.  arbor  prcecox, 
early  tree),  the  fruit  of  primus  Armcniaca  or 
Armeniaca  vulgaris,  of  the  order  rosacece.  It 
is  a  small,  rapidly  growing  tree,  attaining  to  the 
height  of  20  to  30  feet,  with  a  somewhat  spread 
ing  head,  the  leaves  heart-shaped,  smooth,  and 
shining.  The  flowers  are  usually  white  and 
appear  before  the  leaves — indeed,  blossoming 
before  any  other  fruit  tree  in  the  early  spring. 
The  fruit  seems  to  be  intermediate  between  the 


606 


APRIES 


APTERYX 


peach  and  plum,  having  the  outside  of  the  for 
mer  and  the  stone  of  the  latter.  The  tree  is  a 
native  of  Armenia,  and  also  of  the  Caucasus, 
Cabool,  the  Himalayas,  China,  and  Japan,  and 
by  cultivation  has  been  introduced  throughout 
the  temperate  zone.  The  tree  was  cultivated 
by  the  Romans,  and  is  mentioned  by  both  Pliny 
and  Dioscorides.  The  Roman  generals  intro 
duced  it  into  Gaul  and  Britain,  although  the 
first  notice  that  has  been  found  of  its  being  in 
England  is  by  Turner,  whose  "  Herbal  "  was 
printed  in  1562.  There  it  seldom  ripens  its 
fruit  unless  trained  against  a  wall.  In  Cali 
fornia  vast  quantities  are  raised,  of  a  large  size 
and  fair  quality,  ripening  before  the  peach.  In 
its  wild  state  the  fruit  is  small,  of  a  waxen 
yellow  color,  rosy-cheeked,  and  of  a  pleasant, 
slightly  acid  flavor.  It  is  dried  in  large  quan 
tities  in  the  East  under  the  name  mishmish, 
and  the  preserved  apricots  of  Damascus  are 
favorably  known  to  all  travellers,  and  some 
times  imported  into  the  United  States.  The 


Apricot — Fruit,  Flower,  and  Pit. 

best  varieties  are  the  Moor  Park  and  the  Brus 
sels  and  Breda,  the  last  two  being  especially 
adapted  to  the  confectioner's  purposes.  The 
Siberian  apricot  is  cultivated  for  its  foliage 
and  flowers.  The  chief  enemies  of  this  fruit  in 
the  United  States  are  a  species  of  curculio, 
which  causes  the  early  dropping  of  the  imma 
ture  fruit ;  the  black  wart,  which  attacks  the 
branches ;  and  another  fungus  which  destroys 
the  leaf.  Apricots  are  seldom  seen  in  the  New 
England  markets,  and  they  are  by  no  means 
common  in  New  York. 

APRIES  (Eg.  Uahprahct,  the  sun  enlarges  his 
heart),  a  king  of  Egypt  of  the  26th  dynasty,  the 
Hophra  of  the  Bible,  and  the  Uaphris  of  Mane- 
tho,  succeeded  his  father  Psammis  (Psamatik 
II.)  about  588  B.  C.  He  invaded  Syria,  be 
sieged  Sidon,  and  fought  a  naval  battle  writh 
the  king  of  Tyre,  but  failed  in  his  attempt  to 
save  Zedekiah  from  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  sub 
sequently  invaded  Egypt.  Apries  was  still 


'  more  unfortunate  in  a  war  against  Cyreiie,  and 
perished  soon  after,  according  to  Herodotus,  by 
a  revolt  of  his  subjects,  who  raised  Arnasis  to 
the  throne  (about  509  B.  C.). 

APRIL  (Lat.  Aprilis),  the  4th  month  of  the 
year,  consisting  of  30  days.  With  the  Romans 
it  was  the  2d  month  of  the  year.  Julius  Caesar 
added  the  30th  day  to  it.  In  the  time  of  Nero 
it  was  called  Neroneus.  The  name  is  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  nperire,  to  open,  because 

\  the  buds  open  themselves  at  this  period.  In 
the  Athenian  calendar,  the  latter  portion  of 
Elaphebolion  and  the  greater  part  of  Muny- 

!  chion  correspond  to  April.     Charlemagne,  in 

:  his  new  calendar,  called  it  grass  month,  the 
name  still  given  to  it  by  the  Dutch  (grasmaand}. 
The  French  revolutionary  calendar  merged  it 

'  into  the  greater  portion  of  Germinal  and  the 
commencement  of  Floreal.  On  antique  monu 
ments  Aprilis  is  represented  as  a  dancing  youth 

I  with  a  rattle  in  his  hand. — The  custom  of  send 
ing  people  on  empty  errands  on  the  1st  of  April 

I  (hence  called  All  Fools'  Da.y)  is  common  in 

|  every  country  of  Europe.  Oriental  scholars 
say  that  it  is  derived  from  the  Jmli  feast  among 

|  the  Hindoos,  where  a  similar  custom  prevails. 
Another  opinion  is  that  it  comes  from  a  cele 
bration  of  Christ's  being  sent  about  to  and 

|  fro  between  Herod,  Pilate,  and  Caiaphas.     Jn 

!  France  the  fooled  man  is  called  jjoisson  (Vavril, 
meaning  a  silly  fish,  easily  caught.     In  Scotland 
he  is  called  gowk,  which  means  a  cuckoo. 
APTERAL  (Gr.  d  privative  and  irrepdv,  wing), 

\  an  architectural  term  used  particularly  with 
reference  to  the  temples  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans.  It  is  applied  to  buildings  which 
have  no  lateral  columns,  but  may  have  porti 
cos  of  columns  projecting  from  their  ends. 
APTERYX,  a  struthious  bird  of  New  Zealand, 

1  called  by  the  natives  Tciwi-Tciwi  from  its  pecu- 

|  liar  cry.  It  belongs  to  the  family  which  con 
tains  the  living  cassowary,  emu,  rnooruk,  and 
ostrich,  and  the  extinct  tepyornis,  dinornis, 
and  dodo.  The  beak  resembles  that  of  a  long- 
billed  wader,  being  slender,  with  the  base 
covered  with  a  bony  cere,  the  upper  mandible 

:  the  longer  and  containing  the  openings  of  the 
nostrils  near  the  tip  ;  the  base  of  the  bill  is  fur 
nished  with  long,  slender  black  bristles,  inter 
mixed  with  the  feathers,  and  projecting  in  all 
directions;  the  wings  are  2  small  crooked  ap 
pendages,  extending  about  1-^  inches  from  the 
sides  of  the  chest,  and  terminated  by  a  curved, 
obtuse,  horn}'  claw  3  lines  long,  having  9 

'  quill  plumes  differing  but  little  from  those  of 
the  body ;  the  tail  is  not  apparent ;  the  tarsi 
are  as  long  as  the  middle  toe,  covered  with  va 
riously  sized  scales,  and  very  robust  as  in  galli 
naceous  birds ;  there  are  3  anterior  toes,  free 

1  and  covered  with  scales,  and  a  very  short  hind 
toe,  all  armed  with  strong  and  rather  sharp 
claws.  The  plumage  is  loose  as  in  other  ter 
restrial  birds  which  have  no  power  of  flight,  re 
sembling  that  of  the  ernu  in  size,  structure,  and 
color,  but  wanting  the  accessory  plumelet ;  the 

,  skin  is  very  tough,  a  line  thick  along  the  back, 


APTERYX 


APULIA 


cor 


and  there  is  a  large  amount  of  fat  between  it 
and  the  muscles,  especially  on  the  back,  abdo 
men,  and  root  of  neck ;  the  head  is  broad  and 
but  slightly  depressed.  The  genus  apteryx  was 
established  by  Shaw  in  1812  from  a  stuffed 
skin,  and  was  at  that  time  supposed  to  have  be 
come  extinct  like  the  dodo;  but  in  1833-'8 
other  specimens  arrived,  which  are  described 
by  Mr.  Yarrell  in  vol.  i.  of  the  "  Transactions 
of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,"  and  by 
Prof.  Owen  in  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  of  the  same  work. 


Apteryx  australis. 

Three  species  are  described.  A.  australis  (Shaw) 
is  about  30  inches  long  from  tip  of  bill  to  end 
of  toes,  19  inches  to  end  of  coccyx,  and  weighs 
about  3J-  Ibs.  ;  the  bill  varies  in  length  from  4-|- 
to  fi£  inches,  the  longest  belonging  to  the  fe 
males,  another  anomaly  in  this  bird ;  the  bill  is 
1  inch  wide  at  the  gape  and  T  lines  high ; 
the  color  is  grayish  brown,  darkest  on  the 
back.  A.  Mantclli  (Bartlett),  described  in 
1850,  is  about  23  inches  long,  with  a  bill  of  4 
inches ;  the  color  is  dark  rufous  brown,  darkest 
on  the  back.  A.  Oiceni  (Gould),  described  in 
1847,  is  the  largest  species,  and  is  said  to  be 
about  3  feet  high ;  the  upper  parts  are  trans 
versely  barred  with  blackish  brown  and  ful 
vous,  and  the  plumage  is  exceedingly  dense 
and  hair-like,  resembling  more  the  covering  of 
a  mammal  than  a  bird ;  the  bill  is  an  inch  short 
er,  more  slender,  and  curved ;  the  wings  are 
exceedingly  rudimentary.  The  large  size  of 
the  unhatched  young,  and  the  possession  within 
the  egg  of  the  remarkable  characters  of  feet, 
wings,  and  beak  of  the  adult,  show  that  the 
young  apteryx  must  be  able  to  pro  vide  for  itself 
very  soon  if  not  immediately  after  leaving  the 
egg.  The  bill  of  the  apteryx  is  moderately 
strong,  as  the  bird  is  said  to  be  in  the  habit  of 
resting  the  head  upon  it  against  the  ground, 
and  to  thrust  it  into  the  soil  in  search  of  food ; 
it  is  struthious  in  structure,  and  grallatorial 
only  in  its  length  and  slenderness.  There  is  no 
trace  of  extension  of  air  cells,  as  in  birds  of 
flight,  into  the  interspaces  of  the  abdominal 
viscera,  and  the  diaphragm  is  well  developed 
and  pierced  only  for  the  O3sophagus  and  ves 
sels  ;  the  lungs  are  bird-like,  and  also  the  or 
gans  of  circulation,  except  in  the  more  mem 
branous  character  of  the  right  auriculo-ven- 
tricular  valve;  the  larynx  and  trachea  are 


struthious.  The  bones  are  not  perforated  for 
the  admission  of  air. — These  birds  are  found 
in  New  Zealand,  particularly  in  regions  covered 
with  extensive  and  thick  beds  of  ferns,  in 
which  they  hide  when  alarmed.  They  are 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  feeding  upon  snails, 
insects,  worms,  and  the  large  soft-bodied  lepi- 
dopterous  larva  ;  they  run  swiftly  and  defend 
themselves  vigorously  with  the  feet.  The  nest 
is  made  either  at  the  base  of  a  hollow  tree  or 
in  deep  holes  which  they  excavate  in  the 
ground.  The  natives  pursue  them  for  their 
skins,  which  from  their  strength  are  highly 
valued  for  making  dresses. — Though  a  living 
specimen  has  been  seen  at  the  zoological  gar 
dens  in  London,  the  apteryx  is  probably  nearly 
extinct ;  the  aapyornis  is  supposed  to  be  extinct, 
though  some  believe  that  it  may  yet  exist  in 
Madagascar ;  the  dodo  has  been  lost  within  the 
memory  of  man;  and  the  dinornis  doubtless 
antedated  the  historic  period. 

API  LEHS,  or  Appnleias,  a  Roman  satirist,  born 
at  Medaura  in  Africa  about  A.  D.  130.  By 
his  mother  he  was  a  descendant  of  Plutarch. 
After  studying  at  Carthage,  he  began  to  travel 
for  the  purpose  of  learning  philosophy  and  re 
ligion.  Coming  to  Rome,  he  was  obliged  to 
sell  his  clothes  in  order  to  obtain  the  sum 
necessary  for  his  initiation  into  the  service  of 
Osiris.  He  soon  repaired  his  fortune  by  mar 
riage  with  a  rich  widow  in  Africa,  whose  rela 
tions  instituted  legal  proceedings  against  him, 
alleging  that  he  had  used  magic  to  win  her 
property  and  aifections.  But  in  his  defence 
Apuleius  satisfied  the  judges  that  a  widow  of 
14  years'  standing  needed  not  the  constraint  of 
magic  in  taking  a  husband  younger  than  her 
self.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  numerous 
works  of  Apuleius  is  the  "  Metamorphoses, 
or  the  Golden  Ass,"  a  philosophical  romance, 
written,  according  to  Warburton,  to  ridicule 
Christianity.  But  the  more  probable  design 
of 'the  author  was  to  show,  under  the  guise  of 
allegory,  that  a  voluptuous  life  leads  to  besti 
ality,  from  which  a  man  can  be  lifted  only  by 
cultivating  virtue  and  religion.  The  .justly 
famous  tale  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  forms  an  epi 
sode  in  this  work.  His  writings  on  ethics  and 
metaphysics  are  a  good  epitome  of  the  works 
of  Plato ;  but  the  development  of  that  philos 
opher's  more  profound  doctrines  was  reserved 
for  subsequent  inquirers.  The  best  edition 
of  Apuleius  is  by  llildebrand  (Leipsic,  1842). 
An  English  version  appeared  in  London  in 
1853.  "  The  Golden  Ass  "  has  also  been  trans 
lated  by  T.  Taylor  (London,  1822)  and  Sir  G. 
Head  (London,  1851). 

APULIA,  a  division  of  ancient  Italy,  com 
prising  nearly  all  that  territory  now  included 
in  the  provinces  of  Capitanata  and  Terra  di 
Bari,  near  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  peninsula, 
bounded  by  the  Adriatic,  Messapia  or  Calabria 
(Terra  d'Otranto),  the  gulf  of  Tarentum,  Luca- 
nia,  and  Samnium.  At  a  remote  period  the 
Greeks  called  the  whole  southeastern  part  of 
Italy,  including  both  these  divisions  and  other 


608 


APUEE 


AQUA  TOFANA 


territory,  by  the  name  of  Japygia,  after  Japyx,  j 
the  son  of  Daedalus.     This  district  was  inlmb-  ' 
ited  by  three  tribes,  the  Messapians  or  Salentini 
in  Messapia,  the  Peucetii  in  the  region  near  ; 
the  Autidus  (Ofanto),  and  the  Daunians  further 
north.     The  Romans,  however,  ignoring  these 
divisions,  called  all  the  region,  except  Messapia, 
Apulia.     The  Apulians  first  appear  in  history 
as  concluding  in  826  B.  C.  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  Rome  against  the  Samnites,  which  they 
soon  after  repudiated,  thus  becoming  involved 
in  war  with  the  Romans.     In  317  all  the  Apu- 
lian   cities   submitted   to   Rome.     It  was   the 
chief  theatre  of  the  most  important  part  of  the  . 
second  Punic  war,  and  the  battle  of  Cannae  was  ; 
fought  within  its  borders  in  210.     Many  Apu-  ; 
lian  cities  made  common  cause  with  Hannibal,  j 
but  \vere  severely  punished  on  their  recapture  ! 
by  Romans.     A  great  portion  of  Apulia  again 
turned   against   Rome  in  the  social  war,   but 
was    resubjugated    and    harshly  punished   by 
C.  Cosconius  in  89.     The  province  appears  to 
have    suffered    so   severely  from  the  conflicts 
carried  on  within  it,  that  from  this  time  it  de 
clined  in  wealth  and  prosperity;  and  little  is 
said  of  it  rntil  its  union,  under  Augustus,  with 
Calabria  (in  the  ancient  meaning  of  the  term) 
and  the  territory  of  the  Hirpini,  the  three  form 
ing  the  "second  region  "  in  that  emperor's  di 
vision  of  Italy.     The  Hirpini  were  afterward 
transferred  into  the  lk  first  region,"  Calabria  and 
Apulia  forming  one  province,  down  to  the  fall 
of  the  western  empire.      The  Byzantine  em 
perors  regained  control  of  it  in  the  10th  cen 
tury,  after  its  possession  had  been  long  an 
object  of  contention  between  the   Lombards, 
Saracens,  and  themselves,  and  held  it  under  a 
viceroy  called  a  catapan  until  it  was  conquered 
by    the   Normans   in   the   llth   century,   who 
made  it  a  duchy,  Robert  Guiscard,  their  lead 
er,  becoming  its  first  duke.      His  son  Roger 
united  it,  as  well  as  Campania  and  modern  Ca 
labria,  with  his  kingdom  of  Sicily.    The  modern 
name  of  part  of  the  territory,  Capitanata,  is  a 
corruption  of  Catapanata,  from  catapan.     The 
principal  cities  of  ancient  Apulia  were  Teanum, 
Luceria,  Arpi,  Salapia,  Canusiam,  Venusia,  and  i 
Barium.     The  district  is  by  the  Italians  called  | 
Puglia,  but  not  officially. 

APIRE,  a  river  of  Venezuela,  has  its  sources  | 
in  Colombia,  in  the  eastern  chain  of  the  Andes, 
flows  between  the  provinces  of  Varinas  and 
Apure  in  an  E.  N.  E.  direction,  receiving  the 
waters  of  the  Portuguesa,  Guarico,  and  other 
affluents  from  the  north,  flows  then  E.  S.  E.,  and 
unites  with  the  Orinoco,  of  which  it  is  an  impor 
tant  tributary,  in  lat.  7°  40'  N.,  Ion.  66°  45'  TV. 
According  to  Ilumboldt,  its  mean  descent  is 
about  14  inches  to  the  mile;  but  the  current  in 
the  lower  part  of  its  course  is  hardly  percepti 
ble,  and  any  rise  in  the  waters  of  the  Orinoco 
causes  it  to  overflow  its  banks.  The  lands  thus 
overflowed  yield,  after  the  water  has  retired,  a 
rich  and  excellent  pasturage. 

APURIMAC,   a  river  of  Peru,  which  rises  in 
lat.   15°  21'  E.,  Ion.  72°  10'  TV.,  not  far  from 


the  sources  of  the  river  Camana,  in  a  lake  sit 
uated  between  spurs  of  the  mountains  of  Cay- 
lloma.  It  flows  N.  for  a  short  distance,  then 
N.  N.  TV.  for  about  165  m.,  receiving  several 
other  streams,  to  its  junction  with  the  Man- 
taro  in  lat.  12°  S.,  and  from  that  point  is  known 
as  the  Tambo  as  well  as  the  Apurimac.  Hence 
it  flows  first  X.  E.,  then  N.  N.  TV.  for  more 
than  four  degrees  of  latitude  nearly  parallel  with 
the  Urubamba,  and  they  unite  and  form  the 
Ucayale  in  lat,  8°  80'  S.,  Ion.  78°  24'  TV.  The 
Apurimac  and  the  Urubamba  collect  the  moist 
ure  of  the  high  plateau  of  the  interior  of  Peru, 
and  are  among  the  largest  tributaries  of  the 
Amazon,  the  former  being  sometimes  reckoned 
its  source. 

AQl  A  (Lat.  water),  a  favorite  prefix  of  the 
old  alchemists  to  various  fluid  mixtures,  as 
aquafortis,  now  called  nitric  acid;  aqua  regia, 
the  mixture  of  nitric  and  muriatic  acids,  used 
to  dissolve  gold,  the  king  of  the  metals,  now 
called^  nitro-muriatic  acid,  or  nitro-chlorhydric 
acid;  aqua  vita1,  now  alcohol.  Aquamarine 
is  an  old  name  given  to  a  fine  variety  of  beryls 
from  the  color  resembling  the  green  of  sea 
water. — The  aquae  of  the  pharmacopoeia  con 
sist  of  water  holding  volatile  or  gaseous  sub 
stances  in  solution.  Those*  which  receive  a 
name  from  some  volatile  vegetable  substance, 
as  aqua  cinnamomi  or  aqua  campliorw,  contain 
very  much  less  of  the  active  ingredient  than 
the  corresponding  tinctures. 

AQl  A  TOFAA'A  (Ital.  acqua  della  Toffanina),  a 
secret  poison  employed  in  Italy  during  the  lat 
ter  part  of  the  17th  century,  and  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  a  woman  named  Tofana,  a 
native  of  Sicily,  who  lived  for  a  time  in  Paler 
mo,  and  subsequently  in  Naples,  where  she  ex 
ercised  her  criminal  art  on  a  large  scale.  Her 
customers  are  said  to  have  been  chiefly  young 
wives  who  wished  to  be  rid  of  their  husbands ; 
and  when  the  number  of  mysterious  deaths  about 
the  year  1659  at  last  aroused  suspicion,  a  secret 
society  of  young  married  women  was  discovered, 
presided  over  by  a  creature  called  La  Spara,  who 
had  learned  the  art  of  poisoning  from  Tofana. 
La  Spara  and  several  others  were  executed. 
Tofana  was  thrown  into  prison,  but  the  date  and 
manner  of  her  death  are  uncertain.  According 
to  Labat,  a  French  traveller,  about  1709  she  was 
seized  in  a  convent  in  which  she  had  taken 
refuge,  and  having,  on  being  tortured,  confessed 
600  poisonings,  she  was  strangled  in  prison.  On 
the  other  hand,  Keysler,  a  German  traveller, 
says  he  saw  her  in  prison  at  Naples,  a  little  old 
woman,  in  1730.  The  poison  was  put  up  in  small 
phials,  labelled  "  Manna  of  St.  Nicholas  of  Ban," 
with  an  image  of  the  saint  on  one  side.  Incredi 
ble  and  contradictory  accounts  are  given  of  its 
nature  and  effects  ;  it  is  most  probable  that  it 
was  essentially  a  strong  watery  solution  of 
arsenic  obtained  by  long  boiling.  The  use  of 
such  an  article,  even  in  the  dose  of  five  or  six 
drops,  frequently  repeated  for  a  length  of  time, 
would  cause  death  with  many  of  the  symptoms 
ascribed  to  the  aqua  Tofana. 


AQUARIANS 


AQUARIUM 


AQUARIANS,  or  llydroparastatae,  a  sect  of 
ascetics  in  the  early  Christian  church  who, 
from  scruples  against  the  use  of  wine,  were 
in  the  habit  of  consecrating  water  for  sacra 
mental  purposes.  It  was  founded  in  the  2d 
century  by  Tatian,  a  disciple  of  Justin  Martyr. 

AQUARIUM)  or  Aquavivarinm,  a  term  applied  to 
certain  artificial  arrangements  for  the  exhibi 
tion  and  study  of  living  animals  and  plants  in 
habiting  either  fresh  or  salt  water.  To  Mrs. 
Ponrer,  a  lady  of  French  descent,  belongs  the 
credit  of  first" adopting  the  aquarium  as  an  aid 
to  scientific  research.  This  intelligent  and  en 
thusiastic  naturalist,  during  the  year  1832,  be 
gan  the  study  of  the  fishes  and  algte  off  the 
coast  of  Sicily,  by  transferring  them  to  glass 
tanks  in  which  the  water  was  often  renewed ; 
and  this  renewal  or  revivification  of  the  water 
was  long  regarded  as  essential  to  the  health 
and  vigorous  growth  of  the  inmates,  it  being 
argued  that  as  the  air  is  contaminated  by  the 
breathing  of  animals  living  upon  the  surface, 
and  its  oxygen  is  combined  with  the  carbon 
furnished  by  the  organic  body,  so  the  air  con 
tained  in  the  water  is  consumed  by  administer 
ing  to  animal  life,  and  the  gaseous  product  is 
not  only  unfit  for  longer  sustaining  this,  but, 
unless  removed,  proves  fatal  to  it.  But  subse 
quent  investigations  into  the  various  phenom 
ena  of  vegetable  and  animal  growth  have  de 
termined  that  it  is  the  office  of  plants  to  re 
store  to  the  atmosphere  the  oxygen,  and  ab 
sorb  the  excess  of  carbon ;  and  it  appears 
that  the  subaqueous  vegetation  fulfils  the  same 
office  in  preserving  the  purity  of  the  air  in  the 
water,  upon  which  depends  the  life  of  the  ani 
mals  it  contains;  and  that  this  balance  may 
not  be  destroyed  by  the  presence  of  poisonous 
gases,  the  results  of  decomposition  and  decay,  it 
was  found  needful  to  add  certain  animals  which 
feed  on  decomposing  vegetable  matter,  and  act 
as  the  scavengers  in  this  community.  Such 
are  the  various  species  of  the  molluscous  ani 
mals,  as  the  snails.  It  is  also  of  importance  to 
guard  against  the  preponderance  of  animal  life 
in  these  artificial  tanks  or  jars;  for  although 
there  can  hardly  be  too  many  plants  for  the 
health  of  the  animals,  as  long  as  they  grow 
healthily  and  do  not  decompose,  yet  an  ex 
cess  of  animals  over  plants  will  disturb  the  bal 
ance,  and  lead  to  the  destruction  of  the  for 
mer.  Valisneria  spiralis,  various  species  of 
cha-ra,  anacharis  alsinastrum,  stratiotes  aloides, 
callitriche  autumnalis  or  vernalis,  ranuncu 
lus  aquatilis,  and  myriophyllum  spicatum  are 
among  the  fresh-water  plants  adapted  to  this 
purpose. — The  fresh-water  aquarium  is  more 
easily  constructed  and  requires  less  skilful 
management  than  the  marine  tank.  It  should 
be  square  or  hexagonal,  as  curved  surfaces  dis 
tort  the  forms  of  the  inmates,  and  a  greater 
number  of  sides  increases  the  liability  to  leak 
age.  Where  metal  corner  posts  are  used,  they 
should  be  plated  if  possible,  as  the  oxidation 
of  the  metal  often  results  disastrously.  The 
glass  plates  should  be  held  in  position  by  hy- 
VOL.  i. — 39 


draulic  cement ;  that  known  as  Scott's  is  highly 
recommended.  Where  putty  only  is  available, 
it  should  be  painted,  the  tank  filled  with  water 
for  a  week  or  more,  and  then  carefully  cleaned 
before  receiving  the  fishes  and  plants.  The 
bottom  should  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  an  inch 
or  more  with  well  washed  river  sand,  and  its 
surface  thickly  strewn  with  pebbles;  clay  or 
mould  should  be  avoided,  both  because  of  the 
vegetable  germs  it  may  contain,  and  because 
its  frequent  disturbance  by  the  fish  renders  the 
water  turbid.  The  use  of  tastefully  arranged 
rockwork  adds  greatly  to  the  beauty ;  but  rocks 
containing  metallic  substances  should  be  re 
jected  ;  and  where  shells  are  used,  they  should 
first  be  well  soaked  or  calcined  in  order  to 
destroy  all  organic  matter  contained  in  them. 
In  constructing  these  arches  or  columns  Port 
land  cement  may  be  used  to  advantage,  and 
some  point  of  the  structure  should  project 
above  the  water  level.  Thus  arranged,  the 
tank,  which  should  be  at  least  12  inches  deep, 
may  be  filled  with  fresh  spring  or  river  water 
to  within  an  inch  of  the  top,  and  it  is  then 
ready  for  occupation.  Such  fresh- water  plants 
as  the  lutomus,  nymphcea,  and  alisma,  should 


Fresh-Water  Tank. 

have  their  fibrous  roots  extended  and  gently 
imbedded  in  the  sand,  with  a  layer  of  pebbles 
to  keep  them  in  position.  All  river  plants  that 
bud  and  root  from  points  on  the  stem,  as  ana 
charis,  ranunculus,  callitriche,  and  chara,  can 
be  raised  by  securing  them  in  tufts  to  the  sandy 
bottom  by  a  light  layer  of  pebbles.  There  are 
certain  plants  which,  in  addition  to  beauty  of 
structure  and  vigorous  growth,  are  of  great 
service  as  oxygen  producers ;  such  are  the  va- 
lisneria  spiralis,  water  thyme  (anacnaris  al 
sinastrum),  with  the  flowering  water  crowfoot 
(ranunculus  aquatilis),  milfoil,  and  starwort. — 
Though  the  stocking  of  the  aquarium  depends 
largely  upon  the  purpose  it  is  to  serve,  yet  cau 
tion  is  needed  as  to  tl)e  number  and  habits  of 
the  inmates.  A  young  pickerel  only  an  inch 
and  a  half  long  has  been  known  to  devour  25 
minnows  in  a  week.  For  general  interest,  the 
stickleback  takes  the  lead  among  the  fishes, 
and  for  beauty  the  gold  fish,  tench,  gudgeon, 
perch,  minnow,  and  Prussian  carp  all  flourish, 
with  snails  and  mussels  as  purifiers.  Where 
the  proper  balance  is  not  easily  maintained 


CIO 


AQUARIUM 


and  the  renewal  of  the  water  is  difficult,  it 
may  he  revivified  by  dipping  out  and  pouring 
hack  in  a  small  stream  from  a  proper  height. 
As  in  the  marine  tank,  an  excess  of  sunlight  is 
apt  to  encourage  the  growth  of  a  minute  green 
fungus,  besides  unduly  elevating  the  tempera 
ture,  which  should  range  between  40°  and  60° 
F.— The  marine  tank,  owing  to  its  greater 
range,  and  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  its  ani 
mals  and  plants,  requires  more  constant  and 
careful  management.  As  a  rule  it  should  be  more 
shallow.  To  secure  this,  and  also  obtain  suffi 
cient  depth  of  water  for  fish  and  hardy  plants, 
a  tank  having  its  back  and  two  ends  opaque  has 
been  successfully  adopted,  in  which  case  these 
may  be  of  the  same  material  as  the  bed  plate- 
marble,  slate,  or  well  seasoned  wood.  The 
front  is  of  glass,  and  the  bottom  an  inclined 
plane  rising  from  the  lower  corner  in  front 


Marino  Tank,  Side  View. 

to  above  the  water  level  behind;  on  this  rest 
the  rock  and  shell  work.    The  triangular  space  ; 
between  the  front  and  this  plane  may  be  filled  j 
to  the  depth  of  an  inch  or  two  with  sand  and  I 
gravel,  with  a  sprinkling  of  the  same  among  the 
rocks  and  shells  above.     The  purpose  of  this  | 
sloping  floor  is  to  afford  the  anemones,  actinia, 
&c.,  which  move  seldom  and   slowly,  to  ap-  : 
proach  the  surface  and  recede  from  it  at  pleas 
ure.     Marine  plants  purify  sea  water,  as  fresh 
water  plants  purify  fresh  water.     The  difficul 
ties  of  maintaining  the  balance  are,  however,  ; 
greater  in  sea-water  artificial  tanks  than  in  I 
fresh-water ;  but  by  care  in  selecting  seaweeds,  i 
avoiding  those  which  are  large  and  throw  oft*  ! 
much  matter  from  their  surface,  and  not  over 
crowding   the  water  with   animal  life,    tanks  | 
containing  marine  aquatic  animals  and  plants  ! 
can  be  easily  managed.     Species  of  po-rpl\yra,  \ 
cliondrus,  crispus,  iridea  edulis,  and  the  deles- 


serm  are  recommended. — Where  vegetation  is 
only  needed  for  the  production  of  oxygen,  Mr. 
Shirley  Hibberd,  the  author  of  a  useful  hand 
book  on  the  aquarium,  recommends  the  en 
couragement  of  confervoid  growth  ;  and  where 
sea  water  is  used,  the  germs  contained  in  it 
will  soon,  under  the  light  and  warmth  of  the 
sun,  develop  into  a  vigorous  and  serviceable 
vegetation.  This,  together  with  certain  ani 
malcules  that,  contrary  to  rule,  are  also  oxy 
gen  producers,  will  be  all  that  is  needed  to 
preserve  the  desired  balance.  The  absence  of 
direct  sunlight  and  the  presence  of  the  fiucci- 
num  or  sea  snail  both  serve  to  keep  in  check 
that  fungous  or  mucous  growth  which  would 
otherwise  obstruct  the  vision.  The  fishes  and 
crustaceous  and  molluscous  animals  should  be 
introduced  by  degrees,  with  proper  regard  to 
maintaining  the  due  balance  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life.  Those  which  appear  to  thrive 
best  are  minnows,  sticklebacks,  shrimps,  small 
lobsters,  hermit  crabs,  eels,  and  star  fishes. 
The  patella  or  limpet,  purpura  or  whelk,  the 
top,  the  winkle,  and  several  varieties  of  crepi- 
dula  also  do  well.  The  more  delicate  sea 
plants,  with  the  various  forms  of  actiniae, 
should  be  secured  if  possible  attached  to  their 
native  bed,  as  removal  from  it  is  hazardous.' — 
The  best  position  for  either  tank  is  between  or 
at  the  side  of  windows,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Marine  animals  and 
plants  are  extremely  sensitive  to  atmospheric 
changes,  and  the  salt  water,  which  should  not 
vary  far  from  60°  F.,  should  also  have  a  specific 
gravity  of  T028  at  this  temperature.  As  in 
the  fresh-water  aquarium,  regard  must  be  paid 
to  the  habits  and  tastes  of  the  inmates,  lest  the 
stronger  overcome  the  weaker.  All  save  the 
fishes  may  be  best  transported  in  damp  sea 
weed,  care  being  taken  to  pack  securely  and 
transfer  rapidly.  Where  sea  water  cannot  be 
obtained,  a  mixture  of  common  salt  81  parts, 
Epsom  salts  7  parts,  chloride  of  magnesium  1 1.) 
parts,  and  chloride  of  potassium  2  parts,  may 
be  dissolved  in  pure  water  until  its  gravity 
reaches  1-028  at  60°  F.  The  animals  should 
be  fed  twice  a  week  with  finely  cut  fresh  mus 
sels,  oysters,  or  raw  beef;  and  in  case  of  the 
mollusks,  actiniae,  &c.,  the  food  should  be 
brought  within  reach  by  means  of  a  small 
glass  rod.  Decayed  vegetation  or  putrid  ani 
mal  matter  must  be  quickly  removed.  When 
the  supply  of  oxygen  is  limited,  the  fishes  will 
approach  the  surface  often  to  breathe. — The 
first  aquarium  having  for  its  aim  the  instruc 
tion  of  the  people  was  erected  in  the  gardens 
of  the  zoological  society,  Regent's  park,  Lon 
don,  in  1853.  It  was  made  up  of  25  glass 
tanks,  6  feet  in  length  and  30  inches  in  depth 
and  width,  lining  the  interior  of  a  crystal 
building  60  by  25  feet.  The  success  of  this 
effort  prompted  the  crystal  palace  aquarium 
company  to  erect  their  building,  which  was 
opened  to  the  public  Aug.  22,  1871,  at  Syden- 
ham.  This  mammoth  aquarium  with  its  ad 
juncts  is  nearly  400  feet  long  and  70  broad. 


AQUEDUCT 


Gil 


It  is  situated  at  the  northern  end  of  the  palace, 
and  is  one  story  high,  with  a  reservoir 
beneath  the  main  saloon  containing  80,000 
gallons  of  sea  water,  and  the  tanks  above 
20,000  gallons— in  all,  100,000  gallons,  weigh 
ing  1,000,000  Ibs.  Eighteen  tanks  with  plate- 
glass  fronts  range  along  the  left  of  the  grand 
saloon,  separated  from  the  wall  by  a  narrow 
passage,  and  a  row  of  21  shallow  tanks,  the 
inmates  of  which  are  held  as  a  reserve  force. 
To  the  right  are  two  small  rooms  with  9  shal 
low  tanks  each,  in  which  the  view  is  from 
above  only ;  here  the  light  is  better  suited  to 
the  growth  of  the  sensitive  rhodosperms  (red 
algra).  The  18  large  tanks  range  in  capacity 
from  4,000  gallons  in  the  centre  to  400  on  the 
ends  of  the  line.  The  water  is  elevated  from 
the  main  reservoir  through  double  sets  of  vul 
canized  rubber  pipes,  and  discharged  into  the 
two  central  tanks  at  an  average  rate  of  6,000 
gallons  an  hour,  the  stream  diverging  north 
and  south  and  passing  through  the  main  line 
into  the  reserve  and  side  tanks,  and  thence 
returning  to  the  reservoir.  Independently, 
however,  of  the  simple  fall  of  water  from  one 
tank  to  another  in  steps  of  from  3  to  6  inches 
in  height  in  the  series  1  to  18,  other  streams 
of  water,  mixed  with  great  quantities  of  air  in 
minute  bubbles,  are  driven  from  the  main  pipe 
into  all  the  tanks  with  force,  through  jets ;  so 
that  myriads  of  such  bubbles,  controlled  by 
stopcocks,  are  forced  in  a  state  of  fine  division 
(resembling  falling  sand,  or  steam)  nearly  or 
quite  down  to  the  bottom  of  each  tank,  and 
thus  the  fluid  is  charged  with  as  much  atmos 
pheric  air  as  it  will  take  up  in  open  vessels. 
The  quantity  of  seaweed  necessary  to  decom 
pose  the  poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas  evolved 
from  the  animals,  which  could  not  be  effected 


by  mechanical  agitation,  is  grown  upon  the  rocks 
of  the  aquarium  by  the  action  of  light  on  the 
spores  of  algre  existing  invisibly  in  the  water. 
]  These   tanks   contain   at   present   95    distinct 
i  forms  of  marine  life.     A  description  of  this 
I  work  appeared  in  "Nature,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  4(59. 
|  There  are  extensive  aquaria  in  the  principal 
j  continental  cities  of  Europe,  those  of  Naples, 
\  Brussels,  and  Berlin  being  the  largest. — For  in 
structions  as  to  the  management  of  the  aqua 
rium,  Gosse's  "Handbook  of  the  Marine  Aqua 
rium"  (London,  1854),  and  Hibberd's  "Book 
of  the  Aquarium"   (London,    1850),   are  safe 
and   serviceable   guides.      See  also   Rossmass- 
ler's  Das  Siisswasseraquarium  (Leipsic,  1851). 
AQl'EDUCT  (Lat.  aquw,  of  water,  and  ductus, 
a  channel;  formerly  spelled  aquceduct),  a  chan 
nel  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  or,  in  the  more 
general  acceptation  of  the  word,  a  structure 
raised  above  the   surface,  upon  which  water 
conduits  are  laid.     Methods  of  supplying  water 
which  do  not  include  such  structures  are  com 
monly  called  water  works.     The  use  of  these 
conveyances  for  water  to  supply  cities  may  be 
traced  back  to  a  very  remote  period  in  Persia 
and  in  Judea.     The  "pools  of  Solomon,"  near 
Bethlehem,    were  three  large  reservoirs  con 
nected  with  each  other,  from  which  water  was 
conveyed  to  Jerusalem,  6  m.  distant.     One  of 
these  pools  was  582  ft.  long,  and,  at  an  aver- 
!  age,  about  180  wide.     Jerusalem  is  still  sup- 
'  plied  with  water  from  them  through  a  10-inch 
earthen  pipe.      In  Egypt  and  Babylonia  simi- 
'  lar  works  were  constructed  in  very  early  ages. 
Enough  remains  of  the  ancient   aqueduct  of 
Carthage  to  show  that  it  was  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  great  works;  upon  it  the 
I  waters  from  the  mountains  of  Zeugis  were  con- 
i  veyed  through  an   arched  conduit  6  ft.  wide 


Kuins  of  the  Aqueduct  of  Carthage. 


AQUEDUCT 


and  4  ft.  deep.  The  whole  length  was  70  m. 
The  ruin  here  illustrated  is  that  of  an  arcade 
near  Undena,  composed  of  1,000  arches,  many 
of  which  were  over  100  ft.  in  height.  In  its 
construction  hydraulic  cement  was  largely 
used,  which  is  at  present  so  solid  that  a  single 
piece  over  100  feet  in  length  has  fallen  from 
the  top  without  being  broken.  The  ancient 
city  of  Mexico  was  supplied  with  water  by 
the  aqueduct  of  Chapultepec,  built  by  Mon- 
tezuma,  and  carried  across  the  lake  upon  a 
causeway.  But  no  aqueducts,  ancient  or  mod 
ern,  equal  in  length  or  in  expense  of  labor  those 
constructed  by  the  incas  of  Peru.  To  irrigate 
their  sterile  soil,  they  brought  water  from  the 
reservoirs  of  the  mountains  several  hundred 
miles  off.  The  aqueducts  passed  along  the  pre 
cipitous  sides  of  the  Andes,  penetrating  some 
by  tunnels  worked  through  the  solid  rock  with 


out  iron  tools,  and  crossing  chasms  upon  walls 
and  arches  of  solid  masonry.  The  conduit  was 
constructed  of  large  slabs  of  freestone,  which 
were  closely  fitted  together  without  cement. 
The  works  have  long  since  fallen  to  ruins. — 
The  Romans,  however,  exceeded  all  other  na 
tions,  ancient  and  modern,  in  the  construction 
of  these  works.  A  treatise  De  Aquceductibus 
UrMs  Romce  was  written  by  the  consul  Sextus 
Julius  Frontinus,  who  had  the  direction  of  the 
aqueducts  under  the  emperor  Nerva.  He  re 
fers  to  nine  different  aqueducts,  which  brought 
into  the  city  daily  28,000,000  cubic  feet  of  pure 
water.  The  number  of  these  was  afterward 
increased  to  24,  some  of  which  had  several 
channels  placed  one  above  another,  and  extend 
ing  many  miles.  They  were  built  on  a  grade 
of  regular  descent,  winding  around  the  hills 
or  penetrating  them  by  tunnels,  and  in  the  low 


Euins  of  the  Aqua  Claudia. 


levels  supported  on  arches,  which  sometimes, 
as  in  the  New  Anio,  extended  for  6£  m.  in  one 
continued  series,  many  of  the  arches  more  than 
100  ft.  high.  The  whole  length  of  this  aque 
duct  was  over  63  miles.  The  Aqua  Marti  a, 
which  extended  38  miles,  contained  nearly 
7,000  arches.  The  conduits  were  constructed 
in  brick  or  in  stonework  laid  in  cement.  There 
were  numerous  openings  for  ventilation  and 
cisterns  for  collecting  the  sediment,  in  conse 
quence  of  which  the  water  was  very  pure.  The 
Aqua  Julia  and  Aqua  Tepula  were  conveyed 
into  the  city  upon  the  same  structure,  though 
at  a  higher  level.  The  Aqua  Claudia  took  its 
rise  38  m.  from  Rome,  and  approached  it  by  a 
circuitous  route,  being  led  under  ground  36^- m. 
and  along  Y  in.  of  cut  stone  arcades  of  sufficient 
height  to  supply  the  hills  of  Rome.  The  capacity 
of  all  the  aqueducts  was  wonderful  in  proportion 
to  the  population.  Strabo  said  that  whole  rivers 


flowed  through  the  streets  of  Rome.  It  is  esti 
mated  that  50,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water  must 
have  been  supplied  daily  to  a  population  of 
1,000,000,  or  about  312  imperial  gallons  to  each 
individual.  This  is  about  ten  times  the  supply 
from  the  three  aqueducts  at  present  in  use. 
The  Romans  built  other  aqueducts  also  in  their 
provinces,  some  of  which  exceeded  in  grandeur 
those  which  supplied  the  capital.  That  of  Metis 
(Metz)  in  Belgic  Gaul  is  among  the  most  remark 
able.  Extending  across  the  valley  of  the  Mo 
selle,  it  conveyed  the  waters  of  the  river  Gorse 
to  the  city  in  such  quantity  that  from  it  basins 
were  filled  in  which  mock  naval  engagements 
took  place.  The  ruins  of  this  great  work  still 
remain.  There  may  also  be  cited  the  aqueducts 
of  the  island  of  Mitylene,  of  Antioch,  of  Sego 
via  in  Spain,  and  of  Constantinople.  The 
aqueduct  of  Antioch  was  supplied  from  Beit  el- 
Ma,  6  in.  distant.  The  illustration  given  is  that 


AQUEDUCT 


013 


of  a  portion  of  one  of  the  main  bridges,  TOO  ft. 
long  and  200  ft.  high.  Though  solidly  built,  it 
is  yet  the  rudest  example  of  Roman  work,  and 


Aqueduct  of  Antioch. 

contrasts  strangely  with  the  bridge  of  the  aque 
duct  of  Nimes,  or  Pont  du  Gard,  across  which 
t'.ie  waters  of  the  river  Hure  were  led.     This 
-liltre  spanned  the  valley  of  the  river  Gard 


not  compelled  to  do  so  from  ignorance  of  other 
methods.     Prof.    Leslie   obtained   a  lead  pipe 
supposed  to  have  been  used  at  the  baths  of 
Caracalla ;  and  Delorme  states  that  the  waters 
from  Mount  Pila  crossed  three  valleys  through 
i  inverted    syphons.      The  water  was  collected 
in   a   reservoir    upon   one    hill    arid   conduct 
ed   through   nine  lead   pipes  8^  in.  in  diam 
eter    and    1T^    in.    thick   down    the    hillside, 
thence  along  an  arcade  80  ft.  high,  and  up  the 
opposite  slope,  where  it  was  discharged  into  a 
second  reservoir.     It  is  estimated  that  the  lead 
alone   used   in   these   three   inverted   syphons 
would  now  be  worth  $2,500,000.     In  modern 
aqueducts  the  system  of  gradual  descent  is  only 
partially  followed,  the  use  of  cast-iron  pipes  ad 
mitting  of  frequent  changes  in  the  inclination. 
— In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  an  aqueduct  of 
vast  expense  was  constructed  for  supplying  Ver 
sailles  with  water.     The  bridge  of  Maintenon, 
built  for  supporting  this  aqueduct,  is  about  4,400 
ft,  or  I  of  a  mile  long,  upward  of  200  ft.  high, 
i  and  is  constructed  of  three  tiers  of  arches,  242 
I  in  each  tier,  and  of  a  span  of  50  ft.     The  aque- 
i  duct  for  supplying  Marseilles  is  a  canal  60  m. 
!  long.     It  passes  through  several  chains  of  lime- 
!  stone  mountains  by  45  tunnels,  the  united  length 
!  of  which  is  8^-  m.,  and  across  a  ravine  5  m. 
|  from  Aix  by  a  structure  of  masonry  262  ft.  high 
!  and  1,287  ft.  long.     The  quantity  of  water  that 
!  flows  through  it  is  198,000  gallons  per  minute. 
The  Lisbon  aqueduct,   completed   in   1738,   is 
about  3  leagues  in  length,  and  in  some  parts  of 
its  course  has  been  excavated  through  hills ; 
bnt  near  the  city  it  is  carried  over  a  deep  valley 
for  a  length  of  2,400  ft.  by  several  bold  arches, 
the  largest  of  which  has  a  height  of  250  ft.  and 
a  span  of  115  ft. — The  Croton  aqueduct  of  New 
York  surpasses  all  modern  constructions  of  this 


I-'oiu  du  Gard,  -Mmes. 


by  a  triple  TOW  of  arches,  the  first  six  having  a 
span  of  60  ft.  each;  above  these  were  12  simi- 
i-ir  ones ;  while  the  upper  row  was  composed 
of  36  smaller  arches  arranged  as  in  the  illustra 
tion,  the  whole  forming  one  of  the  finest  exam 
ples  of  Roman  architecture.  In  1740  the  en 
gineer  Pitot  built  a  roadway  beside  this  aque 
duct  and  level  with  its  lowest  tier  of  arches. 
The  aqueduct  of  Spoleto  is  of  uncertain  origin. 
One  of  the  bridges  is  810  ft.  long,  and  the 
main  arches  are  240  ft.  high.  This  work 
remains  entire.  Though  the  Romans  con 
structed  their  aqueducts  so  as  to  obtain  a 
gradual  descent,  it  is  evident  that  they  were 


Croton  Aqueduct,  crossing  Mill  liiver. 

kind  in  extent  and  magnificence.  It  was  com 
pleted  in  1842,  having  been  five  years  in  build 
ing,  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  John 
B.  Jervis,  chief  engineer.  The  whole  expense, 


AQUEDUCT 


including  $1,800,000  for  distributing  pipes, 
and  amounts  paid  for  right  of  way  and  other 
incidental  charges,  was  $10,375,000.  Includ 
ing  commissions  and  interest,  the  whole  cost 
was  $12,500,000.  The  whole  length,  from  its 
source  at  Croton  river  to  the  distributing  reser 
voir  on  5th  avenue  and  40th  street,  is  40^  m. 
On  this  line  are  16  tunnels  having  an  aggregate 
length  of  6,841  ft.,  and  cut  mainly  through 
gneiss  rock.  A  large  part  of  the  open  cutting  is 
also  rock  work.  A  dam  constructed  across  the 
Croton  river  raised  the  water  40  feet,  and 
formed  the  Croton  lake,  which  covers  about 
400  acres.  This  is  the  collecting  reservoir,  and 
contains  with  a  depth  of  6  ft,  of  water  500,000,- 
000  gallons.  A  new  collecting  reservoir  is 
(1873)  in  course  of  construction  at  Boyd's  Cor 
ners,  Putnam  county,  to  be  formed  by  building 
across  the  west  branch  of  the  Croton  river  a 
dam  700  ft.  long  and  of  sufficient  height  to  se 
cure  a  storage  capacity  of  3,000,000,000  gal 
lons,  flooding  over  300  acres  of  land.  From 


Eock  Tunnel 


Main  Aqueduct. 


the  dam  to  the  Harlem  river,  nearly  33  m.,  the 
aqueduct  is  built  of  stone,  brick,  and  cement, 
arched  over  and  under,  G  ft.  9  in.  wide  at  the 
bottom  (this  being  the  chord  of  an  arc,  the 
versed  sine  of  which  is  9  in.),  7  ft.  5  in.  at  the 


springing  line  of  the  arch,  and  8  ft.  5^-  in, 
high;  area  of  cross  section,  53^  sq.  ft.  In 
rock  tunnels  the  roofing  arch  is  dispensed  with, 
though  the  bottom  and  sides  are  as  'here  de 
scribed  and  illustrated.  Its  capacity  is  equal 
to  115,000,000  gallons  daily.  The  inclination 
is  1-1088  ft.  per  mile,  or  33'92  ft.  ip  the  33 
m.  The  velocity  of  the  water  is  1|  m.  an 
hour.  Across  Harlem  river  the  aqueduct  is 
carried  upon  the  High  bridge  in  two  cast-iron 
pipes  of  3  ft.  diameter,  and  one  w  rough t-iron 
pipe  7  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter,  recently  laid  over 
the  former.  The  lower  pipes  are  12 '29  ft. 
lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  conduit  on  the  1ST. 
side  of  the  river,  and  10  ft.  below  the  aqueduct 
on  the  S.  side.  While  the  bridge  was  building, 
the  water  was  conveyed  in  a  3-foot  iron  pipe 
down  one  bank  of  the  river  and  up  the  other, 
and  the  original  intention  was  to  have  had 
this  for  the  permanent  plan.  Objections  being 
raised  that  the  pipe  would  obstruct  the  navi 
gation  of  the  river,  and  restrictions  being  im 
posed  by  the  state  legislature  as  to  its  use,  it 
was  finally  decided  to  build  a  bridge  with 
arches  80  ft,  wide  and  openings  100  ft.  high, 
to  admit  the  passage  of  vessels.  The  bridge,  as 
now  completed,  is  1,460  ft.  long,  with  8  arches 
in  the  river  of  the  required  span,  and  7  others 
on  the  banks  of  50  ft,  span.  The  whole  height 
of  the  bridge  above  high-water  mark  is  116 
ft.  There  are  two  receiving  reservoirs  in  the 
Central  Park,  known  as  the  old  and  the  new. 
The  former  covers  an  area  of  35  acres  and  has  a 
capacity  of  500,000  gallons ;  the  latter  100  acres, 
with  a  capacity  of  1,170,000  gallons.  From 
these  reservoirs  to  the  distributing  reservoir,  a 
distance  of  2£  m.,  or  directly  into  the  city,  the 
water  is  conveyed  in  two  lines  of  iron  pipe 
30  in.,  two  lines  36  in.,  and  one  line  48  in.  in 


High  Bridge,  Harlem  Kiver. 


AQUEDUCT 


diameter.  The  capacity  of  this  distributing 
reservoir  is  20,000,000  gallons.  It  is  a  stone 
structure  45  ft.  high  above  the  streets,  and  425 
ft.  square  at  the  top,  covering  a  little  more 
than  four  acres.  The  higher  sections  of  the 
island  lying  north  of  Manhattan  valley  are 
supplied  from  a  reservoir  and  tower  lately 
erected  on  the  high  ground  near  173d  street, 
between  10th  avenue  and  the  aqueduct.  The 
water  for  the  supply  of  this  high  service  res 
ervoir  and  the  adjacent  tower  tank  is  fur 
nished  by  two  pumping  engines  stationed  near 
the  lower  end  of  the  high  bridge.  (See  WA 
TER  WORKS.)  In  1871  the  average  daily  de 
mand  was  85,000,000  gallons,  which  is  taken 
mainly  from  the  distributing  reservoir  and 
conveyed  through  the  city  in  340  m.  of  iron 
pipe  ranging  in  diameter  from  4  ft.  to  4  in. 
—The  cities  of  Brooklyn  and  Jersey  City  re 
ceive  their  water  supply,  the  former  from  sev 
eral  ponds  from  8  to  14  m.  distant,  and  the 
latter  from  the  Passaic  river,  8  m.  distant.  In 
both  cases  the  water  enters  the  city  upon  such  a 
level  as  to  require  the  use  of  pumping  engines 
for  its  distribution.  For  the  plan  and  capacity 
of  these  engines,  as  also  of  those  in  operation 
at  the  famous  Falrmount.  water  works,  Phil 
adelphia,  see  WATER  WORKS.  The  aqueduct 
which  supplies  the  city  of  Boston  leads  from 
Cochituate  lake  to  the  receiving  reservoir  at 
Brookline,  a  distance  of  14£  m.  For  the  greater 
part  of  the  way  it  is  a  conduit  of  brick  mason 
ry.  Over  the  valley  of  Charles  river  is  a  line 
of  iron  mains,  and  in  Newton  and  Brookline  are 
two  tunnels.  The  brick  conduit  winds  by  ir 
regular  curves  along  the  country,  and  is  of  such 
an  elevation  as  admits  of  the  work  being  most 
ly  beneath  the  natural  surface.  The  brick 
work  is  8  in.  thick,  laid  in  hydraulic  ce 
ment,  the  section  of  the  conduit  being  that  of 
an  egg,  the  larger  end  down.  The  greatest 


Cochituate  Aqueduct. 

width  is  5  ft.  and  the  extreme  internal  height 
6  ft.  4  in.  This  aqueduct  is  everywhere  cov 
ered  by  at  least  4  ft.  of  earth,  and  nowhere  ad 
mits  of  a  passage  underneath,  except  by  cul 
verts  at  the  crossing  of  Charles  river  and  at  a 
bridge  over  a  valley  in  Needham.  The  two 
30-inch  iron  pipes  cross  the  river  upon  a 
stone  bridge  at  a  level  71  ft.  above  low-water 
mark.  The  whole  length  of  each  pipe  is  979 
ft.  The  tunnels  are  in  porphyritic  rock  of 
great  hardness,  one  2,410  and  the  other  1,150 


ft.  in  length.     The  city  of  Washington  is  sup- 
i  plied  with  water   through  an  aqueduct   con 
structed  by  the  national  government,    18  m. 
long,   leading  from  the  Potomac  falls  to  the 
,  receiving  reservoir  at  Chain  Bridge.     On  the 
line  of  this  work  are  11  tunnels  and  6  bridges; 
1  the  chief  of  these,  over  Cabin  John  creek,  is  a 
stone  structure  100  ft.  high  and  having  a  single 
span  of  220  ft.     The  whole  cost  of  the  work 
1  exceeded  $3,000,000.    The  Chicago  lake  tunnel, 
through  which  the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan 
;  are  led  into  that  city,  was  commenced  March 
17,  1864,  and  completed  under  the  supervision 
of   city  engineer   E.   F.   Chesborough,   March 
i  8,  1867.     (See  TUNNEL.) — Though  the  Crotori 
aqueduct  is  at  present  the  greatest  work  of  its 
j  kind  in  the   United  States,  others  have  been 
1  projected  which,  if  brought  to  successful  com 
pletion,  will  far  surpass   it.     Among  these  is 
;  the  plan  of  supplying  the  city  of  San  Francisco 
:  from  Lake  Tahoe,  a  mountain  reservoir  of  great 
depth  and  purity,  located  upon  the  boundary 
:  line  between  California  and  Nevada,  and  dis- 
I  tant  from  San  Francisco  about  150  m.     It  is 
:  also  now  proposed  to  construct  an  aqueduct 
from  Lake  George  to  the  city  of  New  York, 
a   distance   of   over   200   m.,    the   conduit   to 
i  be  of  sufficient  size  to  supply  the  many  cities 
I  and  villages  along  the  route. — In  addition  to 
|  the  structures  mentioned  above,  there  are  nu- 
I  merous  bridges  designed  for  the  conveyance  of 
I  canals  across  rivers  and  valleys.     The  first  of 
j  these   canal   aqueducts  built  in  England  was 
i  constructed  by  the  architect  Brindley,  under 
;  the  supervision  of  the  duke  of  Bridgewater. 
i  Upon  it  the  Lancaster  canal  crossed  the  river 
\  Lune.    It  was  composed  of  5  arches  of  72  ft. 
!  span  each,  with  an  average   height  of  65  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  river.     The  Forth  and 
j  Clyde  canal  crosses  the  valley  of  Kelvin  upon 
1  an  arcade  somewhat  higher,  though  of  not  so 
great  length  as  that  across  the  Lime.      The 
Pont-y-Cysyllte  aqueduct  conveys  the  waters 
of  the  Ellesmere  canal  across  the  vale  of  Llan- 
gollen  In  Wales.     This  bridge  is  1,000  ft.  long, 
built  writh  19  arches,  each  having  a  span  of 
45  ft.     The  canal  level  is  126  ft,  above  that  of 
the  river  below.     In  the  United  States  there  are 
many  structures  of  this  character,  those  on  the 
Erie  canal  alone  'numbering  32.     The  chief  of 
these  are  the  two  crossing  the  Mohawk  river, 
the  Richmond  aqueduct  over  the  Seneca  river, 
and  the  stone  arcade  across  the  Genesee   at 
Rochester.      The  larger  of  the  two  Mohawk 
bridges,  crossing  the  river  at  a  point  14  m.  N.  W. 
of  Albany,  consists  of  a  wooden  trunk  resting 
upon  29  stone  piers ;  it  is  1,300  ft.  long,  and  cost 
$331,000.     The  Richmond  aqueduct  is  a  beau 
tiful  stone  structure  894£  ft.  long,  the  water 
being  also  conveyed  in  a  wooden  trunk.     For 
beauty  and  strength,  however,  the    aqueduct 
bridge  across  the  Genesee  river  at  Rochester 
deserves  special  mention.     It  is  a  solid  stone 
structure  920  ft.  long,   supported  upon  6  cut 
stone  arches  of  52  ft.  span.     It  is  in  the  centre 
of  the  city,  and  was  erected  at  a  cost  to  the 


GIG 


AQUILA 


AQUITANIA 


state  of  $500,000.  At  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  the  Penn 
sylvania  canal  is  conveyed  across  the  Alleghany 
river  upon  a  wire  suspension  aqueduct,  having 
7  spans  of  160  ft.  each  from  pier  to  pier. 

AQUILA,  a  fortified  city  of  Italy,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Abruzzo  Ulteriore  II.,  on  the 
Aterno,  56  m.  N.  E.  of  Rome ;  pop.  about 
12,000.  It  was  built  by  the  emperor  Fred 
erick  II.  in  1240,  from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Amiternum,  the  birthplace  of  Sallust.  It  was 
much  reduced  by  earthquakes  in  1688,  1703, 
and  1706.  It  has  a  large  number  of  churches 
and  monastic  houses. 

AQUILA,  Raspar,  a  German  reformer,  who 
thus  Latinized  his  name  ABLER,  born  in 
Augsburg,  Aug.  7,  1488,  died  in  Saalfeld, 
Nov.  12,  1560.  He  studied  theology  in  Ger 
many  and  Italy,  became  chaplain  of  Franz 
von  Sickingen,  and  in  1519  was  imprisoned 
by  the  bishop  of  Augsburg  for  preaching  and 
writing  in  favor  of  Lutheranism,  and  was  re 
leased  only  on  the  interposition  of  the  queen 
of  Denmark.  He  passed  several  years  in  Wit 
tenberg  as  a  preacher  and  teacher,  and  in 
assisting  in  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible. ' 
His  publications  against  the  Interim,  Christ- 
lie  ft  es  Bedenken  anf  das  Interim  and  Das  In 
terim  ilium inirt  (154S-'9),  caused  the  emperor 
to  offer  a  high  price  for  his  capture. 

AQUILEIA,  a  village  of  the  Austrian  Coast- 
land,  circle  of  Gorz,  a  few  miles  from  the 
Adriatic  and  from  the  Italian  frontier.  It  oc 
cupies  a  portion  of  the  site  of  ancient  Aqui- 
leia,  a  city  founded  about  182  B.  C.  by  the  Ro 
mans  at  the  E.  extremity  of  Transpadane  Gaul, 
as  a  defence  against  the  northern  barbarians; 
or  possibly  somewhat  earlier  by  the  Gauls,  in 
which  case,  however,  it  soon  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Rome.  It  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  aquila,  an  eagle,  which  appeared  as 
a  favorite  omen  to  its  founders.  It  was  a 
powerful  military  post  in  the  time  of  Cassar. 
In  Strabo's  time  it  was  the  great  emporium  of 
Roman  trade  with  Rha3tia,  Noricum,  Panno- 
nia,  Istria,  and  Dalmatia,  roads  running  from 
the  town  into  those  countries.  Maximin  laid 
siege  to  Aquileia,  but,  failing  in  the  attempt  to 
take  the  place,  he  was  slain  by  his  own  soldiers, 
A.  I).  238.  In  452  it  was  taken  by  Attila,  and 
razed  to  the  ground ;  its  inhabitants  fled  to 
the  lagoons  on  which  Venice  now  stands.  It 
was  afterward  retaken  from  the  Huns  by  Nur 
ses  and  partly  rebuilt.  It  was  an  important 
episcopal  see,  and  several  councils  were  held 
there.  The  bishops  of  Aquileia  assumed  in  the 
6th  century  the  title  of  patriarch,  and  for  sev 
eral  centuries  carried  on  a  contest  with  the 
popes,  who  in  opposition  to  Aquileia  estab 
lished  the  patriarchate  of  Grado.  The  patri 
archate  of  Aquileia  was  not  abolished  till  1751. 
In  the  middle  ages  the  place  gradually  dwindled 
down  to  a  state  of  entire  insignificance. 

AQUINAS,  Thomas,  a  saint  and  doctor  of  the 
Latin  church,  surnamed  the  Angelic  Doctor, 
born  according  to  some  authorities  at  Aquino 
in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  in  1224,  according  to 


|  others  at  Belcastro  in  1220,  died  at  the  Cister- 
|  cian  abbey  of  Fossa  Nuova,  in  the  Pontine 
I  marshes,  March  7,  1274.  His  father  was  count 
|  of  Aquino,  and  allied  both  by  blood  and  mar 
riage  with  several  of  the  royal  families  of  Eu 
rope.  At  an  early  age  he  was  intrusted  to 
the  care  of  the  Benedictines  at  Monte  Casino, 
i  and  thence  he  was  transferred  to  the  university 
of  Naples.  From  the  first  he  showed  an  in 
clination  to  the  monastic  life,  and  in  1243  he- 
received  the  habit  of  the  Dominicans.  Ills 
relatives  were  opposed  to  this  proceeding  and 
imprisoned  him  in  a  tower  of  his  father's  castle, 
|  whence,  by  the  help  of  one  of  his  sisters  whom 
he  had  converted,  he  escaped,  and  was  allowed 
to  resume  in  peace  his  convent  life.  In  com 
pany  with  the  general  of  the  Dominican  order, 
lie  went  to  Cologne,  where  he  became  a  pr.p:l 
of  Albertus  Magnus.  The  nickname  of  Dumb 
j  Ox,  which  his  fellow  students  gave  him  fr>  m 
his  size  and  silence,  gave  occasion  to  his  master 
one  day  to  exclaim  wrhen  the  promptness  and 
acuteness  of  his  answers  had  astonished  them 
all,  "  This  dumb  ox  will  give  such  a  bellow  in 
learning  as  all  the  world  shall  hear."  In  1248 
Thomas  was  appointed  to  teach  ethics  at  Co 
logne;  and  four  years  later, he  was  teaching 
theology  at  Paris.  His  school  was  thronged 
with  students,  and  crowds  waited  upon  Lis 
preaching.  In  1261  he  was  recalled  by  Urban 
IV.  to  Italy,  and  became  a  constant  attendant 
and  friend  of  this  most  active  of  popes,  teach 
ing  in  the  more  important  places  of  central 
and  southern  Italy,  particularly  in  Naples, 
Rome,  Bologna,  and  Pisa.  He  was  on  his  way 
to  the  council  at  Lyons,  to  sustain  the  cause  of 
the  Latin  against  the  Greek  church,  when  he 
was  seized  with  his  fatal  illness.  Less  than  50 
years  afterward,  in  1323,  he  was  canonized, 
and  the  day  of  his  death  was  appointed  as  the 
day  of  his  festival.  He  is  ranked  with  the 
four  great  doctors  of  the  western  church.  The 
works  of  St.  Thomas  have  always  had  high 
authority,  and  large  use  is  still  made  of  them 
in  Catholic  theological  study.  They  form  17, 
19,  and  20  folio  volumes,  in  the  various  edi 
tions  from  1490  to  1745.  The  three  volumes  of 
the  Summa,  Theologian  may  be  regarded  as  the 
most  finished  compend  of  scholastic  divinity. 
— See  "  Life  and  Labors  of  S.  Thomas  of 
Aquinas,"  by  Roger  Bede  Vaughan  (2  vols., 
London,  1872). 

AQUITAJVIA,  the  southwestern  division  of 
ancienfe  Gaul,  situated  between  the  Garonne, 
the  Pyrenees,  and  the  bay  of  Biscay.  It  was 
the  smallest  of  the  earlier  divisions  of  Gaul, 
and  Augustus,  in  order  to  equalize  it  in  some 
measure  with  the  other  two,  extended  its  fron 
tier  to  the  Loire.  The  language,  institutions, 
and  physical  conformation  of  the  Aquitani 
were  different  from  those  of  the  other  inhabi 
tants  of •  Gaul,  and  proclaimed  their  affinity 
with  the  Iberian  tribes  of  the  Spanish  penin 
sula.  Aquitania,  or  Aquitaine,  was  an  indepen 
dent  duchy  under  the  Merovingian  and  Carlo- 
vingian  dynasties,  though  Charlemagne  reduced 


AKABELLA   STUART 


ARABIA 


617 


it  to  temporary  subordination.  By  the  mar 
riage  of  Louis  VII.  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine, 
it  became  united  to  the  French  monarchy  in 
1137;  but  15  years  later  the  same  princess, 
having  been  divorced  from  Louis,  married 
Henry  Plantagenet  (afterward  Henry  II.  of 
England),  and  transferred  the  possession  of 
Aquitaine  to  her  new  husband.  The  title  to 
the  duchy  was  disputed  by  England  and  France 
for  many  years,  but  Charles  VII.  finally  re 
united  it  to  the  French  crown  in  145:3.  In  the 
13th  or  14th  century  the  name  became  cor 
rupted  into  Guienne.  (See  GUIENXE.) 

ARABELLA  STIART.     See  STUART. 

ARABESQUE,  a  kind  of  ornamentation,  either 
sculptured  or  painted,  which  was  at  first  a 
characteristic  of  Moorish  architecture,  but  has 
in  modern  times  been  largely  used  in  decora 
tions  of  every  style.  It  consists  of  fantastic 
combinations  of  flowers,  fruits,  branches — of 
almost  any  graceful  and  beautiful  objects  which 


\/ 


may  be  intertwined  with  one  another  in  a 
variety  of  forms,  or  in  constant  repetitions  of  a 
single  pattern.  The  Alhambra,  as  the  best 
preserved  specimen  of  Moorish  architecture,  is 


particularly  rich  in  arabesques,  and  those  here 
illustrated  are  taken  from  its  walls.     Raphael  | 
employed  arabesques  in  the  ornamentation  of  j 
the  Vatican,   and  of  late  years  Kaulbach  has  ! 
often  used  them  in  fresco  painting;  while  in 
the  ordinary  decoration  of  rooms  and  buildings 
they  have  become  one  of  the  most  common  ! 
methods  of  embellishment. 

ARABtiift,  Arabghcer,  or  Arabkir,  a  town  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  the  eyalet  and  102  m.  E.  S.  E.  j 
of  Sivas,  on  the  caravan  road  from  Aleppo  to 
Trebizond;    pop.  about  30,000,  one  fourth  of  ' 
whom  are  Armenians,  and  the  rest  Turks  and  | 
Turcomans.     The   prosperity  of  the   to\vn    is  '• 
due  to  the  caravan  trade  and  to  the  cotton  in 
dustry   of  the   Armenians.      Fruit   trees   sur-  ! 
round  the  town,  especially  the  white  mulberry,  I 
whose  fruit  is  eaten  fresh  and  also  used  for 
making   brandy  and   sweetmeats.      Wheat   is 
successfully  cultivated,  and  iron  ore  abounds  in  I 
the  surrounding  highlands. 


ARABIA  (by  the  Arabs  called  Jeziret  el-Arab, 
the  island  or  peninsula  of  the  Arabs),  a  penin 
sula  forming  the  S.  "W.  extremity  of  Asia,  be 
tween  lat.  12°  40'  and  34°  K,  and  Ion.  32° 
30'  and  GO0  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Palestine,  the 
Syrian  desert,  and  the  Euphrates,  E.  by  the 
Euphrates,  Persian  gulf,  and  gulf  of  Oman.  S. 
by  the  Indian  ocean  and  the  straits  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  and  W.  by  the  Red  sea,  the  gulf 
of  Suez,  and  northern  Egypt.  It  is  about 
1,500  m.  in  length  from  near  Anah  on  the 
Euphrates  to  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  and 
900  in  breadth  from  Suez  to  Bassorah.  The 
S.  coast  is  1,200  m.  long.  Area  estimated  at 
somewhat  more  than  1,000,000  sq.  m.  Its 
northern  limits  can  hardly  be  denned  with  ac 
curacy,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  vast  arid 
deserts  of  Syria  and  Arabia  blend  into  each 
other  without  any  distinct  landmarks.  Burck- 
hardt  represents  the  boundary  as  extending 
from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  near  El- 
Arish  along  the  southern  border  of  Palestine 
and  the  Dead  sea,  thence  winding  across  the 
Syrian  desert  to  Palmyra,  and  crossing  in  a 
straight  line  to  the  Euphrates  at  Anah.  The 
ancient  geographers  divided  Arabia  into  three 
parts.  Arabia  Petraea  or  the  Rocky  occupied 
the  mountainous  tract  between  Palestine  and 
the  Red  sea;  Arabia  Deserta  or  the  Desert 
extended  eastward  and  southward  from  Pe- 
traea  to  the  Euphrates  and  the  Persian  gulf, 
comprising  the  great  desert ;  and  Arabia  Felix 
or  the  Happy  occupied  the  shores  of  the  Red 
sea  and  the  Indian  ocean.  These  divisions, 
however,  have  always  been  unknown  to  the 
inhabitants  themselves.  The  modern  divisions 
are:  1.  The  Bahr  el-Tur  Sinah  or  Sinaitic 
peninsula  of  Petermann,  the  El-IIadjr  of  Von 
Hammer,  comprising  the  small  peninsula  be 
tween  the  Mediterranean  and  the  two  northern 
arms  of  the  Red  sea,  and  corresponding  very 
nearly  to  the  Arabia  Petraea  of  Ptolemy.  2. 
Hedjaz,  or  the  land  of  pilgrimage,  commencing 
S.  of  the  above,  extending  along  the  Red 
sea  to  the  parallel  of  19°,  and  bounded  E.  by 
the  great  central  desert.  It  is  a  barren  dis 
trict,  consisting  of  sandy  plains  toward  the 
coast  and  rocky  hills  in  the  interior ;  the  inhab 
itants  depend  for  a  livelihood  mainly  on  the 
gains  from  Moslem  pilgrims.  Some  places,  as 
Wady  Fatimeh  and  Taif,  are  well  watered  and 
produce  grain  and  vegetables.  The  chief  com 
mercial  ports  and  cities  are  Jiddah  and  Yembo, 
and  the  two  sacred  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina 
are  also  in  this  division.  The  viceroy  of  Egypt 
is  nominally  the  ruler  of  this  territory,  but  the 
Beled  el-Haram  or  holy  land  proper,  including 
the  two  sacred  cities,  is  under  the  peculiar 
jurisdiction  of  the  sherif  of  Mecca.  The  Howei- 
tat  Arabs,  a  fierce  and  dangerous  tribe,  control 
the  coast  from  the  25th  parallel  northward.  3. 
Yemen,  occupying  the  remainder  of  the  Red 
sea  coast,  and  forming  part  of  Arabia  Felix.  It 
comprises  the  finest  and  most  fertile  portion 
of  the  peninsula.  Toward  the  sea  the  soil  is 
scorched  and  barren,  but  the  interior  is  a  high- 


018 


ARABIA 


land  country,  of  precipitous  though  fertile 
hills,  and  a  healthy  climate.  Its  extent  is  about 
30,000  sq.  m.,  and  it  is  governed  by  several 
petty  sovereigns  or  chiefs.  Its  principal  towns 
are  Sana,  Mocha,  and  Loheia,  and  it  is  in  this 
province  that  the  celebrated  Mocha  coffee  is 
raised.  The  stronghold  and  port  of  Aden,  an 
Asiatic  Gibraltar,  now  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  is  in  this  district.  Tbe  Tehama  is  a 
sandy  belt  extending  along  the  Red  sea  nearly 
from  Akaba  to  Aden,  and  stretching  backward 
to  the  mountains,  varying  in  breadth  from  30 
to  60  miles.  It  bears  many  marks  of  having 
anciently  formed  part  of  the  bed  of  the  sea,  and 
various  marine  fossils  are  to  be  found  in  the 
soil.  As  the  sea  gradually  recedes  and  leaves 
the  coral  banks  exposed,  these  are  soon  filled 
up  by  the  sands.  This  tract  is  of  no  service  to 
man;  it  contains  vast  strata  of  salt,  and  the 
sandy  soil  is  wholly  incapable  of  cultivation. 
4.  Hadramaut,  forming  the  great  southern  por 
tion  of  Arabia.  It  extends  along  the  Indian 
ocean  from  Ion.  45°  to  54°  30',  and  stretches  far 
into  the  interior.  The  mountains  on  the  coast, 
brown  and  bare,  rise  in  several  ranges  behind 
each  other  to  the  height  of  1,000  or  1,500  feet, 
intersected  by  well  watered  and  fruitful  vales. 
Beyond  is  the  Dahna  or  great  sandy  desert, 
which  covers  the  greater  portion  of  central 
Arabia.  Hadramaut  contains  about  20  towns ; 
its  harbors  are  Makalla,  Dafar,  Merbat,  and 
Hasek.  The  inhabitants  are  a  thriving  and 
commercial  people,  and  the  country  was  for 
merly  famous  for  producing  frankincense.  5. 
Oman,  occupying  the  tract  lying  between  the 
Persian  gulf  and  the  Indian  ocean,  and  having 
for  its  western  boundaries  the  district  of  Ha 
dramaut  and  the  great  central  desert.  It  is  a 
very  mountainous  region,  and  toward  the  sea 
presents  the  same  appearance  as  Hadramaut. 
It  is  divided  among  several  petty  chiefs,  the 
most  powerful  and  enlightened  of  whom  is  the 
imam  of  Muscat,  as  he  is  called  by  English 
and  Americans,  but  whose  proper  title  is 
sultan  of  Oman.  His  efforts  to  extend  the 
commerce  of  his  country  with  foreign  nations 
have  given  him  considerable  reputation.  He 
claims  the  greater  part  of  the  seacoast.  Be 
tween  Oman  and  Hasa  is  a  tract  called  Me- 
nasir  and  the  cape  of  Katar.  This  portion  is 
dreary,  sun-scorched,  and  nearly  destitute  of 
vegetation.  The  bay  of  Bahr  el-Banat,  on 
which  it  borders,  contains  the  best  and  most 
copious  pearl  fisheries  in  the  Persian  gulf,  and 
is  a  source  of  considerable  wealth  to  the  inhab 
itants.  6.  El-Hasa  or  Ahsa,  extending  along 
the  W.  coast  of  the  Persian  gulf,  between  Ka 
tar  and  Irak  Arab,  and  the  Euphrates.  It  is 
partly  mountainous  and  partly  level.  This  dis 
trict  is  subject  to  occasional  shocks  of  earth 
quake,  and  almost  all  the  springs  are  warm 
with  a  slightly  sulphurous  taste,  and  the  rocks 
are  of  tufa  and  basalt.  A  bath  was  built  at 
one  of  these  hot  sulphur  springs  and  frequented 
by  invalids  for  many  years;  but  when  the 
country  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Wahabees, 


they  destroyed  it  from  superstitious  motives. 
The  products  of  Hasa  are  fine  wool,  cotton, 
rice,  wheat,  dates,  sugar  cane,  and  almost  all 
the  leguminous  plants.  Cloaks,  shawls,  gold 
lace,  swords,  and  daggers  are  manufactured 
here.  The  chief  towns  are  Hofhuf  and  Katif. 
The  Wahabee  chieftains  have  greatly  reduced 
the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  Hasa  by 
drafting  merchants  and  artisans  into  their  army. 

7.  Nedjed  or  Nejd,  the  central  and  largest  of 
the  divisions  of  Arabia,  is  traversed  from  N.  E. 
to  S.  W.  by  a  range  of  mountains,  forming  a 
plateau  about  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.     This  plateau  is  intersected  by  numer 
ous  fertile  valleys,  bordered  by  steep  and  often 
precipitous  banks ;  in  these  are  built  the  villages 
and  towns.     In  the  E.  part  of  this  region  iron 
ore  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  ;  and  in 
the  west,  in  Jebel  Toweik,  are  both  iron  and  cop 
per.     The  best  breed  of  Arabian  horses  is  pro 
duced  in  Nedjed.     Riyad  is  the  capital  of  the 
Wahabee  monarch.     Nedjed  is  separated  from 
Hasa  by  a  tongue  of  the  Dahna,  the  great  desert. 
The  monarch  or  chief  of  Nedjed  has  subjected 
Hasa  on  the  east,  lower  Kasim'on  the  northwest, 
and  the  surrounding  Bedouin  tribes.    The  pop 
ulation  of  Nedjed  and  Ilasa,  including  the  Be 
douin  tribes,  is  computed  at  about  1,300,000. 

8.  Shomer,  consisting  of  three  mountain  ranges 
running  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  nearly  parallel  to  each 
other,  Jebel  Adja,  Jebel  Selma,  and  upper  Ka- 
sim.     These,  with  lower  Kasim,  which  belongs 
to  the  chief  of  the  Wahabees,  are  separated 
from  Nedjed  by  a  strip  of  desert.     Between 
these    mountain   ranges  extend    broad   plains 
covered  with  grass  and  shrubbery,  which  afford 
excellent  pasturage   for  cattle.     Grain,  dates, 
and  other  fruits  are  raised  in  the  mountains, 
and  water  can  be  found  almost  everywhere  by 
digging  a  few  feet  beneath  the  surface.    Havel, 
the  capital,  is  a  walled  and  fortified  town  of 
about  20,000  inhabitants,  situated  almost  in  the 
heart  of  the  province.     It  has  of  late  years  dis 
tinguished  itself  by  encouraging  commerce,  sub 
duing  the  marauding  Bedouin  tribes  around, 
and  rendering  travel  more  secure.     Another 
wide  expanse  of  sand  lies  between  Shomer  and 
Wady  Jowf  and  Wady  Serhan  on  the  north, 
the  former  a  fertile  valley  and  the   latter   a 
barren    sandy   depression.      Both    are   under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  prince  of  Shomer.     Be 
yond  this  commences  the  Syro- Arabian  desert. 
West  of  Nedjed  and  Shomer  is  another  expanse 
of  desert  that   separates   these    two  districts 
from  Hedjaz  and  Yemen.     The  more  habitable 
parts  of  the  Syro-Arabian  desert  are  occupied 
by  various  Bedouin  tribes — the  Beni  Lam  on 
the  east,  and  the  Howeitat,  Sherarat,  and  the 
Edwan  (once  a  very  powerful  tribe,  but  now 
greatly    reduced    in   numbers)    on   the    west. 
Von  Hammer  adds  to  these  two  other  divisions : 
Esh-Shehr,  or  Mahra,  E.  of  Hadramaut  proper, 
a  dreary  region,  but  containing  some  well  cul 
tivated  and  well  inhabited  districts,  and  occu 
pied  by  a  people  whose  language  differs  mate 
rially  from  the  modern  Arabic ;  and  El-Yama- 


ARABIA 


G1D 


mah,  the  S.  E.  portion  of  Nedjed,  bordering 
on  El-IIadjar,  Oman,  and  the  great  desert.  The  i 
latter  has  been  designated  above  as  the  district  j 
of  Katar  and  Menasir,  famous  for  its  pearl  i 
fisheries. — The  S.  and  S.  E.  portions  of  Arabia  j 
consist  of  an  immense  waste  of  sandy  desert, 
the  Dalma  or  Robat  el-Kholy,  "the  abode  of 
emptiness,"  which  covers  about  one  third  ; 
of  the  entire  peninsula.  The  sands,  gener-  ; 
ally  of  a  reddish  color  and  thrown  up  into 
mounds  by  the  winds,  present  to  the  eye  the 
appearance  of  a  fiery  sea  suddenly  solidified. 
There  is  a  very  strong  resemblance,  in  almost 
every  particular,  between  the  Arabian  desert 
and  the  African  desert  of  Sahara.  Ophthalmia 
is  common  in  Arabia,  owing  probably  to  the  ir 
ritation  produced  upon  the  eye  by  the  glare  of 
the  sand,  and  its  almost  constant  presence  in 
the  atmosphere.  A  species  of  leprosy  known 
as  Arabian  elephantiasis  is  also  prevalent,  and 
is  attributed  to  the  bad  quality  of  food  and 
water.  The  plague  has  occasionally  visited 
the  coast,  but  never  penetrated  into  the  inte 
rior.  A  remarkable  phenomenon  in  the  central 
portions  of  Arabia,  especially  those  bearing 
evidence  of  volcanic  action,  is  the  sand  gulfs 
described  by  Baron  von  Wrede.  These  are 
large  pits  filled  to  the  brim  with  a  whitish 
impalpable  powder.  Von  Wrede  cast  into 
one  of  them  a  sea  lead,  which  sank  so  rapidly 
that  he  was  obliged  to  let  go  the  line,  which, 
though  of  considerable  length,  instantly  disap 
peared. — Palgrave  is  of  opinion  that  the  water 
shed  of  central  Arabia  bears  from  N".  N".  W.  to 
S.  S.  E.  between  Ion.  45°  and  46°  E.  and  lat.  29° 
and  24°  X.  Its  greatest  altitude  is  behind  Jelajel 
in  the  province  of  Sedeyr  in  Nedjed,  whence  it 
gradually  declines  till  lost  in  the  southern  des 
ert.  On  each  side  of  this  ridge  to  the -south 
also  Arabia  slopes  coastward  to  the  Persian 
gulf,  Indian  ocean,  and  Red  sea,  though  with 
some  local  interruptions.  The  Sinai  tic  penin 
sula  is  traversed  by  spurs  from  the  Lebanon 
range.  Mt.  Seir  and  Tur  Sinah  (supposed  to 
be  Mt.  Sinai)  are  its  principal  summits.  Of 
the  many  islands  which  border  the  coast,  the 
Bahrein  isles  in  the  Persian  gulf  and  Socotra  in 
the  Indian  ocean  are  the  only  important  ones. 
Arabia  has  no  considerable  river.  Its  streams, 
taking  their  rise  in  the  mountains,  lose  them 
selves  for  the  most  part  in  the  sands,  or  form 
deep  ravines  called  by  the  natives  wadys;  they 
reach  the  sea  only  when  swollen  by  the  rains. 
The  Sehan  and  the  Kebir  flow  into  the  Red 
sea;  the  Meitan  and  the  Moseira  into  the 
Indian  ocean.  Several  of  these  are  said  by 
recent  geographers  to  pursue  a  subterraneous 
course,  for  which  the  dense  clay  which  under 
lies  the  sand,  and  the  cavernous  limestone, 
afford  facilities,  and  to  discharge  into  the  sea 
at  some  distance  from  the  shore.  A  recent 
German  traveller  relates  that  at  certain  points 
near  the  coast  the  sailors  would  spring  over 
board  with  their  goat  skins,  and  diving  down 
would  bring  up  fresh  water  from  springs  below 
the  surface  of  the  sea.  In  many  parts  little  or 


no  rain  falls  throughout  the  year.     On  the  W. 
coast  rains  are  periodical,  occurring  from  June 
till  September.     On  the  S.  and  E.   coasts,  on 
the   contrary,   they  occur   during   the   winter 
months. — In   the   desert    the   thermometer   is 
generally    above    100°    F.    during    the    night, 
108°  in  the  morning,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
day  it  rises  to  110°  and  sometimes  higher.     The 
climate  of  Mecca  is  sultry  and  unwholesome ; 
at  Medina  it  is  much  colder  in  winter  and  hot 
ter  in  summer.     At  Mocha  it  averages  from 
90°  to  95°  in  July;  in  Muscat  from  92°  to  102° 
during  the  day.      In  Petraea  the  diversity  is 
I  much  greater,  the  maximum  in  the  upper  re 
gions    being   75°   in   May,    and    in   the   lower 
i  country,  particularly  on  the  seashore,  102°  to 
!  105°,  and  sometimes  110°.     In  the  desert,  near 
;  the  Euphrates,  Griffith  observed  that  it  rose  to 
132°  under  his  tent  and  to  156°  when  exposed 
i  to  the  sun's  rays. — The  mountains  consist  of 
!  porphyry,  jasper,  quartz,  sandstone,  alabaster, 
basalt,   marble,   and  limestone.     The  minerals 
;  are  blue  alabaster,  agates,  carnelians,  tourma 
lines,  the  emerald,  the  onyx,  gypsum,  saltpetre, 
sulphur,    naphtha,   asphaltum,  iron,    lead,  and 
copper.     Gold  was  formerly  obtained  in  Ye 
men,  but  the  supply  has  long  been  exhausted. 
Mines  of  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  rock  salt  are 
still  worked. — Although  but  a  small  portion 
i  of  Arabia  is  susceptible  of  cultivation,  its  vege 
table  productions  have   always  been  greatly 
famed.     The  date  and  other  species  of  palm 
i  stud  the  oases  of  the  desert.      In  Yemen  the 
coffee  tree  yields  the  small  Mocha  berry.     The 
balm  tree  (ancyris  apobalsamum),  which  fur- 
;  nishes  the  fragrant  balm  of  Mecca,  the  acacia 
\  Tera,  which  produces  the  gum  arabic  of  com- 
;  merce,  the  cassia  fistula  or  purging  cassia,  the 
!  aloe,  and  the  olibanum  or  frankincense,  are  the 
most  valuable  of  the  products  of  the  soil.     The 
durra  (sorghum   vulgare),  a  species  of  millet, 
which    furnishes    the    chief    article    of    food 
:  to  the  village  Arabs,  the  sugar  cane,  wheat, 
I  barley,    beans,    rape,    lentils,    melons,    gourds, 
oranges,    lemons,    pears,  quinces,   apricots,  al- 
1  monds,  peaches,  grapes,  tamarinds,  and  cocoa- 
i  nuts  form  the  bulk  of  the  other  productions 
•  of  the  country.     The  methods  of  agriculture 
!  adopted  by  the  Arabs  are  extremely  rude,  but 
owing  to  their  industry,  and   the  porous  and 
friable  character  of  the  soil,  which  only  needs 
water  to  make  it  yield  abundantly  in  the  more 
fertile   regions,   they  succeed   in   raising  very 
good  crops.    In  many  parts  of  Yemen  ploughing 
j  is  not  attempted,  but  the  ground  is  cultivated 
i  with  a  crowbar  and  hoe,  as  substitutes  for  the 
I  spade.     Throughout  nearly  the  whole  country 
which  is  under  cultivation,  artificial  irrigation 
j  is  practised.     At  Muscat  wheat  and  barley  are 
I  sown  in  December  and  reaped  in  March. — The 
j  horse  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  originated 
j  here.     The  camel  and  the  dromedary  are  na- 
i  tives  of  the  Arabian   deserts.     The    ass  also 
I  originated  in  this  country,  and  the  onager  or 
i  wild  ass,  though  perhaps  a  different  species, 
i  still  roams  in  the  deserts  of  Nedjed.     There  is 


ARABIA 


a  race  of  oxen  with  a  hump  on  the  shoulders. 
The  broad,  thick-tailed  sheep  is  common,  hut 
its  \vool  is  coarse,  and  its  fiesh  not  delicate. 
Among1  wild  animals,  the  rock  goat  or  ibex, 
gazelle,  antelope,  and  jerboa  are  very  abundant ; 
and  in  the  interior  the  hyena,  panther,  ounce, 
jackal,  wolf,  fox,  wild  boar,  and  wild  cat  ex 
ist.  There  are  many  species  of  apes,  some  of 
which  cause  great  damage  to  the  coffee  planta 
tions  of  Yemen.  Among  rapacious  birds  are 
found  one  or  more  species  of  the  eagle,  falcon, 
heron,  owl,  and  ostrich.  The  partridge,  guinea 
fowl,  and  pheasant  are  also  found  in  different 
districts  of  the  country.  Fish  abound  on  all 
the  coasts,  and  on  that  of  Oman  the  piniui  ma 
rina,  or  pearl  oyster,  is  found  in  large  quan 
tities.  Reptiles  are  very  numerous,  including 
tortoises,  many  species  of  lizards  (some  of 
which,  like  the  guaril,  are  of  great  size,  and 
are  used  for  food),  serpents,  and  batrachians. 
The  locusts  often  destroy  the  crops,  and  many 
other  insects  infiict  serious  injury  upon  men  or 
animals. — For  many  centuries  the  Arabians  mo 
nopolized,  in  connection  with  their  neighbors  of 
Phoenicia,  the  greater  part  of  the  carrying  trade 
of  the  world  ;  and  even  when  the  Venetians, 
Portuguese,  and  Dutch  had  entered  into  com 
petition  with  them,  they  .still  retained  the  trade 
between  India  and  Europe.  The  doubling  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  the  Portuguese  was 
the  signal  for  a  rapid  decline  in  their  commerce; 
but  the  opening  of  the  overland  passage  to  India 
in  recent  times  gave  it  a  new  impulse.  The 
principal  exports  of  Arabia  are  coffee  (much 
of  which  is  brought  to  Muscat,  Mocha,  and 
Jiddah  from  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and  Egypt,  and 
exported  thence  as  genuine  Mocha  coffee),  dates, 
gum  arabic,  myrrh,  aloes,  almonds,  balm  of 
Mecca,  frankincense,  some  aromatic  and  medi 
cinal  drugs,  and  pearls.  The  traffic  in  pearls  is 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  banians,  or 
Hindoo  merchants.  From  Muscat,  wheat,  horses, 
raisins,  salt,  dried  fish,  and  drugs  are  also  ex 
ported.  Arabia  receives  from  Europe  silver, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  firearms,  and  gunpowder; 
from  Abyssinia,  slaves,  sheep,  elephants'  teeth, 
and  musk ;  from  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  gold, 
slaves,  amber,  and  ivory ;  from  Egypt,  "rice,  ! 
lentils,  sugar,  and  oil ;  from  Surat,  linen ;  and  j 
from  Coromandel,  cotton.  —  The  population 
of  the  Arabian  peninsula  has  been  variously  I 
estimated  at  from  10  to  15  millions.  The  ! 
latter  is  probably  the  nearest  to  the  truth,  as 
recent  explorations  demonstrate  that  the  in 
terior  contains  more  fertile  lands  and  a  denser 
population  than  was  formerly  supposed.  It 
is  estimated  that  the  various  races  and  tribes 
known  collectively  as  Arabs  comprise  nearly 
seven  eighths  of  this  population;  the  re-  | 
mainder  consists  of  Hindoos,  Turks,  negroes,  I 
Abyssinians,  Jews,  Persians,  and  Franks.  Of 
the  settled  Arabs  there  are  many  distinct 
tribes,  differing  so  much  in  manners,  habits, 
and  language  as  to  give  the  impression  to  the  I 
traveller  that  they  originated  from  different  j 
stocks.  The  discoveries  at  several  points  in  the  i 


interior  of  Hiinyaritic  inscriptions,  and  the  ex- 
!  istence  of  a  language  spoken  by  the  natives  of 
the   interior  villages  called  Ehkili,   bearing  a 
i  much  stronger  analogy  to  the  Himyaiitic  than 
to  the  Arabic,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  a 
;  portion  of  the  fixed  Arabian  population  are 
i  descendants  of  those  Ilarnites  who  originally 
j  settled  in  Syria,   Phoenicia,   and  the    adjacent 
countries.     The  fixed  Arabs  are  as  a  general 
'  rule,  and  especially  in  the  northern  parts,  in- 
i  dolent,  improvident,  deceitful,  treacherous,  and 
j  prone  to  robbery.     But  at  the  same  time  they 
|  are  courteous,  sociable,  easy  in  their  manners, 
j  and  intelligent,  and  the  lower  classes  are  su- 
!  perior   to  those  of  a  corresponding  grade  in 
j  more   civilized  countries.     The  Bedouins  are, 
!  probably  with  less  admixture  than  the  inhabi- 
]  tants  of  the  towns  and  villages,  of  Semitic  race. 
i  They  speak  the  Arabic   language  with   great 
j  purity  and  force,  and  subsist  by  rearing  cattle 
and    by  plunder.      (See  BEDOUINS.) — Moham 
medanism  or  Islainism  is  the  prevalent  religion 
of  Arabia,  though  according  to  recent  travel 
lers  the  people  are  generally  less  devout  and 
more    inclined   to   skepticism    than    those    of 
any  other  Mohammedan  country;  and  among 
the  inhabitants  of  WadyDoan,  a  large  and  popu 
lous  valley  in  the  interior  of  Hadramaut,  Von 
Wrede  found  traces  of  the  ancient  fire  worship ; 
I  while  M.  Arnaud  in  1843  found    among   the 
I  mountains  of  Yemen  many  Arabs  whose  rever 
ence  for  Hud,  a  prophet  who  preceded  Moham- 
!  med  and  who  cursed  him  and  his  followers,  was 
\  much  stronger   than  that   for  the  prophet  of 
j  the   Koran. — The  Arabs   claim   descent   from 
{  Kahtan  or  Joktan,  of  the  posterity  of  Noah  by 
Shem,  and  from  Ishmael.     Ishmael,  according 
to  their   tradition,  was  prince  and   first  high 
j  priest  of  Mecca,  and  his  posterity  ruled  the 
!  city  lor  14  generations.    Joktan  or  Kahtan  was 
the  first  king  of  Yemen.    His  successors  reigned 
I  2,000  years  in  that  country.     Saba,  the  fourth 
after  him,  built  the  capital  and  called  it  after 
his  name;  hence  the  Sabasans.     He  converted 
j  one  of  the  valleys  in  his  territory  into  a  large 
|  lake,  five  leagues  in  length,  by  constructing  a 
\  mole  or  bank  across  its  lower  extremity.     The 
water  was  thence  conducted  to  the  fields,  gar- 
j  dens,   and  houses  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the 
lands   thus   irrigated  became  very  productive. 
Bilkis,  one  of  the  queens  of  Y^emen,  according 
to  the  Arabs,  was  the  famous  queen  of  Sheba 
who  visited  Solomon.     From  her  designation 
queen  of  the  south,  and  the  description  of  her 
presents  to  Solomon,  gold  and  spices,  there  is 
little  doubt  that  Arabia,  and  Y'emen  in  par 
ticular,  was  the  native  country  of  this  prin 
cess.      The    French    traveller    T.    J.  Arnaud, 
who  visited  this  region  in  1843,  found  among 
the   ruins   abundant    evidence    of    its   former 
greatness    in    the    massive    blocks    of    stone 
covered  with   inscriptions   in   the    Himyaritic 
character,   and  in  the  ruins  of  buildings  and 
temples  which  must  have  once  approached  in 
magnificence   those   of    Palmyra   or   Tadmor. 
Himyar,  the  immediate  successor  of  Saba,  is 


ARABIA 


621 


supposed  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the 
city  of  Mareb,  and  to  have  invented  the 
Ilimyaritic  characters.  After  an  inundation 
caused  by  the  bursting  of  the  immense  reser 
voir  built  by  Saba  the  tribes  of  this  kingdom 
were  scattered,  and  were  not  again  united  till 
a  century  later  under  Tobba  I.,  about  A.  D.  175. 
Under  him  and  his  successors  Yemen  rose  to 
more  than  its  ancient  splendor.  Assad  Abu- 
karb  (220)  invaded  and  subdued  Tehama,  de 
feated  the  Tartars  in  Azerbijan,  plundered 
many  cities  of  Khiva,  and  seems  to  have  carried 
his  arms  into  Bokhara.  Tobba  II.  in  297  in 
vaded  Hedjaz  and  besieged  Yathreb  (now  Me 
dina),  a  city  inhabited  by  Jewish  refugees 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  While 
there  he  was  converted  to  Judaism,  and  on  his 
return  home  all  the  nation  embraced  the 
Mosaic  faith.  Dunawas  in  480  was  a  furious 
persecutor  of  the  Christians,  and  is  said  to 
have  burned  20,000  of  them  in  a  pit  filled  with 
combustibles.  The  Christian  king  of  Abys 
sinia  sent  an  army  under  the  command  of  his 
son  Arayat,  with  orders  to  slay  every  Jew 
and  plunder  the  country.  Dunawas  was 
routed,  and  cast  himself  into  the  sea,  and  the 
race  of  the  Himyarite  princes  became  extinct. 
Arayat  was  confirmed  in  the  government  of 
Yemen,  and  the  Abyssinians  ruled  it  for  72 
years,  until  Seif,  a  descendant  of  the  Him- 
yarites,  obtained  from  Chosroes,  king  of 
Persia,  an  army  with  which  he  wrested  the 
power  from  the  hands  of  the  Abyssinians.  He 
was  appointed  viceroy  of  the  king  of  Per 
sia,  to  whom  he  paid  an  annual  tribute.  After 
Seifs  assassination  by  an  Abyssinian  slave, 
Yemen  was  governed  by  Persian  satraps  under 
the  title  of  emirs  till  it  was  subdued  by  the 
lieutenants  of  Mohammed. — The  kingdom  of 
Hira  in  Irak  was  founded  by  some  of  the  dis 
persed  clans  after  the  inundation  in  Yemen. 
Numan  L,  about  A.  D.  400,  signalized  himself 
by  his  conquests  in  Syria,  building  numerous 
vessels  on  the  Euphrates,  and  adorning  the 
capital  with  palaces,  gardens,  and  hunting 
parks.  Numan  is  said  to  have  become  a  con 
vert  to  Christianity  and  abdicated  the  throne 
to  live  in  retirement.  Mundar  II.,  Avho  reigned 
about  493,  proved  a  valuable  ally  to  the  Per 
sian  monarch  Kobad  in  his  successful  invasion 
of  the  Roman  territories.  In  the  reign  of  Mun 
dar  V.  (033)  the  kingdom  of  Hira  was  invaded 
and  subdued  by  the  lieutenants  of  Mohammed. 
Other  colonies  of  Arabs  migrated  northward 
into  the  territory  of  Damascus,  where  they 
founded  a  dynasty  of  kings  called -the  Gassa- 
nites.  Several  small  principalities  existed  in 
those  districts  before  their  arrival,  the  chief  of 
which  was  the  tribe  of  Silh,  who  had  become 
converted  to  Christianity,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  Roman  emperor  invested  them  with 
the  government  of  the  Syrian  Arabs.  These 
the  emigrants  (the  tribes  of  Aus  and  Khasraj) 
expelled,  slew  many  of  their  petty  princes,  and 
established  their  own  sovereignty  over  these 
conquered  territories,  which  lasted  for  about 


400  years,  when  it  was  extinguished  by  Mos 
lem  conquests. — The  Nabathrean  Arabs,  or 
Ishmaelites,  long  preserved  a  distinct  name  as 
a  nation,  asserting  their  independence  alike 
against  the  armies  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  of 
the  Jews,  Assyrians,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 
"It  was  extremely  difficult,"  says  Diodorus 
Siculus,  "either  to  attack  or  subdue  them,  be 
cause  they  retired  to  their  deserts ;  and  if  an 
enemy  ventured  to  follow  them,  he  was  sure 
to  perish  of  thirst  and  fatigue,  for  the  wells 
were  only  known  to  themselves."  In  the 
time  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  empires 
these  wild  tribes  remained  either  wholly  in 
dependent,  or  acknowledged  a  temporary  al 
liance  with  their  monarchs.  The  Medes  and 
Persians  under  Cyrus  and  Cambyses  found  it 
necessary  to  have  a  friendly  understanding 
with  the  Nabathasans  to  secure  a  safe  passage 
into  Egypt.  In  312  B.  C.  Antigonus,  one  of  the 
successors  of  Alexander  the  Great,  made  an 
unsuccessful  incursion  into  the  territory  of  the 
Nabathreans,  and  in  310  Demetrius,  his  son, 
invaded  them  again.  One  of  the  Ptolemies 
annexed  a  narrow  strip  of  Arabia  to  his  do 
minions.  In  219  Antioclms  the  Great  captured 
the  city  of  Rabbath  Moab  and  subdued  several 
tribes.  After  that  the  northern  Arabs  were 
frequently  involved  in  wars  with  the  new 
Jewish  state,  and  fortified  several  cities  on 
its  border,  as  Bostra,  Medabah,  and  Hesbon. 
Several  Roman  proconsuls  of  Syria  undertook 
expeditions  against  them,  but  without  any 
further  advantage  than  the  payment  of  a  trib 
ute  or  temporary  cessation  of  hostilities. — In 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  /Elius  Gall  us,  prefect  of 
Egypt,  undertook  his  famous  expedition  into 
Yemen  at  the  head  of  10,000  Roman  legiona 
ries,  500  Jews,  and  1,000  Nabathaeans  ;  80  ships 
of  war  and  130  transports  conveyed  these 
troops  down  the  Red  sea  under  the  guidance 
of  Syllias,  by  whose  treachery  numbers  of  the 
vessels  were  wrecked.  Gallus  penetrated  as 
far  as  Mariaba,  represented  as  the  capital  of  the 
Rahininites,  but  eifected  nothing.  Other  use 
less  expeditions  followed.  In  A.  D.  362  the 
army  of  the  emperor  Julian  besieged  and  de 
stroyed  Anbar,  the  capital  of  the  kings  of  Hoja. 
— A  new  era  dawned  on  Arabia  at  the  birth 
of  Mohammed  (about  570).  His  doctrines 
soon  gained  a  firm  foothold,  and  Mecca  once 
conquered,  he  found  nearly  the  whole  penin 
sula  at  his  feet.  Abu-Bekr,  Omar,  Othman, 
and  Ali,  who  succeeded  Mohammed  in  turn 
under  the  title  of  caliph  or  emir-el-mumenin, 
"  commander  of  the  faithful,"  carried  forward 
what  he  had  begun.  In  the  reign  of  Ali,  Moawi- 
yah,  governor  of  Syria,  cast  off  his  allegiance, 
was  proclaimed  caliph  by  the  western  provinces, 
penetrated  into  Hedjaz,  reduced  Medina  and 
Mecca,  and  extended  his  conquests  as  far  as  Ye 
men.  A  few  months  after  AH1s  death  the  sover 
eignty  passed  into  the  hands  of  Moawiyah,  the 
first  prince  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommiyades, 
who  held  the  supreme  power  over  the  Moslem 
empire  till  A.  D.  750.  This  period  is  marked 


•G22 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE 


by  internal  dissensions  and  bloody  struggles. 
Walid  I.,  one  of  this  line,  abolished  the  use  of 
the  Greek  language  and  characters,  which  had 
hitherto  been  employed  in  keeping  the  ac 
counts,  and  ordered  his  clerks  and  secretaries 
to  substitute  the  Arabic,  a  change  to  which 
very  probably  we  owe  the  invention  or  at  least 
the  familiar  use  of  our  present  numerical  fig 
ures.  To  this  dynasty,  which  ruled  for  nearly 
90  years,  succeeded  that  of  the  Abbassides, 
who  transferred  the  seat  of  the  caliphate  from 
Cufah  to  Bagdad,  and  held  sway  over  a  large 
part  of  the  Mohammedan  countries  from  the 
8th  to  the  13th  century.  The  subsequent  his 
tory  of  Arabia  is  but  a  succession  of  quarrels 
among  its  numerous  petty  chiefs,  except  the 
reform  movement  of  the  Wahabees,  a  sect 
founded  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  by 
Mohammed  ibn  Abd-el-Wahab.  (See  WAHA 
BEES.)  In  1870  and  1871  a  rebellion  broke  out 
among  the  Bedouins  in  Iledjaz,  which  was  with 
difficulty  suppressed  by  the  Turkish  troops. — 
See  "  History  of  Arabia,1'  by  A.  Crichton  (Ed 
inburgh,  1834),  and  "Journey  through  Central 
and  Eastern  Arabia,"  by  W.  G.  Palgrave  (Lon 
don,  1871). 

ARABIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  The 
Arabic  belongs  to  the  southern  branch  of  the 
Semitic  family  of  languages,  and  after  the  He 
brew  is  the  most  important  member  of  the 
family.  The  other  members  of  the  southern 
branch  are  the  Plirnyaritic  and  the  Ethiopic. 
The  particular  dialect  which,  mainly  through 
the  influence  of  the  Koran,  became  the  stan 
dard  of  the  literary  language,  was  that  spoken 
in  the  central  part  of  Arabia,  in  Iledjaz 
and  Nedjed.  Partly  perhaps  because  of 'its 
sheltered  position,  but  partly  also  because  of 
an  unusually  strong  conservative  tendency,  the 
Arabic,  though  the  latest  of  the  Semitic  lan 
guages  to  acquire  historical  importance,  is  in 
its  forms  the  most  archaic  of  all.  Nowhere 
else  are  the  inflections  so  fully  preserved,  and 
for  the  comparative  study  of  these  languages 
the  Arabic  is  of  the  first  importance.  In 
wealth  both  of  grammatical  forms  and  of  vo 
cabulary  it  is  equalled  by  few  languages,  and 
no  other  of  the  Semitic  family  approaches  it. 
The  characteristic  features  of  the  family,  the 
prevailing  triliteral  and  consonantal  character 
of  the  roots,  and  the  modification  of  the  radi 
cal  meaning  by  a  significant  change  of  vowels 
within  the  root,  appear  most  clearly  in  the 
Arabic.  There  are  other  features  which,  if  not 
altogether  peculiar  to  it,  are  found  in  the  other 
dialects  only  in  a  rudimentary  or  fragmentary 
state.  Such  are  the  system  of  case  endings 
and  the  so-called  u  broken  plurals,"  that  is,  col 
lective  nouns  which  have  nearly  supplanted 
the  proper  plurals  formed  by  means  of  termi 
nations.  The  number  of  derived  forms  of  the 
verb,  commonly  called  conjugations,  is  also  con 
siderably  larger  in  Arabic,  each  verb  having, 
at  least  theoretically,  15;  and  the  mode  forms 
are  likewise  more  numerous.  As  an  instru 
ment  of  thought  the  Arabic  h  characterized 


by   great   flexibility,    delicacy,    and   precision. 
While  the  other  Semitic  languages  have  only  a 
;  very  simple  syntactical  structure,  unsuited  to 
1  the  expression  of  any  but  the  more  obvious 
!  relations  of  thought,  the  Arabic  has  an  exten 
sive  philosophical  literature.     The  external  his 
tory  of  the  Arabic  is  remarkable,  furnishing  in 
|  many  respects  a  parallel  to  that  of  the  Latin, 
i  It  has  taken  possession   of  nearly  the  whole 
i  field  formerly  occupied  by  the  Semitic  family. 
I  It  has  also   spread  over  the  whole  north  of 
;  Africa,  and  in   central  Africa  it  is  still  aggres 
sive.     The  present  Arabic-speaking  races  num 
ber  about  35,000,000.     Where  it  has  not  sup 
planted,  it  has  strongly  impregnated  the  lan 
guages   with  which   it   has   come  in   contact. 
I  The  Turkish  and  Persian  have  borrowed  from 
J  it  nearly  one  half  of  their  vocabularies,   the 
|  Ilindostani  but  little  less,  the  Hindi  and  Malay 
j  quite  largely.     The  languages  of  western  Eu- 
I  rope  have  felt  its  influence,  the  Spanish,  as  was 
j  natural,  most  strongly.     Elsewhere  it  is  to  be 
I  traced  mainly  in  the  presence  of  various -scien- 
|  tific  and  technical  terms,  such  as  algebra,  al- 
\  chewy,  azimuth,  nadir,  cipher,  alcohol,  elixir, 
|  magazine.     A  glossary  of  words  of  Arabic  der 
ivation  found  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese  has 
been  published  by  Dozy  and  Engelmann  (2d 
ed.,  Leyden,  18G9) ;  in  French,  by  Pihan  (Paris, 
1851);    in    Dutch,    by   Dozy    (Leyden,    1867). 
The  literary  Arabic  has  during  its  whole  his- 
i  tory  remained  almost  without  change,  and  the 
various  dialects  now  spoken,  when  we  consider 
the  long  period   (12  centuries)  and  the  wide 
territory  which  they  cover,  show  remarkably 
little  divergence  either  from  the  literary  lan 
guage  or  from  each  other.     They  differ  from 
the  written  language  mainly  in  the  frequent 
loss  of  final  vowels,  and  with  them  of  inflec 
tions  of  the  noun  and  verb,  which  they  served 
to    distinguish.     Phonetic   decay  has  reached 
i  about  the  same  stage  of  progress  in  the  Arabic 
;  now  spoken  that  we  find  in  the  Biblical  lle- 
I  brew. — The  Arabic   alphabet  is  derived  from 

•  the  Estrangelo,  or  Old  Syriac,  and  more  re- 
!  motely  from  the  Phoenician,  and  was  introduced 
!  not   more  than   a  century  before  Mohammed. 
:  It  no   doubt  consisted  originally,  like  the  Es- 

!  trangelo,  of  22  characters,  which  number  was 
;  afterward  raised  by  the  use  of  diacritical  marks 

to  28.  Like  all  the  Semitic  alphabets,  it  is 
!  written  from  right  to  left,  and  is  essentially 
i  consonantal.  The  vowel  signs,  written  above 
;  and  below  the  line,  are  a  later  invention,  gen- 
!  orally  attributed  to  Abul-Aswad,  the  earliest 

Arab  grammarian,  who  died  in  088.  These 
!  vowel  and  diacritical  signs  were  first  applied 

to  the   Koran,  in  order  to  put   an  end  to  the 

disputes  to  which  the  previous  ambiguous 
i  mode  of  writing  had  given  rise.  The  Arabic 

system  of  vowel  notation,  unlike  the  Hebrew 
<  and  Syriac,  is  strictly  etymological.  Only  the 
!  fundamental  vowels  a,  ?',  ?/,  long  and  short, 
|  and  the  diphthongs  aw,  ai,  are  written,  although 

in  speaking   several  intermediate   vowels  are 

•  heard.    Both  in  manuscripts  and  in  printed  texts 


ARABIC   LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE 


623 


the  vowel  signs  are  frequently  omitted  either 
wholly  or  in  part.  There  are  several  forms  of 
the  Arabic  character,  of  which  the  Cufic,  so 
called  from  the  city  of  Cufah,  the  seat  of  one 
of  the  early  grammatical  schools,  was  the  first 
to  gain  general  currency,  thougli  from  an  early 
date  the  neskhi  or  copy-hand  was  in  use,  and 
since  the  10th  century  has  been  the  prevailing 
form.  Of  the  remaining  forms,  some,  as  the 
Maghrebine  or  Moorish,  have  a  local  currency, 
and  others  are  employed  for  special  uses.  The 
Arabic  alphabet  has  gained  a  wide  vogue  be 
yond  the  limits  of  the  language,  having  been 
adopted  by  the  Persian,  Afghan,  Hindostani, 
Turkish,  Malay,  and  in  quite  recent  times  by 
the  Berber  and  other  African  dialects.  The 
original  defects  of  the  alphabet  are  seriously 
aggravated  when  it  is  applied  to  languages  of 
different  families. — Grammar  was  the  first  of 
the  sciences  cultivated  by  the  Arabs,  the  special 
motive  being  the  necessity  for  fixing  the  text 
of  the  Koran ;  and  though  it  soon  reached  the 
limit  of  its  development  among  them,  it  always 
remained  a  favorite  study.  The  earliest  gram 
matical  work  which  has  been  preserved  is  that 
of  Sibawaih,  about  780 ;  one  of  the  most  cele 
brated,  the  subject  of  numerous  commentaries, 
is  the  Alfiya  (so  called  because  composed  of 
1,000  verses)  of  Ibn  Malek,  who  died  in  1273 
(Arabic  by  Dieterici,  Leipsic,  1851 ;  Arabic  and 
French  by  De  Sacy,  Paris,  1833).  Of  those 
by  European  scholars,  the  best  are  by  De  Sacy 
(2d  ed.,  Paris,  1831)  and  Ewald  (Leipsic,  1831- 
'3).  Among  grammars  devoted  to  the  spoken 
idioms  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Caussin 
de  Perceval  (Paris,  1835),  Marcel  (on  the  Afri 
can  dialects  generally,  2d  ed,,  Paris,  18(39),  and 
Pihan  (dialect  of  Algiers,  Paris,  1851).  Of  the 
native  dictionaries,  the  chief  are  the  Sihah  of 
Al-Jauhari  (died  about  1007) ;  the  Lisan  el- Aral} 
of  Ibn  Mukarram  (died  1311) ;  the  Kdmm  of 
Firuzabadi  (died  1414),  containing  60,000  words 
(printed  at  Calcutta,  1817,  and  at  Cairo,  1864) ; 
and  the  Taj  el-Arm,  an  enormous  compilation, 
of  which  the  Kdmus  forms  only  about  a  seventh 
part,  made  at  Cairo  in  the  last  century.  The 
materials  of  the  large  Arabic-English  lexicon 
of  Lane,  now  in  progress  (Parts  i.  to  iii.,  Lon 
don.  1863-'7),  are  drawn  mainly  from  the  last- 
mentioned  work.  Among  the  other  European 
lexicographers,  the  chief  are  Golius  (Leyden, 
1653)  and  Freytag  (Halle,  1830-?37).—  The 
Arabs  have  produced  a  literature  of  vast  ex 
tent,  and  after  large  reductions  from  the  ex 
travagant  estimate  sometimes  put  upon  it,  a 
very  high  value  must  still  be  allowed  it.  It 
commences  with  poetry.  The  oldest  remains, 
in  which  however  the  characteristic  form  and 
style  of  Arabic  poetry  appear  already  fully 
developed,  go  back  about  a  century  before  Mo 
hammed.  With  the  Koran  a  new  era  begins 
in  literary  as  well  as  in  political  history.  The 
Koran  was  to  the  orthodox  believer  not  only 
the  rule  of  faith,  but  also  the  highest  authority 
in  law,  the  perfect  model  in  point  of  style — not 
simply  inspired,  but  uncreated  and  eternal.  Un 


der  the  Ommiyade  dynasty  of  Damascus,  what 
there  was  of  literary  activity  was  concentrated 
mainly  on  the  Koran,  the  establishing  of  the 
text  and  interpretation,  and  on  the  preserva 
tion  of  the  traditions  of  the  prophet.  The  fol 
lowing  century,  under  the  Abbasside  caliphs  of 
Bagdad,  Al-Mansour,  Ilaroun  al-Rashid,  Al- 
Mamoun,  and  Motassem,  was  the  most  flourish 
ing  period  of  Arabic  literature.  Greek  philos 
ophy  and  science  were  introduced,  mainly 
through  the  agency  of  Syrian  Christians,  and 
through  the  medium  of  translations,  made  for 
the  most  part  not  directly  from  the  Greek,  but 
from  the  Syriac.  Law,  history,  and  geography 
were  cultivated,  schools  and  libraries  estab 
lished,  rewards  bestowed  on  poets  and  scholars. 
In  this  patronage  of  literature  the  princes  of 
the  Ommiyade  dynasty  in  Spain,  especially 
Hakem  II.  (961-976^  were  worthy  rivals. 
After  the  capture  of  Bagdad  by  the  Mongols  in 
1258  the  literary  spirit  gradually  declined,  and 
for  the  last  three  centuries  little  has  been  pro 
duced  but  commentaries  on  the  older  literature, 
•and  some  works  of  an  encyclopaedic  character. 
The  field  in  which  the  Arabs  have  shown  most 
originality  is  unquestionably  poetry,  and  its 
golden  age  was  the  century  before  Mohammed. 
Of  the  poems  of  this  period,  the  most  cele 
brated  are  the  seven  Moalldkat,  so  called,  ac 
cording  to  the  common  but  doubtful  tradition, 
because  they  were  "suspended"  in  the  Caaba 
at  Mecca,  an  honor  bestowed  on  such  as  carried 
off  the  prize  in  the  poetical  contests.  They 
have  been  frequently  published,  both  together 
(Arabic  by  Arnold,  Leipsic,  1850  ;  English  by 
Sir  William  Jones)  and  separately.  One  of  the 
seven,  Amrulkais  (German  by  Riickert,  Stutt 
gart,  1843),  holds  a  first  place  among  all  the 
Arabic  poets.  Three  others  deserve  to  rank 
with  these,  Nabiga,  Alkana,  and  Al-Asha;  the 
first  two  published  by  Ahlwardt  in  "  Divans 
of  Six  Ancient  Arabic  Poets  "  (London,  1870). 
Specimens  of  many  other  early  poets  are  found 
in  the  Hamdsa  of  Abu  Temam  (Arabic  and 
Latin  by  Freytag,  Bonn,  1828-'47  ;  German  by 
Riickert,  Stuttgart,  1846) ;  in  the  Hamdsa  of 
Bohtori,  and  in  the  Kitcib  el-Aghdni  of  Ali  of 
Ispahan  (Arabic  and  Latin  by  Kosegarten,  vol. 
i.,  Greifswald,  1840).  Motanebbi,  about  the 
middle  of  the  10th  century  (Arabic  by  Dieterici, 
Berlin,  1861 ;  German  by  Von  Hammer,  Vienna, 
1824),  is  the  greatest  of  the  poets  after  the  ad 
vent  of  Mohammed.  Arabic  poetry  is  almost 
exclusively  lyrical.  Epic  and  dramatic  poetry 
they  have  not,  and  the  rhymed  treatises  on 
grammar  and  other  prosaic  subjects  can  hardly 
be  classed  with  didactic  poetry.  In  proverbs 
Arabic  literature  is  rich,  and  several  collections 
made  by  native  authors,  chief  among  which  is 
that  of  Meidani,  have  been  published  by  Frey 
tag  (Arabic  and  Latin,  Bonn,  1838-'43),  and  a 
smaller  collection  by  Burckhardt  (Arabic  and 
English,  London,  1830).  The  Mal:nmat  of 
Hariri  (Arabic  by  De  Sacy,  2d  ed.,  Paris, 
1847-'53;  English  by  Preston,  .London,  1850) 
is  a  collection  of  amusing  adventures,  narrated 


624 


ARABIC   LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE 


with  much  grace  and  skill  in  most  artfully 
rhymed  prose,  interwoven  with  short  poems. 
It  lias  been  admirably  imitated,  rather  than 
translated,  in  German  by  Ruckert  (Stuttgart, 
1837).  The  romance  entitled  "  Adventures  of 
Antar,"  of  which  about  a  third  part  has  been 
translated  by  Hamilton  (4  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1820),  is  a  charmingly  drawn  picture  of  Arab 
life  before  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism.  The 
famous  collection  of  tales  known  as  the  "  Thou 
sand  and  One  Nights,"  or  the  "  Arabian 
Nights,"  is  of  unknown  date  and  authorship. 
It  was  first  made  known  in  Europe  about  the 
end  of  the  17th  century  by  Antoine  Galland, 
who  was  employed  by  Colbert  to  collect  MSS. 
in  the  East.  The  copy  of  the  Arabic  MS. 
brought  by  Galland  from 'Syria  contained  a 
marginal  note  dated  1584,  and  from  internal 
evidence  the  middle  of  the  loth  century  has 
been  fixed  upon  as  the  probable  period  of  the 
composition  of  the  work.  Some  of  the  tales 
were  evidently  borrowed  by  the  writer  from 
older  authors,  and  Von  Hammer  identifies  at 
least  the  plot  and  some  of  the  stories  of  the 
"  Arabian  Nights  "  with  an  earlier  collection 
in  Persian,  called  Hezar  Afmneh  (Arab.  Elf 
Khurafeh,  "  The  Thousand  Fanciful  Stories"). 
An  excellent  translation,  with  elaborate  critical 
and  illustrative  notes,  was  made  in  England  by 
Lane. — Theology  and  law  among  the  Arabs,  as 
in  the  East  generally,  were  very  closely  connect 
ed,  both  resting  on  the  common  foundation  of 
the  Koran.  But  the  Koran  being  contradictory 
on  some  points,  silent  on  many  others,  and  alto 
gether  without  order  or  system,  recourse  was 
had  first  to  the  oral  traditions  of  the  sayings 
and  doings  of  Mohammed ;  next  to  the  decisions 
of  the  imams  or  legitimate  successors  of  the 
prophet,  and  the  early  caliphs ;  and  where 
these  failed,  to  analogical  reasoning.  Of  the 
commentaries  on  the  Koran,  the  most  esteemed 
is  that  of  Beidhawi  (published  by  Fleischer, 
Leipsic,  1844-'8) ;  and  of  the  collections  of  tradi 
tions,  that  of  Bokhari  (Krehl,  Leyden,  1862-'8). 
Sharastani  gives  a  view  of  the  many  religious 
and  philosophical  sects  into  which  Islam  was 
divided  (Arabic  by  Cureton,  London,  1842-'6; 
German  by  Haarbrucker,  Halle,  1850-'51). 
The  great  schism  is  that  which  divides  the  Sun- 
nis,  the  orthodox  party,  who  recognize  the  au 
thority  of  the  traditions  and  decisions  above 
mentioned,  from  the  Shiahs,  the  followers  of 
Ali,  who  reject  many  of  them.  The  latter  sect 
prevails  chiefly  in  Persia.  There  are  four  lead 
ing  schools  among  the  Sunnis,  all  regarded  as 
orthodox,  and  called  after  their  founders  the 
Hanefite,  Malekite,  Shafiite,  and  Hanbalite. 
They  agree  in  their  general  principles,  but  differ 
in  various  details,  and  all  date  from  near  the 
commencement  of  the  Abbasside  dynasty.  The 
Hanefite  code  prevails  in  India  and  Turkey  ;  the 
Malekite  in  Africa,  except  Egypt.  In  Egypt  the 
generally  received  authority  is  the  Shafiite  code, 
but  the  courts  are  Hanefite,  the  cadi  being  sent 
from  Constantinople.  The  fourth  or  Hanbalite 
school  has  little  influence.  The  most  cele 


brated  digest  of  the  Hanefite  code  is  the 
HuLaya,  translated  into  English  by  Hamilton 
I  (Calcutta,  1791);  another,  the  Multalca  al- 
\  Abkar,  translated  into  French,  is  contained  in 
D'Ohsson's  Empire  Ottoman  (Paris,  1787- 
1820).  The  collections  of  decisions  are  also 
weighty  authorities.  One  of  them,  tlieFutawa 
Alcmjir,  made  by  order  of  the  emperor  Au- 
rungzebe,  was  printed  in  Calcutta  (6  vols.  41o. 
1828-'35),  and  a  portion  of  it  relating  to  the 
law  of  sale  has  been  translated  into  English 
by  Baillie  (London,  1850).  The  chief  authority 
on  the  law  of  inheritance,  the  Sirajiya,  was 
translated  by  Sir  William  Jones  (Calcutta, 
1792).  A  compendium  of  the  Malekite  code 
by  Khalil  ibn  Ishak  has  been  translated  into 
French  by  Perron  (Paris,  1848-'52);  another 
of  the  Shafiite  code,  by  Abu  Shoja,  has  been 
published  by  Keijzer  (Arabic  and  French, 
Leyden,  1859.) — Of  historical  works  the  num 
ber  is  very  large  (Hadji  Khalfa  enumerates 
1,300),  and  the  materials  for  the  history  of  the 
countries  and  periods  embraced  in  the  Moham 
medan  dominion  are  very  full  and  valuable,  but 
outside  of  this  meagre.  In  style  they  are  for 
the  most  part  mere  chronicles,  seldom  rising 
to  a  comprehensive  survey  or  attempting  to 
trace  the  deeper  historical  connections  of 
events.  It  is  a  common  habit  of  the  writers 
to  quote  largely  from  their  authorities,  and 
this  makes  amends  in  part  for  the  absence  of 
anything  like  historical  criticism.  The  follow 
ing  are  some  of  the  more  important  works  that 
have  been  published,  beginning  with  general 
histories  :  Abulfeda,  Historia  Mmlemica  (Ara 
bic  and  Latin  by  Reiske,  6  vols.  4to,  Copen 
hagen,  1789-'94),  and  Historia  Antemuslemica 
(Arabic  and  Latin  by  Fleischer,  Leipsic,  1831); 
Masudi,  "Historical  Encyclopaedia"  (Arabic 
and  French  by  Barbier  de  Meynard,  vols.  i.-vi., 
Paris,  1861-'7l ;  English  by  Sprenger,  London, 
1841,  vol.  i.  only);  Tabari,  "Annals"  (Arabic 
and  Latin  by  Kosegarten,  Greifswald,  1831-'53)  ; 
Ibn  al-Athiri,  "Chronicle"  (Tornberg,  Upsala 
and  Lund,  1851  etseq.};  Ibn  Koteiba,  "Manual 
of  History"  (Wustenfeld,  Gottingen,  1850); 
Ibn  Ettiktaka  (Ahlwardt,  Gotha,  1800);  and 
Hamza  of  Ispahan  (in  Arabic  and  Latin  by 
Rasmussen,  Copenhagen,  1817).  Histories  of 
the  early  conquests:  Al-Beladzori  (De  Goeje, 
Leyden,  1863-'7),  and  Al-Wakidi,  "Moham 
med's  Campaigns"  (Calcutta,  1856),  "Con 
quest  of  Syria  "  (Lees,  Calcutta,  1854),  "  Con 
quest  of  Mesopotamia  "  (Arabic  by  Mordtmann, 
German  by  Niebuhr,  Hamburg,  1847).  His 
tories  of  particular  countries:  Al-Makkari,  on 
the  history  and  literature  of  the  Spanish  Arabs 
(Arabic  by  Dozy  and  others,  Leyden,  1855-' 01  ; 
English,  with  omission  of  the  parts  relating 
to  literary  history,  by  De  Gayanos,  Lon 
don,  1841-'3) ;  Ibn  Adhari,  Africa  and  Spain 
(Dozy,  Leyden,  1848-'51);  Ibn  Abi  Zer,  An- 
nales  Regum  MaurctanicK  (Arabic  and  Latin 
by  Tornberg,  Upsala,  1843-'6;  French  by 
Beaumier,  Paris,  I860);  Makrizi,  "History  of 
the  Mameluke  Saltans  "  (French  by  Quatremere, 


ARABIC   LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE 


Paris,     1835-"T),     "History    of     the     Copts" 
(Arabic  and  German  by  Wustenfeld,   Gottin- 
gen,    1845);    Ibn    Taghri,    annals    principally 
of    Egypt    (Juynboll    and    Matthes,    Ley  den, 
1852-'01);   a  collection  of  chronicles  by  vari-  : 
ous   writers    relating   to   the    city   of    Mecca 
(Wustenfeld,    Leipsic,    1857-'9) ;  \    collection  ; 
relating  to  Sicily  (Amari,  JSibliotheca  Arabo-  ; 
Sicula,  Leipsic,  1855-7) ;  Al-Suyuti,  "History 
of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  "  (English  by  Rev-  | 
nolds,  London,  1830).     To  the  general  charac-  j 
ter  of  Arabic   historical  writing  above  given,  ; 
we   have  a  noble  exception   in  Ibn    Khaldun 
(died  1400),  a  writer  of  a  philosophical  spirit  i 
and  a  profound  historical  sense.    Of  his  history,  , 
the  introduction  has  been  published  by  Qnatre-  ! 
mere  and  translated  into  French  by  De  Slane 
(in  the  Notices  et  extraits  des  manuscrits,  vol. 
xvi.  et  seq,),  and  another  part,  the  history  of  ! 
the  Berbers,  edited  and  translated  by  De  Slane 
(Algiers,  18-47-'56).     Among  biographies,  that  ! 
of    Mohammed    by    Ibn    Ishak    (Arabic    by  ! 
Wustenfeld,  Gottingen,  1S58-'00;   German  by  ! 
Weil,  Stuttgart,   1804)  is  especially  important.  I 
— For   original   speculation  in  philosophy  we 
must  look  rather  to  the  religious  sects  than  to  j 
the  philosophers  so  called,  a  name  reserved  for 
those  who  borrowed  the  systems  of  the  Greeks,  j 
especially  that  of  Aristotle,  in  which  they  in-  j 
troduced  few  changes  of  importance.    The  most 
celebrated  names  among  the  eastern  Arabs  are  •. 
Alkindi  of  the  9th,  Alfarabius  of  the  10th,  and 
above  all  Ibn  Sina  (A  vicenna)  of  the  early  part  of 
the  llth  century.     More  profound  and  original 
was  Algazzali  (died  1111),  who  aimed  at  the  j 
overthrow  of  the  existing  systems,  and  from  ; 
skepticism  passed  finally  to  asceticism  and  mys-  i 
ticism.     W^ith  respect  to  the  idea  of  cause,  he  \ 
held  substantially  the  position  and  anticipated  ; 
the  arguments  of  Hume.     In  the  12th"  century 
Spain  became  the  centre  of  philosophical  ac-  j 
tivity,  its  chief  representatives  being  Ibn  Badja  j 
(Avempace),  Ibn  Tophail  (Abubacer),  and  Ibn  ; 
Roshd  (Averroes).      The   schoolmen   first  ob-  ; 
tained  the  Latin  translations  of    some  of  the  ' 
treatises   of    Aristotle,  not   directly  from   the  j 
Greek,  but  from  Arabic  versions,  and  Averroes,  j 
as  the  latest  of  his  commentators,  was  accepted 
as  his  authorized  interpreter.     In  the  13th  and  : 
14th  centuries  the  authority  of  his  commentary 
was  hardly  questioned,  and  in  the  15th  and  : 
10th  it  was  many  times  reprinted.     These  cir-  j 
cumstances  give  to  Arab  philosophy  a  for  high-  i 
er  importance  in  the  history  of  European  cul-  j 
ture  than  its  independent  value  would  entitle  ! 
it  to  claim. — In  mathematics  the  Arabs  were  ; 
the  pupils  of  Greece  and  India,  but  they  added 
not  a  little  to  the  sum  of  knowledge  which  j 
they  had  received.     Neither  algebra  nor  the  ! 
Arabic  numerals  were,  as   the   names  would 
seem  to  indicate,  of  Arab  invention;  but  the  I 
Arabs  perfected  the  processes  of  the  one,  arriv-  | 
ing  at  the  solution  of  cubic  equations,  and  they  ; 
facilitated  the  introduction  of  the  other.     They  ! 
simplified  trigonometrical  calculations  by  substi 
tuting  the  use  of  sines  and  tangents  for  chords. 
VOL.  i. — 10 


In  astronomy  they  improved  the  instruments  of 
observation  (Abulhassan,  "Treatise  on  Astro 
nomical  Instruments,"  French  by  Sfidillot,  Paris, 
1834-'5),  and  constructed  new  and  more  accu 
rate  tables  (Ibn  Yunis,  Arabic  and  French  by 
Caussin,  Paris,  1804;  Olug-Beg,  Arabic  and 
French  by  Sedillot,  Paris,  1847-'53).  They  made 
some  discoveries  of  importance,  among  which 
is  perhaps  to  be  reckoned  that  of  the  variation 
of  the  moon  by  Abul-Wefa,  commonly  ascribed 
to  Tycho  Brahe,  six  centuries  later. — The 
science  of  medicine  owes  much  to  the  Arabs, 
especially  in  the  departments  of  pharmacy  and 
materia  inedica.  In  surgery,  from  ignorance 
of  anatomy,  they  made  little  advance.  The 
most  celebrated  among  the  medical  as  well  as 
among  the  philosophical  writers  is  A  vicenna, 
whose  "  Canon  of  Medicine "  was  for  four 
centuries  the  leading  text  book  in  European 
schools  (printed  at  Rome,  1593,  and  in  Latin 
versions  not  far  from  30  times).  The  EUiari  or 
Continens  of  Al-Razi  (Rhazes)  enjoyed  also  a 
wide  reputation,  and  in  the  Latin  translation 
passed  through  many  editions.  The  study  of 
medicine  led  naturally  to  that  of  chemistry  and 
botany.  Chemistry  made  substantial  progress 
among  the  Arabs.  To  Geber  we  owe  the  first 
preparation  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  and 
aqua  regia.  The  distillation  of  alcohol  also,  as 
the  name  implies,  was  a  discovery  of  the  Arabs. 
Botany  was  little  more  than  the  handmaid  of 
medicine.  There  was  no  attempt  at  scientific 
classification,  but  only  an  alphabetic  arrange 
ment  of  the  material,  as  among  the  Greek  bo 
tanical  writers.  But  in  the  number  of  plants 
described,  the  style  of  description,  and  the  de 
termination  of  synonymes,  the  advantage  is 
largely  on  the  side  of  the  Arabs.  The  best 
known  writers  are  Al-Nahati  and  Ibn  Baitar 
(German  by  Sontheimer,  Stuttgart,  1840-?42). 
— In  geography  the  Arabs  have  rendered  most 
important  services,  less  in  the  mathematical 
than  in  the  descriptive  branch  of  the  science. 
The  vast  extent  of  the  empire  of  the  caliphs, 
and  the  reports  gathered  from  the  governors 
of  remote  provinces,  the  commercial  inter 
course  reaching  even  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
empire  (witness  the  Arabic  coins  frequently 
dug  up  in  northern  Russia  and  even  in  Nor 
way,  which  prove  the  existence  of  an  estab 
lished  trade,  if  they  do  not  necessarily  suppose 
the  presence  of  Arab  merchants),  the  pilgrim 
age  to  Mecca,  which  it  was  the  duty  of  every 
Moslem  who  had  the  ability  to  make  once  at 
least  in  the  course  of  his  life — all  this  could 
not  but  add  materially  to  the  sum  of  geograph 
ical  knowledge.  The  narrative  of  an  Arab  mer 
chant  named  Soleyman,  who  visited  China  in 
the  9th  century,  was  published  in  Arabic  and 
French  by  Reinaud  (Relation  des  voyages  dans 
rinde  et  d  la  Chine,  Paris,  1845).  Al-Is- 
takhri  and  Ibn  Ilaukal  about  950  traversed 
the  different  Mohammedan  provinces  from  the 
Atlantic  to  India.  The  Liber  Climatum  of" 
the  former  was  published  by  Moller  (Gotha, 
1839  ;  German  by  Mordtmann,  Hamburg,  1845). 


ARABIC   LITERATURE 


ARACHXIDA 


The  "Oriental  Geography  of  Ibn  Haukal,"  by 
Ouseley  (London,  1800),  is  translated  from  a 
Persian  version  in  which  the  works  of  Al- 
Istakhri  and  Ibn  Ilaukal  have  been  recast  and 
combined  in  one.  Especially  important  are 
the  geography  of  Edrisi  (about  1150),  who 
lived  at  the  court  of  Roger  II.  of  Sicily,  and 
who  visited  England  (French  by  Jaubert,  Paris, 
1836-'40;  and  the  portion  relating  to  Africa 
and  Spain,  Arabic  and  French,  by  Dozy  and  De 
Goeje,  Leyden,  180(3) ;  the  "  Geographical  Dic 
tionary  "  *of  Yakut  (died  1229),  published  by 
Wtistenfeld  (Leipsic,  18G6  et  seq.)  ;  geography 
of  Abulfeda  (Arabic  by  Reinaud  and  De  Slane, 
Paris,  1840;  French  by  Reinaud,  Paris,  1848). 
Ibn  Batuta  (died  about  1377)  surpassed  all  in  the 
extent  of  his  travels,  which  reached  from  Spain 
to  China  and  into  central  Africa  (Arabic  and 
French  by  Defremery  and  Sanguinetti,  Paris, 
1853-'9;  English,  abridged,  by  Lee,  London, 
1829)A  Abdallatif,  a  physician,  wrote  an  ac 
count  of  Egypt,  founded  on  his  own  observa 
tions,  and  ot'  great  value  (De  Sacy,  Paris,  1810). 
He  took  advantage  of  a  plague  in  Cairo  in 
1201-'2,  of  which  he  gives  a  graphic  descrip 
tion,  to  make  anatomical  investigations.  The 
Arab  geographers,  instead  of  following  in  their 
descriptions  political  or  physical  divisions  of 
the  globe,  generally  adopted,  after  the  example 
of  the  Greeks,  the  system  of  climates  or  zones, 
usually  seven.  In  the  determination  of  lati 
tudes  and  longitudes,  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  and  the  shape  of  the  continents,  they 
made  a  somewhat  nearer  approach  to  the  truth 
than  the  Greek  geographers.  Under  the  caliph 
Al-Mamoun  (813-'33),  a  measurement  was  made 
of  the  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude. — Such  is 
the  extent  of  Arabic  literature  that,  notwith 
standing  the  labors  of  European  scholars  and 
the  production  of  native  presses,  especially  at 
Boulak,  Cairo,  and  in  India,  and  recently  in 
England,  where  Rigk  Allah  Hassoun,  an  Arabic 
poet,  has  devoted  himself  to  the  production  of 
standard  works,  the  greater  part  even  of  what 
has  been  preserved  is  in  manuscript,  and  still 
more  has  perished.  In  proof  of  the  great  num 
ber  of  works  lost,  we  need  not  appeal  to  the  ex 
aggerated  accounts  of  the  libraries  of  some  of 
the  Mohammedan  princes  (Hakem  II.  of  Spain 
is  said  to  have  collected  600,000  volumes). 
Works  in  literary  history,  always  a  favorite 
department  with  the  Arabs,  furnish  abundant 
evidence.  The  most  important  of  these  works 
are  the  Fihrist  or  "  Catalogue  of  Sciences  "  of 
Ibn  al-Nadim,  of  the  9th  century  (published 
by  Fliigel  vol.  i.,  Leipsic,  1871);  the  "Bio 
graphical  Dictionary"  of  Ilyn  Khallikan,  of  the 
13th  century  (Arabic  by  Wtistenfeld,  Gottingen, 
1835-'50;  French  by  De  Slane,  Paris,  1842- 
-'71);  and  Hadji  Khalfa's  (died  1035)  "Dic 
tionary  of  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish  Litera 
ture"  (Arabic  and  Latin  by  Flugel,  7  vols.  4to, 
Leipsic,  1835-'58).  Hammer-Purgstall's  "Lit 
erary  History  of  the  Arabs  (7  vols.  4to,  Vienna, 
1850-'56),  which  comes  down  only  to  the  year 
1258,  contains  notices  of  about  10,000  writers. 


i  Of  the  printed  books  a  tolerably  complete  in 
dex  is  contained  in  Zenker's  Bibliotheca  Orien- 
talis  (Leipsic,  1846-'GO). 

Alt  I  KIM,  or  Arabians,  a  Christian  sect  of  the 
3d  century,  founded  by  BeryJlus,  bishop  of 
Bostra  in  Arabia.  They  denied  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  and  affirmed  that  the  soul  dies  with  the 
body,  and  is  raised  to  life  again  with  it  in  the 
resurrection.  Origen  contended  with  Beryllus, 
and  a  synod  condemned  the  Arabici. 

ARACAN,  or  Arracan.     I.  A  division  of  British 
Burmah,  including  the  districts  of  Akyab,  San- 
doway,  and  Ramree,  bounded  W.  by  the  bay  of 
Bengal,  S.  by  Pegu,  and  separated  by  the  You- 
madoung  mountains  on  the  E.  from  Ava  ;  area, 
23,529  s<i.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  447,957.  It  is  a  hilly 
!  region,  with  numerous  fertile  plains  and  val- 
j  leys,   dense  jungles,   and   pestiferous  marsnes. 
The  coast  has  very  few  harbors,  and  though 
I  the  country  is  rich  in  timber,  coal,  petroleum, 
salt,  tobacco,   and   rice,   and  has  considerable 
i  trade,   there  are  few  important  towns.      The 
climate  is  very  unhealthy  to  Europeans.     The 
principal   river   is   the   Aracan   or   Kuladyne, 
which  enters  the  bay  of  Bengal  15  m.  N.  of 
Akyab,  after  a  S.  course  of  about  200  m.     The 
aboriginal    inhabitants,  called    Mughs,   consti 
tute  about  half  the  population.     Education  is 
I  very  general,  few  being  unable  to  read  and 
i  write.      The  province  was  conquered  by  the 
I  Burmese  in  1783,  and  taken  from  them  by  the 
I  British  in  1824.     Capital,  Akyab.     II.  A  town, 
i  the  former  capital  of  the  above  province,  on  the 
1  river  Aracan,  about  50  in.  from  its  mouth  ;  pop. 
I  about  10,000.    It  is  a  straggling,  decaying  place, 
which  once  had  about  95,000  inhabitants.    The 
climate  is  extremely  unwholesome. 

ARAl'ATI.    I*  A  port  of  Brazil,  in  the  province 
|  of  Ceara,  on  the  Rio  Jaguaribe,  about  10  m. 
from  the  sea,  lat.  4°  31'  S.,  Ion.   37°  48'  W. ; 
pop.  about  20,000.     It  has  five  churches,  and  a 
I  very  fine  town  hall.     Its  exports  are  mainly 
cotton  and  hides.     At  the  mouth  of  the  river 
is  a  dangerous  bar.     Severe  floods  occur  dur- 
i  ing  the  rainy  seasons.     II.  A  river  in  the  same 
I  province,  flows  due  N.  about  120  m.,  and  en- 
i  ters  the  Atlantic  by  two  mouths,  near  Pernam- 
j  buquinho,  150  m.  N.  W.  of  the  town  of  Aracati. 
ARACIDfE,    in    Greek   mythology,    a   Lydian 
I  maiden,  famous  for  her  skill  in  weaving.     She 
!  challenged  Minerva,  and  wove  a  piece  of  cloth 
!  on  which  the  amours  of  the  gods  were  reprc- 
!  sented.     This  work  was  so  faultless  that  Mi 
nerva,  despairing  of  being   able   to   excel   it, 
tore  it  to  shreds,   whereupon  Arachne    hung 
j  herself.      The  goddess  loosened  the  rope  and 
saved  the  life  of  Arachne ;  but  the  rope  w;is 
transformed  into  a  cobweb,   and  the  maiden 
into  a  spider  (Gr.  apaxvrj},  that  insect  which 
Minerva  most  hated. 

ARACHNIDA,  a  class  of  invertebrate  animals 
belonging  to  the  articulata,  and  including  spi 
ders,  mites,  and  scorpions.  The  arachnida  difl'er 
from  insects  in  having  no  antenna? ;  in  the 
number  of  eyes  being  in  most  species  8,  and, 
even  wl-en  only  2,  in  never  being  placed  later- 


ARACIIXIDA 


ARAFAT 


02  T 


ally  on  the  head;  in  the  legs  being  usually 
8,  although  in  sonic  species  G,  and  in  others  10; 
and  in  their  respiratory  apparatus  consisting  of 
radiated  trachere.  Most  arachnida  are  carniv 
orous.  Some  parasitic  species,  such  as  the  mi 
nute  parasite  mites,  are  furnished  with  a  sucker, 
m  some  respects  constructed  like  that  of  the 
gadfly.  In  other  species  there  is  a  pair  of 
upper  jaws  and  a  pair  of  under  jaws  carrying 
jointed  feelers,  and  between  them  a  sort  of 
tongue  formed  by  a  projection  from  the  breast. 
At  the  back  of  the  mouth  there  is  a  piece  of 
horny  texture,  termed  by  Savigny,  Latreille, 
and  Audouin  the  pharynx,  forming  the  en 
trance  into  the  gullet.  The  gullet,  the  stom 
ach,  and  the  intestines  run  in  a  direct  line 
from  the  pharynx  to  the  vent.  In  most  arach 
nida  there  is  a  complete  circulatory  system  of 
arteries  and  receiving  veins,  returning  blood. 
The  respiratory  organs  have  two  peculiarities, 
on  which  Latreille  established  his  two  great 
divisions  of  arachnida,  pulmonaria  and  trache- 
aria.  The  pulmonaria,  which  Straus-Durck- 
heim  and  Leon  Dufour  place  in  the  first  or 
chief  division,  comprises  the  numerous  species 
of  spiders  and  the  scorpions.  Their  respiratory 
apparatus  consists  of  small  cavities  formed  by 
the  union  of  triangular  laminae  of  extreme  thin 
ness.  The  division  furnished  with  air  pipes 
(trachearia}  similar  to  those  of  insects,  com 
prises  the  harvest  or  shepherd  spiders,  mites, 
and  other  genera.  u  The  presence  of  tracheae, 
or  air  pipes,"  says  Latreille,  ';  excludes  all  com 
plete  circulation ;  that  is,  the  distribution  of 
blood  to  different  parts,  and  its  return  from  the 
respiratory  organs  to  the  heart.''  The  eyes  of 
the  arachnida  are  all  simple.  In  most  species 
of  spiders  they  are  8  in  number,  but  in  some 
they  are  6  and  in  others  only  2.  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  organs  of  hearing  in  arachnida, 
although  it  has  been  well  ascertained  that 
these  animals  do  hear.  Male  spiders  are 
alwaj  s  much  smaller  than  the  females.  The 
palpi  or  feelers  of  the  male  are  furnished  with 
organs  of  various  forms,  usually  bulging  at  the 
tip ;  the  feelers  of  the  female  gradually  taper 
to  a  point.  The  eggs  of  spiders,  not  having  a 
hard  shell,  are  soft  and  compressible.  Before 
being  laid,  they  lie  in  the  egg  bag,  squeezed 
together  and  flattened,  within  the  spider's  body, 
but  assume  the  globular  form  after  being  laid. 
The  female  spider,  in  preparing  a  nest  for  her 
eggs,  uses  her  own  body  as  a  bird  uses  its 
body  to  give  form  and  proper  size  to  its  nest. 
The  eggs  are  excluded  from  a  cavity  just  behind 
the  breast.  The  hatching  of  the  eggs  of  one 
species  (tlufepeira  diadema)  has  been  traced 
with  care,  and  the  successive  evolution  of  the 
embryo  depicted  with  skill,  by  Moritz  Herold 
of  Marburg.— Latreille  arranges  the  arachnida 
into  two  great  orders,  pulmonaria  and  tra 
chearia.  He  subdivides  the  first  order,  A.  pul 
monaria,  into  two  families,  under  the  names  of 
a  ra  n e idee-  and  pedipalp L  The  araneidce  include 
our  common  spiders,  having  palpi  simple,  pedi- 
form  ;  mandibles  armed  with  a  movable  and 


perforated  claw,  emitting  a  poisonous  liquid  ; 
abdomen  inarticulate,  terminating  by  spinner 
ets.  The  pedipalpi,  including  the  scorpions 
and  their  allies,  have  the  abdomen  articulate, 
without  spinnerets;  palpi  produced,  cheliform 
(chela,  claw),  or  shaped  like  pincers;  mandi 
bles  with  a  movable  digit.  The  second  order, 
trachearia,  includes  various  forms  of  shepherd 
spiders  and  sea  spiders,  mites,  and  ticks ;  true 
mites,  garden  mites,  spider  mites,  wood  mites ; 
true  ticks,  plant  ticks,  water  ticks,  harvest 
ticks  ;  false  scorpions,  book  scorpions;  shepherd 
spiders,  sea  spiders,  and  parasitic  sea  spiders. 

ARAD,  a  town  of  Hungary,  capital  of  the 
county  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Maros,  19  m.  N.  of  Temesvar ;  pop.  in  1869, 
32,725.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop,  and 
contains  a  gymnasium  and  Wallachian  college. 
Considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with  Germany 
and  the  Black  sea,  chiefly  in  tobacco  and  cattle. 
Its  annual  fair  is  second  only  in  importance  to 
those  of  Pesth  and  Debreczin.  In  the  17th 
century  the  city  was  captured  and  destroyed 
by  the  Turks.  It  is  skirted  on  two  sides  by 
the  Maros,  and  defended  by  a  fortress,  which, 
held  by  the  Austrians,  capitulated  only  after  a 
long  siege  to  the  Hungarian  army  in  the  revo 
lutionary  war  of  1849.  Three  months  later 
(Oct.  6),  Arad  witnessed  the  execution  by  the 
Austrian  authorities  of  13  Hungarian  generals 
and  colonels,  who  had  surrendered  with  Gorgey 
at  Vilagos  (Aug.  13),  or,  following  his  exam 
ple,  a  few  days  later. — On  the  opposite  bank, 
and  connected  by  a  bridge,  is  Xew  Arad  (Hun. 
Uj  Arad),  in  the  county  of  Temes;  pop.  4,900. 

ARADtS  (now  Ruad),  a  rocky  islet,  about  a 
mile  in  circumference,  lying  2  m.  otf  the  Syrian 
coast,  in  lat.  35°  X.,  35  in.  N.  of  Tripoli.  It 
was  early  occupied  as  a  stronghold  by  the 
Phoenicians,  known  to  the  Hebrews  as  Arvad, 
a  city  second  only  to  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  held 
supremacy  over  a  considerable  tract  on  the  ad 
jacent  mainland,  where  Antaradus  was  found 
ed.  The  city  shared  in  the  general  fortunes  of 
Phoenicia,  and  about  A.  D.  038  was  destroyed 
by  Moawiyah,  the  lieutenant  of  the  caliph 
Omar,  and  never  rebuilt.  Aradus  is  the  only 
island  on  the  Syrian  coast  mentioned  by  the 
historians  of  the  crusades.  It  is  now  occu 
pied  by  about  3,000  people,  mainly  fishermen. 
Remains  of  the  old  Phoenician  walls  are  still 
to  be  seen. 

ARAFAT,  or  Orphat  (Arabic,  gratitude),  a  gra 
nitic  hill  in  Arabia,  near  Mecca,  a  pilgrimage 
to  which  is  enjoined  upon  all  who  visit  that 
city.  It  rises  about  200  feet  above  the 
plain.  The  pilgrimage  occupies  three  days 
from  Mecca.  On  the  second  day  the  ceremony 
of  the  sermon  on  the  mount  is  observed.  The 
cadi  of  Mecca  usually  preaches  the  sermon, 
riding  first  upon  a  camel  up  the  entire  length 
of  the  stone  steps  which  ascend  the  mountain 
to  the  summit.  Hearing  this  sermon  is  the 
great  point  of  the  pilgrimage,  and  confers  the 
title  of  hadji  (pilgrim).  There  is  a  tradition 
among  the  Mohammedans  that  on  this  moun- 


628 


ARAGO 


tain  Adam  first  met  Eve  again,  after  a  separa 
tion  of  120  years  immediately  following  the 
expulsion  from  paradise.  On  the  summit  is  a 
chapel,  which,  according  to  tradition,  was  built 
by  Adam  himself. 

ARAGO.  I.  Dominique  Francois,  a  French 
physicist  and  statesman,  born  at  Estagel,  near 
Perpignan,  Feb.  26,  1786,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  2, 
1853.  After  studying  mathematics  at  the  col 
lege  of  Perpignan,  he  entered  in  1803  the  poly 
technic  school.  On  leaving  it  in  1805,  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  board  of  longitude, 
and  in  1800  he  was  commissioned  to  finish  in 
conjunction  with  Biot  the  measurement  of  an 
arc  of  the  meridian  in  Spain,  begun  by  Delara- 
bre  and  Meehain,  as  the  basis  of  the  decimal 
metrical  system  of  France.  He  was  employed 
in  the  island  of  Majorca  on  the  outbreak  of 
war,  taken  for  a  spy,  saved  from  the  mob  by 
some  months'  confinement  in  a  fortress,  after 
ward  taken  by  Spanish  corsairs  from  an  Al- 
gerine  vessel  and  harshly  treated,  enlarged  on 
the  demand  of  the  dey,  shipwrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Sardinia,  and  after  new  perils  reached 
Algiers  in  a  Bedouin  disguise.  Here  he  was 
treated  with  suspicion  by  a  new  dey,  but  finally 
reached  Marseilles  in  a  French  frigate  in  1809. 
On  his  arrival  in  Paris  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  institute,  though  only  23  years  old,  and 
soon  afterward  appointed  professor  at  the  poly 
technic  school.  In  1830  he  became  perpetual  sec 
retary  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  and  director 
of  the  observatory,  a  post  which  he  retained 
till  his  death.  lie  rendered  special  services  to 
optics  by  his  own  experiments,  and  by  his  in 
fluence  over  others,  and  especially  by  direct 
ing  the  labors  of  Fresnel  and  Mains.  He  was 
the  first  to  recognize  the  value  of  Young's  op 
tical  papers.  lie  investigated  magnetical  phe 
nomena,  and  made  some  contributions  to  me 
teorology,  especially  in  connection  with  elec 
tricity,  lie  also  successfully  investigated  the 
colors  of  polarized  light,  the  application  of 
polarization  as  a  test  of  the  origin  of  light,  the 
experimental  proof  of  the  retardation  of  light 
in  dense  mediums,  the  apparent  magnetism  of 
copper  rotating  near  a  permanent  magnet,  and 
the  influence  of  the  aurora  upon  the  needle. 
For  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  he  was  blind 
and  otherwise  a  sufferer.  lie  was  the  author 
of  more  than  60  distinct  memoirs  on  various 
branches  of  science.  He  established,  in  con 
cert  with  M.  Gay-Lussac,  in  1816,  the  Annalcs 
de  chimie  ct  de  physique.  The  article  in  the 
l|  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia"  on  the  polariza 
tion  of  light  is  from  the  pen  of  Arago.  His 
complete  works  appeared  in  Paris  in  17  vols. 
(1855-'60),  under  the  direction  of  Barral. 
From  the  royal  society  of  London  he  received 
in  1829  the  Copley  medal,  an  honor  never 
before  conferred  upon  a  French  man  of  science. 
When  Napoleon,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
thought  of  emigrating  to  the  United  States,  for 
the  purpose  of  devoting  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  scientific  pursuits,  he  invited  Arago  to 
accompany  him ;  and  when  this  intention  was 


foiled  by  the  English,  Monge  endeavored  m  vain 
to  prevail  upon  Arago  to  follow  the  ex-empe 
ror  to  St.  Helena.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  1830,  Arago  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  people.  In  1831  he  was  elected  member 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies  by  his  native  de 
partment  of  Pyrenees-Orientales,  and  took  his 
seat  on  the  extreme  left.  He  delivered  mem 
orable  speeches  in  behalf  of  science  and  educa 
tion,  and  in  the  political  questions  of  the  day 
he  strenuously  opposed  all  encroachments 
upon  the  rights  of  the  people,  and  denounced 
the  government  monopoly  of  railways  and 
the  project  of  the  fortifications  of  Paris.  lie 
was  also  a  member  of  the  council  general  of 
the  Seine,  of  which  he  was  president  till  1849, 
arid  the  declaration  of  the  council  in  favor  of 
the  emancipation  of  slaves  was  due  to  him. 
He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  movement 
which  led  to  the  overthrow  of  Louis  Philippe, 
and  on  Feb.  24,  1848,  he  became  a  member  of 
the  provisional  government,  and  officiated  first 
as  minister  of  marine,  and  afterward  added  to 
the  functions  of  this  office  the  duties  of  the 
war  department.  He  belonged  to  the  republi 
can  wing  of  Marrast  and  Marie,  who  opposed 
the  theories  of  the  socialists,  and  advocated 
liberal  institutions,  as  they  exist  in  the  United 
States.  At  the  same  time  he  represented  his 
native  department  in  the  constituent  assembly. 
When  the  provisional  government  surrendered 
the  reins  of  power,  the  assembly  appointed  him 
member  of  the  executive  commission.  In  this 
position  he  displayed  great  personal  courage 
during  the  bloody  days  of  June,  1848.  He 
opposed  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon  to  the 
presidency,  and  gradually  ceased  to  take  part 
in  public  affairs.  But  to  the  last  he  proved 
true  to  his  republican  creed,  and  after  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  1851,  refused  to  take  the 
oath  to  the  government  of  Louis  Napoleon. 
II.  Jean,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1788, 
died  in  Mexico,  July  9,  1836.  He  was  a  sub- 
treasurer  in  Perpignan,  and,  having  been  de 
prived  of  his  appointment  on  a  denunciation 
which  subsequently  turned  out  to  be  false,  he 
embarked  for  New  Orleans,  and,  joining  the 
younger  Mina,  became  a  general  in  the  Mex 
ican  service  in  the  war  of  independence.  III. 
Jacques  Etienne  Victor,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Estagel,  March  10,  1790,  died  in  Brazil 
in  January,  1855.  When  only  20  years  of  age 
he  made  an  artist's  tour  through  various  coun 
tries  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  1817  lie  sailed 
in  the  exploring  vessel  Uranie  as  draughtsman 
to  the  expedition.  The  ship  was  wrecked  at 
the  Moluccas,  and  Arago  did  not  return  to 
France  till  1821.  He  afterward  resided  at 
Bordeaux  and  Toulouse,  and  lost  his  sight  in 
1837,  which,  however,  did  not  prevent  him 
from  engaging  in  new  voyages.  His  most 
interesting  work  is  Souvenirs  d'un  axcugle: 
Voyage  autour  du  monde  (with  illustrations 
and  comments  by  Francois  Arago,  2  vols., 
'  Paris,  1838  et  seq.~).  IV.  Etienne,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Perpignan,  Feb.  7, 


ARAGO 


ARAGON 


G20 


1803.     He  studied  at  Loreze,  and  undertook  a 
course  of  chemistry  at  the  polytechnic  school, 
which  he  quitted  for  the  purpose  of  joining  the 
secret  societies.     He  established  the  Lorgnette 
and  Figaro  newspapers,  and  was  director  of 
the  Vaudeville  until  it  was  burned  down.     He 
has  written  upward  of  100  theatrical  pieces, 
including  Lcs  aristocraties,  a  five-act  comedy,  j 
produced  at  the  Theatre-Fran^ais.      In   1830  j 
he  closed  his  theatre  to  join  in  the  popular  ! 
movement,  and  distributed  the  theatrical  stock  j 
of  arms  to  the  people  during  the  three  days  of  I 
July.     He  was  among  the  most  prominent  to  j 
signalize  his  disapproval  of  the  shortcomings  of 
Louis  Philippe's  government,  which  cancelled  I 
his  theatrical  license  in  1840.     The  Reforme,  ' 
a  daily  democratic  journal,  was  founded    by  ' 
Etienne  Arago.     He    was  one   of  the  prime  j 
movers  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  placed  i 
himself  in   the   direction    of   the   post   office,  I 
which  post  he  held  till  the  retirement  of  Gen. 
Cavaignac.      In   1849   he  was   expelled    from  | 
France  for  his  participation  in  revolutionary  j 
movements,  and  went  to  Belgium,  which  coun-  i 
try  he  was  also  obliged  to  leave  in  1851  at  the 
request  of  Louis  Xapoleon ;  and  after  wander 
ing  about  in  different  countries,  he  settled  at  I 
Turin.     The  amnesty  of  1859  enabled  him  to 
return  to  Paris.     He  attracted  much  public  at 
tention  in  1862  by  leaving  the  societe  des  gens 
de  lettres  upon  the  ground  of  its  being  con 
trolled  by  the  banker  Mires  and  other  schemers.  ! 
In  1870  he  was  mayor  of  Paris  from  Sept.  5 
to  Oct.  31,  when  the  invasion  of  the  hotel  de 
ville  forced  him  to  retire.     Among  his  later 
productions  are  a  poem  on  Spa,  the  Belgian 
watering  place  (Brussels,    1851);   a  historical 
novel  relating  to  the  Vendean  wars,  Lcs  Blancs 
et  les  Bleus  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1862);  and  a  vin-  ; 
dication  of  his  course  in  the  February  revo-  ; 
lution,    Les  pastes   en   1848    (1867).      V.   Em 
manuel,    an    advocate    and   politician,    son    of  j 
Dominique  Francois,   born  in  Paris,   Aug.   6,  I 
1812.     His  name  as  well  as  his  opinions  and 
tendencies  caused  him  to  be  retained  in  several  < 
political  cases  of  importance.     In  1839  he  de-  I 
fended  Barbes  and  Martin  Bernard.     He  took  I 
an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848.    When 
the  abdication  of  Louis  Philippe  was  announced  j 
in  the  chamber,  Arago,  who  had  penetrated  j 
thither,  rose  and  loudly  proclaimed  that  royalty  ! 
was  by  this  act  extinct,  and  that  the  people  j 
objected  to  a  regency.     Lamartine  and  other  j 
deputies  followed,   and  a  provisional  govern 
ment  was  organized  on  the  spot.     Lyons  being  : 
in  a  turbulent  state  on  account  of  destitution  j 
among  the  working  class,  Arago  went  there  as  j 
commissary  general,  with  plenary  powers,  and  | 
ordered  500,000  francs  to  be  immediately  ap-  ; 
plied  in  relief  of  the  distress.     This  action  was  I 
subsequently  made  the  subject  of  furious  party  j 
invective,    lie  became  a  member  of  the  legishi-  • 
tive  assembly  for  the  Pyrenees- Orientales,  and  i 
was  envoy  in  Berlin  from  May  till  December,  : 
when  on  Louis  Napoleon's  election  to  the  presi-  ! 
dency  he   resigned,   and   strenuously  opposed 


him  after  his  return  to  Paris  in  the  constituent 
and  subsequently  in  the  legislative  assembly. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  second  empire, 
he  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  the 
law,  acquiring  distinction  by  defending  in  1867 
the  Pole  Berezowski,  who  attempted  to  mur 
der  the  czar  at  the  time  of  the  Paris  exposi 
tion,  and  in  1868,  together  with  Gambetta  and 
Cremieux,  the  journalist  Peyrat,  who  had 
started  the  project  of  a  monument  in  honor  of 
Baudin.  In  1869  he  was  put  forward  for  the 
legislative  assembly  in  two  departments,  but 
defeated  by  the  government  candidates.  In 
1870  he  became  a  member  of  the  provisional 
government  without  portfolio,  resisting  the  ag 
gressions  of  the  rioters  on  Oct.  31.  At  the 
age  of  20  Emmanuel  Arago  published  a  volume 
of  poems,  and  was  for  five  years  afterward  en 
gaged  in  theatrical  writing. 

ARAGOi\,  formerly  a  kingdom,  now  a  royal 
captaincy  general  in  the  northeast  of  Spain, 
bounded  X.  by  the  Pyrenees,  separating  it  from 
France,  E.  by  Catalonia,  S.  E.  by  Valencia, 
S.  W.  by  Xew  Castile,  and  W.  by  Old  Castile 
and  Xavarre;  area,  17,984  sq.  m.  ,  pop.  in  1867 
(estimated),  925,773.  The  surface  is  irregular 
from  the  numerous  spurs  of  the  Pyrenees  that 
cross  it,  besides  which  it  is  separated  from  the 
neighboring  provinces  by  ranges  of  lofty  hills, 
that  convert  it  almost  into  a  basin.  The*  Pyre- 
nean  chain  in  Aragon  reaches  a  great  altitude, 
some  peaks  exceeding  11,000  feet.  The  prov 
ince  is  watered  by  the  Ebro  and  its  tributaries, 
the  Huecha,  Jalon,  Jiloca.  Huerva,  Aguas,  Mar 
tin,  Guadalupe,  and  Xonaspe,  on  the  right,  the 
Gallego,  Isuela,  and  Cinca  on  the  left.  A  canal 
commenced  in  1528  by  Charles  V.  stopped  short 
of  its  object,  which  was  to  reach  the  sea  at 
Tortosa,  and  furnish  a  maritime  outlet  for  the 
province.  It  extends  from  Tudela,  in  Xavarre, 
to  Sastago.  Its  average  width  is  69  feet,  its 
depth  9  feet.  It  is  mostly  lined  by  high,  thick 
walls,  and  crosses  the  Jalon  river  by  an  aque 
duct  4,800  feet  in  length.  The  chief  produc 
tions  of  Aragon  are  grain,  flax,  and  hemp  of 
good  quality,  fruits  of  various  kind,  maize,  wine, 
and  various  dyestuffs.  The  mineral  produc 
tions  are  iron,  quicksilver,  lead,  copper,  cobalt, 
marble,  and  coal.  The  mines  and  quarries  are 
indifferently  worked,  the  chief  being  one  of 
rock  salt  near  Remolinos.  Cattle  are  not  very 
plentiful,  but  sheep  and  swine  are  bred  in  con 
siderable  numbers.  The  mountains  and  forests 
abound  in  game.  Aragon  is  divided  into  three 
provinces,  Huesca,  Saragossa,  and  Teruel.  The 
principal  city  is  Saragossa. — After  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  empire  Aragon  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Visigoths.  Early  in  the  8th  century 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Moors,  from  whom  it 
was  eventually  taken  by  the  rulers  of  Xavarre. 
In  1035  Ramiro  I.,  son  of  Sancho  III.  of  Xa 
varre,  received  it  in  partition  and  raised  it 
from  a  county  to  a  kingdom.  The  four  suc 
ceeding  kings  of  the  same  house  enlarged  the 
kingdom,  which,  after  the  acquisition  of  the 
county  of  Barcelona,  passed  from  the  Xavarre 


C30 


ARAGON 


ARAKTCIIEYEFF 


to  the  Barcelona  dynasty  about  the  middle  of 
the  12th  century.  The  latter  gave  11  kings 
to  Aragon,  ending  with  Martin  in  1410,  and 
won  and  kept  the  Balearic  islands,  Sicily,  and 
Sardinia.  The  Barcelona  dynasty  was  succeed 
ed  in  1412  hy  Ferdinand  I.  as  the  first  king  of 
the  house  of  Castile.  In  consequence  of  the 
marriage  of  Ferdinand  II.  with  Isabella,  heiress 
of  Castile,  in  1409,  Aragon  and  Castile  were 
united,  and  the  consolidation  of  the  Spanish  mon 
archy  dates  from  the  accession  of  their  grandson 
Charles  V.  (1510). — The  Aragonese  had  prob 
ably  the  earliest  representative  system  of  Eu 
rope.  Their  fueros  (constitutional  charter)  com 
pelled  the  king  to  take  an  oath  to  support 
them,  to  give  to  his  subjects  half  the  territory 
lie  should  take  from  the  enemy,  not  to  enact 
laws  without  their  consent,  nor  to  declare  war 
or  to  make  peace  without  the  consent  of  his 
counsellors.  The  fucros  provided  a  cortes,  in 
which  all  classes  of  the  state  were  represented, 
and  also  enunciated  principles  of  self-govern 
ment  and  popular  rights  not  exceeded  by  the 
liberalism  of  the  present  day.  To  insure  the 
sovereign's  adherence  to  this  compact,  ajvsti- 
cia  was  provided  for  as  guardian  of  the  laws. 
He  was  to  be  appointed  by  king  and  cortes  to 
gether  ;  his  decisions  were  without  appeal,  and 
he  was  only  answerable  to  the  nation  at  large. 
The  cortes  were  composed  of  the  nobility, 
the  caballeros,  and  the  commons,  to  whom  in 
1301  the  ecclesiastics  were  added.  Unanimous 
consent  of  the  king  and  the  four  orders  was 
requisite  to  a  law.  The  cortes  were  summoned 
and  dismissed  by  the  king,  who  presided  at 
their  deliberations  in  person,  unless  unable  to 
do  so,  in  which  case  the  crown  prince  or  his 
lieutenant  was  present.  He  could  not  remain 
in  the  cortes  at  the  taking  of  the  votes  on  a 
measure.  Every  Aragonese  had  the  right  to 
lay  before  the  cortes  any  greuges  (grudges  or 
grievances)  in  relation  to  a  breach  of  ihefueros 
of  the  kingdom,  and  the  cortes  appointed  a 
committee  to  report  on  the  grievance.  After 
all  petitions  and  grievances  had  been  disposed 
of,  but  not  before,  the  cortes  voted  the  supplies 
for  the  services  of  the  state.  These  supplies 
were  of  a  limited  character.  In  1370  the  first 
money  grant  was  asked  by  Pedro  IV.  to  levy 
a  body  of  men-at-arms.  The  Aragonese  cortes 
refused,  being  "accustomed,"  as  they  said,  "to 
serve  the  king  with  their  persons,  not  their 
purses."  Subsequently,  the  same  king,  how 
ever,  coaxed  his  subjects  into  a  loan.  In  1412 
Ferdinand  I.  obtained  another  loan,  which 
loans  paved  the  way  to  royal  aids,  benevo 
lences,  and  other  exactions.  On  the  dissolu 
tion  of  the  cortes,  officers  called  a  disputacion, 
and  associated  with  thejusticia,  were  appointed 
by  the  cortes  to  watch  over  the  public  interests 
until  they  met  again.  The  Aragonese  had  an 
ancient  constitutional  right  of  taking  up  arms 
as  a  defence  against  the  refusal  of  their  king  to 
observe  and  protect  their  fueros.  The  king  at 
his  coronation  having  taken  the  oath  to  uphold 
the  constitution,  protect  the  fueros,  and  do  jus 


tice,  the  justicia  who  administered  it  replied 
in  the  name  of  the  people,  "  We,  who  are  worth 
as  much  as  you,  take  you  for  our  king  and 
lord,  provided  you  keep  our  laws  and  liberties ; 
otherwise  not."  The  decline  of  Aragonese  lib 
erty  began  with  the  union  of  the  crowns  of 
!  Aragon  and  Castile,  which  increased  the  power 
'  of  the  monarchy ;  and  the  accession  of  Charles 
V.  was  the  death  blow  to  the  liberty  and  privi 
leges  of  the  Spanish  cities  and  provinces*.  In 
the  reign  of  Philip  II.  the  justicia,  Juan  de 
Samoza,  having  summoned  the  people  to  arms 
to  protect  their  fueros,  the  king  sent  a  force 
against  him,  and  wrote  an  autograph  letter 
to  his  general,  directing  him  to  take  and  pun 
ish  the  justicia  without  delay ;  an  order  which 
was  strictly  obeyed,  the  judge  being  beheaded 
without  form  of  trial. 

ARAGOJVA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
and  8  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Girgenti ;  pop.  about 
8,000.  It  is  a  very  poor  place,  situated  on  a 
bare  plain,  backed  by  steep  hills ;  but  it  has  a 
large  castle  of  the  princes  of  Aragon  a,  and  is 
in  the  neighborhood  of  extensive  sulphur  mines, 
and  of  the  mud  volcanoes  called  Maccalube, 
which  rise  about  200  feet  above  the  plain,  and 
are  known  to  have  been  in  a  state  of  continual 
activity  for  1,500  years. 

ARAGUAY,  or  Araguaya,  a  river  of  Brazil,  rises 
in  lat.  18°  10'  S.  and  Ion.  51°  30'  W.,  flows 
northward,  between  the  provinces  of  Matto 
Grosso  and  Goyaz,  to  Sao  Joao,  lat.  0°  5'  S., 
where  it  unites  with  the  Tocantins,  and  the 
combined  stream  discharges  its  waters,  after  a 
course  of  nearly  400  m.  further,  into  the  south 
ern  estuary  of  the  Amazon,  in  lat.  1°  40'  S.  Its 
whole  course  is  about  1,300  m.,  of  which  about 
1,100  are  navigable.  About  midway  in  its 
course  it  separates  into  two  arms,  which  en 
close  the  island  of  Banana  or  Santa  Anna,  210 
in.  long  and  40  broad.  Its  principal  tributary 
is  Das  Mortes,  which  joins  it  in  lat.  12°  S. 
Many  tribes  of  warlike  savages  are  found  on 
the  banks  of  the  Araguay.  It  furnishes  an  un 
interrupted  navigation  from  Parti  almost  to  the 
head  waters  of  the  Parana. 

ARAKTIHEYEFF,  Alexei,  count,  a  Russian 
statesman,  born  in  1709,  died  May  3, 1834.  He 
was  of  an  obscure  family,  was  educated  in  the 
military  school  of  St.  Petersburg,  entered  the  ar 
tillery,  and  reached  in  it  the  highest  rank.  He 
was  a  favorite  of  Paul  I.,  and  for  a  short  time 
governor  general  of  St.  Petersburg,  but  was 
dismissed  on  account  of  his  insufferable  harsh 
ness.  Paul  made  him  commander  of  his  fa 
vorite  regiment  of  guards  at  Gatchina,  an  im 
perial  residence  in  the  environs  of  the  capital. 
Suspicious  of  danger,  Paul  the  day  before  his 
murder  sent  an  order  for  Araktcheyeff  and  his 
regiment.  The  courier  was  detained  by  the 
conspirators,  and  Araktcheyeff  reached  the 
barriers  of  the  capital  too  late.  Alexander,  the 
successor  of  Paul,  kept  Araktcheyeff  near  his 
person,  and  he  remained  unshaken  in  his  mas 
ter's  favor.  He  was  energetic  and  active,  but 
hard  and  utterly  distrustful.  The  military  col- 


ARAL 


ARAM 


CC1 


onies  introduced  into  Russia  under  Alexander, 
were  created  and  organized   by  Araktcheyelf 
amid  bloodshed  and  cruelties.     During  the  last 
years  of  the  czar's  reign  Araktcheyeff  became  j 
virtual  ruler  of  the  empire,  issuing  laws  and  j 
ukases  on  blanks  with  the  imperial  signature.  ; 
Soon  after  Alexander's  death  he  was  ordered 
to  confine  his  residence  to  his  estates  at  Gru-  I 
zino.    He  left  the  bulk  of  his  large  fortune  to  a 
military  school  founded  by  him  in  Gruzino,  and 
$20,000  to  serve,  with  the  accumulated  inter 
est,  as  a  prize  for  the  best  history  of  the  reign 
of  Alexander,  100  years  after  his  death.     It  is 
supposed  that  this  part  of  the  will  was  an-  : 
nulled  by  Nicholas. 

ARAL,  Sea  of,  a  large  inland  sea  or  lake  of  ; 
Asiatic  Russia  and  Turkistan,  between  lat.  42°  ! 
30'  and  47°  X.,  and  Ion.  57°  30'  and  61°  30'  E.  j 
It  lies  about  40  feet  above  the  ocean,  and  more 
than  100  feet  above  the   Caspian   sea,   from 
which  it  is  200  m.  distant  at  the  nearest  point, 
and  with  which  Humboldt  and  others  suppose 
it  to  have  been  formerly  connected.    The  Aral, 
covering  an  area  of  about  24,000  sq.  m.,  is,  next 
to  the  Caspian,  the  largest  inland  sea  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere.     It  is  shallow,  with  many 
islands.     It  has  no  outlet,  but  the  Sir  Darya  or 
Sihoon  (the  Jaxartes  of  the  ancients),  the  Amu 
Darya  or  Jihoon  (the  Oxus),  and  several  smaller 
rivers  flow  into  it.     The  water  is  brackish,  but 
is  freely  drunk  by  horses,  and  is  used  for  culi 
nary  purposes.     Fish  are  abundant.    The  navi 
gation  of  the  sea  of  Aral  is  exceedingly  difficult 
for    sailing  vessels;    perfect    calms    alternate 
with  violent  and  sudden  storms,  oftenest  com 
ing    from   the  northeast.      The   harbors   and 
anchorages  are  few  and  insecure.     The  shores 
are  generally  low  and  sandy,  but  on  the  north-  I 
ern  side  are  small  hills  of  clay.     Its  borders  ' 
are  generally  uninhabited  in  summer,  but  in  ; 
winter  they  are  frequented  by  nomadic  tribes  j 
from  the  Kirghiz  steppes.     The  sea  of  Aral  is  ; 
in  the  power  of  the  Russian  empire.    The  Rus-  j 
sians  explored  and  made  a  map  of  it  as  early  \ 
as  1740,  and  they  sent  occasional  expeditions 
to  its  borders  till  1847,  when  they  built  a  fort 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Sir,  and  began  to  take  j 
military  possession  of  the  principal  islands  of  ; 
the    lake.      Colonies    were     soon     afterward  | 
founded,  and  Russian  vessels  began  the  regular  j 
navigation  which  they  have  since  continued. 

ARAM     (Latinized    Aramcea),    the    Hebrew  i 
name  of  the  region  lying  N.  and  E.  of  Pales-  ! 
tine  and  Phoenicia,  and  extending  to  the  Tigris,  j 
the  northern  and  southern  boundaries  never  i 
having  been  accurately  defined.    It  correspond-  j 
ed  generally  to  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  included  parts  of  Chal-  | 
dea  and  Assyria.     In  the  Septuagint  the  name  j 
is  usually  rendered  by  Syria.     It  means  high-  I 
lands,  for,  although  most  of  the  region  is  a  low  ! 
plain,  the  part  which  immediately  borders  upon 
Palestine  is  elevated.     That  portion  between  ' 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  is  specially  designated 
as  Aram-naharaim,  "Aram  of  the  two  rivers," 
answering  to  the   Greek   Meaon-orap'a.     Here 


was  the  original  home  of  Abraham,  whence 
he  migrated  to  Canaan.  From  this  migra 
tion  dates  the  long  separation  between  the  lie- 
brews  and  their  AramaBan  kindred. — The  Ara 
maic  language  remained  in  a  rude  state  after 
the  separation,  while  the  Hebrew,  which  was 
undoubtedly  at  first  identical  with  it,  became 
greatly  developed ;  so  that  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah  the  former  was  unintelligible  to 
the  mass  of  the  Jews.  When  the  ten  tribes  of 
Israel  were  carried  away,  their  place  was  partly 
supplied  by  various  AramaBan  immigrants,  who 
gradually  formed  a  patois  designated  as  Gali 
lean  or  Samaritan.  The  exiles  from  Judah,  du 
ring  their  residence  in  Babylonia,  abandoned 
their  own  language  and  adopted  the  Aramaic, 
which  they  brought  back  with  them  to  Judea. 
This  formed  the  current  language  in  Palestine 
until  it  was  partially  superseded,  after  the  Ma 
cedonian  conquest,  by  the  Greek.  Christ  and 
his  principal  disciples  probably  spoke  both  lan 
guages  ;  they  certainly  spoke  Aramaic.  In  the 
7th  century  the  Moslem  invasion  of  Syria  in 
troduced  the  Arabic  language,  which  gradu 
ally  took  the  place  of  the  Aramaic ;  and  the 
latter  has  become  nearly  extinct,  existing  now 
as  a  living  tongue  only  among  the  Syrian 
Christians  near  Mosul.  Properly  speaking,  the 
Aramaic  has  no  literature  of  its  own.  As  a 
written  language  it  has  been  used  in  its  two 
branches,  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac,  only  by  the 
Hebrews  and  eastern  Christians,  and  by  them 
only  in  treating  of  religious  subjects.  The  ca 
nonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  contain  two 
extended  passages  in  Chaldee  (Ezra  vii.  12-26 ; 
Dan.  ii.  4  to  vii.  28).  Several  of  the  apocry 
phal  books  were  written  in  Aramaic,  although 
they  now  exist  only  in  the  Greek  translation. 
The  versions  of  Hebrew  Scriptures  known  as 
Targums  are  written  in  Aramaic.  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  origi 
nally  written  in  it,  although  we  have  it  authen 
tically  only  in  its  Greek  form.  The  Talmud,  as 
a  whole,  is  written  in  Aramaic,  but  with  such 
variations  from  the  main  dialects  that  some 
have  proposed  to  give  the  name  Talmudic  to 
the  idiom  in  which  it  is  composed.  (See  CHAL 
DEE  LANGUAGE  AXD  LITERATURE,  and  SYRIAO 
LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.) 

ARAM,  Engene,  an  English  scholar,  born  at 
Ramsgill,  Yorkshire,  in  1704,  executed  at  York 
for  murder,  Aug.  6,  1759.  Aram  enjoyed  a 
remarkable  reputation  for  extensive  scholar 
ship  acquired  under  the  greatest  difficulties,- 
his  father  having  been  a  poor  gardener.  After 
his  marriage  he  established  himself  as  a  school 
master  in  his  native  district  of  Netherdale.  In 
1734  he  removed  his  school  to  Knaresborough, 
where  in  1745  he  became  implicated  in  a  rob 
bery  committed  by  Daniel  Clark,  a  shoemaker 
of  Knaresborough;  and  being  discharged  for 
want  of  evidence,  he  went  to  London.  Clark 
disappeared  mysteriously  at  the  same  time. 
Aram,  while  employed  as  school  usher  in  vari 
ous  towns,  and  in  an  academy  at  Lynn  in 
Norfolk,  pursued  his  favorite  studies,  and  was 


632 


ARANDA 


ARAPAIIOES 


engaged  in  compiling  a  comparative  lexicon  of 
the  English,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Celtic 
languages,  when  he  was  arrested  on  the  charge 
of  murder.  Aram's  wife  had  frequently  in 
timated  that  he  and  a  man  named  Houseman 
.were  privy  to  the  mystery  of  Clark's  dis 
appearance.  Houseman,  on  being  pressed  by 
the  coroner,  testified  that  Ararn  and  a  man 
named  Ferry  were  the  murderers,  and  that  the 
body  had  been  buried  in  a  particular  part  of 
St.  Robert's  cave,  a  well  known  spot  near 
Knaresborough.  A  skeleton  was  discovered  in 
the  exact  place  indicated,  and  Houseman's 
evidence  led  to  Aram's  conviction.  Aram  re 
fused  the  services  of  counsel,  and  conducted 
his  own  defence  in  an  elaborate  and  scholarly 
manner,  making  an  ingenious  plea  of  the  gen 
eral  fallibility  of  circumstantial  evidence,  es 
pecially  that  connected  with  the  discovery  of 
human  bones.  After  condemnation  he  ac 
knowledged  his  guilt.  On  the  night  before 
the  execution  he  attempted  suicide,  but  was 
discovered  before  he  had  bled  to  death,  and 
his  sentence  was  carried  into  eftect  three  days 
after  it  was  pronounced.  Before  he  attempted 
suicide  he  wrote  an  essay  on  the  subject,  and 
also  a  sketch  of  his  life.  Of  his  "  Comparative 
Lexicon  "  only  passages  from  the  preface  are 
extant.  He  left  a  widow  and  six  children.  A 
veil  of  poetry  has  been  thrown  over  his  fate  by 
Thomas  Hood's  ballad  of  "  The  Dream  of  Eu 
gene  Ararn,"  and  Bulwer's  romance  of  "Eu 
gene  Aram." 

ARANDA,  Pedro  Pablo  Abarca  y  Bolea,  count  of,  a 
Spanish  statesman,  born  in  Saragossa  in  Decem 
ber,  1718,  died  in  1799.  He  first  served  in  the 
army,  but  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  the 
civil  service.  After  officiating  for  seven  years 
as  ambassador  of  Charles  III.  at  the  court  of 
Poland,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
.army  in  Portugal.  Here  he  captured  Almeida 
in  August,  1762,  and  was  afterward  appointed  | 
captain  general  of  Valencia.  In  1765,  after 
quelling  an  insurrection  in  Madrid,  he  was 
made  president  of  the  council  of  Castile,  and 
soon  after  prime  minister.  He  inaugurated  a 
new  municipal  system,  established  schools, 
provided  Madrid  with  a  permanent  garrison,  | 
strengthened  the  army  and  navy,  advanced  the  j 
industrial  and  agricultural  interests  of  the  king 
dom,  and  reformed  the  financial  condition  of  the 
bank  of  San  Carlos.  He  established  a  law  which  ; 
made  the  sanction  of  the  council  of  Castile  requi-  | 
site  for  the  validity  of  the  decrees  of  the  Vati-  I 
can,  opposed  the  inquisition,  and  set  up  apoliti 
cal  censorship  in  order  to  neutralize  its  influ 
ence.  By  a  decree  of  April  2,  1707,  the  Jesuits 
were  expelled  from  Spain,  and  their  property 
confiscated.  The  hostility  of  the  clerical  party, 
heightened  by  his  confidential  correspondence 
with  Voltaire,  who  had  urged  him  to  persevere 
in  his  work  of  reform,  forced  him  in  1773  to 
tender  his  resignation  as  prime  minister.  Ac 
cepting  the  post  of  ambassador  at  Paris,  he 
became  noted  for  his  opposition  to  England, 
which  had  indeed  always  been  the  leadin^ 


;  feature  of  his  foreign  policy.  He  prevailed 
I  upon  Charles  ILL  to  join  France  in  supporting 
the  cause  of  America,  and  in  1783  was  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  which  recog 
nized  the  independence  of  the  United  States. 
In  1787  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  in  1792 
again  became  prime  minister  as  successor  of 
Florida  Blanca  ;  but  under  Charles  IV.  he  was 
forced  to  surrender  the  place  to  the  queen's 
favorite,  Godoy.  On  occasion  of  the  war  with 
France,  he  expressed  himself  against  its  justice, 
and  this  remark  was  seized  upon  as  a  pretext 
to  banish  him  from  the  capital. 

ARAJVJUEZ  (anc.  Am  Jovia),  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  and  DO  m.  by  railway  S.  of 
the  city  of  Madrid,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tagus;  pop.  3,800.  It  is  the  site  of  a  royal 
palace  of  great  beauty  founded  by  Philip  II., 
a  favorite  retreat  of  the  monarchs  of  Spain 
during  the  spring,  and  is  well  supplied  with 
gardens,  cafes,  hotels,  and  various  places  of 
fashionable  amusement.  The  presence  of  the 
court  swells  the  population  to  about  20,000. 
j  In  summer  the  place  is  not  healthy. 

ARAM,  Janos,  a  Hungarian  poet,  born  at 
Nagy-Szalonta,  in  the  county  of  Bihar,  in  1817. 
He  is  the  son  of  a  poor  Protestant,  who  edu 
cated  him  for  the  church.  After  leaving  col 
lege  he  roamed  for  a  while  with  a  troop  of 
strolling  players,  and  then  returned  to  Szalonta 
and  supported  himself  as  a  teacher  of  Latin. 
In  1843,  the  Kisfaludy  society  having  offered  a 
prize  for  the  best  popular  epic,  Arany  won  it 
by  his  poem,  Az  cheszett  alkotmdny  ("The 
Lost  Constitution").  In  1847  he  sent  to -the 
same  society  the  first  part  of  his  greatest  pro 
duction,  the  trilogy  Toldi.  The  society  gave 
the  author  more  than  the  stipulated  price,  and 
had  it  printed  at  their  expense.  In  February, 
1848,  appeared  his  Murdny  ostroma  ("Siege 
of  Murany ").  Since  1848  his  chief  literary 
works  have  been  Katalin  (1850),  the  second 
part  of  Toldi  (1854),  two  volumes  of  lyric 
poems  (1857),  and  another  trilogy,  Buda  liaid- 
la,  the  first  part  of  which  appeared  in  1864. 

ARAPAHOE,  an  E.  county  of  Colorado  terri 
tory  ;  area,  4,600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,829. 
The  Kansas  Pacific  railroad  passes  through  the 
county  and  terminates  at  Denver,  and  is  con 
nected  by  a  branch  from  that  city  with  the 
Union  Pacific  at  Cheyenne.  Capital,  Denver, 
which  is  also  the  capital  of  the  territory. 

ARAPAHOES,  an  Indian  tribe  which  has  for 
many  years  resided  near  the  head  waters  of  the 
Arkansas  and  Platte  rivers.  They  are  known 
also  as  Fall  Indians,  and  were  called  by  the 
French  the  Gros  Ventres  of  the  south.  Gallatin 
supposed  them  to  be  the  Querechos  of  early  Span 
ish  explorers  in  New  Mexico.  They  style  them 
selves  Atsina.  This  is  apparently  another  form 
of  Asinais  or  Cenis,  a  confederation  of  tribes  vis 
ited  by  La  Salle  at  this  point,  and  subsequently 
by  Spanish  missionaries  and  French  traders. 
The  Arapahoes,  like  the  Asinais,  are  by  language 
allied  to  the  Caddoes.  At  the  present  time 
they  are  one  of  the  five  tribes  constituting  the 


ARARAT 


ARATUS 


C33 


Blackfcet  confederacy.  In  1822  they  were  a 
powerful  tribe  estimated  at  10,000,  but  in  1842 
they  had  dwindled  to  2,500  in  300  lodges,  and, 
with  the  disappearance  of  the  buffalo,  are  rap 
idly  declining. 

ARARAT  (Arm.  Ma  sis  ;  Turk.  Agri  Daglt),  a 
mountain  of  western  Asia,  considered  a  portion 
of  the  "  mountains  of  Ararat "  on  which,  ac 
cording  to  Gen.  viii.  4,  Noah's  ark  rested  after 
the  deluge.  It  is  divided  into  two  peaks, 
Great  Ararat  on  the  N.  W.  and  Little  Ararat 
on  the  S.  E.,  whose  bases  blend,  while  their 
summits  are  nearly  7  m.  apart.  The  summit 
of  Great  Ararat  lies  in  lat.  39°  42'  X.,  Ion.  44° 
38'  E.,  and  is  17,323  feet  above  the  sea  level, 
and  14,320  feet  above  its  base.  For  more  than 
3,000  feet  below  its  summit  it  is  constantly 
covered  with  snow  and  ice.  Little  Ararat  is 
lower  by  about  4,000  feet,  and  is  free  from 
snow  and  ice  in  September  and  October.  The 


two  mountains  are  of  volcanic  character,  an 
eruption  having  taken  place  from  them  as  lately 
as  July,  1840.  The  apex  of  Great  Ararat  was 
visited  on  Oct.  9,  1829,  by  Parrot.  Ararat  is 
the  central  point  of  the  dividing  lines  of  Ar 
menia,  and  the  great  landmark  between  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  Persia. 

ARARAT,  or  Pilot  Mountain,  a  mountain  of 
Xorth  Carolina,  in  Surrey  county,  between  the 
Ararat  and  Dan  rivers.  It  is  of  a  pyramidal 
form  and  one  third  of  a  mile  high  ;  and  its  top 
is  a  plateau  one  acre  in  extent,  on  which  is  a 
gigantic  rock  300  feet  high. 

ARAS.     See  AKAXES. 

ARATUS.  I.  A  Greek  poet,  born  at  Soli  in 
Cilicia,  flourished  about  270  B.  0.  He  was 
educated  under  Dionysius  of  Heraclea,  a  Stoic, 
the  principles  of  which  sect  he  embraced.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  and  also 
of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  king  of  Macedon,  at 


Mount  Ararat. 


whose  instigation  he  embodied  most  of  the  as 
tronomical  knowledge  then  possessed  by  the 
Greeks  in  two  philosophical  poems.  The  first, 
Phenomena,  gave  a  general  description  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  and  their  movements,  while 
the  second,  Diosemeia,  described  their  influ 
ence  on  the  atmosphere.  These  poems  pos 
sess  much  merit.  Aratus  is  the  poet  whom 
St.  Paul  quotes  in  his  speech  on  Mars  Hill, 
Acts  xvii.  28.  The  best  edition  of  his  works 
is  by  Buhle  (2  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1793,  1801). 
II.  A  Greek  general  and  statesman,  son  of 
Clinias,  born  at  Sicyon,  271  B.  C.,  died  in  213. 
On  account  of  the  murder  of  his  father  and 
many  of  his  relatives  by  Abantidas,  their  enemy 
in  one  of  the  political  contests  of  the  time,  he 
was  taken  while  very  young  to  Argos,  where 
he  was  educated  till  he  reached  the  age  of  20. 
At  this  period  he  succeeded  in  carrying  out, 


without  bloodshed,  a  revolution  he  had  long 
plotted  with  some  Argive  friends,  by  which 
Xicocles,  a  usurper  who  had  made  himself  ty 
rant  of  Sicyon,  was  dethroned  and  the  city  set 
free.  Aratus  persuaded  the  citizens  to  join  the 
Achaean  league,  of  which  he  was  elected  general 
in  245.  Reflected  in  243,  he  captured  the  cita 
del  of  Corinth  and  expelled  its  Macedonian 
garrison.  Corinth  was  easily  induced  to  join 
the  AchaBans,  and  was  soon  followed  by  Trce- 
zen,  Epidaurus,  Megara,  Cleona?,  Argos,  and 
Megalopolis.  He  now  hoped  to  unite  all  the 
governments  of  Greece ;  but  the  power  of  the 
Acha3an  league  already  began  to  excite  the 
jealousy  of  the  JEtolians,  and  of  Cleomenes 
III.,  king  of  Sparta,  who  aspired  to  restore 
the  Spartan  hegemony.  Its  first  active  en 
emy  was  the  latter,  who  began  a  war  about 
224.  Aratus  defeated  him,  but  only  by  sum- 


ARAUCANIANS 


moning  to  his  aid  Antigonus  Doson,  king  of 
Macedon,  and  by  taking  the  unfortunate  step  of 
delivering  to  him  Corinth  and  its  citadel  as  the 
price  of  his  assistance.  Antigonus  took  advan 
tage  of  this  offer,  which  at  once  proved  fatal  to 
the  power  of  the  Achaean  cities.  He  became  gen 
eral  of  the  league,  and  gradually  gained  complete 
control  of  it,  transmitting  this  authority  to  his 
son  Philip.  Aratus  remained  a  prominent  lead 
er  in  spite  of  the  Macedonian  rule ;  but  in  a  new 
war  which  soon  broke  out  with  the  ^Etolians 
(•22 1  to  210),  he  was  unsuccessful.  He  was  tried 
for  neglect  of  duty,  but  acquitted  in  considera 
tion  of  his  past  services.  From  this  time  he  was 
little  more  than  an  adviser  of  the  Macedonian 
king,  who  had  now  made  the  league  completely 
dependent  upon  himself;  and  although  ap 
pointed  general  for  the  17th  time  in  21 7,  he 
never  attained  his  old  influence.  According  to 
Plutarch  and  Polybius,  whose  story  has  been 
doubted  by  many  historians,  he  was  put  to 
death  by  slow  poison,  given  by  Philip's  order. 
The  Greeks  paid  divine  honors  to  his  memory, 
and  celebrated  twice  a  year  games  called  Ara- 
teia — one  on  the  anniversary  of  his  birth,  and 
one  on  that  of  his  deliverance  of  Sicyon. 

ARAUCANIANS,  an  Indian  nation  inhabiting  the 
provinces  of  Arauco  and  Valdivia,  Chili.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Indian  word  auca, 
meaning  frank,  or  free.  As  offering  the  most 
successful  example  of  Indian  self-government 
in  the  presence  of  the  European  races,  the 
Araucanians  are  of  interest  to  the  philosopher 
and  the  ethnologist.  The  chief  authority  with 
regard  to  them  is  "Molina's  History  of  Chili," 
of  which  an  English  translation  was  published 
at  Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1808.  Five  different 
poems  have  been  written  by  Europeans  upon 
their  patriotic  struggles  against  the  European 
invaders.  The  best  are  the  Araucana  of 
Alonso  de  Ercilla,  a  Spanish  knight  of  the 
16th  century,  who  took  part  in  the  wars  he 
describes,  and  the  Puren  Indomito  of  Alva 
rez  de  Toledo  (Paris,  1862).  The  Araucanians 
were  first  invaded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1537. 
Valdivia  founded  many  settlements  in  their 
country,  which  with  their  founder  were  de 
stroyed  in  1602.  In  1641  the  marquis  de 
Baydes  made  a  treaty  with  their  chief,  but  in 
1665  war  commenced  again,  and  lasted  at  in 
tervals  until  1773,  when  Spain  at  length  ac 
knowledged  the  independence  of  the  Arauca 
nians,  and  allowed  them  to  maintain  an  embassy 
at  Santiago  de  Chili.  In  the  contest  between 
the  mother  country  and  the  Chilian  colonists, 
they  preserved  a  strict  neutrality.  Schmidt- 
meyer  visited  them  in  1820,  and  published  his 
"Travels  into  Chili,  over  the  Andes,"  in  1820- 
'21.  Mr.  Edward  Reuel  Smith,  of  the  U.  S. 
astronomical  expedition  in  Chili,  published 
"The  Araucanians,  or  Notes  of  a  Tour  among 
the  Indian  Tribes  of  Southern  Chili"  (New 
York,  1855). — The  territory  of  Arauco  has  been 
from  time  immemorial  divided  into  four  vu- 
thanmapus  or  uthalmapus,  or  provinces,  each 
presided  over  by  a  magistrate  called  a  toqui; 


these  four  provinces  correspond  to  the  natural 
divisions  of  the  country,  viz.,  the  maritime 
province,  the  plain  province,  the  province  at 

j  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  and  the  province  in  the 
Andes.  Each  of  these  is  divided  into  five 
illarehues,  ruled  by  an  ftpo-ulmene,  and  each 
illarehue  is  further  subdivided  into  nine  rehucs 

j  or  townships,  over  each  of  which  presides  an 

|  ulmene,  or  head  of  a  clan.  The  symbol  of  a 
toqui  is  an  axe  of  porphyry  or  marble ;  of  an 
apo-ulmene,  a  staff  with  a  silver  head  and  a 
silver  ring  round  the  middle ;  of  an  ulmene, 
the  same  without  the  silver  ring  round  the 

I  middle.  All  of  these  dignities  are  hereditary 
according  to  primogeniture.  No  regular  trib 
ute  or  any  predial  service  is  payable  by  the  clan 
to  the  ulmene,  by  the  ulrnenes  to  the  apo-ul 
mene,  or  by  the  apo-ulmenes  to  the  toqui.  In 
time  of  war,  however,  military  service  is 
acknowledged  as  the  most  sacred  of  duties. 
The  four  toquis,  or  governors  of  provinces, 
form  the  grand  council  of  the  Araucanian  fed 
eration,  presided  over  by  one  of  its  own  mem 
bers,  the  grand  toqui.  This  council  decides  on 
war  and  peace,  and  on  emergencies  calls  to 
gether  the  general  assembly.  At  this  diet, 
every  toqui,  apo-ulmene,  and  ulmene  may  at 
tend  ;  it  chooses  the  commander-in-chief  from 
among  the  four  toquis  ;  but  if  none  of  them  are 
qualified,  then  from  the  diet  at  large.  The  levy 
is  made  by  the  ulmenes  upon  their  several  clans. 
The  army  consists  of  both  cavalry  and  infan 
try.  The  toqui  Cadeguala  was  the  first  who 
established  a  regular  body  of  cavalry,  in  1585. 
The  diet  is  held  in  a  large  plain  which  lies  be 
tween  the  rivers  Biobio  and  Dunqueco.  The 
religion  of  the  Araucanians  is  akin  to  their 
political  institutions.  Their  Supreme  Being 
is  the  great  toqui  of  the  universe;  he  has 
his  subordinate  ulmenes  to  look  after  details. 
These  are,  the  god  of  war,  the  beneficent  god, 
the  god  of  mankind,  and  others.  Guecubu  is 
the  god  of  evil.  The  celestials  exact  no  trib 
ute  from  their  subjects  here  below ;  therefore 
the  Araucanian  builds  no  temples  nor  idols, 
supports  no  priests,  and  rarely  offers  sacrifice. 
After  the  death  of  the  body,  the  soul  goes  into 
paradise,  a  region  which  lies  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Andes.  Their  religion,  in  other  respects, 
resembles  other  primitive  creeds.  They  hate 
the  Spanish  language,  and  their  toquis,  though 

|  well  acquainted  with  it,  will  never  use  it  on 

|  any  public  occasion.      They  make  a  foreigner 

j  take  an  Araucanian  name  before  he  is  allowed 
to  settle  among  them.  .  A  missionary,  when 
prea'ching  to  them,  is  often  interrupted  in  the 
midst  of  his  discourse,  if  he  commits  a  blunder. 
The  Araucanians  are  stoutly  built,  and  of  mod- 

!  erate  height.  Their  complexion  is  olive,  and 
lighter  than  the  other  South  American  Indians; 

j  they  have  a  round  face,  low  forehead,  short, 
broad  nose,  small,  fiery  eyes,  small  lips,  and 
long  head.  The  women  do  all  the  home  and 

|  field  work;  the  men  hunt,  fight,  and  tend  the 
flocks.  They  live  in  wooden  or  reed  plastered 
houses,  well  built,  and  often  60  feet  by  £5  in 


AEAUCO 


ARBITRATION 


G35 


s!zo,  not  in  villages,  but  in  the  centre  of  their 
plantations.  They  raise  wheat,  maize,  and 
barley,  peas  and  beans,  potatoes,  cabbages,  and 
fruit,  as  well  as  flax,  and  keep  numbers  of  cat 
tle  and  horses.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  Eu 
ropeans  they  wove  ponchos  and  coarse  woollen 
cloths  of  very  good  workmanship.  Their  lan 
guage  is  very  wide-spread,  and  had  nine  recog 
nized  dialects.  It  was  spoken  from  lat.  25°  S. 
to  Cape  Horn,  and  eastward  to  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  best  grammar  is  the  Chilian  grammar  of 
Febres  (Lima,  1765;  Santiago,  1846).  Mo 
lina's  account  has  been  accused  of  exaggera 
tion,  and  may  be  compared  with  the  works 
of  Gilj,  Havestadt,  Falkner,  &c.— In  1861  a 
Frenchman  named  De  Tonneins,  having  ingra 
tiated  himself  with  the  tribes,  was  proclaimed 
king  of  Araucania  under  the  title  of  Orelie  An- 
toine  I.  He  was  soon  at  war  with  Chili,  and 
was  captured  in  January,  1862,  on  Araucanian 
territory.  The  arrest  was  pronounced  illegal, 
but  the  Chilian  government  held  him  some  time 
as  a  lunatic,  permitting  him  finally  to  go  to 
France,  where  the  validity  of  his  regal  title 
was  formally  recognized  in  the  course  of  a 
lawsuit.  He  published  Orelie-Antoine  I"T,  roi 
d1  Araucanie  et  de  Patagonie,  et  sa  captivite  au 
Chili  (1863).  He  afterward  returned  to  Arau 
cania,  and  in  1869-'70  was  again  at  war  with 
Chili ;  but  in  1871  he  was  once  more  in  France, 
and  began  publishing  an  official  Araucanian 
journal  at  Marseilles,  striking  medals,  estab 
lishing  orders  of  knighthood,  &c.  He  left  in 
Araucania  a  deputy,  one  Planchut,  who  soon 
usurped  the  regal  title. 

ARAICO,  a  southern  province  of  Chili,  di 
vided  into  the  three  departments  of  Arauco, 
Laja,  and  Nacimiento;  area,  13,500  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1868,  82,709,  besides  some  35,000  In 
dians.  Capital,  Arauco,  on  a  bay  of  the  same 
name,  300  m.  S.  of  Valparaiso.  This  province 
was  created  by  decree  of  Dec.  7,  1852 ;  but 
the  Araucanian  Indians  still  maintain  their 
independence  in  the  interior. 

ARAXES  (now  Aras),  a  river  in  Armenia,  ris 
ing  about  25  m.  from  Erzerum,  in  lat.  41°  30' 
N.,  Ion.  41°  10'  E.,  between  the  E.  and  W. 
branches  of  the  Euphrates.  It  flows  E.,  S.  E., 
and  N.  E.,  and  after  a  course  of  about  425  m. 
unites  with  the  Kur  about  75  m.  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Caspian.  It  is  notable  for  the 
impetuosity  of  its  current.  Virgil  describes  it  as 
u  disdaining  a  bridge,"  but  it  is  now  crossed  by 
four  stone  bridges.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  Aras  is  the  river  descended  by  He 
rodotus  under  the  name  of  Araxes,  although 
Rennell  thinks  the  Jaxartes  was  meant ;  and  it 
has  been  supposed  also  to  be  the  Oxus,  and 
even  the  Volga.  By  Araxes  Xenophon  proba 
bly  intended  the  Chaboras,  an  affluent  of  the 
Euphrates. — The  river  now  known  as  the  Ben- 
damir  was  also  called  Araxes.  It  rises  in 
central  Persia,  flows  past  the  ruins  of  Perse- 
polis,  and  after  a  course  of  about  150  m.  falls 
into  the  salt  lake  of  Bakhtegan  or  Negris,  in 
lat.  29°  30'  N.,  Ion.  52°  30'  E. 


ARBACES,  the  founder  of  the  Median  empire, 
according  to  Ctesias,  who  asserts  that  Arbaces, 
jointly  with  Belesis  of  Babylon,  captured  Nine 
veh  and  overthrew  the  empire  of  Sardamipa- 
lus  (876  B.  C.),  that  he  reigned  28  years,  and 
that  his  dynasty  numbered  eight  kings.  These 
statements  differ  from  those  of  Herodotus. 

ARBALAST,  or  Crossbow.     See  AKCIIEEY. 

ARBELA,  the  ancient  name  of  Arbil  or  Erbil, 
a  small  village  in  Turkish  Kurdistan,  which  lies 
on  the  usual  route  between  Bagdad  and  Mosul, 
about  40  m.  E.  by  S.  of  the  latter  city,  in  lat. 
36°  11'  N.,  according  to  the  elder  Niebuhr's 
observations.  The  third  and  last  of  the  great 
battles  between  Alexander  and  Darius  (331  B. 
C.)  is  called  after  this  place,  though  it  was  not 
actually  fought  at  Arbela,  but  at  a  place  36  m. 
W.  by  N.  called  Gaugamela,  now  Karmelis. 

ARBITER,  a  Roman  umpire,  chosen  by  an 
agreement  (in  the  Roman  law  compromusum) 
between  contending  parties,  to  decide  their 
differences.  His  decision  was  called  the  arbi- 
trium.  Such  a  judge,  chosen  by  the  parties 
themselves,  was  an  arbiter  receptus.  An  arbiter 
datus  was  appointed  by  the  praetor  to  decide  in 
matters  purely  of  equity,  while  the  judex  deci 
ded  in  matters  of  law  and  precedent.  The  du 
ties  and  rights  of  these  officers,  with  the  extent 
to  which  the  decisions  of  an  arbiter  could  be  en 
forced,  were  sharply  defined  by  the  Roman  law. 

ARBITRATION,  the  decision  by  a  private  per 
son  of  matters  of  difference  submitted  to  him 
by  the  parties.  References  differ  from  arbitra 
tions  in  that  they  are  made  with  the  sanction 
of  the  court,  or  at  least  are  more  directly  un 
der  its  control,  and  are  govered  by  the  rules 
of  law  more  strictly  than  arbitrations  are. 
The  law  is  not  disposed  to  take  away  the 
ordinary  means  of  relief  by  action  or  other 
proceedings  at  law,  unless  suitors  have  clearly 
signified  their  intention  to  give  them  up  in  favor 
of  arbitration.  The  New  York  court  of  ap 
peals  has  held  void  an  article  of  the  constitu 
tion  of  a  grand  lodge  of  odd  fellows,  which 
created  certain  members  a  tribunal  to  pass 
upon  violations  of  the  rules  of  the  order,  with 
power  to  forfeit  the  delinquents'  right  to 
property.  Even  if  the  defendants  had  signed 
such  a  constitution,  the  court  said  it  would  be 
against  public  policy  to  hold  them  bound  by 
it,  and  that  courts  would  not  enforce  the  de 
cision  of  tribunals  created  by  private  compact, 
except  in  those  cases  where  the  parties  had 
expressly  submitted  to  arbitration  definite  mat 
ters  of  controversy.  In  a  recent  case  in  New 
York  city,  the  court  held  that  the  so-called 
"  arbitration  clause  "  in  the  articles  of  associa 
tion  of  the  board  of  brokers  could  have  no 
other  effect  than  an  ordinary  agreement  to 
submit ;  and  the  court  declined  to  give  a 
remedy  against  a  member  of  the  board  who 
declined  to  submit  to  its  jurisdiction,  for  that 
was  only  the  exercise  of  the  ordinary  power  of 
revocation. — As  a  general  rule,  all  matters  in 
dispute  concerning  personal  rights  which  may 
be  the  subject  of  actions  may  be  referred  to 


C3G 


ARBITRATION" 


arbitration  ;  such,  for  example,  as  breaches  of 
contracts,  differences  about  partnership  affairs, 
the  value  of  property,  and  questions  of  dam 
ages  in  cases  of  wrongs  like  assaults,  trespass, 
or  slander,  where  damages  might  be  recovered 
by  suit.  Claims  relating  to  real  estate  might 
at  common  law  be  submitted  to  arbitration. 
In  such  a  case  an  arbitrator  might  direct  that 
one  party  convey  or  release  to  the  other.  But 
a  practical  objection  to  this  proceeding,  so  far 
at  least  as  titles  to  land  are  concerned,  is  that 
the  property  in  the  land  cannot  pass  by  the 
award.  In  some  of  the  states  the  statutes  re 
lating  to  arbitrations  forbid  the  submission  of 
certain  matters  pertaining  to  real  estate.  Thus 
in  New  York  no  submission  can  be  made  of 
claims  to  the  fee  or  to  life  estates  in  realty; 
but  the  same  restraint  is  not  imposed  as  to  in 
terests  in  terms  for  years,  nor  to  controversies 
as  to  boundaries,  partitions,  or  the  measure 
ment  of  dower.  Nor  are  equitable  rights  re 
lating  to  real  estate  withdrawn  from  arbitra 
tion.  The  policy  of  the  statute  in  these  re 
spects  has  been  said  in  New  York  to  be  to 
withdraw  from  the  unlearned  forum  of  arbitra 
tion  those  questions  of  title  to  lands  which  de 
pend  on  strict  technical  rules ;  and  that,  since 
equitable  claims  even  in  respect  to  titles  de 
pend  rather  on  the  general  principles  of  jus 
tice,  they  may  be  well  submitted. — In  gene 
ral,  a  crime  cannot  be  withdrawn  from  the 
cognizance  of  the  courts.  But  where  a  person 
has  a  remedy  by  action  for  private  damages, 
collateral  to  the  public  remedy  by  indictment, 
as  in  cases  of  assault,  libel,  or  nuisance,  he  may 
submit  the  question  of  his  personal  interests  to 
arbitrators. — Persons  who  are  competent  to 
contract  are  also  capable  of  submitting  their 
affairs  to  arbitration.  It  was  the  general  rule 
at  common  law  that  married  women  could  not 
make  a  submission,  though  there  were  excep 
tions  to  that  rule  in  favor,  of  Avomen  whose 
husbands  were  civilly  dead  or  alien  enemies. 
But  since  the  enabling  acts  which  have  been 
lately  very  generally  introduced,  giving  to 
married  women  separate  estates,  and  indepen 
dent  powers  and  capacity  to  contract  in  re 
spect  to  them,  they  have  been  held  capable  of 
consenting  to  arbitrations.  An  infant's  sub 
mission  is  at  common  law,  like  most  of  his  con 
tracts,  voidable  by  him.  But  it  has  been  held 
with  regard  to  such  agreements  of  infants,  and 
of  married  women  too,  who  had  not  the  liberty 
of  contracting  which  is  conferred  by  the  re 
cent  married  women's  acts,  that  if  an  award  is 
made  against  a  party  who  entered  into  an  ar 
bitration  with  either  of  them,  it  will  bind  him, 
even  though  the  woman  or  the  infant  cannot  j 
be  held  by  it,  because  he  must  be  presumed  to  | 
have  known  that  at  the  outset,  and  if  he  did  not  ! 
intend  to  be  bound,  he  should  not  have  joined  I 
in  the  submission.  Whether  one  partner  can 
bind  his  copartners  by  an  agreement  to  arbi-  I 
trate  has  been  much  discussed,  and  the  weight 
of  authority  seems  to  be  against  his  power  to 
do  so.  But  such  an  agreement  may  bind  the  ! 


partner  who  made  it,  and  he  may  be  held  for 
the  damages  resulting  from  the  refusal  of  his 
copartners  to  perform  the  award. — In  the  ab 
sence  of  statutes  to  the  contrary,  the  submis 
sion  need  not  be  in  any  special  form,  nor  even  in 
writing.  But  in  most  of  the  states,  under  the 
statutes  on  the  subject,  a  submission  may  be 
made  a  rule  of  court;  that  is  to  say,  the  par 
ties  may  agree  that  the  proceeding  be  entered 
of  record  in  a  court,  and  then  the  award 
upon  confirmation  has  the  effect  of  a  judgment 
of  that  court,  and  may  be  enforced  with  the 
same  legal  remedies  provided  for  judgments. 
These  statutes  require  the  submission  to  be  in 
writing  and  executed  with  certain  formalities. 
The  statutes  usually  require  that  the  arbitra 
tors  shall  be  sworn,  and  that  the  witnesses 
shall  be  sworn  also,  either  by  them  or  by  jus 
tices  of  the  peace  or  other  competent  persons ; 
and  that  the  attendance  of  witnesses  may  be 
compelled  by  subpoenas  issued  either  by  the  arbi 
trators  themselves  or  by  justices  or  other  judi 
cial  officers.  But  it  has  been  held  in  New  York, 
though  its  statute  requires  the  arbitrator  to  be 
sworn,  that  this  is  not  an  essential  prerequisite 
to  his  jurisdiction,  and  that  the  omission  of  the 
oath  is  only  an  irregularity.  When  the  sub 
mission  provides  for  the  appointment  of  an 
umpire  by  the  arbitrators  to  decide  between 
them  if  they  disagree,  this  third  person  should 
be  agreed  upon  before  proceeding  with  the 
arbitration. —  The  hearings  by  the  arbitra 
tors  should  be  on  notice  to  both  parties; 
and  if  they  proceed  ex  parte  and  without 
notice  to  the  party  against  whom  the  award 
is  made,  it  is  void.  All  the  arbitrators  must 
concur  in  the  award,  unless  it  is  otherwise 
provided  by  statute  or  by  the  submission ; 
and  when  it  is  provided  that,  in  case  of  their 
disagreement,  the  decision  of  the  umpire  shall 
be  final,  the  award  should  in  case  of  such  a 
reference  to  the  umpire  proceed  from  him  and 
be  signed  by  him.  The  award  must  dispose  of 
all  the  questions  contained  in  the  submission, 
and  must  conform  to  its  terms  in  all  respects. 
If  it  includes  matters  not  covered  by  the  sub 
mission,  it  will  be  good  for  so  much  as  is  au 
thorized  by  it,  if  that  part  can  be  separated 
from  the  rest ;  but  if  it  departs  essentially 
and  incurably  from  the  submission,  it  is  fatally 
bad.  The  award  must  be  certain  in  its  terms ; 
that  is,  it  must  inform  each  party  precisely 
what  he  is  to  do.  It  must  also  be  final  and 
conclusive  in  all  respects. — The  statutes  of  the 
several  states  usually  define  the  grounds  .  on 
which  awards  may  be  set  aside.  In  New  York 
they  may  be  vacated,  on  application  to  the 
court,  for  corruption  or  fraud  or  partiality  on 
the  part  of  the  arbitrators;  or  if  they  were 
guilty  of  misconduct  in  refusing  postponements, 
or  in  rejecting  proper  evidence,  or  exceeded 
their  powers  or  imperfectly  executed  them  in 
material  points.  And  in  the  same  state  awards 
may  be  corrected  for  evident  mistakes  or  for 
other  imperfections.  Very  similar  statutory 
provisions  exist  in  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  other 


ARBITRATION 


ARBLAY 


GO*T 
oT 


states.  In  several  of  the  states  it  is  also  pro 
vided  that  an  award  may  be  vacated  by  the 
courts  for  any  legal  defects  appearing  on  its 
face. — The  chief  vice  or  weakness  in  the  pro 
ceeding  by  arbitration  is  the  power  which 
either  party  has  to  revoke  the  authority  given 
by  him  to  the  arbitrators.  The  only  practical 
penalty  for  such  a  breach  of  the  agreement, 
and  even  when  there  are  bonds  fixing  precise 
sums  by  way  of  liquidated  damages,  is  that 
the  party  who  revokes  must  pay  the  expenses 
incurred  by  the  other  up  to  the  revocation. 
In  some  of  the  states,  as  in  Massachusetts  and 
Maine,  the  statutes  provide  that  neither  party 
shall  revoke  the  submission  without  the  consent 
of  the  other.  Bat  in  other  states,  as  in  New 
York  and  Missouri,  the  only  restraint  is,  that 
no  revocation  shall  be  made  after  the  cause  is 
finally  submitted  to  the  arbitrators  upon  the 
evidence.  The  death  of  a  party  pending  the 
proceedings  operates  as  a  revocation,  unless  it 
be  expressly  provided  otherwise  by  the  sub 
mission,  or,  as  is  the  case  in  some  of  the  states, 
by  statute. — A  submission  suspends,  and  an 
award  bars,  the  right  of  suit  on  the  original 
cause  of  action.  The  award  must  be  made 
within  the  time  directed  by  the  agreement,  and 
it  is  a  nullity  if  made  after  that  time,  unless  the 
parties  consent  to  an  extension  of  the  time. 
The  power  of  the  arbitrators  is  exhausted  by 
delivery  of  the  award,  and  though  in  making  it 
the}7  have  exceeded  their  powers  or  otherwise 
erred,  they  cannot  recall  it  or  make  another 
one.  The  courts  have  repeatedly  held  that 
when  not  limited  by  the  terms  of  the  submis 
sion,  the  decisions  of  the  arbitrators  upon  law 
and  fact  alike,  provided  that  they  act  within 
the  scope  of  their  authority,  are  conclusive. 
If  the  award  is  Avithin  the  submission,  and 
contains  an  honest  and  fair  decision,  a  court 
of  equity  will  not  set  it  aside  for  error  either 
in  law  or  in  fact.  Judge  Story  and  other  high 
judicial  authorities  have  further  declared  that 
arbitrators  are  not  bound  to  award  upon  the 
mere  dry  principles  of  law  applicable  to  the 
case  before  them,  but  may  make  their  award 
upon  principles  of  equity  and  good  conscience. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  submission  expressly 
provides  that  the  case  shall  be  decided  accord 
ing  to  the  law,  and  the  arbitrators  make  a  mis 
take  in  that  respect,  this  will  subject  the  find 
ing  to  revision  by  a  court.  In  Pennsylvania, 
under  a  statute  enacted  in  1836,  either  party 
to  a  civil  action  may  compel  a  submission  of  it 
to  arbitrators  by  filing  a  rule  in  the  prothono- 
tary's  office  calling  for  such  a  reference,  and 
by  serving  a  copy  of  the  rule  on  his  opponent. 
The  number  of  the  arbitrators,  three  or  five  or 
one,  is  fixed  by  the  parties,  or,  if  they  cannot 
agree,  by  the  prothonotary.  The  parties  then  by 
alternate  nominations  select  the  arbitrators; 
but  if  they  cannot  agree  upon  these,  the  pro 
thonotary  makes  up  a  list  containing  five 
names  for  each  of  the  number  of  the  arbitra 
tors,  from  which  the  parties  alternately  select 
the  requisite  number. — In  England  a  statute 


of  1807  provides  for  councils  of  conciliation 
and  arbitration,  which  may  be  formed  by  mas 
ters  and  their  workmen.  These  councils  exer 
cise  powers  granted  by  former  statutes  of  simi 
lar  tenor  (1  Victoria,  ch.  07,  and  8  and  9  Vic 
toria,  ch.  77,  128),  and  by  the  present  statute 
are  authorized  to  hear  and  determine  all  ques 
tions  of  dispute  and  difference  between  the 
workmen  and  their  masters;  and  their  awards 
are  final  and  not  subject  to  review  or  challenge 
in  any  court.  No  attorneys,  solicitors,  or 
counsel  are  allowed  to  attend  any  hearing 
before  the  councils,  without  the  consent  of 
both  sides.  The  courts  of  prudhor/unes  are 
courts  of  a  similar  sort  in  France.  They  are 
established  in  Paris  and  Lyons  and  some  of  the 
other  large  cities,  and  take  cognizance  of  disputes 
between  master  manufacturers  and  their  work 
men,  and  between  workmen  and  their  appren 
tices.  The  court  is  composed  of  master  work 
men  or  manufacturers  and  of  foremen,  six  of 
each,  one  half  of  the  number  going  out  each  year. 
The  court  acts  first  as  a  court  of  conciliation ; 
and  if  it  fails  to  bring  the  parties  to  an  agree 
ment,  it  has  jurisdiction  to  the  amount  of  200 
francs  without  appeal,  and  to  any  higher 
amount  subject  to  appeals  to  a  tribunal  of 
commerce.  It  is  said  that  almost  all  the  cases 
brought  before  these  courts  are  settled  by  con 
ciliation. 

ARBLAY,  Madame  d>  (FRANCES  BUEXEY),  an 
English  novelist,  daughter  of  Charles  Burney, 
born  at  Lynn  in  June,  1752,  died  Jan.  0,  1840. 
In  her  childhood  she  was  silent  and  timid,  and 
was  considered  uncommonly  dull.  In  1700  her 
father  removed  to  London,  and  was  much  sought 
as  a  music  teacher.  After  her  mother's  early 
death  Frances  was  left  to  educate  herself.  Dr. 
Johnson  was  her  father's  friend,  and  Garrick 
his  frequent  guest,  and  the  brilliant  social  cir 
cle  in  which  he  moved  afforded  rich  material 
for  genius  to  work  upon.  Miss  Burney  soon 
gave  evidence  that  she  rightly  appreciated  her 
privileges.  In  1778  her  novel  kk  Evelina"  was 
published,  under  an  assumed  name,  by  a  Mr. 
Lowndes,  who  gave  her  £20  for  the  copyright. 
Though  the  author  of  the  book  was  unknown, 
and  the  publisher  was  not  eminent,  its  suc 
cess  was  marvellous,  and  Miss  Burney  was  at 
once  classed  among  the  first  writers  of  fiction. 
"Evelina"  was  followed  by  a  comedy,  "The 
Witlings,"  which  was  never  acted,  nor  even 
printed,  and  in  1782  appeared  the  novel  of 
"Cecilia,"  which  was  successful.  Three  years 
after  this  she  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
queen's  robes.  After  five  years'  service  she 
resigned  this  post  on  account  of  her  failing 
health,  and  in  1793  married  Alexandre  Richard 
d'Arblay,  a  French  artillery  officer,  whom  the 
revolution  had  made  an  exile.  In  1790  "Ca 
milla"  was  published  in  five  volumes,  bringing 
the  author  a  handsome  sum  of  money,  but  no 
increase  of  fame.  Ten  years,  1802-'12,  she 
passed  in  Paris,  her  husband  having  given  in 
his  allegiance  to  Napoleon's  government.  At 
the  expiration  of  this  term  she  returned  alone 


638 


ARBOGAST 


ARBUTHNOT 


to  England  and  produced  another  novel  in  five 
volumes,  "The  Wanderer,"  which  had  little 
popularity,  and  is  now  almost  forgotten.  At 
the  peace  her  husband,  now  Gen.  d'Arblay, 
joined  her,  and  remained  with  her  till  his 
death,  at  Bath,  in  1818.  In  1832  Madame 
d'Arblay  published  the  memoirs  of  her  father, 
written  in  a  turgid  style,  entirely  at  variance 
with  her  earlier  diction.  This  was  the  closing 
work  of  her  long  life,  which  ended  when  she 
was  87  years  old.  The  literary  fame  of  Madame 
d'Arblay  rests  upon  "Evelina"  and  "Cecilia," 
her  earliest  works. 

ARBOGAST  (ARBOGASTES),  a  Gaul  in  the  mili 
tary  service  of  the  Romans  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  4th  century.  In  388  he  accompa 
nied  Theodosius  on  his  expedition  to  support 
Valentinian  II.  against  the  usurper  Maximus. 
After  the  revolt  was  reduced,  Arbogast,  by  the 
order  of  Theodosius,  remained  with  Valentinian 
as  adviser ;  and  when  the  latter  attempted  to 
recover  his  independence,  Arbogast  put  to  death 
all  his  partisans,  and  finally  the  emperor  him 
self.  Not  daring  to  seize  upon  the  imperial 
purple,  he  gave  it  to  Eugenius,  going  himself  to 
light  against  Marcomir,  chief  of  the  Franks. 
Theodosius  marched  into  Italy  to  avenge  his 
cousin,  and  Arbogast  and  Eugenius  were  de 
feated  in  the  passes  of  the  Julian  Alps,  in  394. 
Eugenius  was  captured  and  executed.  Arbo 
gast  escaped  into  the  mountains,  but  soon  de 
spairing,  committed  suicide. 

ARBOIS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Jura,  situated  in  the  deep  valley  of  the  Cui- 
sance,  25  m.  N.  E.  of  Lons-le-Saulnier ;  pop. 
in  1866,  5,895.  The  town  has  a  college,  and 
produces  a  noted  wine. 

ARBOR  YIT£),  a  coniferous  tree  (tlivja\  with 
compressed  evergreen  foliage  forming  flattened 
brunches,  strongly  aromatic.  Varieties  are 


American  Arbor  Yitse. 


found  throughout  the  northern  temperate  re 
gions  of  both  continents.  The  tree  bears  prun 
ing  well,  and  may  be  trimmed  into  conical  or 
pyramidal  standards,  or  worked  into  an  excel- 


j  lent  hedge.     In  its  wild  state  the  American 
;  arbor  vita3  (T.  occidentalis)  has  loose  spread- 
|  ing  branches  when  growing  on  the  edges  of 
\  streams,  but  it  becomes  bushy  in  cultivation. 
Its  height  varies  from  20  to  50  feet,  and  it  is 
one   of  the   largest   of  all   the   species.     The 
Chinese,   Nepaulese,    Siberian,   and   Tartarean 
are  all  beautiful  varieties  and  easily  cultivated, 
|  although   in  northern  New  England  they  are 
!  apt  to  lose  their  branches  by  frost.     The  tJivja 
plicata  is  a  curious  variety  from  Nootka  sound, 
with  singular  foliage.      The  cone  of  thuja  is 
small,  and  in  ripening  assumes  a  vertical  posi 
tion  on  the  branches. 

ARBRISSEL,  Robert  of,  founder  of  the  order 
of  Fontevrault,  born  at  Arbrissel,  Brittany,  in 
1047,  died  at  Orsan  in  1117.  In  1085,  upon  his 
appointment  as  vicar  general  of  the  bishop  of 
Rennes,  he  began  sweeping  reforms  among  the 
clergy  and  people  of  the  diocese,  which  brought 
him  into  such  bad  odor  that  upon  the  death  of 
his  superior  in  1089  he  retired  to  Angers  and 
gave  instructions  in  theology.  At  the  expira 
tion  of  two  years,  disgusted  with  the  world,  he 
retired  into  the  forest  of  Craon,  where  he  lived 
as  a  hermit.  Numerous  anchorets  soon  placed 
themselves  under  his  direction,  and  he  gave  his 
followers  the  name  of  "  The  Poor  of  Christ."  In 
1096  he  founded  the  abbey  of  La  Roe,  of  which 
he  became  the  first  prior,  but  soon  relinquished 
this  peaceful  life  to  travel  barefooted  through 
the  country,  preaching  repentance  and  penance 
to  the  people.  He  soon  had  several  thousand 
followers  of  both  sexes,  for  whose  accommoda 
tion  he  built  a  number  of  abbeys,  the  most 
celebrated  of  which  is  that  of  Fontevrault, 
near  Poitiers,  established  in  1099. 

ARBROATH,  Aberbrothwiok,  or  Aberbrothock, 
a  royal  and  municipal  burgh  of  Forfarshire, 
Scotland,  on  the  North  sea,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Brothwick  or  Brothock,  58  m.  N.  N.  E.  of 
Edinburgh  ;  pop.  in  1871,  19,974.  The  town 
has  a  signal  tower  communicating  with  the  Bell 
Rock  lighthouse,  which  has  been  celebrated  by 
Southey  as  the  Inch  Cape  Rock  under  the  pious 
care  of  the  abbot  of  Aberbrothock.  The  once 
powerful  abbey  of  Arbroath,  founded  in  1178  by 
William  the  Lion,  who  is  buried  here,  in  honor 
of  Thomas  a  Becket,  was  destroyed  by  the  re 
formers  in  1560.  All  that  remains  of  it  is  the 
ruined  church  with  its  cloisters,  and  an  east 
window  with  a  circular  light  at  the  top,  a 
conspicuous  mark  for  sailors,  who  call  it  the 
"round  O  of  Arbroath."  The  small  harbor  is 
protected  by  a  breakwater.  Between  400  and 
500  vessels  enter  and  leave  the  port  annually, 
with  between  30,000  and  40,000  tons.  There 
are  four  annual  fairs  and  a  weekly  market. 
The  imports  are  tallow,  flax,  hemp,  and  lin 
seed  ;  the  exports  grain,  paving  stones,  and  the 
local  manufactures  of  sailcloth,  thread,  and 
leather. 

ARBUTIINOT,  John,  a  Scottish  physician  and 

writer,   born   in   Kincardineshire  about   1675, 

|  died  in  London,  Feb.  27,  1735.     He  was  the 

son  of  a  Presbyterian  clergyman,  took  his  doc- 


ARBUTIINOT 


ARBUTUS 


GC9 


tor's  degree  at  the  university  of  Aberdeen,  and 
going  to  London,  supported  himself  for  a  while 
by  teaching  mathematics.  He  made  his  first 
literary  venture  in  1007  in  a  critical  essay  en 
titled  "An  Examination  of  Dr.  Woodward's 
Account  of  the  Deluge,"  in  which  he  aimed  to 
show  that  a  universal  deluge  was  inconsistent 
with  philosophical  truth.  The  reputation  which 
this  work  gave  its  author  was  considerably 
heightened  in  1700  by  his  "Essay  on  the  Use 
fulness  of  Mathematical  Learning."  He  now 
began  to  practise  as  a  physician,  and  quickly 
attained  a  high  position  in  the  profession,  aided 
not  a  little  by  his  witty  conversation  and  agree 
able  manners.  In  1704  he  contributed  to  the 
royal  society  a  paper  concerning  the  regularity 
of  the  birth  of  both  sexes,  which  procured  his 
election  into  that  body.  In  1709  he  was  ap 
pointed  the  queen's  physician  in  ordinary,  and 
the  next  year  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
royal  college  of  physicians.  He  lived  in  con 
stant  intercourse  with  Pope,  Swift,  Gay,  Par- 
nell,  Gray,  and  Prior,  in  whose  brilliant  circle 
he  was  unequalled  for  learning  and  wit.  In 
1712  he  wrote  the  "History  of  John  Bull,"  a 
political  allegory,  designed  to  ridicule  the  duke 
of  Maryborough  and  render  the  war  unpopular. 
It  is  the  most  durable  monument  of  his  fame, 
and  one  of  the  best  humorous  compositions  in 
the  English  language.  He  formed  in  1714,  in 
conjunction  with  Swift  and  Pope,  the  plan  of 
writing  a  satire  on  the  abuse  of  human  learning 
in  every  branch.  The  design  was  to  be  ex 
ecuted  in  the  humorous  manner  of  Cervantes, 
in  the  form  of  a  history  of  feigned  adventures. 
It  was  frustrated  by  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
by  which  Arbuthnot  lost  his  place,  and  a  serious 
blow  was  given  to  all  the  political  friends  of  the 
associated  wits.  The  design  was  never  carried 
further  than  an  imperfect  though  witty  and 
original  essay,  written  chiefly  by  Arbuthnot, 
under  the  title  of  "  First  Book  of  the  Memoirs 
of  Martinus  Scriblerus."  Dr.  Arbuthnot  vis 
ited  Paris  immediately  after  the  death  of  the 
queen,  and  on  his  return  continued  his  literary 
occupations  and  his  medical  practice.  In  1717 
he  and  Pope  gave  assistance  to  Gay  in  a  farce 
entitled  "  Three  Hours  after  Marriage,"  the  fail 
ure  of  which  is  explained  in  part  by  the  peculiar 
character  of  Arbuthnot's  humor,  which  was 
something  too  refined  and  rare  to  be  generally 
appreciated.  In  1723  he  was  chosen  second 
censor  of  the  royal  college  of  physicians,  and 
in  1727  was  made  an  elect  of  the  college,  and 
pronounced  the  Harveian  oration.  In  1727 
also  appeared  the  most  valuable  of  his  serious 
performances,  entitled  "Tables  of  Ancient 
Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures."  He  continued 
to  write  humorous  papers,  among  them  a  re 
markable  epitaph  upon  the  infamous  Col.  Char- 
teris.  In  1732  he  contributed  toward  detecting 
and  punishing  the  impositions  of  the  so-called 
"Charitable  Corporation,"  and  shortly  after 
ward  published  his  essays  concerning  "  The 
Nature  and  Choice  of  Aliments,"  and  "  The 
Effects  of  Air  on  Human  Bodies."  He  was 


[  then  living  in  great  debility  at  Hempstead,  and, 
|  failing  to  obtain  relief,  returned  but  a  short 
time  before  his  death  to  London.  His  last  hu 
morous  work  was  an  entertaining  and  scholar- 
like  paper  on  "  The  Altercation  or  Scolding  of 
the  Ancients."  Arbuthnot  was  equally  admir 
ed  for  his  amiability  and  his  wit.  Some  of  his 
writings  are  so  blended  with  those  of  his  con 
federates  that  they  are  not  easily  distinguished. 
ARBUTUS,  a  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs  be 
longing  to  the  natural  order  cricacece.  The 
fruit  is  a  berry  containing  many  seeds.  The- 
most  remarkable  species  of  this  genus  is  the 
arbutus  of  Virgil,  called  the  A.  uncdo,  or  the 
strawberry  tree,  the  berries  of  which  bear  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  common  strawberry. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  the 
Levant.  In  northern  Europe  it  is  a  hardy  ever 
green,  sometimes  attaining  to  a  height  of  20 
feet,  bearing  greenish-yellow  blossoms  in  Oc 
tober  and  November,  and  bright  yellow  and 
red  berries  in  November  and  the  following 


Arbutus    unedo,  or  Strawberry  Tree. 

I  months.  At  the  lake  of  Killarney  in  Ireland 
I  there  are  beautiful  groves  of  this  species 
i  of  arbutus,  which  give  a  charming  aspect 
|  to  the  country.  Its  berries,  if  eaten  freely, 
!  are  apt  to  produce  stupefaction.  In  Cor- 
1  sica  a  pleasant  wine  is  said  to  be  prepared  from 
I  them.  Its  bark  and  leaves  are  astringent. 
|  The  oriental  avbutus,  A.  andrachne,  is  a  native 
i  of  the  Levant,  and  has  similar  narcotic  quali- 
|  ties.  It  is  superior  in  beauty,  but  much  less 
hardy  in  cold  climates,  not  bearing  fruit  in 
|  northern  Europe.  Its  leaves  are  broader  and 
i  less  serrated ;  its  bark  peels  off  so  as  to  leave 
i  the  stem  always  smooth,  and  of  a  clear  bright 
I  cinnamon-brown  color.  The  mule  arbutus, 
|  A.  hybrida,  apparently  a  cross  between  these 
I  two,  has  great  beauty  of  foliage,  and  in  moder- 
I  ately  cold  regions  grows  well,  but  does  not 
1  bear  berries  in  northern  Europe.  A.  procera 
1  is  a  native  of  California,  cultivated  as  an  orna- 
|  mental  evergreen  in  the  gardens  of  Great  Brit 
ain. — The  trailing  arbutus  (epigcea  repens)  is 


64:0 


ARC 


ARCADIA 


a  plant  of  the  same  order,  but  of  a  different 
genus.  It  takes  its  generic  name  (Gr.  kni  and 
yfj,  upon  the  ground)  from  its  trailing  lowly 
habit,  and  its  common  name  Mayflower  from 


Trailing  Arbutus  (Epigeea   repens). 

the  season  of  its  blossoming.  The  leaves  are 
alternate,  coriaceous,  and  evergreen  ;  the  stems 
and  other  portions  of  the  plant  are  covered 
with  reddish,  bristling  hairs;  and  the  cluster 
of  very  fragrant  white  or  pink  flowers  appears 
in  the  axils  of  last  year's  leaves.  It  is  found 
throughout  New  England,  especially  near  the 
coast,  on  the  edges  of  pine  forests,  and  it  also 
grows  in  great  perfection  in  the  valley  of  the 
Connecticut.  It  is  also  called  ground  laurel. 

ARC  (Lat.  arcus,  a  bow),  the  name  of  any 
portion  of  a  curved  line;  thus,  an  arc  of  a 
circle  is  a  portion  of  the  circumference.  To 
rectify  an  arc  is  to  give  the  length  of  the 
straight  line  to  which  it  would  be  equal  if  it 
were  made  to  have  the  same  length  in  a  right 
direction  which  it  now  has  in  a  curved.  Two 
arcs  are  said  to  be  equal  when,  being  rectified, 
they  have  the  same  length ;  and  similar  when, 
being  taken  from  different  circles,  they  have 
the  same  number  of  degrees — that  is,  are  equal 
fractions  of  their  respective  circumferences. 
The  arcs  of  a  circle  serve  to  measure  the  angles 
(see  ANGLE)  ;  if  from  the  vertex  of  the  angle 
as  a  centre,  with  whatever  radius,  a  circum 
ference  be  described,  the  number  of  degrees 
of  the  arc  intercepted  between  the  two  lines 
which  form  the  angle  will  be  the  measure  of 
the  angle.  Thus,  for  instance,  as  the  arc  of 
90°  corresponds  to  a  right  angle,  if  we  find 
that  the  intercepted  arc  contains  15°,  we  con 
clude  that  the  angle  is  to  a  right  angle  in  the 
ratio  of  15°  to  90°~  or  that  it  is  the  sixth  part 
of  a  right  angle.  The  chord  of  an  arc  is  the 
right  line  which  joins  its  extremities;  a  seg 
ment  is  the  area  included  between  an  arc  and 
its  chord;  and  a  sector  is  the  area  included 
between  an  arc  and  the  two  radii  going  from 
its  extremities  to  the  centre  of  the  circle. 


ARC,  Joan  of.     See  JOAN  OF  ARC. 

ARCACH9N,  a  village  of  France,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Gironde,  35  m.  by  railway  W.  S.  W. 
of  Bordeaux  ;  pop.  about  2,000.  It  is  situated  on 
a  landlocked  bay  or  lake  (bassin  d'Arcachon), 
about  60  m.  in  circumference,  connected  with 
the  gulf  of  Gascony  by  a  narrow  strait.  Since 
1854  the  village  has  been  converted  into  a 
watering  place  by  the  Pereire  family,  who 
bought  the  surrounding  woods  and  swamps, 
and  drained  part  of  the  bay.  Previous  to  the 
Franco-German  war  the  visitors  annually  aver 
aged  5,000.  Persons  suffering  from  diseased 
lungs  are  much  benefited  in  winter  by  the 
mildness  of  the  climate.  The  beach  is  very 
fine,  and  sea  bathing  attracts  in  summer  many 
visitors.  The  pine  woods  extend  almost  as 
far  as  Bayonne,  and  abound  with  game. 

ARCADIA,  the  central  and,  next  to  Laconia, 
largest  of  the  ancient  divisions  of  the  Pelopon 
nesus  ;  area  about  1,700  sq.  m.  It  included 
the  most  picturesque  and  beautiful  portion  of 
Greece.  The  country  embraced  by  its  ancient 
boundaries  is  mountainous,  with  many  forests, 
but  it  contains  also  rich  meadow  lands,  and 
rivers  and  brooks  abound.  Mount  Cyllene  in 
the  northeast,  Erymanthus  in  the  northwest, 
and  Lycaaus  in  the  southwest,  are  some  of  its 
mountains  most  frequently  mentioned  by  the  an 
cients.  The  Alpheus  was  its  principal  stream, 
and  Stymphalis  its  largest  lake.  It  had  neither 
seaports  nor  navigable  rivers.  Pausanias  says 
its  name  was  derived  from  that  of  Areas,  son 
of  Callisto.  In  the  most  ancient  times  its 
inhabitants,  of  Pelasgic  origin,  were  hunters 
and  rough  shepherds ;  but  they  gradually 
turned  their  attention  to  agriculture  and  to 
raising  cattle.  Their  habits  were  simple,  and 
the  quiet  and  happiness  of  their  life  among  the 
mountains,  their  fondness  for  music  and  danc 
ing,  their  hospitality  and  pastoral  customs, 
made  the  Arcadians  pass  among  the  ancients 
for  favorites  of  the  gods.  Pan  and  Diana 
were  their  principal  deities.  The  poets  have 
chosen  Arcadia  for  the  scene  of  many  idyls, 
until  its  name  has  become  the  synonyme  for  a 
land  of  peace,  simple  pleasures,  and  untroubled 
quiet.  In  spite  of  this  the  Arcadians  were, 
like  nearly  all  mountain  races,  a  brave  and 
martial  people,  and,  though  they  produced  no 
great  military  leaders,  were  almost  constantly 
engaged  in  war,  either  on  their  own  account 
or  as  the  mercenaries  of  others,  fighting  brave 
ly  even  against  their  own  countrymen  for  those 
who  hired  them.  They  fought  in  the  ranks  of 
both  contending  parties  in  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  and  at  the  battle  of  Issus  thousands  of 
them  were  slain  in  the  army  of  Darius,  by 
Alexander.  The  principal  cities  of  Arcadia — 
Mantinea,  Tegea,  and  Orchomenus — engaged 
in  frequent  and  injurious  disputes  among  them 
selves.  Against  the  Spartans  the  Arcadians 
(about  370  B.  C.)  built  the  city  of  Megalopolis, 
and  organized  a  general  assembly.  They  sub 
sequently  became  confederates  in  the  Acha3an 
league,  and  on  its  final  defeat  in  146  B.  C.  fell 


ARCADIUS 


ARCH 


Gil 


under  the  Roman  power.  Thenceforth  they 
have  no  separate  history  from  that  of  the  em 
pire,  and  of  mediaeval  and  modern  Greece. — 
At  present  Arcadia,  comprising  the  larger 
part  of  the  ancient  division,  with  the  addition 
of  the  ancient  district  of  Oynuria  and  a  part 
of  Laconia,  forms  one  of  the  nomarchies  of 
the  kingdom  of  Greece,  hounded  E.  in  part  by 
the  gulf  of  Xauplia  ;  area,  2,028  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in 
1870, 131,740.  Capital,  Tripolitza. 

ARCADirS,  the  first  of  the  Byzantine  empe 
rors,  born  in  Spain,  A.  D.  383,  died  in  Constan 
tinople,  May  1,  408.  He  was  the  elder  son  of 
Theodosius  the  Great,  the  last  ruler  of  the  whole 
Roman  empire.  In  395,  a  few  months  before 
his  death,  Theodosius  divided  the  empire  be 
tween  his  two  sons,  Arcadius  and  Honorius, 
giving  to  the  former  the  eastern  part,  extend 
ing  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Tigris  and  from 
Scythia  to  Ethiopia.  Arcadius  ruled  at  first 
under  the  regency  of  Rufinus,  who  was  soon 
assassinated  at  the  instigation  of  his  rival,  Sti- 
licho,  the  regent  of  Honorius.  Eutropius,  a 
eunuch,  afterward  became  regent,  and  held  the 
place  till  390,  when  Tribigild,  a  Gothic  chief  in 
Phrygia,  revolted  and  compelled  Arcadius  to 
put  his  favorite  to  death.  Trigibild  and  his 
tribe  also  obtained  permission  to  pass  the  Bos 
porus  and  settle  on  the  European  side ;  but- 
being  Arians,  they  were  massacred  or  driven 
out  by  the  people  of  Constantinople.  In  re 
venge  for  this  the  empress  Eudoxia,  who  had 
now  acquired  the  absolute  control  over  her 
husband,  caused  Chrysostom,  the  great  adver 
sary  of  Arianism,  to  be  banished  to  Comana  in 
Pontus  (404).  Arcadius  was  a  contemptibly 
feeble  man,  but  of  strict  religious  orthodoxy. 

ARCESILAIS,  a  Greek  philosopher,  the  founder 
of  the  Middle  Academy,  born  at  Pitane  in 
/Eolis  about  316  B.  C.,  died  about  241.  He 
was  originally  intended  for  a  rhetorician,  but 
T--hile  pursuing  his  studies  at  Athens  decided 
fo  devote  himself  entirely  to  philosophy,  and 
succeeded  Crates  in  the  chair  of  the  academy 
of  Athens.  From  the  little  we  know  of  his 
opinions,  it  seems  that  he  was  a  skeptic,  but 
not  in  the  Pyrrhonic  sense  of  that  term ;  and 
his  celebrated  saying,  "  that  he  knew  nothing, 
not  even  his  own  ignorance,"  seems  to  have 
been  but  an  utterance  of  humility.  He  was 
also  distinguished  from  the  pure  Pyrrhonists 
by  his  predilection  for  questions  appertaining 
to  practical  life,  arid  by  the  undeviating  mod 
eration  of  his  tone. 

ARCH  (Lat.  amis,  a  bow),  a  curved  structure 
supported  by  its  own  curve.  An  arch  is  dis 
tinguished  from  a  vault  by  its  length  being 
much  less  than  its  width,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  arch  forming  the  roof  of  a  door  or  of  a 
window  ;  but  this  distinction  does  not  apply  to 
structures  built  entirely  above  ground  and  open 
on  both  sides,  as  the  arch  of  a  bridge  or  a 
triumphal  arch.  It  was  long  supposed  that 
domes  were  unknown  to  the  Egyptians  and 
early  Greeks,  the  first  arched  monument  on 
record  being  the  cloaca  maxima  of  Rome,  built 
VOL.  i. — 41 


in  the  age  of  the  Tarquins ;  but  it  is  now  cer 
tain  that  arches  were  used  by  the  Assyrians 
and  Babylonians  long  before  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  and  also  that  the  Egyptians  were  ac 
quainted  with  the  principle  of  the  arch,  though 
they  did  not  see  fit  to  make  use  of  it  to  any  great 
extent. — The  earliest  arches  in  Italy  were  built 
by  the  Etruscans.  The  original  Etruscan  dome 
was  supported  by  a  few  pillars,  under  which 
stood  the  augurs;  the  object  was  to  protect  the 
priest  against  the  sun  and  rain,  and  at  the  same 
time  allow  him  to  study  the  horizon  and  be 
seen  by  the  people.  The  Romans  scarcely  de 
viated  from  the  semicircle,  which  is  the  simplest 
form  of  the  arch,  and  in  building  it  did  not 
follow  true  mechanical  principles ;  so  that  the 
great  strength  of  their  numerous  aqueducts, 
viaducts,  and  monuments  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
their  massiveness  and  to  the  good  cement  em 
ployed.  It  was  not  till  the  middle  ages  that 
the  arch  was  properly  built  and  widely  used. 
Strong  abutments  are  generally  found  around 
the  monuments  of  that  period,  which  consist 
of  a  succession  of  arches  built  one  above  the 
other,  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  monu 
ment,  the  uppermost  one  being  used  as  an 
aqueduct  for  the  roof  gutters,  appearing  from 
below  as  light  as  if  made  of  tin  plate.  The 
roofs  of  many  of  these  edifices  are  formed  of 
large  arches  as  main  ribs,  which  sustain 
smaller  arches  abutting  on  them ;  they  are  as 
slender  as  possible,  and  so  appropriately  shaped 
and  ornamented  as  to  appear  much  lighter  than 
they  are.  The  wedge-shaped  stones  of  which 
an  arch  is  composed  are  called  voussoirs ; 
the  uppermost  is  the  keystone ;  the  two  blocks 
of  masonry  on  which  the  arch  rests  are 
the  abutments ;  the  line  from  which  the  arch 
springs  is  called  impost ;  the  inner  curve,  in- 
trados  or  soffit ;  the  curve  outside  the  vous 
soirs,  extrados;  the  span  is  the  distance  be 
tween  the  piers ;  the  distance  of  the  keystone 
above  the  impost  is  the  height  of  the  arch. 
The  names  of  the  parts  of  the  arch  proper  are, 
the  springs  of  the  arch,  the  haunches,  and  the 
crown.  When  the  arch  has  only  to  support  it 
self,  each  voussoir  sustains  the  weight  of  those 
placed  above  it,  and  consequently  they  must 
be  made  larger  and  larger  from  the  crown  to 
the  spring;  but  when  the  arch  has  to  support 
weights,  the  various  modes  in  which  they  may 
be  disposed  require  as  many  different  construc 
tions,  and  the  finding  of  the  resulting  force 
acting  on  each  part  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
tasks  of  the  architect.  The  use  of  arches  in 
the  form  of  an  arc  smaller  than  a  semicircle  is 
comparatively  recent,  and  superior  for  many 
purposes  to  older  forms.  In  bridges,  for  ex 
ample,  it  leaves  in  ordinary  times  a  larger  pas 
sage  for  boats,  and  in  times  of  freshet  offers 
less  resistance  to  the  water,  and  the  bridge 
runs  less  risk  of  being  carried  down.  Since 
the  introduction  of  cast  iron  in  architecture, 
arches  of  that  metal  and  of  a  single  piece  have 
been  built;  in  such  cases  the  arch  is  used  only 
to  please  the  sight,  as  the  solidity  of  the  struc- 


042 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


ture  depends  entirely  on  other  portions  of  the 
work. — A  triumphal  arch  is  a  monumental 
structure  erected  in  honor  of  some  celebrated 
person  and  his  deeds,  or  to  commemorate  some 
great  event.  Triumphal  arches  probably  ori 
ginated  with  the  Romans,  and  L.  Stertinius  is 
the  first  recorded  who  erected  such  a  monu 
ment.  Two  were  built  by  him,  one  about  196 
B.  C.  in  the  Forum  Boarium,  and  another  in 
the  Circus  Maximus.  A  few  years  later,  Scipio 
Africanus  built  one  on  the  Clivns  Capitolinus, 
and  in  121  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  erected  one  on 
the  Via  Sacra.  Of  these  none  remain.  Dif 
ferent  writers  record  21  as  having  been  built 
in  the  city  of  Rome.  The  most  celebrated 
Roman  arches  are  those  of  Augustus  at  Rimini, 
of  Trajan  at  Beneventum  and  Ancona,  and 
those  of  Titus,  Drusus,  Septimius  Severus,  and 
Constantino  at  Rome.  That  of  Titus  is  one  of 
the  best.  It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Pala 
tine,  and  was  probably  completed  after  his 
death  and  apotheosis,  as  in  the  inscription  he 
is  called  Divus.  It  commemorates  his  conquest 
of  Judea.  Remains  of  Roman  arches  are  to 
be  seen  in  Spain,  Greece,  and  other  countries. 
The  custom  of  raising  magnificent  triumphal 
arches  began  under  the  first  emperors.  During 
the  republic  arches  were  decreed  to  victorious 
generals,  but  not  to  the  dead.  When  Augustus 
was  emperor,  the  senate  proposed  to  have  one 
built  in  honor  of  Drusus  the  elder,  who  died  in 
Germany.  Augustus  consented,  and  a  marble 
arch  was  constructed  on  the  Appian  Way. — 
Paris,  of  all  modern  cities,  has  the  most  nu 
merous  and  the  most  beautiful  arches.  The 
Portes  St.  Denis  and  St.  Martin  were  erected 
in  1673-'4;  the  arc  du  Carrousel  in  the  years 
1806-'$),  in  honor  of  the  armies  of  France.  The 
latter  is  at  the  W.  entrance  of  the  Tuileries ;  its 
height  is  47  feet,  its  breadth  55.  Its  two  prin 
cipal  faces  have  each  eight  Corinthian  columns, 
surmounted  by  statues.  The  most  magnificent  , 
is  the  arc  de  TEtoile,  at  the  extremity  of  the  j 
avenue  des  Champs  Elysees,  built  for  the  pur 
pose  of  commemorating  the  victories  of  Na 
poleon.  (See  PARIS.)  'The  arch  at  Hyde  Park 
corner,  with  the  equestrian  statue  of  the  duke 
of  Wellington,  and  Cumberland  gate,  are  the 
only  specimens  in  England. 

ARCHEOLOGY   (Gr.   hpxala,    ancient    things, 
and  P.dyof,  discourse),  the  science  of  antiquities, 
and  especially  of  human   antiquities  in  gene 
ral.     The   primeval   period   of  man  has  been 
divided  into  the  stone,  the  bronze,  and  the  iron 
ages.     Sir  John  Lubbock,  in   his    "  Introduc 
tion  "^ to  Nilsson's  "Primitive  Inhabitants  of 
Scandinavia,"  subdivides  the  stone  age  into  the  i 
palaeolithic  and  neolithic,  the  former  the  older  I 
and  the  one  in  which  the  stone  implements  are  j 
not  polished,  as  they  are  in  the  latter.     The 
antiquities  of  this  epoch  are  found  in  beds  of  ! 
loam   and   gravel   extending   along    the   river 
valleys  of  central  Europe  (the  loess),  sometimes 
200  feet  above  the  present  water  level ;  they 
were  evidently  deposited  by  existing  rivers, 
which  ran  then  as  now  and  drained  the  same 


areas ;  they  contain  no  marine  remains,  and 
each  valley  is  characterized  by  fragments  of 
the  rocks  in  its  special  area.  The  geography 
of  western  Europe  was  very  much  the  same  as 
now,  the  only  variations  being  in  the  ever- 
changing  coast  line  and  the  depths  of  the  river 
valleys.  The  animals  then  living  were  the 
hairy  mammoth,  woolly  rhinoceros,  hippopot 
amus,  and  most  of  the  existing  mammalsA 
especially  tigers,  hyaenas,  and  bears,  ruminantff 
and  rodents,  of  very  great  size.  The  climate 
was  then  colder  than  now,  as  the  musk  ox, 
woolly  pachyderms,  reindeer,  and  lemming 
extended  to  the  south  of  France.  It  must 
have  taken  a  very  long  time  for  the  extinction: 
of  these  large  mammalia ;  there  is  riot  the 
most  vague  tradition  of  their  presence  in  west 
ern  Europe,  and  there  are  no  marks  of  sudden 
destructive  cataclysms.  It  must  have  required 
many  centuries  for  rivers  to  excavate  their 
valleys  more  than  200  feet.  The  presence  of 
man  is  indicated  at  this  period  in  westers 
Europe  by  his  bones  and  implements  of  nn-t 
polished  flint,  without  pottery  or  any  of  the 
metals  ;  similar  implements  have  been  found  in 
the  caves  of  France  and  Spain.  (See  BONE 
CAVES.)  From  all  the  evidence  collected  by 
the  above-named  authors,  it  would  seem  that 
the  people  then  living  in  the  south  of  France 
resembled  the  Esquimaux  of  the  present  day, 
their  chief  food  being  the  flesh  of  the  reindeer; 
they  were  ingenious  workers  in  flint,  bone, 
and  horn,  and  fond  of  making  rude  drawings, 
on  the  horn  of  the  mammoth  and  other  exist 
ing  animals.  A  cold  climate  is  also  indicated 
by  their  habit  of  allowing  bones  and  offal  to, 
accumulate  in  and  near  their  cave  dwellings. 
The  cave  period  is  probably  less  ancient  tharu" 
the  gravel  epoch,  and,  from  the  abundance  of, 
their  remains,  is  often  called  the  "  reindeer " 
period.  In  the  Reliquim  Aquitanicw,  by 
Messrs.  Lartet  and  Christy,  there  is  a  full  ac 
count  of  the  archaeology  of  the  old  stone  age,  as 
exhibited  in  the  south  of  France,  especially  in 
the  caves  in  the  valley  of  the  Dordogne  and  of 
Cro-Magnon  and  Moustier.  These  caves  belong 
to  the  age  of  simply  worked  stone,  without  the 
accompaniment  of  domestic  animals  or  imple 
ments  of  polished  stone  ;  bones  of  the  reindeer 
are  abundant,  and  the  coexistence  of  man  witn 
this  animal  in  latitudes  so  much  lower  than  il^s 
present  habitat  implies  a  certain  degree  of 
elevation  above  savages,  as  not  only  food, 
clothing,  and  implements,  but  materials  for 
ornamentation  were  obtained  from  it.  In  the 
earlier  gravel  period,  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros, 
horse,  and  ox  predominate,  the  reindeer  pre 
vailing  in  the  Dordogne  caves,  but  in  neither 
are  found  remains  of  the  dog,  goat,  and  sheep  ^ 
the  same  is  true  of  the  gravels  and  caves  in' 
England,  in  central  France,  and  in  South 
Wales.  Birds  and  fishes,  especially  the  salmon, 
were  eaten ;  and  everything  shows  that  food 
was  not  so  scarce  as  to  demand  any  struggle 
for  existence.  The  domestic  economy  of  these 
early  races  is  shown  by  their  hearths,  boiling 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


G43 


stones,  rough  hammers,  and  hollowed  dish-like 
pebbles ;  there  is  a  total  absence  of  pottery. 
The  remarkable  similarity  of  the  stone  imple 
ments   from   different   parts   of  the   world   is  } 
worthy  of  notice ;  this  form  of  primitive  in 
dustry  has  been  traced  in  Europe  from  Greece 
to  Scandinavia,  and  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  i 
the  steppes  of  Russia  ;  in  Asia,  it  appears  from 
Palestine  to  the  Malay  archipelago,  in   India 
and  Japan,  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 
ocean  ;  in  America,  from  Behring  strait  to  the  : 
plateau   of    Mexico,    from    Colombia    to    the 
Atlantic,  from  Peru  to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  along  | 
the  valley  of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries,  j 
in  central  Brazil,  and  in  the  West  Indies ;  and  j 
the  ancient  weapons  resemble  those  now  used  ; 
by  the  natives  of  Xew  Caledonia  and  the  Esqui 
maux.     M.  Primer-Bey,  from  the  examination 
of  skeletons  found  in  the  cave  of  Cro-Magnon, 
maintains  that  the  crania  of  the  reindeer  age, 
which  he  calls  Mongoloid,  belong  to  a  double  ; 
series,    one    approaching   the   Lapp   and    the 
other    the    Finn    of    the    present   day  ;    the 
skulls  of  the  Dordogne   caves,  different  from 
both  these,  he   refers  to  the  Esthonian  type. 
From  the    low    and   projecting    bony   palate, 
he  thinks   the   language    of  the    cave    dwell-  j 
ers  was  neither  Aryan  nor  Semitic,  but  analo-  | 
gous  to  that  of  the  Finnish  races.    He  concludes  j 
that  they  had  massive  bones,  long  and  flat  feet,  | 
comparatively  short  arms  and  long  forearms, 
with  powerful  muscles,  greatly  developed  jaws, 
widely  opened  nostrils,  and  were  of  unbridled 
passions.     Prof.  Broca  found  the  human  thigh 
bones  in  their  width  approaching  those  of  the  I 
highest  apes,  and  a  remarkable  transverse  flat-  | 
tening  of  the  tibia ;  the  ascending  branch  of 
the  lower  jaw  was  very  wide,  and  the  cranial 
capacity  equal  to  that  of  high  races  of  the  ! 
present  day.     In  reply  to  M.  Broca,  M.  Quatre-  | 
t'ages  cautions  anthropologists  against  too  has-  ; 
tily  giving  undue  significance  to  assumed  agree-  | 
merits  between  fossil  man  and  apes,  from  any 
preconceived  views  of  the  origin  and  descent 
of  the  human  race. —  The  neo^i^  or  p olished- 
stone  age  was  sepaf9teTn5y*^onsiuerable  in- 
terval  of  time  from  the  old  stone  age.     Many  \ 
thousand  polished-stone  implements  are  col-  j 
lected  in  the  museums  of  northern  Europe  and  j 
America ;  they  are  not  found  in  the  river-drift 
gravels,  and  are  especially  abundant  in  Den-  | 
mark  and  Sweden,  while  the  ruder  implements  ! 
of  the  palaeolithic  age  are  unknown  there,  in-:  j 
dicating  that  these  northern  countries  were  not  j 
inhabited  during  the  earlier  period.     Xo  bones^  I 
of  the  reindeer  nor  of  the  great  extinct  mam-  i 
mals  are  found  with  the  polished  implements,  ! 
and  nothing  made  of  metals ;  arrow  heads  and 
rough  chisels  would  continue  to  be  made  in  j 
this,  and  even  in  the  next  and  the  present  ages,  : 
while  the  metals  were  rare  and  costly.     The  j 
Danish  shell  mounds  are  the  refuse  heaps  of  | 
the  people  around  their  dwellings  or  temporary  ! 
stopping  places;  they  contain  no  remains  of  I 
reindeer,  but  bones  of  the  domestic  animals, 
and  all  kinds  of  household  objects  lost  or  bro 


ken,  including  rude  pottery  made  by  hand. 
Similar  shell  heaps  have  been  found  in  the 
United  States,  especially  along  the  seacoast, 
marking  the  former  dwelling  places  of  the 
aborigines  of  this  continent ;  several  of  these 
have  been  described  by  Prof.  J.  Wyman  in  vols. 
i.  and  ii.  of  the  "  American  Naturalist "  (1808). 
They  are  found  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  are 
made  up  of  the  shells  of  the  mollusks  used  by 
them  as  food,  especially  the  clam  and  quahog, 
with  bones  of  the  elk,  deer,  beaver,  bear,  dog, 
various  fur-bearing  mammals,  birds,  and  espe 
cially  the  great  auk,  now  believed  to  be  extinct ; 
occasional  pieces  of  charcoal,  and  implements 
of  bone  and  stone,  but  no  human  remains,  are 
found.  The  growth  upon  them  of  large  trees 
proves  that  they  must  be  several  centuries  old, 
though  not  so  ancient  as  the  shell  heaps  of 
Denmark ;  they  show  a  great  variety  of  animal 
food,  to  say  nothing  of  the  vegetable;  they 
afford  no  trace  of  any  intercourse  with  Eu 
ropean  nations.  The  layers  are  from  4-  to  3 
feet  thick,  and  sometimes  250  feet  long  and  40 
or  50  wide,  and  near  the  seashore,  which  has 
evidently  been  raised  since  their  deposition ; 
there  are  sometimes  several  layers,  separated 
by  earth,  indicating  successive  occupations. 
Some  of  the  lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland  (see 
LAKE  DWELLINGS)  belong  to  this  age,  while 
those  yielding  metal  implements  belong  to  the' 
next  or  bronze  age.  There  are  evidently  two 
classes  of  these  lake  dwellings.  Many  burial 
mounds  contain  flint  daggers  and  stone  imple 
ments,  and  none  of  metal.  Bodies  in  the  stone 
age  were  either  buried  in  the  sitting  posture 
or  were  burned ;  they  were  rarely,  if  ever,  ex 
tended  at  length.  Bones  of  the  dog  in  the 
shell  heaps,  and  of  the  ox,  sheep,  goat,  and  pig 
in  the  lake  villages,  lead  to  the  belief  that  these 
animals  were  then  domesticated ;  the  domes 
tic  fowl  and  the  cat  were  unknown.  The 
hunting  had  by  this  time  given  place  to  the 
agricultural  state,  as  we  find  corn-crushers, 
blackened  wheat,  barley,  and  flax  in  the  lake 
dwellings,  but  no  oats,  rye,  nor  hemp ;  tissues 
of  woven  flax  are  met  with.  Even  at  this 
early  period  two  kinds  of  skulls  are  found, 
one  long  and  the  other  round,  indicating  the 
existence  of  at  last  two  human  races,  the  first 
perhaps  belonging  to  men  of  the  stone  age,  and 
the  last  to  the  bronze  period,  which  was  now 
coming  on.  In  the  villages  of  the  Swiss  lakes 
the  houses  were  built  on  wooden  platforms  ex 
tending  over  the  water,  resting  on  piles  driven 
into  the  mud.  Similar  villages  have  been  found 
in  Italy,  Savoy,  the  French  Jura,  Germany, 
Scotland,  and  Wales ;  and  from  their  number 
and  size  they  must  have  been  the  centres  of  a 
numerous  population,  a  single  one  having  had 
more  than  40,000  piles.  Some  of  the  people 
on  the  coast  of  Borneo  and  in  parts  of  Poly 
nesia  make  their  huts  on  similar  platforms  at 
the  present  day.  The  charred  posts  and  grains 
indicate  that  these  villages  were  destroyed  by 
fire. — In  the  succeeding  or  bronze  age,  imple 
ments  and  arms  of  this  alloy  were  extensively 


C4-1 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


used,  and  many  are  preserved  in  collections; 
stone  implements  and  arrow  heads  are  found 
with  the  bronze,  showing  that  the  former  ser 
viceable   material   was   still  used.      The  later 
Swiss  villages   and   many   tumuli    or   mounds 
belong  to  this  period.     Bones  of  the  domestic 
animals  and  cultivated  plants  are  found  instead 
of  wild  ones;  the  piles  of  the  villages  are  cut 
squarely  with   metal,    and  not  irregularly  by 
stone  or  charred  by  fire ;  the  pottery  shows 
marks  of  the  wheel ;   gold,  amber,   and  glass 
were   used    for  ornamental    purposes,   though 
silver,  lead,  zinc,  and  iron  appear  to  have  been 
unknown ;    there  were  no   coins  in  use,   and 
there  are  no  signs  of  writing  or  inscriptions; 
skins  were  worn,  though  tissues  of  Max  and 
wool   were   also   used;    the   ornamentation   is 
geometrical,  consisting  of  lines,  circles,  zigzags, 
and  triangles,  much  as  is  now  seen  on  the  mats 
made   by   the   tribes   of  central    Africa ;    the 
handles  of  the  arms  and  bracelets  indicate  a 
small  race.     The  use  of  bronze  proves  com 
merce,   and  the  tin  must  have  been  brought 
from   Cornwall,   and  copper  must  have  been 
used  before  bronze.    As  copper  implements  arc 
not  found  in  western  Europe,  it  is  probable 
that  the  knowledge  of  bronze  was  introduced 
into  and  not  discovered  in  Europe;  it  could 
not  have  been  introduced  from  Italy,   as  the 
Romans  never    entered   Denmark,    and   such  ' 
implements  have  rarely  been  found  in   Italy,  j 
and  none   of  the  peculiar  leaf-shaped  bronze  j 
swords,  so  common  now  in  the  north,  are  seen  • 
in  southern  museums.     If  such  are  of  Phomi-  ! 
cian  origin,  as  Prof.  Xilsson  maintains,  it  must  ! 
have  been  before  their  historic  period,  as  they  [ 
were  familiar  with  iron  from  the  earliest  known 
times. — After  a  transition  period,  during  which 
bronze  was  used  with  iron,  as  proved  by  iron 
instruments  with  bronze  handles,  though  never  j 
the  reverse,  we  come  to  the  iron  age,  which  ; 
leads  directly  to  the  historic.     In  this  the  wea-  '. 
pons  and  cutting  instruments  were  generally  j 
made  of  iron ;  such  were  in  use  by  the  Britons 
at   the   time    of  the   Roman   invasion;    coins  j 
were  employed,  and  silver  was  used  for  orna 
mentation  of  the  person  and  of  implements;  ! 
the  pottery  was  much  better,  and  the  weapons 
were  more  artistically  made  and  ornamented.  ! 
Neither  bronze  nor  stone  weapons  were  used 
in  northern  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  our  ! 
era,  and  the  people  of  the  north  and  west  were 
considerably  above  the  savage  state.     The  re 
semblance  of  the  rude  implements  in  the  old  and 
in  the  new  world,  in  the  same  stage  of  civiliza-  ; 
tion,  is  very  striking. — M.  Lartet  makes  only 
two  prehistoric  ages,  the  stone  and  the  metal.  ; 
The  stone  age  he  divides  into — 1.  that  of  the  ! 
extinct  mammals,  like  the  maimn ->th  and  the 
cave  bear ;  2.  that  of  the  migrated  existing  ani-  j 
mals,  the  reindeer  epoch  ;  3,  that  of  the  do-  • 
mesticated  existing  animals,  the  polished-stone 
age.     The   metal   age  he  subdivides  into  the 
bronze  and  the  iron  ages.     According  to  him,  ' 
primitive  man  lived  in  a  comparatively  cold,  j 
barren,  and  wet  earth,  presenting  no  fruits  for  i 


1  his  sustenance,  and  no  opportunity  for  a 
ture ;  essentially  predaceous  and  carnivorous, 
an  eater  of  raw  flesh,  and  a  cannibal,  like 
many  savage  races  of  the  present  day;  with 
small  skull  and  brain,  retreating  forehead  and 
prominent  jaws,  short  but  robust,  below  even 
the  New  Zealander  and  Australian  of  to-day; 
and  paying  a  great  and  superstitious  respect  to 
,  the  dead.  In  the  reindeer  period  there  was  an 
1  advance,  as  shown  by  the  more  symmetrical 
though  unpolished  weapons,  but  as  yet  no  agri 
culture  ;  the  great  mammals  began  to  disap 
pear,  and  to  be  replaced  by  smaller  and  more 
useful  forms.  The  mastodon  was  evidently 
known  to  the  founders  of  the  Central  American 
|  cities,  and  its  figure  is  pictured  on  their  walls ; 
!  as  the  mastodon  survived  the  mammoth,  the 
i  former  came  down  almost  to  the  historic  pe 
riod.  During  the  reindeer  epoch  the  glaciers 
'  again  advanced,  and  the  climate  became  cold, 
;  though  to  a  less  degree  and  for  a  shorter 
time  than  before ;  after  this  came  another 
I  warmer  period,  when  the  glaciers  melted, 
j  causing  the  floods  which  as  deluges  enter  into 
:  the  traditions  of  so  many  nations;  then  the 
i  great  mammals  were  exterminated,  and  the 
!  reindeer  and  the  arctic  animals  retreated  to 
the  north,  where  they  have  since  remained. 
In  the  next  epoch,  with  a  continued  mild  cli 
mate,  man  became  agricultural,  had  polished 
implements,  and  made  the  dog  his  companion. 
In  the  bronze  age  man  made  still  great  ej* 
advances,  domesticating  animals,  cultivating 
grains  and  fruits,  and  smelting  metals,  espe 
cially  copper.  The  iron  age  insensibly  merges 
into  the  historic  period.  The  mound-builders 
M.  Lartet  considers  intermediate  in  civilization 
between  the  polished-stone  and  the  bronze 
epochs  of  Europe,  not  in  time,  but  in  stage  of 
advancement;  they  lived  in  towns,  and  were 
not  only  hunters,  but  miners,  potters,  weavers, 
agricultural,  artistic,  and  commercial.  The 
stone,  bronze,  and  iron  ages  do  not  indicate 
definite  periods  of  time  in  man's  civilization ; 
every  race  goes  through  these  ages,  some  more 
rapidly  than  others.  Some  eastern  nations  had 
probably  passed  out  of  their  stone  age  at  least 
3,000  years  B.  C. ;  some  in  northern  and  cen 
tral  Europe  were  in  this  age  when  Caesar  sub 
jugated  Gaul ;  the  Sandwich  islanders  were  in 
their  stone  age  in  the  time  of  Capt.  Cook ;  the 
Esquimaux  and  the  North  American  Indians 
generally  are  now  in  their  stone  age ;  it  is  sim 
ply  the  age  of  the  infancy  of  the  race.  In  Amer 
ica  the  copper  preceded  the  bronze  age;  the 
latter  existed  when  the  Spaniards  first  visited 
Mexico  and  Peru.  The  mound-builders  of  the 
Mississippi  valley  used  implements  of  pure  cop 
per,  hammered  cold,  obtained  from  the  region 
of  Lake  Superior;  they  preceded  the  Aztecs. 
Judging  from  the  forests  overlying  this  old  civ 
ilization,  the  copper  age  must  have  been  at 
least  1,000  years  ago.  "Africa  had  no  bronze 
age,  passing  from  the  stone  to  the  iron  age,  on 
account  of  the  exceptional  occurrence  of  iron 
there,  which  the  natives  work  skilfully  both 


ARCILEOPTERYX 


ARCHANGEL 


645 


cold  and  hot.     The  men  of  the  iron  age  in 
Europe  were  probably   the   Celts,   conquered  • 
and  described   by   the  Romans.      The  Esqui-  j 
nuiux,  the  Australian,  and  the  Xorth  Aineri-  ' 
can  Indian  will  probably  never  pass  beyond 
the  stone  age,  and  will  finally  become  extinct,  ', 
the  lirst  from  climate,  and  the  last  two  from  ; 
contact  with  superior  races  with  which  they 
cannot  compete.      It  is  most  likely  that  the  ; 
savage  Librarians   and    Iberians   described    by  | 
Caesar  as  living  in  caves,    and  conquered  by  | 
him,  were  the  southern  representatives  of  the  ; 
old  stone  age,  while  the  Finns  and  Lapps  are  ; 
the  more  modern  and  northern  remains  of  the  j 
later  stone  age.     The  American  Indians,  the 
shepherds  of  Tartary,    and  the  African  races  : 
have  no  written  history  of  their  own  ;  this  has 
been    attained   only   in    comparatively   recent  \ 
times  even  by  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe,  j 
From   geographical   causes   the   Tartars   have 
always  been  migrating  shepherds,  occasionally 
uniting  in   formidable  hosts,  the  scourges  of 
more  civilized  races,  as  when  eastern  Europe 
was  overrun  by  the  hordes  of  Genghis  Khan 
and  Tamerlane. — For  full  information  on  the 
subject  of  archaeology,  the  reader  is  referred  to  j 
the   writings  of  Christy,   Lartet,   Boucher  de  j 
Perthes,   and  Quatrefages  in  France ;    Schaff-  : 
hausen,  Virchow,  and  Lindenschmit  in   Ger-  I 
many ;  Thomsen,  Engelhardt,  Steenstrup,  and 
Xilsson  in  Denmark ;  Troyon,  Keller,  Morlot,  , 
Vogt,    and    Desor   in   Switzerland;    Gastaldi,  : 
Canestrini,  and  Foresi  in  Italy ;    Schoolcraft, 
Squier,  Foster,  Davis,  Whittlesey,  and  Wyman  | 
in  the  United  States;    Crawfurd,   Prestwich,  | 
Boyd  Dawkins,  in  England,  and  especially  to  j 
Lyell's    "Antiquity  of  Man,"  and   Lubbock's  i 
''Prehistoric  Times."    For  details  on  the  stone  I 
age,  see  "Primitive  Inhabitants  of  Scandina-  i 
via,"  by  Sven  Nilsson  (London,  1808). 

ARCHJlpPTERlX  (Gr.  apxalog,  ancient,  and  | 
Tr-i-pvt;,  wing),  the  name  given  by  Owen  to  the  j 
recently  discovered  long-tailed  or  reptilian  bird  i 


Archffiopteryx,  Restored. 

of  Solenhofen,  one  of  the  connecting  links  be 
tween  the  reptile  and  the  bird,  which  made  its 
appearance,  as  far  as  known,  during  the  oolitic 
epoch  of  the  Jurassic  period.  In  the  mesozoic 
age.  not  only  the  mammals  but  the  birds  had 
reptilian  characters,  and  the  earliest  birds  had 
long  verteb rated  tails.  The  tail  in  A.  macrurus 
(Owen)  was  1 1  inches  long  and  3£  wide ;  it 
consisted  of  20  vertebra1,  with  a  row  of  feathers 


along  each  side,  the  feathers  being  in  pairs  cor 
responding  to  the  number  of  vertebne,  and  di 
verging  at  an  angle  of  45° ;  the  last  pair  ex 
tended  backward  nearly  in  the  axis  of  the  tail, 
and  3-J-  inches  beyond  it.  The  wing  appears  to 
have  had  a  two-jointed  finger,  and  its  breadth 
was  made  by  feathers  as  in  birds,  and  not  by 
an  expanded  membrane  as  in  the  pterodactyl 
and  other  flying  reptiles;  the  feet  were  also 
like  those  of  birds,  and  its  body  was  covered 
with  feathers.  As  we  know  comparatively 
little  of  the  terrestrial  reptiles  of  the  triassic  or 
preceding  period  of  the  mesozoic  age,  and  very 
little  of  its  bird-like  forms  beyond  that  afford 
ed  by  the  footprints  in  the  Connecticut  valley, 
it  is  expected  by  naturalists  friendly  to  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  that  future  researches 
will  reveal  birds  more  reptilian  than  the  archas- 
opteryx,  and  bird-like  reptiles,  which  will  go 
far  toward  filling  the  gap  which  now  exists 
between  reptiles  and  birds. 

ARCHANGEL  (Russ.  Arkhangelsk},  I.  The 
northernmost  government  of  European  Russia, 
bounded  X.  by  the  White  and  Polar  seas,  E.  by 
the  Ural  mountains,  and  S.  and  "W.  by  Vologda, 
Olonetz,  and  Finland.  It  includes  the  islands 
of  Xova  Zembla,  Vaygatch,  Dolgoi,  and  Kol- 
gnyev,  and  has  a  continental  area  of  about 
290,000  sq.  m.,  and  an  estimated  total  area  of 
about  340,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  275,779. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Petchora,  Mezen,  Dwina, 
and  Onega,  all  of  which  flow  north.  Lapps, 
Finns,  and  Samoyeds,  many  of  them  still  hea 
then,  form  the  native  population,  living  indepen 
dently  among  the  conquering  Russian  settlers. 
The  country  is  covered  with  immense  forests. 
The  soil  yields  vegetables,  oats,  barley,  hemp, 
and  flax.  The  principal  towns  besides  the  cap 
ital  are  Kola,  Kern,  Onega,  Pinega,  and  Mezen. 
II.  The  capital  of  the  preceding  government, 
named  after  a  monastery  dedicated  to  the  arch 
angel  Michael  built  there  in  1584,  situated  on 
the  river  Dwina,  30  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the 
White  sea,  450  m.  X.  E.  of  St.  Petersburg,  in 
lat.  64°  32'  X.,  Ion.  40°  33'  E. ;  pop.  in  1867, 
20,178.  It  has  a  military  and  a  civil  governor, 
an  archbishop,  a  high  school  or  gymnasium,  a 
navy  yard,  and  several  private  ship  yards.  For 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half,  previous  to  the 
construction  of  St.  Petersburg,  Archangel  was 
the  principal  and  indeed  the  only  mart  of  the 
Russian  import  and  export  trade.  As  early  as 
the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  English  merchant 
ships  occasionally  entered  the  mouth  of  the 
Dwina,  and  they  were  soon  followed  by  those 
of  the  Dutch  and  the  German  Ilansa.  The 
harbor  is  large  and  one  of  the  best  in  northern 
Europe,  though  somewhat  obstructed  by  a 
sand  bank  at  the  entrance.  Archangel  is  still 
one  of  the  principal  points  for  the  trade  with 
the  interior  of  Russia  and  with  Siberia,  the 
Dwina  being  connected  by  canals  with  the 
Volga,  and  thus  with  Moscow  and  Astrakhan. 
The  ice  disappears  in  April,  and  the  navigation 
closes  in  September.  The  principal  objects  of 
trade  are  fish,  fish  oil,  tallow,  linseed,  furs, 


646 


ARCHBISHOP 


ARCHDUKE 


hides,  lumber,  wax,  iron,  linen,  bristles,  and 
caviare.  In  1 855  the  harbor  of  Archangel,  de 
fended  by  a  fort,  resisted  the  English  attacks. 
Archangel,  being  able  to  receive  the  largest  men- 
of-war,  soon  afterward  became  one  of  the  chief 
places  for  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  the  Russian  navy.  The  buildings  of  the  ad 
miralty  or  navy  board,  as  well  as  the  barracks 
for  sailors,  are  situated  on  the  island  of  Solom- 
balsk.  In  summer  Archangel  sends  out  nu 
merous  fishing  boats,  and  in  winter  hunters 
to  the  utmost  northern  regions,  such  as  Spitz- 
bergen,  Xova  Zembla,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Lena  in  Siberia.  A  special  company  has  been 
formed  in  Archangel  for  the  herring  fishery.  In 
1808  the  exports  to  Great  Britain,  consisting 
chiefly  of  linen  goods  (305,890  pieces)  and  oats 
(8.728,244  bushels),  were  valued  at  £960,938, 
and  the  total  exports  at  £1,504,211. 

ARCIIBISHOP  (Lat.  archiepiscopus),  the  chief 
of  the  bishops  of  an  ecclesiastical  province. 
The  first  formal  sanction  of  this  authority  was 
by  the  council  of  Nice,  in  325,  which  distin 
guished  the  bishops  of  the  capitals  as  metro 
politans,  and  the  more  eminent  of  the  metro 
politans  were  termed  archbishops  or  patriarchs. 
In  the  8th  century  the  title  was  applied  to 
every  metropolitan  and  to  the  more  eminent 
of  the  bishops.  Since  that  time,  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  the  archbishops  have  had  a 
more  definite  position  in  the  hierarchical  scale, 
ranking  next  below  patriarchs,  although  their 
prerogatives  have  considerably  varied.  They 
possess  a  double  character,  exercising  over  their 
own  diocese  ordinary  episcopal  functions,  and 
also  having  a  limited  jurisdiction  over  the  bish 
ops  of  their  province,  who  are  termed  suffragans. 
They  claim  the  right  of  calling  provincial  syn 
ods,  of  presiding  at  them,  and  publishing  their 
acts ;  also  the  right  of  supervision ;  and  an  ap 
peal  lies  to  them  from  the  decisions  of  the  bish 
ops.  The  archbishop  also  supplies  benefices 
left  vacant  by  the  bishops  for  a  longer  time 
than  that  prescribed  by  the  canons,  and  receives 
the  bulls  of  the  pope,  which  he  announces 
to  his  suffragans.  The  symbol  of  his  superior 
authority  is  the  pallium,  a  band  of  white  wool 
len  worn  around  the  shoulders. — The  archiepis- 
copal  dignity  has  been  retained  in  the  Greek 
and  Anglican  churches.  The  ecclesiastical  gov 
ernment  of  England  is  divided  into  two  provin 
ces,  Canterbury  and  York.  The  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  is  the  chief  primate  and  metro 
politan  of  all  England,  first  peer  of  the  realm, 
and  member  of  the  privy  council.  It  is  his 
prerogative  to  crown  the  king,  and  he  is  con 
sulted  by  the  ministry  in  all  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
and  generally  delivers  in  parliament  the  sen 
timents  of  the  bench  of  bishops.  The  arch 
bishop  of  York  crowns  the  queen,  and  is  her 
chaplain.  He  also  belongs  to  the  privy  council, 
but  his  inferiority  to  the  archbishop  of  Canter 
bury  is  recognized  in  his  being  styled  simply 
primate  of  England,  while  the  latter  is  styled 
primate  of  all  England.  The  two  archbishops 
have  precedence  of  all  temporal  peers  except- 


;  ing  those  of  the  blood  royal,  and  excepting  the 

|  lord  chancellor,  who  in  processions  is  interposed 

I  between   them.     The   archbishop   of    St.  An- 

:  drews  was  the  metropolitan  of  Scotland  while 

|  episcopacy  prevailed  in  that  country,  and  the 

archbishop  of  Armagh  is  primate  of  all  Ireland. 

— In  Denmark  the  bishop  of  Copenhagen  has 

j  precedence  of  the  others,  but  the  bishop  of 

1  Seeland  is  the  metropolitan,  and  anoints  the 

!  king.     In  Sweden  the  bishop  of  Upsal  is  the 

i  sole  archbishop.      In  Germany,   three  of  the 

|  archbishops,    those   of    Treves,    Cologne,    and 

Mentz,  were  electors  of  the  empire. 

ARCHDEACON  (Gr.  ap%/6taKovo(;,  chief  minis 
ter),  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary,  the  assistant  of 
j  the  bishop.  At  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
I  tury  there  was  in  almost  every  diocese  an  arch- 
!  deacon,  invested  with  authority  by  the  bishop, 
|  particularly  in  the  administration  of  temporal 
j  affairs.  To  him  belonged  the  care  of  preserv 
ing  public  order  and  propriety  during  the 
divine  service,  of  guarding  the  ornaments  of 
!  the  church,  and  of  tending  the  poor  throughout 
j  the  diocese.  He  was  called  the  hand  and  the 
I  eye  of  the  bishop,  and,  from  his  influential  posi- 
|  tion,  became  recognized  as  superior  to  the 
j  priesthood,  though  retaining  only  the  deacon's 
!  consecration.  As  overseer  of  the  deacons  and 
!  of  the  younger  clergy  who  were  not  yet  conse- 
'  crated,  he  had  the  supervision  of  their  educa- 
!  tion  and  studies,  so  that  a  certificate  from  him 
!  was  required  before  their  ordination  to  the 
j  priesthood.  AVhen  the  dioceses  began  to  en- 
j  large,  and  the  metropolitan  churches  to  attach 
j  to  themselves  the  neighboring  country  congre- 
|  gations,  it  became  necessary  to  divide  the  dio- 
j  cese  into  a  number  of  archdeaconries.  The 
|  archdeacons  increased  in  independence  and 
!  power  till  the  13th  century,  when  they  claimed 
j  a  jurisdiction  proper  to  themselves,  and  the 
!  right  to  appoint  their  own  subordinates.  Sev- 
l  eral  synods  sought  directly  to  limit  their  pre- 
f  rogatives,  and  it  was  finally  decreed  by  the 
j  council  of  Trent  that  henceforth  the  archdea- 
j  cons  should  hold  their  right  of  supervision  only 
I  by  the  bishops'  permission.  From  that  time 
|  they  have  gradually  disappeared  from  many 
j  dioceses.  England  is  divided  into  67  archdea- 
I  conries,  and  it  is  imperative  upon  each  arch- 
I  deacon  to  visit  his  district  at  least  once  in  three 
,  years.  It  belongs  to  him  to  see  that  the  church- 
j  es  and  chancels  are  in  repair,  that  everything 
i  is  done  conformably  to  the  canons,  and  to  hear 
I  from  the  churchwardens  any  representations 
of  public  scandal.  The  archdeacons  are  ap 
pointed  by  their  respective  bishops. 

ARCHDUKE  (Ger.  Erzherzog),  a  German  title 

in  use  from  very  early  times.    '"We  find  among 

the  Franks  archdukes  of  Austrasia.     The  title 

!  also  existed  in  Lorraine  and  Brabant,  and  was 

|  especially  assumed   by  the  house  of  Austria, 

I  though  there  is  no  positive  historical  record  as 

i  to  when  or  why  it  was  granted  to  them  by 

;  the  emperors.     The  Kahleberg  branch  of  the 

house  of  Austria  or   Hapsburg  has  used  the 

title  since  1156,  but  without  special  privileges. 


AROHELAUS 


647 


It  became  hereditary  in  that  line  after  the  pro 
mulgation  of  the  golden  bull,  but  the  electors 
did  not  recognize  its  validity  till  1453.  It  is 
supposed,  however,  that  Maximilian  I.  extended 
this  dignity  to  his  branch  of  the  family,  attach 
ing  to  it  various  privileges,  and  placing  the 
archdukes  in  every  respect  above  all  other 
crowned  vassals  of  the  German  empire.  The 
Hapsburgs  have  preserved  it  ever  since;  and 
since  the  assumption  by  the  emperor  Francis 
of  the  title  of  emperor  of  Austria  (1804),  all 
the  male  and  female  members  of  that  house 
have  been  called  archdukes  or  archduchesses. 

AKCflKLAl'S.  I.  Surnamed  Physicus,  or  the 
Naturalist,  a  Greek  philosopher,  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  a  native  of  Athens,  by 
others  of  Miletus.  He  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  oth  century  B.  C.,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Anaxagoras.  Archelaus  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  philosopher  who  taught 
physics  in  combination  with  ethics,  at  least  in 
Greece.  He  held  that  the  antagonism  of  heat 
and  cold  caused  the  separation  of  fire  and  water, 
and  produced  a  slimy  mass  of  earth ;  that  the 
action  of  heat  upon  the  moisture  of  this  mix 
ture  generated  animals,  originally  nourished  by 
their  native  mud,  and  gradually  becoming  ca 
pable  of  propagating  their  species ;  that  these 
animals  were  all  endowed  in  diiferent  degrees 
with  intellect;  and  that  man,  separating  in 
time  from  his  brother  animals,  rose  to  his  supe 
rior  condition.  He  held  also  the  doctrine 
that  "right  and  wrong  are  not  from  nature, 
but  from  custom.'"  After  the  banishment  of 
Anaxagoras  from  Athens,  Archelaus  estab 
lished  himself  in  that  city,  and  is  said  to  have 
instructed  Euripides  and  Socrates.  II.  A  king 
of  Macedon,  from  413  to  399  B.  0.  He  was, 
according  to  Plato,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Per- 
diccas  II.,  and  a  monster  of  cruelty.  If  we 
may  believe  Thucydides,  however,  Archelaus, 
by  erecting  fortresses,  forming  roads,  and  add 
ing  to  his  military  strength,  established  the 
basis  on  which  Philip  and  Alexander  raised  the 
superstructure  of  Macedonian  power.  He  insti 
tuted  public  games  at  ^Ega3,  or  at  Dium,  which 
he  dedicated  to  the  muses  and  Zeus.  lie  was 
a  lover  of  literature,  science,  and  the  fine  arts. 
His  palace  was  adorned  with  paintings  by  the 
greatest  Grecian  masters,  and  was  the  resort 
of  Euripides,  Agathon,  and  other  distinguished 
men.  Archelaus  is  said  to  have  been  slain  at 
a  hunting  party  by  his  favorite  Craterus,  but 
whether  accidentally  or  deliberately  is  not 
known.  HI.  The  greatest  of  the  generals  of 
Mithridates  the  Great  of  Pontus,  born  in  Cap- 
padocia.  He  commanded  the  army  which  his 
master  sent  against  Xicomedes,  king  of  Bithy- 
nia,  whom  he  encountered  in  Paphlagonia,  and 
completely  defeated.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
terrible  struggle  known  in  Roman  history  as 
the  first  Mithridatic  war,  he  was  sent  with  a 
naval  and  military  force  into  Greece.  He  sub 
dued  many  of  the  zEgean  islands  and  com 
pelled  the  Athenians  to  take  part  against  the 
Romans;  but  when  Sylla  became  his  opponent 


his  triumphant  career  terminated.  At  ChaBro- 
nea  and  Orchomenus,  in  Boeotia,  his  xVsiatic 
myriads  were  overthrown  and  almost  annihi 
lated  (86  B.  C.),  and  he  was  himself  driven  to 
flight  and  concealment.  Mithridates  now  com 
missioned  Archelaus  to  negotiate  with  his  con 
queror.  The  two  generals  met  at  Delium, 
where  Sylla  is  said  to  have  vainly  endeavored 
to  induce  Archelaus  to  betray  his  sovereign. 
Afterward  a  preliminary  treaty  was  concluded, 
which  was  not  approved  by  Mithridates;  but 
Sylla  by  the  advice  of  Archelaus  had  an  inter 
view  with  the  king  at  Dardanus  (84),  and  there 
made  with  him  a  treaty  so  favorable  to  the 
Romans,  that  henceforward  Archelaus,  the 
principal  mediator  in  the  matter,  was  regarded 
as  a  traitor,  and  had  ultimately  to  take  refuge 
with  his  former  antagonists  from  the  vengeance 
of  his  king.  IV.  Son  of  the  preceding,  was 
made  by  Pompey  in  63  B.  C.  priest  of  the 
goddess  of  war  at  Comana  in  Cappadocia. 
This  office  conferred  on  him  the  power  of  king 
over  Comana  and  its  territory.  When  Bere 
nice,  queen  of  Egypt,  proclaimed  that  she  was 
desirous  of  marrying  a  prince  of  royal  blood, 
he  pretended  to  be  the  son  of  Mithridates,  won 
her  hand,  and  presently  found  himself  king  of 
Egypt.  Gabinius,  the  proconsul  of  Syria,  hav 
ing  espoused  the  cause  of  Ptolemy,  marched  an 
army  into  Egypt,  where  a  battle  was  fought 
in  which  Archelaus  lost  his  crown  and  his 
life  after  a  reign  of  six  months.  V.  Son  of 
the  preceding,  succeeded  to  the  office  of  his 
father  at  Comana.  In  51  B.  C.,  having  aided 
the  insurgents  in  Cappadocia,  he  was  ex 
pelled  from  his  dominions  by  Cicero,  then  pro 
consul  of  Cilicia.  After  the  Alexandrian  war 
he  was  deprived  of  his  office  by  Julius  Caesar, 
who  gave  it  to  one  of  his  own  adherents.  VI. 
Son  of  the  preceding,  was  made  king  of  Cap 
padocia  by  Mark  Antony,  in  36  B.  C.  Au 
gustus  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  his 
kingdom,  and  even  added  to  it  a  portion  of 
Cilicia  and  Lesser  Armenia.  Archelaus  was 
once  accused  at  Rome  by  his  own  subjects,  but 
he  had  Tiberius  for  an  advocate  on  the  occa 
sion,  and  was  acquitted.  But  afterward,  while 
sojourning  in  Rome,  Archelaus  was  so  impoli 
tic  as  to  offend  Tiberius,  and  when  the  latter 
became  emperor  he  invited  the  king  to  visit 
Rome  once  more,  and,  as  soon  as  he  came,  had 
him  accused  before  the  senate  of  meditating 
treason.  His  old  age  saved  his  life,  but  he  was 
compelled  to  remain  in  Rome,  where  he  died 
soon  after  (A.  D.  17).  On  his  death  Cappa 
docia  was  converted  into  a  Roman  province. 
VII.  A  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  was  pro 
claimed  king  by  the  army  on  the  death  of 
his  father  (4  B.  C.).  Shortly  after  his  accession 
a  sedition  broke  out,  in  the  suppression  of  which 
he  manifested  the  cruelty  of  his  nature.  He 
then  went  to  Rome  to  solicit  from  the  emperor 
the  confirmation  of  his  title,  which  was  disputed 
by  his  brother  Antipas.  Dividing  the  kingdom 
between  them,  Augustus  gave  Archelaus  the 
sovereignty  of  Judea,  Samaria,  and  Idumea, 


6*3 


AROHENHOLZ 


ARCHERY 


with  the  title  of  cthnarcli.  On  his  return  from 
Rome  lie  transgressed  the  Mosaic  law  by  tak 
ing  to  wife  Glaphyra,  the  not  childless  widow 
of  his  brother  Alexander.  In  the  10th  year 
of  his  reign  he  was  accused  by  the  Jews  before 
Augustus  of  various  crimes,  and  being  found 
guilty,  was  deprived  of  his  dominions,  and  ban 
ished  to  Gaul  (A.  I).  8),  where  he  died.  VIII. 
A  sculptor,  a  native  of  Priene,  and  the  son  of 
Apollonius.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Claudius.  He  made  the  marble 
bass-relief  representing  the  apotheosis  of  Ho 
mer.  This  work  is  now  in  the  British  museum. 

AKCIIKMIOLZ,  Johann  Wilhelm,  baron,  a  Ger 
man  author,  born  at  Langenfurt,  a  suburb  of 
Pantzic,  Sept.  3,  1745,  died  near  Hamburg, 
Feb.  28,  1812.  He * served  in  the  Prussian 
army  from  1760  to  1763,  and  afterward  spent 
16  years  travelling  over  Europe.  On  his  re 
turn  to  Germany  he  devoted  himself  to  liter 
ary  pursuits,  and  lived  successively  at  Dres 
den,  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  finally  at  Hamburg. 
His  work  on  ''England  and  Italy,"  and  his  his 
tories  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Gustavus  Vasa, 
enjoyed  popularity;  but  his  most  valuable 
work  is  that  on  the  seven  years'  Avar.  His 
"Annals  of  British  History  since  1788"  are 
piquant  and  full  of  anecdote.  In  his  "His 
torical  Essays  "  he  gives  an  account  of  the  fili 
busters  and  pirates  who  infested  the  West  In 
dies  during  the  17th  century.  From  1782  to 
1791  he  edited  a  periodical  called  Literatur 
und  Voll'erkunde,  and  from  1792  to  the  time 
of  his  death  he  Avas  editor  of  the  Minerra. 

ARCHER,  an  unorganized  county  in  1ST.  "W. 
Texas,  near  the  Indian  territory,  watered  by 
branches  of  the  Wichita  river;  area,  900  sq. 
m.  This  county  was  returned  as  having  no 

Sopulation  in  1870,  its  settlement  having  been 
elayed  by  Indian  depredations.  It  has  but 
little  good  farming  land,  but  is  well  adapted  to 
stock  raising,  having  tine  grass  in  abundance 
and  plenty  of  water.  The  county  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the  state  for  its 
minerals,  among  which  is  bismuth. 

ARCHERY,  the  art  of  shooting  with  the  bow, 
which  is  probably  the  oldest  weapon  for  use 
in  other  than  hand-to-hand  combats,  and  the 


!  earliest  implement  of  the  chase.     The  mention 
'  of  the  bow  in  the  oldest  portions  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  and  its  constant  appearance  in  the 
sculptures  of  Nineveh  and  of  Egypt,  show  that 
it  was  used  by  the  oriental  nations  from  the 
earliest  times ;  and  these  nations  long  preserved 
their  superiority  in  its  use;  for  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  who  themselves  made  little  use  of  the 
1  bow,  though  they  employed  foreign  archers  as 
mercenaries,  found  in  their  wars  with  eastern 
races  that  bowmen  formed  the  chief  strength 
:  of  their  enemies.     The  Cretans,  however,  ex- 
1  celled  in  the  use  of  that  weapon.     The  Per 
sians,  Parthians,  and  Numidians  were  among 
the   best   archers   of  antiquity   of  whom   we 
have  authentic  record.     In  India  and   China 
the    bow    was    also   the    chief  weapon ;    and 
it  was  probably  of  the  same  form  as  those 


Chinese  Bern-  and 
Ornamented  Quiver. 


Bow  and  Arrows  used 
in  India. 


now  known  in  these  countries,  though  seldom 
used. — But  the  great  period  of  archery  began 
with  the  Norman  conquest  of  England,  when 
the  longbow,  originally  a  weapon  of 
the  Norse  tribes,  and  brought  into 
western  Europe  by  Duke  Rollo,  was 
used  with  such  effect  by  the  Nor 
mans    that    the    Saxons    found    no 
weapon    to    successfully   oppose   it. 
Upon  the  amalgamation  of  the  two 
peoples  into  one  nation,   it  became 
the   English   national   weapon,    and 
was  rapidly  made  famous.    The  prop 
er  length  of  the  longbow  was  the 
height  of  the  archer  using  it.     The 


Egyptian  Bow.  Quiver,  and 

Arrows. 


Bow,  Quiver,  and  Arrows 
used  in  the  Greek  Armies. 


arrow  was  half  as  long  as  the  bow  ; 
from  60  to  90  Ibs.  was  the  force 
needed  to  draw  a  fitting  arrow  to 
the  head  on  a  bow  six  feet  long. 
Such  an  arrow  was  called  "  a  cloth- 
yard  shaft,"  from  the  measure,  a 
cloth  yard  or  three  feet.  The  long 
bow  was  made  of  Spanish  yew,  Eng 
lish  yew,  or  ash — mentioned  in  the 
order  of  their  excellence  for  the  pur 
pose.  Arrows  were  made  of  ash, 
oak,  and  yew,  weighed  from  20  to 
24  pennyweights,  were  tipped  with 
steel  and  feathered  with  goose  feath 
ers.  The  bowstrings  were  of  plaited 


English 
Longbow. 


ARCHERY 


ARCHES 


G-19 


silk.  The  power  of  flight,  correctness  of  aim, 
and  penetration  of  these  terrible  missiles  were 
prodigious.  In  shooting  matches,  300  yards 
was  the  common  range,  and  the  ordinary  mark 
was  a  straight  willow  or  hazel  rod,  as  thick  as 
a  man's  thumb  and  live  feet  long ;  and  such  a 
mark  a  good  archer  held  it  a  shame  to  miss. 
At  200  yards  no  armor  but  the  best  Spanish 
or  Milan  steel  plate  could  resist  the  English 
arrow ;  and  the  legends  of  men  and  horses 
shot  through  and  through  are  proved  by  cors 
lets  of  the  stoutest  plate,  preserved  in  several 
collections,  where  the  shafts  have  been  driven 
through  the  breastplate  and  the  whole  body 
of  the  wearer,  and  then  through  the  steel 
backplate,  not  inferior  in  strength  to  the  breast 
plate.  In  shooting,  the  longbow  was  held  per 
pendicularly  at  arm's  length,  and  the  bow 
string  drawn  back  until  the  arrow  feathers 
were  opposite  the  right  ear. — While  the  English 
archers  were  the  best  in  the  world,  and  their 
longbow  was  the  most  formidable  weapon, 
several  nations  of  continental  Europe  acquired 
great  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the  crossbow  or 


Crossbow. 

arbalast.  This  consisted  of  a  bow  fixed  trans 
versely  at  the  end  of  a  wooden  stock  somewhat 
resembling  a  modern  gun  stock  ;  along  the  top 
of  the  stock  ran  a  barrel  slit  nearly  to  the  muzzle, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  string  of  the  bow 
could  pass  tlmmirh  the  slit  and  be  drawn  along 
it  until  caught  by  a  trigger;  this  latter  being 
pressed,  the  string  was  released,  and  swept 
forward  with  great  force  along  the  slit  barrel, 
discharging  the  bolt  or  arrow  which  had  been 
placed  in  it.  Sometimes  the  arrow  was  placed 
in  a  simple  groove  in  the  top  of  the  stock, 
along  which  the  released  string  swept.  This 
bow  was  generally  of  steel,  and  so  strong  that 
a  steel  winch  was  often  fixed  to  the  stock  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  back  the  cord.  In 
shooting,  the  crossbow  was  aimed  from  the 
shoulder,  like  a  musket.  The  Genoese  were 


famous  crossbowrnen,  and  several  provinces 
of  France  furnished  good  archers. — Archery 
disappeared  as  firearms  came  into  use ;  and 
as  an  instrument  of  war  and  the  chase,  the 
bow  is  now  confined  to  the  most  savage  tribes. 
Many  of  the  Xorth  American  Indians  were 
expert  with  the  bow ;  but  they  early  adopt 
ed  the  musket  or  the  rifle,  and  now,  except 
among  the  most  remote  frontier  tribes,  the  bow 


Bow  and  Arrows  of  the 
North  American  Indians. 


is  never  seen  unless  in  the  hands  of  children 
or  as  an  implement  for  catching  fish.  The 
Comanches,  however,  are  an  exception,  for 
to  this  day  their  force  consists  in  their  skilful 
archery.  Their  bows  are  short,  and  their  ar 
rows  clumsily  pointed  ;  but  they  are  properly 
feathered,  and  the  warriors  discharge  them 
with  such  force  that  they  have  been  known 
to  pass  entirely  through  the  body  of  a  bison. 
Among  many  of  the  African  tribes,  too,  the 
bow  is  still  in  use. 

ARCHES,  Conrt  of.  one  of  the  ten  English  eccle 
siastical  courts,  so  called  because  its  sittings  were 
formerly  held  in  the  church  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow 
(Sancta  Maria  de  Arcubu8)\n  London,  whence 
they  were  in  1507  transferred  to  the  hall  of 
the  doctors'  commons.  This  court  has  origi 
nal  jurisdiction  in  most  ecclesiastical  causes 
arising  in  13  parishes  in  London,  which  form  a 
deanery.  The  presiding  officer,  called  the  dean 
of  the  arches,  is  also  the  deputy  of  the  arch 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  so  that  the  court  of 
arches  has  an  appellate  jurisdiction  in  all  eccle 
siastical  causes  arising  out  of  the  diocese  of 
York.  Formerly  the  jurisdiction  of  this  court 
was  very  extensive,  especially  in  matrimonial 
and  testamentary  matters;  but  these  have 
within  a  few  years  been  transferred  from  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  to  the  crown,  and  divorces 
to  the  divorce  court.  The  practitioners  in  the 
ecclesiastical  court  are  styled  doctors,  advocates, 
and  proctors,  and  must  before  admission  to 
practice  obtain  the  fiat  of  the  archbishop,  and 
then  be  duly  admitted  by  the  dean  of  the 
arches.  This  court  has  now  but  little  business 
to  do ;  but  the  dean,  as  president  of  the  college 
of  doctors  of  law,  is  usually  constituted  princi 
pal  judge  in  admiralty. 


C50 


AKCHIAS 


ARCHIL 


ARCHIAS,  Anlns  Lidnios,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at 
Antiocli  toward  the  close  of  the  2d  century 
B.  C.,  and  well  known  to  us  only  through  the 
oration  of  Cicero  in  his  defence.  When  a 
young  man  lie  went  to  Koine,  and  was  treated 
with  much  attention  by  the  leading  men  of 
the  republic,  and  especially  by  the  Licinian 
family,  whose  name  he  assumed  as  a  token  of 
respect.  lie  attended  Licinius  Lucullus,  the 
praetor,  to  Sicily,  and  afterward  to  Ileraclea 
in  Lucania,  whither  his  patron  was  banished 
for  his  conduct  in  the  servile  war.  He  was 
with  the  younger  Lucullus  in  Asia  during  the 
first  and  third  Mithridatic  wars,  and  in  the  in 
terim  he  accompanied  him  into  Africa.  lie  at 
length  returned  to  Rome,  where  an  accusation 
was  brought  against  him  for  having  assumed 
without  just  title  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  cit 
izen.  The  case  was  tried  before  Q.  Cicero, 
who  was  then  pra?tor,  and  whose  relative,  Mar 
cus  Tullius,  undertook  the  defence.  The  re 
sult  is  unknown.  Cicero  and  Quintilian  assert 
that  the  poems  of  Archias  were  equally  re 
markable  for  beauty  of  style  and  variety  of 
thought.  They  are  all  lost,  except  some  epi 
grams  preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  if 
indeed  these  be  justly  attributed  to  him. 

ARCHIATER  (Gr.  apxiarpo^  chief  physician), 
a  title  which  seems  in  the  first  place  to  have 
been  purely  honorary  and  not  official.  In  the 
times  of  the  Roman  emperors  Greek  physicians 
were  encouraged  to  come  to  Rome  and  enter 
the  imperial  service ;  and  it  was  to  one  of  these, 
Andromachus  the  elder,  that  the  title  archia- 
ter  was  first  given  by  Nero.  AY  hat  was  in 
tended  only  as  a  personal  compliment  to  An 
dromachus  passed  rapidly  into  an  institution, 
and  archiater  became  a  designation  of  a  class. 
The  archiatri  were  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
city  archiatri  and  the  court  archiatri.  Later 
it  came  to  be  a  civil  requirement  (under  An 
toninus  Pius)  that  small  cities  should  have 
five  archiatri,  large  ones  seven,  and  the  largest 
ten.  The  archiatri  were  salaried  officers,  and 
were  expected  to  treat  the  poor  gratuitously. 
As  perquisites,  they  charged  the  rich  for  prac 
tice,  and  also  had  certain  stipends  called  anno- 
naria  commoda.  It  was  also  considered  a  part 
of  their  duty  to  teach  medical  science,  and  to 
exercise  a  general  supervision  over  the  health 
of  their  medical  dioceses  and  the  practice  of 
the  inferior  physicians.  The  archiatri  were 
usually  elected  by  the  suffrages  of  physicians. 
In  Sweden  and  Denmark  the  order  still  exists. 

ARCHIBALD,  Adams  G.,  a  British  colonial 
statesman,  born  at  Truro,  Nova  Scotia,  May 
18,  1814.  lie  studied  law  in  Halifax,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1830,  was  elected  a  mem 
ber  of  the  legislature  of  Nova  Scotia  for  the 
county  of  Colchester  in  1851,  and  was  re- 
elected  in  1855.  Next  year  he  became  solici 
tor  general  in  the  government  of  Mr.  Young, 
then  a  leader  of  the  liberal  party,  and  was 
reflected  to  the  legislature  by  acclamation. 
Mr.  Archibald  had  a  .large  share  in  breaking 
up  the  mining  monopoly  which,  under  a  grant 


i  of  George  III.  to  the  duke  of  York,  held  all 
i  the  coal  and  other  mines  of  Nova  Scotia,  under 
the  name  of  the  general  mining  company.     In 
i  1803  he  carried  a  bill  through  the  legislature 
I  of  Nova  Scotia  which  substituted  for  the  uni- 
j  versal  suffrage  a  somewhat  restricted  franchise. 
I  He  was  one  of  the  delegates  to  the  intercolo- 
I  nial  convention  held  at  Quebec  in  1864;  and 
|  his  advocacy  of  that  scheme  of  union  cost  him 
j  his  seat  when  he  next  appeared  for  reelection. 
In  the  cabinet  of  Sir  John  Young,  which  was 
I  formed  in  1867,  he  was  p resident  of  the  coun 
cil  and  secretary  of  state  for  the  provinces,  and 
in  1871  he  was  appointed  lieutenant  governor 
!  of  Manitoba.     This  office  he  resigned  in  the 
beginning  of  1872. 

ARCHIDAMIS,   the   name   of   five    kings   of 
Sparta,    of    the   Proclid    or   Eurypontid   line. 
The  first  of  the  name,    son   of  Anaxidamus, 
lived  during  the  war  with  Tegea,  about  668 
B.  C.     The  second,  son  of  Zeuxidamus,  reigned 
469-427  B.  C.     In  464  occurred  the  terrible 
earthquake    which    almost   destroyed    Sparta, 
when    Archidamus   by    his    energy   probably 
saved    the    surviving   citizens    from    massacre 
by  the  helots.      lie  commanded  in  the  wars 
against  the  revolted  Messenians.     In  the  dis 
cussions  at  Sparta  and  Corinth  prior  to  the 
rupture  with  Athens  he  was  prominent  as  an 
advocate   of  peace   and   moderation.     In   the 
i  Peloponnesian  war  he  commanded  three  expe 
ditions  against  Attica  and  one  against  Platrea. 
His  grandson  AECHIDAMUS  III.,  son  of  Agesi- 
I  laus  II.,  reigned  361-338  B.  C.     In  367  he  had 
}  defeated   the   Arcadians   and   Argives   in   the 
"tearless  battle,"  so  called  by  the  Spartans  be 
cause  they  did  not  lose  a  man ;  and  in  362  he  had 
,  successfully  defended   Sparta   against  Epami- 
I  nondas.     In  the  sacred  war  he  aided  the  Pho- 
I  cians  against  the  Macedonians  with  money  and 
!  men,  but  toward  its  close  he  retired  on  the 
I  approach  of  Philip,  leaving  the   Phocians  to 
I  their  fate.     He  was  killed  in  Italy,  in  a  battle 
I  fought  in  aid  of  the  Tarentines,  on  the  day  of 
the  battle  of  Chrcronea.    AECHIDAMFS  IV.,  his 
grandson,   and  son  of  Eudamidas   I.,   is  only 
known  from  his  defeat  by  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes  in  296  B.  C.     ARCIIIDAMUS  V.,  last  of  the 
Proclid  line,  son  of  Eudamidas  II.,  possessed 
himself  of  the  throne  in  240  B.  C.,  but  was 
soon  slain  by  the  murderers  of  his  brother  and 
predecessor  Agis  IV. 

ARCHIL,  or  Orchil  (Span,  orchilla ;  Fr.  or- 
\  settle).     The  red,  violet,  and  blue  colors  which 
are  known  in  commerce  under  the  names  of 
archil,   cudbear,    and    litmus  are   supplied   by 
I  different  species  of  lichens,  rocella,  variolaria, 
lecanora.     The  rocella  tribe  grow  upon  rocks 
I  on  the  seacoast  in  the  Canary  islands,  Sardinia, 
j  and  Corsica,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
i  on  the  W.  coast  of  South  America.     Archil  is 
j  prepared  by  digesting  the  lichens  in  a  hot  solu 
tion  of  ammonia,  allowing  it  to  stand  for  a  few 
hours,  and  exposing  the  clear  solution,  which 
i  is  drawn  off  from  the  lichen,  in  deep  jars,  to 
i  the  air  for  about  three  weeks ;    the  solution 


ARCHILOCHUS   OF  PAROS 


ARCHIMEDES 


G51 


when  concentrated  by  evaporation  forms  the 
archil  liquor  of  commerce.  The  dye  is  also 
met  with  as  a  violet  paste,  and  when  dissolved 
in  alcohol  is  used  to  color  spirit  thermometers. 
In  consequence  of  its  want  of  permanence,  ar 
chil  is  rarely  employed  with  any  other  view 
than  to  modify,  heighten,  and  give  lustre  to 
other  colors.— Some  confusion  exists  in  refer 
ence  to  the  trade  names  of  the  different  dyes 
prepared  from  lichens,  but  the  best  authorities 
confine  the  use  of  the  word  archil  to  the  liquid 
or  pasty  dye  obtained  from  the  rocella  tribe. 
Cudbear  is  the  equivalent  of  persio,  and  is 
chiefly  made  from  the  lecanora  tartarea,  while 
litmus  is  derived  from  the  rocella  tinctoria. 

ARCHILOCHIS  OF  PiROS,  one  of  the  earliest 
Ionic  poets,  and  the  first  who  wrote  in  the  iam 
bic  measure,  flourished  714-676  B.  C.  His  fa 
ther  was  of  noble  descent ;  his  mother  was  a 
slave.  After  he  had  acquired  fame  by  a  hymn 
to  Ceres,  he  became  suitor  to  the  daughter  of 
Lycambes,  a  noble  of  Paros,  who  was  promised 
him  in  marriage,  but  her  father  afterward  re 
voked  the  promise.  The  poet  thereupon  com 
posed  a  lampoon  upon  the  family  so  bitter  that 
it  is  said  the  daughters  of  Lycambes  committed 
suicide.  He  subsequently  emigrated  to  Naxos, 
where  he  wrote  fierce  diatribes  against  his 
native  land.  He  was  no  better  satisfied  with 
the  country  of  his  adoption.  In  a  battle  with 
the  Thracians  he  flung  away  his  shield;  for 
this  he  endeavored  to  justify  himself  by  writing 
a  poem  in  which  he  said  it  was  better"  that  one 
should  throw  away  his  arms  than  lose  his  life. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation,  but  his  poems 
were  so  unbridled  that  they  were  prohibited 
in  Sparta.  He  led  a  wandering  life  for  years, 
his  journeys  extending  as  far  as  Italy.  Return 
ing  to  Paros,  he  was  killed  in  a  battle  between 
the  Parians  and  Xaxians.  The  Delphian  oracle, 
which  had  before  his  birth  promised  to  his 
father  an  immortal  son,  pronounced  a  curse 
upon  the  man  who  killed  him,  because  he  had 
"slain  the  servant  of  the  muses.''  Notwith 
standing  the  license  of  his  satires,  he  was 
ranked  high  by  Plato,  and  Horace  mentions 
him  in  terms  of  admiration.  The  fragments  of 
his  poems  extant  have  been  collected  and  edit 
ed  by  Jacobs,  Gaisford,  Bergk,  and  better  by 
Liebel,  Archilochi  Reliquice  (Leipsic,  1812). 

ARCHIMANDRITE  (Gr.  prefix  aPXi,  and  (idvdpa, 
fold  or  cloister),  a  superior  or  general  abbot 
in  the  Greek  church,  exercising  supervision 
over  several  abbeys  and  monasteries.  In  the 
Greek  church  the  archimandrite  is  subordi 
nate  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  having, 
however,  some  episcopal  functions  in  the  cere 
monial  of  worship.  In  Sicily,  some  abbots  of 
monasteries  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil,  founded 
by  the  Greek  church,  are  called  archimandrites. 
Abbots  of  monasteries  of  the  United  Greeks, 
established  chiefly  in  Russian  Poland,  Galicia, 
and  Hungary,  are  also  called  archimandrites. 

ARCHIMEDEAN  SCREW,  an  apparatus  used  for 
raising  water.  It  consists  of  a  screw  blade 
turned  around  a  solid  axis,  similar  to  a  winding 


staircase,  and  enclosed  in  a  hollow  cylinder. 
When  placed  in  an  inclined  position,  with  the 
lower  end  in  water,  the  latter  will  be  caught  be 
tween  the  screw  blades,  and  the  cylinder  being 
turned  in  the  proper  direction,  the  water  will  be 
raised  and  discharged  at  the  upper  end.  Our 
first  figure  represents  such  an  apparatus,  with 


FIG.  1. — Archimedean  Screw  with  Spiral  Blade. 

one  half  of  the  enclosing  cylinder  removed,  so 
as  to  expose  the  interior  arrangement  and  form 
of  the  screw  blade.  It  is  still  occasionally  used, 
when  water  is  to  be  raised  to  a  limited  'height 
of  10  to  15  feet  or  less,  and  the  quantity,  is  so 
large  that  a  dozen  pumps  would  be  required ; 
in  this  case  an  Archimedean  screw  turned  by 
two  or  three  men  will  economize  greatly  the 
labor,  as  with  it  each  man  is  able  to  raise  per 
minute  40  gallons  of  water  10  feet  high,  or  in 
general  to  produce  the  labor  of  nearly  4,000 
foot  pounds  per  minute.  This  is  a  larger  amount 
of  work  than  generally  can  be  done  with 
pumps,  in  which  the  friction  is  always  consider 
able  when  compared  with  that  of  the  pivots 
on  which  the  Archimedean  screw  turns.  If 
water  is  to  be  raised  to  great  heights,  however, 
say  90  or  100  feet,  this  apparatus  is  not  practi 
cable,  and  pumps  are  requisite.  —Another  form 
of  this  apparatus  is  represented  in  our  second 


FIG.  2. — Tubular  Archimedean  Screw. 

figure.  It  consists  of  a  tube  wound  spirally 
around  a  core,  and  operates  on  the  same  prin 
ciple  as  the  former ;  but  it  has  a  much  smaller 
capacity,  and  is  therefore  seldom  used  on  a 
large  scale  for  practical  purposes. 

ARCHIMEDES,  the  most  celebrated  mechani 
cian  of  antiquity,  born  in  Syracuse,  Sicily, 
about  287  B.  C.,  died  in  212.  He  is  said  to 
have  visited  Egypt  in  early  life,  and  to  have  in- 


652 


ARCHIPELAGO 


ARCHITECTURE 


vented  there  several  useful  hydraulic  machines, 
including  the  Archimedean  screw,  which  he 
applied  to  drainage  and  irrigation.  Vitruvius 
says  that  King  Iliero,  suspecting  that  a  golden 
crown  had  been  fraudulently  alloyed  with  sil 
ver,  asked  Archimedes  to  discover  if  it  were 
so.  Going  one  day  into  the  hath  tub,  it 
chanced  to  be  full  of  water,  and  he  instantly 
saw  that  as  much  water  must  run  over  the 
edge  of  the  tub  as  was  equal  to  the  bulk  of  his 
body.  Perceiving  that  this  gave  him  a  mode 
of  determining  the  bulk  and  specific  gravity  of 
the  crown,  he  leaped  out  of  the  bath  and  ran 
home,  crying  Eureka,  eureka,  u  I  have  found  it, 
I  have  found  it."  This  was  the  origin  of  his 
discovery  of  the  important  principle  that  a 
body  plunged  in  a  fluid  loses  as  much  of  its 
weight  as  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  an  equal 
volume  of  the  fluid.  In  his  old  age  he  defended 
his  native  Syracuse  against  the  Romans  under 
Marcellus  with  great  mechanical  skill,  and  later 
historians  say  that  he  burned  the  Roman  ships 
by  concentrating  upon  them  the  sun's  rays 
from  numerous  mirrors.  His  purely  mathe 
matical  works  still  extant  demonstrate  him  to 
have  far  excelled  all  those  who  preceded  him. 
The  most  celebrated  are  those  on  the  ratio  of  the 
sphere  and  cylinder,  on  the  ratio  of  the  circum 
ference  to  a  diameter,  on  spiral  lines,  and  on  the 
parabola.  lie  requested  a  cylinder  and  sphere  to 
be  placed  upon  his  tombstone,  and  when  Mar 
cellus  had  stormed  Syracuse,  and  Archimedes 
had  been  killed  by  a  Roman  soldier,  the  Roman 
general  conferred  upon  him  an  honorable 
burial,  and  caused  the  tombstone  to  be  in 
scribed  as  he  had  desired.  Cicero,  about  140 
years  afterward,  being  appointed  quaestor  over 
Sicily,  sought  and  found  the  tomb  of  Archime 
des,  overgrown  with  weeds  and  thorns. 

ARCHIPELAGO  (Gr.  prefix  apxt,  main,  and 
ir&ayoci  sea),  originally  a  specific  name  applied 
to  the  yEgean  sea,  but  now  a  generic  term 
designating  any  body  of  water  containing  a 
great  number  of  islands,  and  applied  also  to  the 
group  of  islands  itself.  I.  The  Grecian  archi 
pelago  (the  ^Egeun,  in  the  wider  sense  of  the 
word)  is  an  arm  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  ex 
tending  northward  upward  of  400  in.,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  about  200  in.  Its  geo 
graphical  position  is  between  lat.  35°  and  41° 
K.,  and  Ion.  2:)°  and  28°  E.  Turkey  in  Europe 
forms  its  northern  and  northwestern  coasts, 
Asia  Minor  its  eastern,  and  Greece  its  western, 
while  its  southern  limit  is  marked  by  the 
island^of  Candia  or  Crete.  Within  these  limits 
the  /Egean  forms  an  extremely  irregular  out 
line,  having  numerous  armlets  and  indentations, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  gull's  of 
Nauplia  (or  of  Argolis),  ^Egina  (the  Saronic), 
Volo  (the  Pagasean),  and  Salonica  (the  Ther- 
maicj,  all  on  the  west.  It  is  studded  with  a 
vast  number  of  islands,  ranging  in  size  from 
mere  rocky  islets  to  areas  of  4,000  sq.  m.  (Can 
dia),  and  mostly  composed  of  calcareous  mass 
es,  forming  high  bluffs  or  mountain  clusters, 
rising  abruptly  from  the  sea.  Many  of  the 


mountains  reach  a  height  of  2,000  feet,  while 
the  highest  summit,  on  Negropont  or  Euboea, 
exceeds  5,000  feet.     The  ^gean  islands,  ex 
clusive  of  Euboea,  the  largest  of  all,  are  divided 
into  three  groups,  viz. :  the  northeastern,   in 
cluding  the  islands  of  Thasos,  Samothrace,  Im- 
bros,  Lemnos,  Tenedos,  and  Lesbos ;  the  Cycla- 
des,  forming  a  kind  of  insular  continuation  of 
Euboea   and    Hellas   proper   (see    CYCLADES); 
|  and  the  Sporades  N.,  E.,  and  W.  of  the  pre- 
\  ceding  (see  SPORADES).     Most  of  the  Cyclades 
!  and   the   northern  and  western  Sporades  be- 
i  long  to  the  Greek  kingdom,  while  Turkey  pos- 
!  sesses  the  northeastern  group  and  the  eastern 
|  Sporades.     Many  of   the   islands   are    pictur- 
1  esque  in  scenery,  and  all  the  arable  portions 
;  are  extremely  fertile.     The   principal  produc- 
\  tions  are  silk,  cotton,  honey,  wine,  figs,  raisins, 
|  oranges,  and  other  fruits.     Coral  and  sponge 
|  are  found  among  the  Sporades,  while  the  Cy- 
I  clades  furnish  the  pure  white  marble  known 
|  as  the  Parian,  from  Paros,  one  of  the  group, 
|  where  it  was  first  worked.     Here  also  were 
;  found  (about  1627)  the  Arundel  marbles,    or 
|  Parian  chronicle,   so  full    of  historical   inter- 
|  est.      In  the  channel  of  Negropont  (the  Eu- 
I  ripus)   the    tide    frequently   runs   in   a   given 
|  direction  at  the  rate  of  G  to  8  m.  an  hour,  and 
j  then  suddenly,  without  any  known  cause,  sets 
I  in  the  opposite   direction  at  nearly  the  same 
!  rate.     The  climate  of  the  islands  is  salubrious, 
I  the  inhabitants   are  hardy,   and  the   women 
!  noted  for  beauty.     The  localities  of  the  YEge- 
|  an  are  filled  with  classic  and  sacred  associa- 
|  tions.     IL  The    second    in  importance  is  the 
'  Indian  archipelago,  which  includes  that  exten- 
!  sive  insular  region  of  the  eastern  hemisphere, 
i  extending  from  the  S.  E.  coast  of  Asia  to  Aus- 
i  tralia,  embracing  the  Philippine  group,  Suma- 
|  tra,  Java,   Borneo,   Celebes,  and  the  Molucca 
!  and  Banda  isles,  and  stretching  between  Lit. 
!  11°  S.  and  20°  N.,  and  Ion.   95°  and  J35°  E. 
i  This  immense  area  is  bounded  by  the  Chinese 
sea,  the  Pacific,  Australia,  and  the  Indian  ocean. 
The  population  of  the  archipelago  consists  of 
two  distinct  races,  the  Malay  and  the  negro. 

ARCHITECTURE  (Lat.  architecture  from  Gr. 
apxirinTuv,  a  master  workman),  the  art  of 
building.  This  term  embraces  every  kind  of 
structure  except  works  of  defence  and  ships. 
The  styles  of  architecture,  like  other  historical 
monuments,  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  first  comprising  the  barbarous  art  of  those 
nations  which  lie  outside  the  circle  of  civiliza 
tion,  and  the  second  comprising  the  historical 
styles,  beginning  with  the  Egyptian,  Assyrian, 
and  Greek,  and  reaching  to  our  own  day. 
The  Assyrian  and  Greek  give  evidence  of  hav 
ing  arisen  from  a  system  of  wooden  construc 
tion  ;  in  the  Egyptian  the  primitive  material 
seems  to  have  been  mud  or  unburnt  bricks. 
In  the  subsequent  use  of  stone  the  forms  proper 
to  the  original  materials  became  as  it  were  fos 
silized,  and  continued  in  use  long  after  their 
origin  and  meaning  were  forgotten.  Of  the 
early  achievements  and  of  the  progressive  steps 


ARCHITECTURE 


053 


of  the   science  of  architecture   there   remain 
but  fragments,  though  sufficient,  with  the  assis 
tance  of  history,  to  teach  us  their  antiquity. 
Throughout  the  globe  we  find  remains  of  edifices 
which  proclaim  an  early  possession  of  certain 
degrees  of  architectural  knowledge.     The  most 
remarkable  vestiges  of  these  primitive  struc 
tures,  save  the  Celtic  monuments,  were  once 
supposed  to  be  the  works  of  giants  or  Cyclops 
like  those  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey.    By  whom 
they    were    erected,    however,    is    unknown, 
though  they  have  been  attributed  to  the  Pelas- 
gians.     The  walls  of  the  cities  and  of  the  sa 
cred  enclosures  and  tombs  were  composed  of 
blocks  of  stone  of  a  polygonal  form  well  adjust 
ed.     No  cement  was  used,  the  interstices  being 
filled  with  small  stones.     At  times  they  present  : 
horizontal  layers  whose  upright  joints  are  vari 
ously  inclined.     Their  entrance  gates  received 
different  forms,  the  most  common  being  quad 
rangular,   composed  of  upright  jambs,   either 
perpendicular  or  inclined,  supporting  a  lintel. 
Others  assume  the  shape  of  a  pointed  arch,  the 
jambs  gathering  to   a  point  at  the  summit. 
Examples  also  present  themselves  of  truncated 
pointed  archways  over  the  lintel,  an  arch  occa 
sionally  being  constructed  to  relieve  this  mem 
ber  of  the  superincumbent  weight.     We  are  led 
to  suppose  that  within  their  city  walls  the  hab 
itations  were  erected  without  order,   a  place 
being  reserved  in  the  midst  for  public  assem 
blies.     Little  is  known  of  their  domestic  archi-  j 
tecture,  as  there  exist  no  vestiges  of  those  pal-  ! 
aces  so  highly  spoken  of  by  the  ancient  poets,  i 
Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  their  struc 
tures  are  their  circular  subterranean  chambers 
styled  treasuries ;  they  present  vaulted  ceilings, 
although  not  constructed  on  the  principle  of 
the  arch,  the  vaulted  form  being  obtained  by  '• 
horizontal  annular  layers,   corbelling  inward, 
and  the  projecting  edges  of  the  stones  being 
taken  oiT  after  the  construction  was  completed. 
According  to  Blouet,  they  served  for  tombs  as 
well  as  for  treasuries.     Internally  they  were 
covered  with  sheets  of  bronze.     At  MycenaB  i 
and  Tiryns  several  examples  are  to  be  found. — 
One  of  the  most  ancient  nations  known  to  us 
who  made  any  considerable  progress  in  the  arts 
of  design  is  the  Babylonian.     Their  most  cele 
brated  monuments  were  the  temple  of  Belus,  ; 
the  Kasr,  the  hanging  gardens,  and  the  wonder-  | 
ful  canals  Xahar  Malca  and  Pallacopas.    From 
the  dimensions  of  their  ruins  can  be  formed 
an    idea   of    the    colossal   size   of    the    struc 
tures  they  composed.     The  material  employed  : 
in  cementing  the  burned  or  sun-dried  bricks, 
upon  which  hieroglyphics  are  still  to  be  traced,  i 
was  the  mortar  produced,  by  nature  from  the  \ 
fountains  of  naphtha  and  l/.tumen  at  the  river 
Is,  near  Babylon.  — Xo  entire  architectural  mon 
ument  has  come  down  to  us  from  Xineveh,  the 
superb  capital  of  the  Assyrians;  nor  from  the 
Phoenicians,    whose    cities,    Tyre,    Sidon,   and 
others,  were  adorned  with  equal  magnificence ;  ; 
nor  from  the  Hebrews,  the  Syrians,  the  Philis-  | 
tines,  and  many  other  nations.     Our  want  of 


•  knowledge  concerning  the  architecture  of  these 
!  oriental    nations  is  attributable  partly  to   the 

devastations  of  war  and  partly  to  the  perish 
ability  of  the  materials  that  were  employed, 
1  such  as  gypsum,  alabaster,  wood,  terra  cotta, 
i  and   brick,   with   which    their   ruins   abound. 
From  recent  discoveries,  we  have  been  able  to 
see  the  great  affinity  existing  between  many  of 
|  the  works  of  these  nations  and  those  of  Egypt 
and  Greece ;  in  their  sculptures  and  ornaments, 
for  example,  and  in  the  coloring  of  the  various 
parts  of  their  structures,  which  were  without 
'  doubt   polychromatic.  —  Of  the   very  ancient 
1  Chinese  monuments  we  have  no  trace,  they 
having  been  destroyed  by  Tsin-Chi-Hoang-Ti 

•  upon  his  ascending  the  throne.     Their  pagodas 
are   merely  imitations   of    the  design   of.  the 
nomadic  tent.     The   Chinese  wall  is  one   of 
the  most  stupendous  structures  of  the  world. 
Japan,   Siam,  and   the   islands   of  the   Indian 
ocean   abound   in   ancient   ruins   once   sacred 
to  the  divinities  of  the  Buddhist  faith.     The 
Hindoos,    in    their    colossal    structures,    with 
their   endless    sculptured    panels,    their  huge 
figures,    and    their    astounding    intricate    ex 
cavations,    evince    a  perseverance    and  indus 
try  equalled    only   by    the    Egyptians.      The 
Hindoo   structures   are    remarkable   for   their 
severe   and   grotesque    appearance. — The  his 
tory  of  the  art   in    other  regions   and   in   its 
later  developments  may  be  most  convenient 
ly  treated  under  several   divisions.     I.  EGYP 
TIAN  AECHITECTUEE.     The  architectural  types 
of  all  other  structures  of  antiquity  sink  into 
insignificance  when  compared  with  those   of 
Egypt.     The  obelisks,  pyramids,  temples,  pal 
aces,  tombs,  and  other  structures  with  which 
that  country  abounds,  are  on  a  colossal  scale, 
and  such  as  can  have  been  executed  only  by  a 
people  far  advanced  in  architectural  art,  arid 
profoundly  versed  in  the  science  of  mechanics. 
These  works,  like  the  Hindoo  structures,  were 
remarkable  for  their  gigantic  proportions  and 
massiveness.     Intricate  and  highly  painted  ri- 
lievo  sculptures  or  hieroglyphics  covered  the 
entire    extent   of    their   Avails.      The    earliest 
works  of  the  Egyptians  arc  their  hypogea  or 
spea,  wherein  their  dead  were  interred,   and 
which  served  also  as  subterranean  temples.    In 
these  excavations,  or  caves  in  the  flanks  of 
mountains,  square  piers  were  reserved  in  order 
to  support  the  superincumbent  weight.     They 
were    covered   internally   with    hieroglyphics 
and  bass-reliefs,  enriched  with  color.     Subse 
quently  temples  were  constructed  in  the  open 
air.     At  Amada  exists  perhaps  the  most  an 
cient  example  of  these  temples.    It  is  peculiarly 
interesting  to  archaeologists,   as  it  forms  the 
connecting  link  between  the  superb  edifices  of 
the  Pharaohs  and  their  prototype,-  the  spca. 
It  also  furnishes  us  with  the  proto-Doric  order, 
combining  square  pillars  with  cylindrical  col 
umns.     The  plan  of  the  temples  constructed 
by  the  Egyptians  is  very  similar  to  that  of  their 
hypogea,  or  caves.     They  were  generally  ap 
proached  by  an  avenue,  on  either  side  of  which 


654 


ARCHITECTURE 


was  a  row  of  sphinxes,  leading  to  the  propy- 
lon  or  gateway,  before  which  stood  the  obe 
lisks,  thus  forming  an  entrance  into  an  open 
quadrilateral  court  surrounded  by  porticos. 


Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Quorneth  at  Thebes. 

Opposite  this  entrance  was  another  leading 
into  a  spacious  hall,  whose  ceiling  was  sup 
ported  by  columns.  In  the  rear  of  this  prin 
cipal  hall  were  one  or  more  smaller  ones.  The 
walls,  ceilings,  and  columns  were  decorated 
with  figures  in  bass-relief  and  hieroglyphics 
richly  colored.  The  colors  most  generally  em 
ployed  were  yellow,  red,  green,  and  blue.  The 
palaces  were  constructed  upon  a  plan  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  temples.  We  know  little 
concerning  the  habitations  of  the  great  mass 
of  the  nation.  According  to  some,  houses  were 
constructed  in  stories,  while  others  assume  that 
their  abodes  were  mere  huts.  This  people  de 
voted  their  lives  and  money  to  the  construc 
tion  of  their  tombs.  Besides  their  wonderful 
cities  of  the  dead,  hewn  in  rocks  or  imbedded 
in  hills,  the  Egyptians  reared  their  stupendous 
pyramids,  the  most  gigantic  monuments  exist 
ing.  Their  ground  plan  is  perfectly  square,  the 
sides  presenting  nearly  equilateral  triangles. 
From  the  immensity  of  these  constructions, 
some  have  suggested  the  probability  of  the 
existence  of  a  natural  rock  or  hill  within. 
AVhether  or  not  the  outer  surface  was  smooth 
or  graduated  with  steps,  when  finished,  it  is 
impossible  for  us  to  decide.  The  constructions 
of  the  Egyptians  are  in  granite,  breccia,  sand 
stone,  and  brick,  which  different  materials  are 
adjusted  with  much  precision.  We  cannot  but 
wonder  at  their  monolithic  obelisks,  especially 
when  we  refiect  upon  the  immense  distances 
they  were  transported.  The  pyramidal  shape 
pervades  most  of  their  works,  the  walls  of 
their  temples  inclining  inward.  The  jambs  to 
their  entrance  gates  also  Avere  generally  in 
clined.  The  Egyptians  never  used  columns 
peripterally  even  under  the  dominion  of  the 


Greeks  and  Romans;  when  the  column  was 
used  externally,  the  space  intervening  was 
walled  up  to  a  certain  height.  To  these  cir 
cumstances,  together  with  the  fact  that  their 
monuments  were  terraced,  can  be  ascribed 
their  massive  and  solid  appearance.  With 
them,  columns  were  employed  to  form  porticos 
in  their  interior  courts,  and  also  to  support  the 
ceilings.  The  shafts,  of  different  forms,  being 
conical,  or  cylindrical,  or  bulging  out  at  the 
base,  sometimes  presented  a  smooth  surface; 
they  were  rarely  fluted,  being  generally  cov 
ered  with  hieroglyphics.  Occasionally  they 
were  monoliths,  but  were  generally  constructed 
in  layers,  and  covered  with  hieroglyphics;  a 
circular  plinth  formed  the  base.  The  capitals 
resemble  the  lotus,  either  spreading  out  at  the 
top  or  bound  together,  assuming  the  bulbous 
shape ;  above  is  a  square  tablet  forming  the 
abacus.  Others,  of  a  later  date,  present  pro 
jecting  convex  lobes;  while  other  capitals  are 
composed  of  a  rectangular  block  with  a  head 
carved  on  either  side,  surmounted  by  a  die  also 
curved.  Caryatic  figures  were  also  employed 
by  the  Egyptians,  and  were  generally  placed 
against  walls  or  pillars,  thus  appearing  to  sup 
port  the  entablature,  composed  of  a  simple 
architrave  and  a  coved  cornice,  with  a  large 
torus  intervening,  which  descends  the  angles 
of  the  walls.  II.  GRECIAN  ARcniTECTrEE. 
The  Pelasgians  appear  to  have  been  the  first 
people  settled  in  Greece  numerous  remains  of 
whose  structures  are  still  extant.  Subsequent 
ly,  from  the  knowledge  possessed  by  the  in 
digenous  tribes,  together  with  that  acquired 
from  the  Egyptians  and  the  Asiatic  nations, 
the  Greeks  extracted  and  developed  a  style 
peculiarly  their  own,  and  architectural  art 
passed  from  the  gigantic  to  the  elegant  and 
classic  forms.  Under  the  government  of  Per 
icles  it  flourished  with  meridian  splendor,  and 
some  of  the  most  superb  edifices  the  world 
has  ever  seen  were  erected  during  this  pe 
riod.  The  Grecian  monuments  belonged  to 
the  states,  and  upon  the  public  works  the 
governments  lavished  fabulous  sums.  Hee- 
ren  informs  us  that  the  Greeks  placed  the 
necessary  appropriation  of  funds  for  the  public 
works  at  the  head  of  the  government  expendi 
tures.  The  thoughts  of  the  whole  Greek  na 
tion,  it  would  seem,  were  turned  toward  the 
adornment  of  their  cities.  They  forbade  by 
law  any  architectural  display  on  private  resi 
dences,  and  in  fact,  until  after  Greece  became 
subject  to  Macedonia,  architects  were  permit 
ted  to  work  only  for  the  government.  The 
Greeks  loved  recreation,  and  the  government, 
as  a  political  necessity,  provided  the  populace 
with  amusements.  Hence  the  Grecian  cities 
were  adorned  with  temples,  theatres,  odeons, 
gymnasiums,  choragic  monuments,  and  the 
;  like. — The  Grecian  temple  consisted  of  a  pro- 
naos  or  vestibule,  and  a  naos  or  cella.  These 
sometimes  were  accompanied  by  an  opisthodo- 
mus,  supposed  to  be  the  treasury,  together 
;  with  a  rear  portico,  or  posticum.  According 


ARCHITECTURE 


655 


to  the  disposition  of  the  columnar  decoration, 
they  were  styled  in  antis,  prostyle,  amphipro- 
style,  peripteral,  dipteral,  pseudo-peripteral,  or 
pseudo-dipteral.  The  principal  front  of  those 
in  antis  presents  columns  in  the  middle,  with 
antas  on  either  side,  supporting  the  pediment ; 
in  the  prostyle,  the  anta3  are  replaced  by  col 
umns  ,  the  amphiprostyle  presents  a  similar 
disposition  in  the  rear  as  well  as  the  front; 
the  peripteral  presents  columns  forming  a  por 
tico  around  the  cella;  when  the  lateral  col- 
urns  were  engaged,  instead  of  isolated,  the 
temple  was  styled  pseudo-peripteral ;  the  dip 
teral  offered  a  double  colonnade  around  the 
cella ;  in  the  pseudo-dipteral,  one  of  the  ranks 
of  columns  was  engaged  in  the  wall.  They 
are  termed  tetrastyle,  hexastyle,  octastyle,  ac 
cording  to  the  number  of  columns  supporting 
the  pediment.  The  temples  were  generally 
covered;  those  erected  in  honor  of  superior 
deities  were  hypetheral,  or  open  to  the  skies. 
In  these  latter,  the  cella  was  divided  longitudi 
nally  into  three  naves  by  a  double  row  of  col- 
ums,  which  supported  the  roof  covering  the 
side  aisles.  In  order  to  save  room,  these  rows 
of  columns  were  in  two  stories,  as  thereby  they 
were  enabled  to  attain  the  desired  height  with 
columns  of  a  less  diameter.  The  ceilings  of  the 
porticos  were  subdivided  in  caissons,  often 
times  highly  colored,  as  were  likewise  many 
parts  of  the  edifices.  The  frieze  below  the 
ceiling,  on  the  exterior  of  the  cella  walls,  was 
often  ornamented  with  bass-reliefs.  The  walls 
internally  were  decorated  with  paintings, 
though  it  is  supposed  that  generally  these  lat 
ter  were  not  executed  directly  on  the  walls, 
but  were  suspended  against  them.  The  pave 
ment  of  the  cella  was  usually  elevated  above 
that  of  the  portico;  that  of  the  Parthenon, 
however,  is  level  throughout.  Opposite  the 
entrance  door  was  placed  the  statue  of  the 
deity  of  the  temple,  which  was  often  of  colos 
sal  size,  while  others  were  arranged  on  either 
side  of  the  cella,  or  about  the  principal  deity. 
They  were  generally  in  marble  or  bronze ; 
sometimes,  however,  they  were  of  ivory  and 
gold.  Besides  the  different  statues  of  their 
divinities,  the  cellas  contained  altars,  tripods, 
thrones,  arms,  vases,  and  utensils  of  different 
sorts ;  all  of  which  objects  were  generally 
in  precious  materials,  highly  wrought.  The 
more  important  temples  were  built  on  sacred 
ground ;  within  the  peribolus  or  enclosure  were 
sacred  groves,  grottoes,  altars,  columns,  statues, 
&c.  The  entranceway  or  propyla3um,  some 
what  similar  in  plan  to  the  pronaos  of  their 
temples,  was  grand  and  imposing.  Little  is 
known  of  the  theatres  and  odeons,  the  graded 
hemicycles  of  the  former,  destined  for  the  spec 
tators,  being  all  that  now  remains  of  them. 
These  hemicycles  were  excavated  in  the  side 
of  a  hill.  Of  the  choragic  monuments,  that  of 
Lysicrates  at  Athens  is  the  finest  example ; 
upon  a  quadrangular  basement  was  placed  a 
cylindrical  monument  with  engaged  Corinthian 
columns  supporting  an  entablature  surmounted 


by  a  dome  crowned  with  a  beautiful  acro- 
teral  motive,  upon  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  placed  a  tripod.  The  Grecian  agoras,  or 
public  places  of  assembly,  were  surrounded  by 
porticos  decorated  with  paintings  commemora 
tive  of  glorious  achievements.  Within  the  en 
closure  were  temples,  altars,  and  statues  dedi 
cated  to  their  heroes.  We  know  little  of  the 
architectural  arrangement  of  the  gymnasiums, 
which  contained  the  halls,  porticos,  and  ex- 
edras,  where  the  sages  taught  their  different 
philosophies;  or  their  baths,  accompanied  by 
their  dependencies,  about  which  were  disposed 
the  stadium  and  courts  for  various  gymnastic 
exercises.  It  is  likewise  difficult  to  obtain  any 
accurate  idea  of  the  architectural  disposition 
of  the  domestic  habitations,  as  no  examples 
remain.  The  beauty  and  grace  which  pervade 
all  the  works  of  the  Greeks,  whether  monumen 
tal,  mechanical,  or  industrial,  lead  us  to  sup 
pose  that,  although  imperfect  as  regards  com 
fort,  they  must  yet  have  exhibited  a  certain 
degree  of  elegance.  A  just  idea  of  the  mould 
ings  and  ornaments,  unequalled  for  their  pu 
rity  and  grace,  can  be  obtained  only  from  per 
sonal  observation.  The  styles  may  be  classed 
in  systems  or  orders  as  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and 
Corinthian.  They  also  employed,  though  rare 
ly,  caryatides.  Innumerable  conjectures  exist 
concerning  the  origin  of  these  different  orders. 
In  all  probability  we  are  indebted  to  the  Do 
rians  for  the  invention  of  the  Doric ;  although 
Champollion  sees  in  an  Egyptian  order,  which 
he  styles  the  proto-Doric,  the  type  of  the  Gre 
cian  order  of  that  name.  The  oldest  example 
extant  is  at  Corinth.  To  the  lonians,  likewise, 
is  attributed  the  honor  of  having  first  employed 
the  Ionic  order,  no  example  of  which  is  to  be 
found  in  Greece  prior  to  the  Macedonian  con 
quest.  Vitruvius  accords  to  Callimachus  the 
invention  of  the  Corinthian  capital,  but  foliated 
capitals  of  much  greater  antiquity  than  any 
discovered  in  Greece  are  to  be  found  in  Egypt 
and  in  Asia  Minor.  The  most  perfect  Grecian 
example  of  this  order  is  employed  in  the  cho 
ragic  monument  of  Lysicrates.  Little  doubt 
need  be  entertained  as  to  the  Greeks  deriving 
the  idea  of  their  caryatic  order  from  the  Egyp 
tians,  who  often  employed  human  figures  in 
stead  of  columns  in  their  structures.  —  The 
Doric  holds  the  foremost  rank  among  the  Gre 
cian  orders,  not  only  on  account  of  its  being 
the  most  ancient,  the  most  generally  employed, 
and  consequently  the  most  perfected,  but  more 
especially  because  of  its  containing,  as  it  were, 
the  principle  of  all  their  architecture,  as  well 
as  an  exact  imitation  of  all  the  parts  employed 
in  their  primitive  constructions,  which  were 
undoubtedly  of  wood.  Thus  we  see  the  post 
represented  by  the  column,  the  wall  plate  by 
the  architrave,  the  extremities  of  the  joists  by 
the  triglyphs ;  the  rafters  naturally  produce 
the  projection  which  composes  the  cornice; 
while  the  double  pitch  of  the  roof  gives  us  ne 
cessarily  the  form  of  the  pediment.  This  style, 
typical  of  majesty  and  imposing  grandeur,  was 


650 


ARCHITECTURE 


Tuscan. 


Doric. 


Ionic. 


Corinthian. 


Composite. 


almost  universally  employed  by  the  Greeks  in 
the  construction  of  their  temples;  and  certain 
ly  monumental  art  does  not  furnish  us  with 
the  equal  of  a  Greek  peripteral  temple.  The 
Grecian  Doric  may  he  divided  into  three  parts: 
the  stylobate,  the  column,  and  the  entablature. 
The  stylobate  is  formed  by  three  receding 
courses,  together  about  equal  in  height  to  the 
inferior  diameter  of  the  column,  which  dimen 
sion  is  generally  used  as  a  measure  of  propor 
tion  in  describing  the  orders.  On  the  upper 
most  course  stands  the  column,  from  four  to 
six  diameters  in  height,  and  whose  diameter 
at  top  is  about  three  fourths  of  that  at  base ; 
the  shaft,  thus  assuming  a  conical  shape  (which 
diminution,  in  a  slightly  curved  line,  is  styled 
entasis),  generally  bears  20  shallow  flutes,  their 
sections  forming  segments  of  circles,  or  similar 
curves  which  meet  and  form  a  sharp  anis.  At 
the  base  these  flutes  detail  on  the  pavement ; 
they  pass  through  the  hypotrachelium,  or 
necking,  and  terminate  beneath  the  annulets  of 
the  capital,  either  in  a  straight  or  curved  line. 
Upon  the  shaft  is  placed  the  capital,  nearly  one 
half  of  a  diameter  in  height,  composed  of  an 
abacus,  or  square  tablet,  about  1-J-  diameter  in 
width  and  one  fifth  in  height.  This  member  is 
supported  by  the  echinus,  of  about  the  same 
height  when  there  is  a  necking,  but  occupying 
a  greater  proportion  when  none  exists.  This 
echinus  or  ovolo  bears  three,  four,  or  five  rings 
at  the  bottom,  where  it  dies  away  in  the  shaft. 
The  axes  of  the  columns  were  slightly  inclined. 
According  to  Yilleroi,  in  a  rectangular  temple, 
planes  passing  through  the  centres  of  the  col 
umns  would  meet  in  a  straight  line ;  in  a  point, 
if  the  plan  of  the  temple  were  square;  the 
columns  at  the  angles  following  in  both  cases 
the  direction  of  diagonal  lines.  This  inclina 
tion  does  not  commence  until  the  second  course, 
or  about  one  tenth  of  the  height  of  the  column, 
if  monolithic.  The  first  course  being  an  ob 


lique  truncated  cone,  determines  t"ie  angle  of 
inclination ;  the  remaining  courses  lorming  the 
column  are  upright  truncated  cones,  perfectly 
adjusted  one  to  the  other.  The  inclination  of 
each  column  is  proportional  to  the  distance,  to 
the  line  joining  the  foci  if  the  monument  be 
rectangular,  or  to  the  centre  of  the  plan  of  the 
edifice  if  square.  Thus  the  columns  at  the 
angles  are  the  most  inclined,  those  in  the  mid 
dle  of  the  sides  the  least.  The  entablature, 
about  two  diameters  in  height,  is  subdivided 
into  three  parts :  the  architrave,  the  frieze, 
and  the  cornice.  The  architrave  occupies 
about  two  fifths  of  the  whole  height,  being 
perfectly  simple,  crowned  by  the  taenia  or  con 
tinuous  fillet,  one  tenth  or  one  twelfth  of  its 
entire  height ;  below  this  fillet,  under  the  tri- 
glyphs,  there  is  a  regula,  of  less  height,  from 
which  depend  six  cylindrical  drops.  The  face 
of  the  architrave  is  generally  in  a  vertical 
plane  tangent  to  the  base  of  the  columns.  The 
frieze,  of  about  the  same  height  as  the  archi 
trave,  is  terminated  on  top  by  a  projecting 
fascia,  occupying  about  one  seventh  part  of  its 
whole  height,  which  breaks  around  the  tri- 
glyphs,  where  it  is  slightly  increased  in  depth. 
Horizontally,  the  frieze  is  subdivided  into  tri- 
glyphs  and  "metopes,  which  regulate  the  inter- 
columniation  in  the  following  manner :  A  tri- 
glyph  about  one  half  a  diameter  in  width  is 
placed  exactly  over  the  middle  of  each  column, 
and  one  in  the  intervening  space.  They  are 
separated  by  the  metopes,  which  in  width  are 
equal  to  the  entire  height  of  the  frieze.  This 
distribution  differs,  however,  at  the  angles; 
here  the  outer  edge  of  the  trigiyph  is  in  the 
same  perpendicular  line  with  the  circumfer 
ence  of  the  base.  Thus  the  first  intercolum- 
niation,  counting  from  the  angles,  is  contracted. 
The  Greeks  also  gave  a  greater  diameter  to  the 
columns  at  the  angles.  The  trigiyph  is  sub 
divided  into  two  glyphs,  each  one  fifth  of  the 


ARCHITECTURE 


Got 


whole  width  (a  triangular  fluting  or  channel 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  vertical 
planes  inclined  inward  from  the  face  of  the 
tablet),  of  two  semiglyphs,  and  two  inter- 
glyphs,  each  one  seventh  of  the  entire  width. 
The  glyphs  detail  on  trenia.  Above  they  are 
sometimes  square-headed,  sometimes  curved; 
the  semiglyphs  finish  with  a  curve  at  the  top. 
The  surface  of  the  interglyphs  is  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  architrave.  The  metopes  re 
cede  from  the  triglyphs,  and  were  oftentimes 
decorated  with  sculpture.  The  cornice,  pro 
jecting  about  its  own  height,  is  composed  of  a 
corona,  about  one  half  of  the  whole  height, 
crowned  by  a  square  fillet  supported  by  a  con 
geries  of  mouldings,  together  about  one  half 
of  the  height  of  the  corona,  which  latter  has 
on  the  lower  edge  a  sunken  face  bearing  the 
mutules  and  gutta?,  which  form  the  soffit  or 
plancher  of  the  cornice,  inclined  up  inward  at 
an  angle  of  about  30°.  The  mutules  are  placed 
directly  over  the  triglyphs  and  metopes,  and 
are  exactly  equal  to  the  former  in  width ;  they 
are  ornamented  with  three  rows  of  cylindrical 
drops.  The  height  of  the  pediment  is  gener 
ally  about  1-J-  diameter.  The  cornice  crowning 
the  inclined  sides  of  the  tympanum  differs  from 
the  horizontal  one  at  its  base,  inasmuch  as  the 
mutules  are  left  out,  and  another  member 
superimposed,  which  is  either  an  ovolo  with  -a 
fillet,  or  a  cymatium,  occupying  a  space  equal 
to  about  one  half  of  the  depth  of  the  cornice 
with  its  mutules.  The  tympanum  was  often 
decorated  with  sculpture.  The  flank  cornice 
supported  antefixre,  an  ornament  used  to  cover 
the  ends  of  the  joint  tiles  of  the  roof.  The 
antge  or  pilasters,  nearly  equal  in  diameter  to 
the  columns,  did  not  diminish  at  the  top,  nor 
were  they  fluted  like  the  columns ;  they  gen 
erally  had  a  congeries  of  mouldings  at  the  top 
and  the  bottom.  The  Greeks  never  employed 
peripterally  any  other  than  the  Doric  order. — 
The  Ionic,  remarkable  for  its  grace  and  suavity 
of  proportions,  holds  a  middle  place  between 
the  simple  Doric  and  the  rich  Corinthian 
order.  According  to  some,  it  was  originally 
employed  in  funereal  edifices.  At  Telmessus, 
in  Lycia,  are  to  be  found  tombs  cut  in  the 
rock,  which  invariably  offer  examples  of  this 
style ;  moreover,  on  the  Grecian  vases  the  rep 
resentation  of  the  Ionic  column  is  symbolical 
of  a  sepulchral  monument.  This  order,  as  well 
as  the  Corinthian,  is  more  tractable  than  the 
Doric.  Like  the  latter,  it  is  composed  of  stylo- 
bate,  column,  and  entablature.  The  column 
has  a  base  as  well  as  a  capital,  and  is  about 
nine  diameters  in  height.  The  base,  about 
one  half  a  diameter  in  height  and  H  in  width, 
is  composed  of  a  torus  resting  on  the  stylobate, 
a  scotia,  and  a  second  torus,  all  about  equal, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  a  fillet,  one 
also  finishing  the  apophyge,  or  escape  of  the 
shaft,  which  diminishes  with  entasis  about  one 
sixth  of  a  diameter,  bearing  2-4  flutes  deeper 
than  in  the  Doric  column,  and  which  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  fillets.  These 
VOL.  i.  —42 


flutes  finish  in  the  same  curve  above  and  be 
low.  The  capital  is  about  one  half  of  a  diam 
eter  in  height,  when  unaccompanied  by  a  neck 
ing;  when  one  exists,  it  is  about  three  quar 
ters  high.  The  volutes,  carved  on  the  faces 
of  a  parallel ogrammic  block,  and  connected  at 
the  sides  by  bolsters  and  in  front  by  flowing 
lines,  are  supported  by  a  congeries  of  mould 
ings,  composed  of  a  bead  and  ovolo.  Super 
imposed  is  the  abacus.  These  volutes  are  a 
full  half  diameter  in  depth,  and  extend  in 
width  about  1^  diameter.  When  this  capital 
is  accompanied  by  a  necking,  a  torus  is  intro 
duced  in  corbel  mouldings,  supporting  the  vo 
lutes,  and  the  necking  itself,  ornamented  with 
the  honeysuckle  and  tendrils,  is  separated  from 
the  shaft  by  "a  fillet  or  a  bead.  The  outer 
volute  of  the  capital  at  the  corners  is  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  45°,  so  as  to  present  a  volute 
when  viewed  from  either  side ;  internally  the 
two  volutes  meet  at  right  angles.  The  en 
tablature,  a  little  over  two  diameters  in  height, 
is  composed  of  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice. 
The  former,  occupying  about  two  fifths  of  the 
whole  height,  contains  three  equal  fascias, 
slightly  projecting  one  beyond  the  other,  the 
lowest  one  being  in  a  plane  tangent  to  the 
inferior  circumference  of  the  column.  On  the 
upper  edge  of  the  architrave  are  a  few  cor 
belling  mouldings,  comprising  a  little  less 
than  one  quarter  of  its  whole  height.  The 
frieze  is  of  the  same  height  with  the  archi 
trave,  recedes  slightly,  and  is  either  plain  or 
ornamented  with  sculpture.  The  projection 
of  the  cornice  is  about  equal  to  its  height. 
It  is  composed  of  bed  mouldings  under 
cutting  the  corona;  this  Litter  is  of  great 
breadth,  and  the  crown  mouldings  are  of  much 
less  importance  than  in  the  Doric.  The  pedi 
ment  of  this  order  is  also  rather  lower,  and 
its  cornice  is  crowned  by  a  rectangular  fillet 
surmounting  small  mouldings.  The  interco- 
lumniations  differ  from  two  to  three  diameters. 
— The  only  example  of  the  Grecian  Corinthian 
is  to  be  found  in  the  choragic  monument  of 
Lysicrates,  which  is  a  small  circular  structure 
decorated  with  engaged  Corinthian  columns, 
placed  upon  a  high  rectangular  basement.  This 
order  i?  composed  of  a  stylobate,  a  column, 
and  entablature,  the  first  occupying  in  height 
a  little  more  than  one  diameter.  The  column 
is  about  10  diameters  high,  has  a  base  some 
what  similar  to  the  Ionic,  between  one  third 
and  one  half  of  a  diameter  in  height,  and  in 
width  rather  more  than  H  diameter.  The 
shaft,  whose  top  diameter  is  about  five  sixths 
of  that  at  the  base,  bears  24  flutes  nearly  semi 
circular,  terminating  at  the  bottom  in  the  same 
curve,  and  at  the  top  in  leaves,  the  fillets  form 
ing  stalks.  The  capital,  separated  from  the 
shaft  by  a  groove,  is  a  little  more  than  1^  diam 
eter  in  height.  Its  cylindrical  body  is  sur 
rounded  at  the  bottom  by  a  row  of  water  leaves 
occupying  about  one  sixth  of  the  entire  height. 
Above  them  is  placed  a  row  of  acanthus  leaves 
twice  as  high  as  the  former,  seemingly  buttoned 


658 


ARCHITECTURE 


on.  Between  this  second  row  and  the  abacus 
are  helices  and  tendrils,  the  latter  supporting 
honeysuckles  in  the  middle  of  the  abacus, 
which  member  is  about  one  seventh  of  a  diam 
eter  in  height,  and  in  plan  presents  a  square 
with  concave  sides  whose  angles  are  cut  off  at 
45° ;  its  section  presenting  a  fillet,  on  which 
reposes  a  cavetto  and  an  ovolo  separated  by 
another  fillet.  The  entablature  is  about  2J 
diameters  in  height,  of  which  the  architrave 
and  cornice  occupy  separately  rather  more  than 
one  third,  and  the  frieze  rather  less.  The 
architrave  is  divided  into  three  equal  fascias, 
inclined  inwardly  sufficient  to  bring  the  outer 
edges  in  the  same  plane  with  the  inferior  diam 
eter  of  the  column ;  these  fascias  together  are 
crowned  by  corbelling  mouldings,  being  one 
sixth  of  the  entire  height.  The  frieze  is  slight 
ly  inclined  also  and  is  sculptured.  The  projec 
tion  of  the  cornice  is  about  equal  to  its  height. 
The  bed  mouldings  have  about  two  fifths  of  this 
projection,  and  occupy  five  eighths  of  the  entire 
height  of  the  cornice,  undercutting  the  soffit. 
Their  principal  feature  is  a  dentilled  member, 
more  than  one  quarter  of  the  whole  cornice  in 
height.  The  height  of  the  corona  is  only  three 
eighths  of  the  cornice,  and  nearly  one  third  of 
this  is  taken  up  by  the  crowning  ovolo  and 
fillet.  In  this  example  the  cornice  is  surmount 
ed  by  a  cut  fascia  supporting  antefixa3,  some 
what  similar  to  those  employed  on  the  flanks 
of  Doric  and  Ionic  temples.  The  intercolum- 
niation  is  2£  diameters.  In  the  example  offered 
us  at  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  the  caryatides 
stand  on  a  stereobatic  dado,  placed  on  the  sty- 
lobate ;  the  antss  bear  the  mouldings  of  the 
temple  to  which  they  are  attached,  forming 
base  mouldings  to  the  dado,  which  has  also  a 
cornice.  The  entire  height  of  the  stereobate 
is  about  three  fourths  of  that  of  the  figures, 
taken  together  with  their  base  and  capital ;  the 
former  is  a  square  tablet  or  plinth,  the  latter  a 
circular  moulded  block  crowned  by  an  abacus. 
The  entablature  is  about  two  fifths  of  the  height 
of  the  figures,  and  is  nearly  equally  divided 
between  architrave  and  cornice.  The  upper 
of  the  three  fascias  of  the  architrave  is  orna 
mented  with  circular  disks.  The  cornice  is 
composed  as  usual  of  bed  mouldings,  corona, 
and  crown  mouldings,  the  former  with  dentilled 
member  forming  about  two  fifths  of  the  whole 
height.  The  researches  of  Mr.  Penrose  have 
proved  that  all  the  horizontal  lines  of  the  Greek 
temples  were  curved,  and  that  most  of  the  plane 
faces  inclined  either  out  or  in.  These  refine 
ments  were  evidently  intended  in  part  to  coun 
teract  certain  obvious  ocular  illusions,  but  some 
of  them  are  difficult  to  account  for.  Similar 
refinements  are  found  in  medieval  and  modern 
work.  III.  ETRUSCAN  AECHITECTURE.  The 
polygonal  formations  observed  in  the  walls  of 
Etruria  belong  to  the  Pelasgic  civilization,  and 
are  similar  to  those  of  Greece  and  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  commercial  relations  existing  between  the 
Etruscans  and  the  Hellenes  of  Greece  and 
Magna  Grascia  account  for  the  existing  simili 


tudes  in  their  artistic  productions.  The  ceilings 
of  the  hypogea,  hewn  so  as  to  represent  cais 
sons,  tend  to  corroborate  the  idea  that  their 
earliest  structures  were  of  wood,  which,  with 
them  as  with  the  Greeks,  became  the  archetype 
of  their  structures  in  stone.  To  the  Etruscans 
the  invention  of  the  arch,  constructed  on  its 
true  principles,  has  been  generally  attributed, 
as  likewise  the  composition  of  an  order  styled 
Tuscan,  a  species  of  simple  Doric,  no  entire 
example  of  which,  however,  has  been  be 
queathed  to  us  by  the  ancients.  IV.  ROMAN 
ARCHITECTURE.  The  history  of  Roman  archi 
tecture  under  its  kings  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  republic  is  somewhat  obscure,  as  but  few 
of  the  monuments  of  that  period  remain. 
The  Roman  kings  fortified  the  city,  and  erected 
various  palaces,  temples,  and  tombs.  It  grad 
ually  became  adorned  with  colossal  works  of 
art,  whose  grand  features,  forming  such  a  con 
trast  with  the  comparative  insignificance  of  its 
power  and  condition,  would  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  future  of  imperial  Rome  had  been 
foreshadowed  to  its  people.  The  early  Ro 
mans  employed  'Etruscans  in  their  works. 
After  conquering  Greece,  Rome  became  en 
riched  with  the  spoils  of  Athens  and  Corinth. 
The  Greek  artists  sought  protection  and  pat 
ronage  among  their  conquerors,  and  adorned 
the  imperial  capital  with  structures  which  call 
ed  forth  unbounded  praise.  The  Grecian  style 
was  blended  with  the  Etruscan  during  the 
more  early  period  of  the  Roman  school.  But 
as  the  arch,  which  was  the  characteristic  feature 
of  Roman  architecture,  revealed  its  treasures, 
the  Grecian  elements  were  employed  only  as 
a  system  of  ornamentation.  Thus,  oftentimes, 
the  column  no  longer  served  as  a  support,  but 
was  merely  used  to  decorate  the  pier  or  Avail 
from  which  the  arch  sprang.  Great  discussions 
have  arisen  as  to  who  were  the  inventors  of  the 
arch.  In  Etruria  are  found  many  monuments 
wherein  its  design  exists,  and  which  are  of  an 
anterior  date  to  the  construction  of  the  cloaca 
maxima  (wherein  it  is  fully  developed),  and  even 
to  the  foundations  of  Rome.  It  is  probable  that 
the  Romans  borrowed  it  from  the  Etruscans, 
who  may  have  followed  eastern  examples,  but 
that  it  owed  its  useful  application  to  Rome. 
With  its  introduction  came  various  important 
modifications  in  architecture.  Arches  were 
substituted  for  lintels.  With  the  assistance 
of  the  arch  great  spaces  could  be  covered,  and 
the  various  combinations  of  vaulted  ceilings 
naturally  ensued. — The  early  Roman  structures 
were  of  stone.  Subsequently  the  mass  of  the 
constructions  was  of  brick,  externally  decora 
ted  with  slabs  of  marble,  and  similarly  decora 
ted  internally,  together  with  stucco  work. 
Bricks  seem  to  have  been  used  by  the  Romans, 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  facility  offered  by 
this  material  for  the  construction  of  the  arch, 
and  partly  because  they  had  but  little  marble. 
Stone,  terra  cotta,  bricks,  and  marble  were  in 
geniously  put  together  in  various  ways.  The 
i  edifices  of  the  Romans  display  a  taste  for  the 


ARCHITECTURE 


659 


luxurious  and  magnificent  rather  than  for  the 
harmonious  and  beautiful.  Their  exterior  pave 
ments  were  variously  composed  of  stone,  tiles, 
marble,  porphyry,  and  other  durable  materials, 
laid  in  cement.  Internally  their  floors  were 
similarly  laid  in  mosaic  work.  This  style  of 
work  is  supposed  to  have  originated  among  the 
eastern  nations,  subsequently  being  employed 
by  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks.  The  walls  of  the 
Romans  were  stuccoed  and  decorated  with 
paintings  in  the  arabesque  style,  or  covered  with 
various  marble,  alabaster,  and  jaspers,  while 
their  columns  also  were  of  granite,  marble,  and 
porphyry.  This  luxury  strikes  us  the  more 
forcibly,  as  these  apartments,  so  richly  adorned 
and  containing  various  chefs  d'ceuvi'e  of  art, 
were  but  very  imperfectly  lighted ;  in  fact,  they 
were  sometimes  wholly  dependent  upon  lamps. 
This,  too,  is  one  of  the  great  defects  in  their 
dwellings,  as  can  be  clearly  seen  at  Pompeii. 
Their  houses  generally  presented  an  entrance 
on  the  street,  accompanied  by  shops  if  in  a 
principal  thoroughfare,  leading  into  an  atrium 
or  court,  with  a  compluvium  in  the  middle  and 
porticos  on  the  sides  connecting  with  the  rooms 
occupied  by  the  servants.  This  court  connected 
with  another  in  the  rear,  also  surrounded  by  a 
portico,  which  led  to  the  apartments  of  the  mas 
ter.  But  nowhere  is  this  taste  for  richness  ra 
ther  than  simplicity  more  evident  than  in  com 
paring  the  details  and  mouldings  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  It  is  due  the  latter,  however,  to 
make  an  exception  in  favor  of  their  Corinthian 
order,  which  they  employed  as  universally  as 
did  the  Greeks  the  Doric,  and  to  their  structures 
must  we  turn  for  many  of  the  finest  types  of  this 
order.  The  column,  varying  in  height  from  9£ 
to  10  diameters,  is  composed  of  base,  shaft,  and 
capital.  The  base,  about  one  half  diameter  in 
height,  in  some  cases  consists  of  two  tori  and 
a  scotia,  with  intervening  fillets,  placed  upon  a 
plinth,  as  in  the  examples  of  the  temples  of 
Antoninus  and  Faustina  and  of  Vesta;  in 
the  temples  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  of  Castor  and 
Pollux,  and  in  the  portico  of  the  Pantheon, 
there  exists  a  double  scotia.  The  shaft  dimin 
ishes  with  entasis  about  one  eighth  of  a  diam 
eter,  and  is  generally  fluted  when  the  material 
permitted.  These  flutes  were  semicircular, 
separated  by  fillets  one  quarter  of  their  width, 
and  24  in  number.  At  the  upper  extremity, 
the  fillet  above  the  cavetto  supports  a  small 
torus,  on  which  rests  the  capital,  about  1-J-  diam 
eter  in  height,  composed  of  two  rows  of  eight 
acanthus  or  olive  leaves.  The  lower  row,  about 
one  third  taller  than  the  upper  one,  occupies 
about  one  quarter  of  the  whole  height  of  the  cap 
ital.  The  leaves  of  both  finish  on  the  hypotra- 
chelium.  Above  are  helices  and  tendrils  trained 
with  foliage, surmounted  by  an  abacus, composed 
of  a  cavetto,  fillet,  and  ovolo,  forming  together 
one  seventh  of  the  entire  height,  and  which  in 
plan  presents  a  square  with  the  corners  cut  off; 
the  sides  being  concave  segments  of  circles,  in 
the  middle  of  each  of  which  is  placed  a  flower 
or  rosette.  The  entablature  is  about  one  fifth 


of  the  column  in  height,  three  fifths  of  it  being 
occupied  by  the  architrave,  together  with  the 
i  frieze,  the  former  divided  into  three  unequal 
fascias,  generally  separated   by  a  bead  and  a 
cyma  reversa,  and  crowned   by  a  small  con 
geries  of  mouldings,  the  first  fascia  impending 
the  shaft  at  top.     The  frieze  is  generally  en- 
|  riched  with  sculpture.     The  bed  mouldings  of 
;  the  cornice,  when  decorated  with  modiflions, 
:  occupy  about  three  fifths  of  the  total  height ; 
!  when  no  modillions  exist,  only  one  half  is  taken 
up  by  them.     They  generally  consist  of  a  bead, 
:  a  cyma  reversa,  and  a  fillet,  a  vertical  member 
dentilled  or  not,  another  bead,  and  an  ovolo, 
;  supporting  a  plain  vertical  face,  one  third  of  bed 
i  mouldings  in  height,  which   bears  the  modil- 
;  lions,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  cyma  reversa, 
!  which  breaks  around  the  same.    The  modillions 
are  horizontal  consoles,  in  width  equal  to  their 
height,  bearing  large  volutes  at  the  inner  end 
;  and  smaller  ones  at  the  outer  extremity,  joined 
!  by  a  graceful  curve,  underneath  which  spreads 
i  an  acanthus  leaf;    the  space  between  them  is 
:  about  twice  the  width  of  the  modillion  itself. 
Resting  upon  the  modillions  is  the  corona,  sur- 
I  mounted  by  a  small  congeries  of  mouldings, 
,  a  cymatium,  and  a  fillet.      The   soffit   of  the 
corona  is  coffered  between  the  modillions;    in 
I  the  centre  of  each  is  placed  a  rosace. — The  com- 
'  posite  order  may  be  considered  as  a  sort  of 
Corinthian,  as  the  principal  difference  exists  in 
the  capital,  where  the  volutes  occupying  about 
one  quarter  of  the  total  height  rest  upon  a  bead 
and  ovolo ;  the  central  tendrils  are  also  omitted, 
and  the  upper  row  of  leaves  is  higher  than  in 
i  the  ordinary  Corinthian.  Besides  this  particular 
composite  capital,  the  Roman  monuments  fur 
nish  us  with  others  ornamented  with  trophies, 
eagles,  masks,  &c.     The  pediments  of  the  Ro- 
,  man  edifices  were    steeper  than  those  of  the 
Grecian;  the  cymatium  was   continued  along 
the  flank  cornices,   thereby  doing  away  with 
i  the  antefixae. — The  Doric  order,  on  account  of 
its  simplicity,  was  very  rarely  employed  by  the 
Romans.     In  the  few  examples   which   have 
been    preserved,    the    proportions    are    more 
slender,  the  projections  less  hardy  than  in  the 
Grecian  Doric ;  and,  in  endeavoring  to  give  it 
more  elegance,  this  order  lost  with  the  Ro 
mans  its  simplicity  and  grandeur.     At  Albano 
an  example  has  been  discovered  where  most 
of  the  mouldings  are  ornamented.     The  baths 
of  Diocletian  furnish  us  with  still  another  ex 
ample  greatly  enriched.     The  necking  is  orna 
mented  with  small  rosaces,  the  echinus  is  sculp 
tured  with  leaves,  the  metopes  and  corona  are 
also  enriched  with  sculpture,  while  the  cornice 
resembles  that  generally  employed  in  the  Ionic 
order.     The  best  examples  of  this  order  be 
queathed  to  us  by  the  Romans  decorate  the 
temple  of  Hercules  at  Cori,  and  the  theatre  of 
Marcellus  at  Rome.     The  former,  however,  is 
almost  wholly  Greek.     In  the  latter  example, 
the  column,  composed  of  shaft  and  capital,  is 
about  eight  diameters  in  height.     The  capital, 
occupying   about   one   half  of  a  diameter  in 


660 


ARCHITECTURE 


height,  may  be  divided  into  three  nearly  equal 
parts.  The  uppermost,  given  to  the  abacus, 
of  less  projection  than  in  the  Grecian  examples, 
is  crowned  by  a  cynia  reversa  and  fillet ;  the 
ovolo  supporting  the  abacus  is  a  semi-torus 
resting  on  three  fillets,  and  occupies  the  mid 
dle  division ;  while  the  lower  third  is  taken  up 
by  a  necking  which  is  separated  from  the  shaft 
by  a  small  torus  and  fillet.  The  shaft,  less 
conoidal  than  in  the  Grecian  examples,  is  with 
out  flutes,  the  superior  diameter  being  about 
four  fifths  of  the  diameter  at  the  base.  The 
total  height  of  the  entablature  is  about  one 
quarter  of  that  of  the  column ;  its  projection  is 
about  equal  to  its  height.  The  architrave  is 
one  half  of  a  diameter  in  height ;  the  frieze 
1^  diameter.  The  principal  difference  in  the 
distribution  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  Doric 
frieze  is  in  the  position  of  the  triglyph  over  the 
column  at  the  angle.  The  Romans  preserved 
the  same  intercolumniation  throughout,  and 
placed  the  triglyph  directly  over  the  column, 
thus  forming  half  metopes  at  the  angles.  In  the 
cornice  the  bed  mouldings  occupy  more  height 
than  in  the  Grecian  types,  and  are  composed 
generally  of  a  cyma  reversa,  dentil,  and  ovolo, 
separated  by  fillets.  The  corona  is  of  less  im 
portance,  it  being  sacrificed  to  the  cymatium, 
which  in  return  is  of  more  value  than  in  the 
Grecian  Doric.  The  soffit  generally  bears 
mutules,  though  sometimes  these  latter  mem 
bers  are  dispensed  with.  The  only  examples 
of  the  Ionic  order  in  ancient  Rome  are  to  be 
found  in  the  temples  of  Saturn  and  Fortuna 
Yirilis,  in  the  baths  of  Diocletian,  in  the 
Colosseum,  and  in  the  upper  order  of  the 
theatre  of  Marcellus.  The  total  height  of  the 
columns  varies  between  eight  and  nine  diam 
eters.  The  base,  about  one  half  of  a  diameter 
in  height,  is  composed  of  a  torus  resting  on  a  ! 
plinth,  a  scotia,  and  a  second  torus ;  the  three 
upper  members  have  fillets  intervening.  The 
shaft,  slightly  increased  in  diameter  at  one  i 
third  of  its  height,  is  either  plain  or  fluted  ;  in  1 
the  latter  case  the  flutes,  separated  by  fillets, 
are  semicircular,  and  are  20  in  number.  The 
diminution  of  the  shaft  varies  between  one 
eighth  and  one  tenth  of  a  diameter.  The 
capitals,  occupying  about  one  half  of  a  diameter,  I 
vary;  those  of  the  theatre  of  Marcellus  and  of  j 
the  temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis  are  without  a  . 
necking.  The  volutes,  connected  by  horizontal  j 
instead  of  curved  lines,  are  bolstered,  and  the  j 
abacus  crowning  the  volutes  is  composed  of  a  j 
cyma  reversa  and  a  fillet.  In  the  Ionic  capitals  | 
of  San  Lorenzo  at  Rome  (generally  thought  ', 
formerly  to  have  belonged  to  the  temple  of  I 
Jupiter  and  Juno),  there  exists  a  necking.  The 
temple  of  Saturn  presents  still  a  third  species, 
the  volutes  being  doubled  and  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  45°.  The  height  and  projection  of  the 
entablature  are  nearly  equal,  varying  between 
one  quarter  and  one  fifth  of  the  height  of  the 
column.  The  architrave  and  frieze  are  equal 
in  height,  and  are  a  little  less  than  that  occu 
pied  by  the  cornice.  The  frieze  is  either  with 


or  without  sculpture.  The  bed  mouldings  of 
the  cornice  generally  consist  of  a  cyma  reversa, 
a  dentil  course,  and  ovolo,  separated  by  fillets, 
together  occupying  rather  less  than  one  half 
of  the  entire  height  of  the  cornice  ;  the  corona 
and  crown  mouldings,  with  the  cymatium, 
complete  this  order. — The  whole  of  the  Roman 
possessions  were  covered  with  massive  struc 
tures  which  embodied  the  Roman  spirit  of  de 
fiance  and  the  supremacy  of  the  conqueror. 
We  find  everywhere  in  her  own  limits  and 
in  her  possessions  roads,  aqueducts,  bridges, 
ports,  forums,  basilicas,  temples,  mausoleums, 
palaces,  baths,  theatres,  amphitheatres,  hippo 
dromes,  naumachias,  triumphal  arches,  cloacas, 


Arch  of  Titus  at  Beneveutum. 

prisons,  fountains,  cisterns,  monumental  col 
umns,  villas,  grottoes,  and  markets.  During 
the  empire,  Rome  was  adorned  with  its  beauti 
ful  Pantheon,  Asia  was  endowed  with  many 
beautiful  structures,  and  Athens  itself  became 
embellished  with  the  famous  temple  of  Jupiter 


Euins  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens. 


ARCHITECTURE 


661 


Olympius.     The  baths  or  tJiermcs  of  Augustus,  ' 
Nero,  Titus,  Garacalla,  and  Diocletian  were  re-  ! 
nowned  for  a  magnificence  which  was  hardly  . 
surpassed    even    by   their    palaces.     In    fact, 
throughout  all  the  Roman  structures,  from  the  | 
palace  of  the  Cresars  to  the  villas  of  Lucullus,  ! 
Sallust,  and  Hadrian,  the  greatest  display  of  j 
splendor  and  luxury  prevailed.    But,  of  all  their  ; 
structures,  perhaps  the  most  stupendous  was  ! 
the  Colosseum,  capable  of  containing  more  than 
100,000  spectators.     It  was  partially  destroyed 
in  1084,  by  Robert  Guiscardthe  Norman,  who 
conceived  the  idea  that  it  was  to  be  used  as  a  ; 
citadel  against  him.     Though  from  the  ruins 
the   popes  have  taken   sufficient  material  to 
construct  the  Farnese  palace,  the   Cancella- 
ria,  and  St.  Mark,  the  cragged  and  crumbling 
remains  are  still  gigantic  and  imposing.      V.  [ 
ARCHITECTURE   OF   THE   MIDDLE   AGES.      The 
architecture  of  this  period,  although   it  was. I 
derived    from    Greek    and    Roman    models,  j 
applied    new    principles,    forming    structures  | 
wholly  different   from    the   antique   originals,  j 
Through   many  successive   centuries  the  Ro-  j 
man  school  of  art  continued  to  suffer  changes,  j 
From  the  fragments  of  edifices  which  were  j 
torn  down  to  form  new  structures,  arose  new 
combinations.      The   transition    styles    which  ' 
then  prevailed  were,  from  their  characteristic  j 
peculiarities,  designated  as  the  Latin,  the  By-  ' 
zantine,  the  Lombard,  the  Saxon,  the  Norman, 
and  the  Romanesque,  together  known  as  the 
old  or  round-arched  Gothic.     During  the  4th 
century  architecture   had  reached  its  lowest 
point.     In  the  religious  edifices  of  this  period  , 
marked  evidences  exist  of  an  utter  want  of  I 
artistic  feeling.     The  sterling  principles  which 
had  been  the  glory  of  Grecian  and  Roman 
schools  were  either  forgotten   or  not  under-  I 
stood.      Arches  with  and  without  archivolts  : 
were  made   to  spring  immediately  from  the 
capitals  of  the  columns.     Orders  were  super-  i 
imposed  with  broken  entablature ;  in  fact,  this 
latter  member  was  altogether  done  away  with 
in   some  cases.     Grace    was    wanting  in   the  i 
mouldings  and  sculpture  ;  the  different  orders  I 
were  employed  in  the  same  peristyle,  and  the 
whole  school  of  architecture  became  a  prey 
to  the  general  system  of  innovation  which  then 
existed.     During  this  state  of  tilings  hordes  of  ! 
barbarians  invaded  every  province  of  the  em-  j 
pire.    This  universal  conflict  was  not  calculated 
to  give  a  new  impetus  to  art,  nor  to  promote 
its  progress.     Italy,  however,  under  the  Goth 
and  Ostrogoth  rule,  evinced  in  some  measure  j 
a  renewed  architectural  zeal.     Theodoric  re-  ! 
paired  the  walls  and  drains  of  Rome,  reorgan-  I 
ized  the  comitivce  Romance,  (who  guarded  day 
and  night  the   monumental  structures  of  the 
capital),  and  by  his  own  devotion  to  the  arts, 
together  with  that  of  his  daughter  Amalason-  j 
tha,   revivified  the  spirit  of  a  fast  perishing 
craft. — After  the  transfer  by  Constantine  of  ; 
the  imperial  seat  to  Constantinople,  the  arts  j 
were    again    successfully    cultivated    by    the  ! 
Greeks,  who  made  free  use  of  the  architectural  i 


treasures  left  by  the  ancients.  Then  appeared 
the  dome,  the  glory  of  the  Byzantine  school, 
supported  by  its  pendentives  highly  ornamented 
with  mosaic.  This  principal  feature  of  the  By 
zantine  school  induced  their  architects  to  aban 
don  the  Latin  cross  (which  form  had  gradually 
grown  out  of  that  of  the  Roman  basilica)  in  the 
plan  of  their  churches,  introducing  instead  the 
Grecian  cross,  whose  branches  are  of  equal 
length.  The  dome  no  longer  rested  on  circular 
walls,  but  was  borne  by  four  arches  resting  on 
pillars  placed  at  the  four  angles,  in  plan.  Pen 
dentives  were  introduced  in  order  to  sustain 
the  circular  dome,  as  otherwise  the  triangular 
space  in  the  four  corners  would  have  been  left 
without  support,  the  diameter  of  the  dome 
being  equal  to  one  of  the  sides  of  the  square. 
In  some  cases  the  corner  pillars  were  square, 
presenting  an  angle  only  at  the  corners,  thereby 
giving  an  extraordinary  degree  of  lightness  to 
the  structure.  The  semicircular  arch  of  the  Ro 
mans  was  often  elongated,  in  order  to  attain  an 
equal  height  with  different  spans.  The  dogmas 
of  the  iconoclasts  obliged  the  architects  to  seek 
some  other  means  than  sculpture  of  enriching 
their  temples ;  hence  the  profusion  of  mosaic 
work.  Their  ornaments  represented  foliage  in 
bass-relief  and  interlaced  lines.  The  capitals 
of  the  columns  were  square  blocks  similarly 
carved,  tapering  down  at  angles  to  join  the  cir 
cular  shaft.  Under  Narses  and  Belisarius  the 
dome  was  introduced  into  Italy.  The  Byzantine 
style,  whose  chief  promoters  were  Anthemius 
of  Tralles  and  Isidorus  of  Miletus,  also  became 
the  basis  of  the  new  Persian,  Russian,  and  Sara 
cen  schools.  We  find  its  peculiarities  existing 
during  the  middle  ages  in  Greece,  Italy,  Sicily, 
Spain,  Arabia,  and  India.  Among  the  chief 
edifices  of  the  Byzantine  school  are  St.  Mark's 
at  Venice,  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna,  and  St. 
Sophia  at  Constantinople,  the  last  being  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  of  the  eastern  em 
pire. —  The  Saracens  and  Moors  introduced 
into  Europe  certain  forms  of  architecture 
which,  though  differing  in  very  many  features 
from  the  classic  styles,  were  still  founded  on 
the  remains  of  the  Grecian  school,  blended 
with  the  oriental  elements  of  the  Byzantine. 
The  chief  peculiarity  of  these  styles  was  in  the 
form  given  to  the  arch.  The  Saracenic  arch 
was  of  greater  depth  than  width.  The  Moor 
ish  style  was  distinguished  by  arches  in  the 
shape  of  a  horseshoe  or  a  crescent.  The  Sara 
cens  and  Moors  are,  however,  so  completely 
one  people,  that  it  is  with  difficulty  that  the 
differences  of  their  essential  features  can  be 
discriminated.  Their  mural  ornamentations, 
styled  arabesque,  presented  more  varied  designs 
of  graceful  and  ingenious  combinations  of  geo 
metrical  and  floral  traceries  than  had  before 
been  known.  The  reproduction  of  animated 
forms  was  prohibited  by  the  Koran.  Another 
striking  feature  of  this  school  is  the  peculiar  way 
in  which  they  ornamented  their  pendentives, 
by  a  series  of  little  niches  placed  one  above 
another,  covering  not  only  the  surface  of  the  in- 


662 


ARCHITECTURE 


ner  projecting  angles,  but  forming  at  times  the 
super-entablature  of  the  edifice.  The  numer 
ous  mosques,  palaces,  bazaars,  tombs,  and  other 
edifices  of  the  Moslems,  existing  throughout 


Pillar  in  Church  of  at.  John.  Constantinople. 

Italy  after  the  middle  of  the  6th  century,  there 
founded  their  kingdom.  Converted  to  Catholi 
cism,  they  adopted  the  arts  of  the  people  they 
had  vanquished;  and,  as  in  Lombardy  there 
existed  but  few  ancient  temples  whose  mate 
rials  could  be  employed  in  other  structures, 


we  find  them  originating  a  complete  and  sys 
tematized  style,  which  at  length  pervaded  all 
districts  where  the  Latin  church  had  extended 
its  infiuence  ;  the  people  of  each  country  where 
it  was  introduced  modifying  it  to  suit  their  cli 
mate,  customs,  and  wants.  Its  branches  are 
variously  known  as  the  Merovingian,  Carlo- 
vingian,  Saxon,  Norman,  &c.,  which  together 
were  styled  old  Gothic,  and  out  of  which  grew 
the  pointed  style,  after  the  introduction  into 
Europe  of  the  pointed  arch.  During  this  epoch 
plain,  banded,  fluted,  and  polygonal  columns, 
in  spiral  or  zigzag,  were  clustered,  broken,  or 
knotted  together.  Their  capitals  were  foliated 
or  had  various  grotesque  animals  sculptured  on 
them ;  they  were  supported  on  brackets  vari 
ously  carved,  or  rested  upon  the  backs  of  ani 
mals,  which  replaced  the  pedestal.  Every 
license  was  taken  with  the  entablature,  even 
to  the  suppression  of  it  altogether.  Against  the 
jambs  of  arched  openings  were  often  placed  nu 
merous  columns  supporting  the  arched  mould- 


Interior  of  the  Golden  Gateway  at  Jerusalem.  ^ 


various  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  attest 
the  great  similarity  existing  between  this  style 
and  the  Byzantine ;  this  has  been  attributed  to 
the  employment  of  Greeks  on  their  works.  A 
fact  worthy  of  note,  also,  is  that  the  Moslem 
structures  furnish  examples  of  the  pointed 
arches,  whence  according  to  many  they  were 
brought  into  Europe. — The  Lombards,  having 
possessed  themselves  of  the  northern  part  of 


3jiid  >''J      l;'i    '.' 
North  Transept  Window,  Lincoln  Cathedral. 

ings.  Oftentimes  a  greater  arch  encompassed 
several  smaller  ones,  supported  by  pillars 
which  intersected  each  other  in  various  ways. 
Their  openings  were  quite  elongated  and  often 
coupled;  the  circular  window,  or  rose,  was 
also  very  frequent  in  their  frontispieces.  Semi 
circular,  elongated,  flat,  horseshoe,  and  foiled 
arches  are  to  be  found,  ornamented  and  simple, 
and  either  served  as  a  decoration,  crowned 
their  walls,  or  supported  horizontal  bands,  di 
viding  into  panels  their  walls,  which  were  like 
wise  panelled  off  by  long  pilasters  or  flat  but 
tresses.  The  angles  of  their  churches  (generally 
in  plan  in  the  form  of  the  cross)  were  often 
surmounted  by  a  sort  of  pinnacle.  Ribs  are 
also  found  in  their  vaulted  ceilings.  Towers 
first  accompanied  the  churches ;  later  they 
formed  a  part  of  the  same  edifice,  flanking 
or  decorating  the  middle  of  the  facade.  The 
earlier  examples  were  square ;  later  they  were 
round,  and  liter  still  of  a  polygonal  form.  The 


ARCHITECTURE 


roof,  assuming  a  more  and  more  pointed  shape, 
approached  the  form  of  the  spire,  as  it  was  in 
troduced  in  countries  where  the  climate  was 
more  severe.  The  monasteries  and  convents 
generally  contained  an  interior  court  surround 
ed  by  porticos,  about  which  were  placed  the 
cells  of  the  inmates.  The  lower  stories  of  the 
royal  palaces  and  town  halls  presented  a  simi 
lar  disposition.  External  porticos,  or  lodges, 
also  existed.  During  this  period  it  is  supposed 
that  the  construction  of  houses  in  stories  be 
came  general.  The  habitations  of  the  mass  of 
the  people  were  poor  and  irregularly  planted 
about  the  town  hall  in  the  cities,  or  clustered 


Celtic  Gothic  Cloister,  Kilconnel  Abbey,  Ireland. 

about  the  massive  feudal  castles.  These  edi 
fices  consisted  of  a  main  tower,  or  keep,  the 
walls  of  which  were  from  six  to  twelve  feet 
thick,  with  windows,  consisting  of  holes  one 
or  two  feet  wide,  placed  at  irregular  intervals. 
The  several  floors  were  constructed  on  arches; 
the  roof  was  flat,  or  had  battlements,  and  pos 
sessed  a  notched  parapet  for  the  purposes  of 
defence.  The  main  tower  was  surrounded  by 
a  courtyard  protected  by  a  high  wall,  and  the 
arched  entrance  was  strongly  secured  by  a 
falling  gate  or  portcullis.  Around  the  whole 
was  a  deep  ditch,  or  fosse,  which  could  be  filled 
with  water.  Many  of  the  castle  fortresses  were 
on  a  plan  of  great  magnitude,  consisting  of  two 
or  more  towers  and  divers  inner  buildings,  in 
cluding  chapels. — While  the  whole  of  Europe 
was  convulsed  with  the  international  and  social 
strife  and  invasions  of  barbarians  which  result 
ed  in  its  complete  reorganization,  the  study  of 
the  arts,  sciences,  and  literature  took  refuge 
in  the  monasteries.  The  influence  of  the  cler 
gy  declined,  however,  as  free  institutions  arose, 
and  the  pointed  Gothic  must  be  regarded  as 
the  work  rather  of  secular  than  of  clerical 
architects.  This  change  was  doubtless  made 
more  complete  by  the  increasing  importance 
of  the  fraternity  of  freemasons.  In  Italy  dur 
ing  the  10th  century  we  find  the  corporation 
of  magistri  comacini  exercising  great  influ- 


|  ence,  and  giving  to  Grecian  artists  shelter  from 
the  political  troubles  of  the  East,  and  from  the 
persecutions  of  the  iconoclasts.     These  artists 
promulgated  among  the  Lombards  the  Byzpn- 
:  tine  elements  of  design,  whose  influence,  as  we 
|  have  seen,  was  more  or  less  felt  throughout 
!  the  architectural   schools  of  Europe.     Under 
Envin  von  Steinbach  of  Germany,  during  the 
13th  century,  the  Hutten,  or  lodges,  were  or- 
|  ganized,  one  object  of  which  was  the  study  of 
;  architecture,  over  which  they  exercised  a  pow 
erful  influence.  In  Strasburg  existed  the  Haupt- 
:  Hatte,  or  main  lodge.     Under  Jost  Dotzinger 
I  of  Worms  (who  in  1444  succeeded  the  archi- 
:  tect  J.  Hult),  the  various  sects  of  the  German 
freemasons  were  incorporated  into  one  body, 
and,  in  virtue  of  an  act  passed  at  Ratisbon  the 
same  year,  the  architect  of  the  cathedral  of 
Strasburg  was  elected  the  sole  grand  master  of 
the  fraternity.     These  magistri  lapidum  were 
likewise  sole  directors  or  supervisors  of  all  the 
religious  structures.     Protected  by  the  church, 
architecture  in  their  hands  passed  from  the  old 
Gothic  through  various  phases  of  the  pointed 
style.     The  spirit  of  the  age  seems  embodied  in 
the  Gothic  cathedral,  the  work  of  minds  in 
spired  with  solemn  and  devotional  feelings.  The 
cathedrals  in  the  pointed  style  most  justly  de 
serve  admiration.    The  pointed  style  is  custom 
arily  divided  into  three  periods :  the  first,  or 
primary,  dating  from  the  latter  end  of  the  12th 
century ;  the  second,  or  decorated,  or  rayonnant, 
from  the  commencement  of  the  14th  century ; 
and  the  third,  or  perpendicular,  or  flamboyant, 
!  from  the  end  of  the  14th  to  the  16th  century. 
I  The  essential  element  of  this  style  is  the  point- 
j  ed  arch.  Were  it  not  for  this  feature,  it  would  be 
often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  earlier 
j  works  of  the  first  period  of  the  pointed  and  the 
;  later  works  of  the  old  Gothic.    It  is   during 
the  first  period  that  the  spire  surmounting  the 
I  tower  becomes  of  so  great  importance,  forming 
j  one  of  the  striking  characteristics  of  this  style. 
|  In  the  finer  examples  it  is  octagonal  and  very 
pointed,    either    plain    or    ribbed,    sometimes 
j  pierced,  sometimes  crocketed,  and  invariably 
bearing  a  finial.      Buttresses   and  flying  but 
tresses  also  form  a  striking  feature ;  these  latter 
being  somewhat  massive  and  heavy  at  first,  but 
gradually  becoming  more  and  more  elegant  as 
:  they  approached  the  second  period.     The  set- 
\  offs  are  formed  by  inclined  slabs,  or  by  a  ped 
iment  with  finial,  the  face  of  the  buttresses 
being   ornamented  at  times  with    panels   and 
niches ;  in  some  cases  also  the  space  between 
\  the  arches  of  the  flying  buttresses  is  occupied 
|  by  radiating  columns.     The  parapet  is  uninter- 
1  nip  ted,  and  is  either  decorated  or  plain.    Tur 
rets  were  either  square  or  octagonal,  their  pin- 
!  nacles  being  mostly  of  the  latter  form,  either 
'  crocketed  or  not.     The  rose  windows  of  this 
i  period  are  quite  simple :  small  columns  radiating 
I  from  the  centre  receiving  foiled  arches  tangent 
|  to  the  circumference.     The  lancet  arch  pre- 
:  dominates.     The  windows  are  very  long  and 
I  narrow,  and  are  either  simple  or  coupled,  in 


664 


ARCHITECTURE 


which  latter  case  a  slender  column  forms,  as  it 
were,  the  mullion.  The  ribs  of  the  groined 
ceilings  are  decorated  with  bosses  at  their  in 
tersections,  and  rest  either  upon  corbels,  or 


Flying  Buttress,  Chapter  House,  Lincoln. 

upon  the  shafts  of  slender  columns  which  de 
scend  to  the  pavement.  The  piers  are  either 
simple  in  plan,  or  present  several  shafts  clus 
tered  around  a  core  of  a  circular,  elliptical,  or 
cruciform  shape.  The  sculpture,  wherein  the 
national  flora  is  introduced,  supersedes  alto 
gether  the  ornamentation  previously  employed ; 
rosaces,  trefoils,  quatrefoils,  and  panelling  are 
introduced  to  ornament  their  works  in  various 
ways.  During  the  second  period  the  style 
reached  its  noblest  development.  A  greater 
elegance  and  richness  pervade  this  period, 
whose  characteristic  features  are  thereby  dis 
tinguished  from  those  of  the  previous  one. 
The  flying  buttresses  are  extremely  graceful, 
those  at  quoins  being  placed  diagonally.  The 
parapets  are  pierced  or  embattled,  as  are  also 
the  pediments.  The  windows  gradually  assume 
a  less  pointed  form,  the  head  of  the  arch  being 
in  general  equilateral.  Replacing  the  small 
columns  in  the  windows  are  moulded  mullions, 
which  form  graceful  flowing  traceries  in  the 
head  of  the  arch.  The  drip-stone  is  often  sur 
mounted  by  a  canopy  or  pediment  resting 
on  ^  masks,  and  enriched  with  crockets  and 
a  finial.  The  clustered  columns  composing 
the  columnar  piers  are  more  elaborate,  and 
generally  placed  diagonally.  Their  bases  be 
come  more  important,  and  are  placed  upon 
octagonal  plinths  clustered  together.  The  ribs, 
bosses,  and  carved  ornaments  throughout  have 
more  relief  and  are  more  elegant.  The  third 
period  is  remarkable  for  its  profuse  ornamenta 
tion.  The  panelled  walls,  with  their  niches, 
tabernacles,  canopies,  and  screens,  highly  deco 
rated,  the  flying  buttresses  enriched  with  pin 
nacles  and  tracery,  the  corbelled  battlements 
and  turrets,  and  the  balustrades  intricately 
carved  and  pierced,  are  characteristic  of  this 


|  epoch.     The  arch  presents  many  varieties  of 
form.     Together  with   those   common   in   the 
preceding  periods,  others  exist  very  depressed, 
being  in  many  cases  almost  flat.     The  ogee,  or 
contrasted  form,  also  appears  in  the  openings 
and  pediments.    The  doors  are  generally  square- 
headed,  the  spandril  above  being  enriched  with 
traceries.     The  rose  windows  during  the  15th 
century  are   most  intricate  in  tracery.     The 
ground  vaults  also  are  very  elaborate,  while 
their  bosses  and  pendents  are  unequalled  for 
their  wonderful  carvings.     The  mouldings  of 
the  archivolts,  more  prismatic  in  their  forms 
than  in  the   previous   periods,  continue  down 
uninterruptedly  to  the  foot  of  the  openings, 
thus  doing  away  with  the  columns  heretofore 
employed.     The  appellations  of  perpendicular 
and  flamboyant,  by  which  this  period  is  also 
known,  arose  from  its  peculiar  modes  of  tra 
cery.      YI.    THE    RENAISSANCE   OR  REVIVAL. 
With  the  reformation  came  the  gradual  aban 
donment  of  the  pointed  styles,  accompanied  as 
it  was  by  the  check  of  freemasonry  occasioned 
by  the  withdrawal  of  the  patronage   of   the 
pope.     The  consequent  architectural  reaction 
sprang  less  from   admiration  and  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  classic  styles  than  from  ne 
cessity.     The  return,  however,  to  the  rules  of 
the  ancient  schools  of  design  was  progressive, 
save  in  Italy,  where  they  had  constantly  exer 
cised  a  powerful  influence   over  the   artistic 
|  spirit,  the  architecture  of  the  country  having 
!  retained  through  the  middle  ages  the  charac- 
I  teristics  of  the  classic  schools.     We  find  here, 
I  however,  several  beautiful  edifices,  termed  by 
j  the  Italians  in  maniera  Tedesca,  which,  not 
withstanding  a  contradictory  statement  made 
|  by  Muratori  and  Maifei,  were  the  work  of  Ger- 
!  man  artists.     During  the  14th  century,  or  the 
|  trecento  period,  we  discover  in  Italy,   in   the 
secular  structures  more  especially,  numerous 
I  examples   exhibiting  a   return   to   the   classic 
I  styles,  which  possess  simplicity  and  boldness. 
I  At  length,  in  the  16th  century,  the  classic  taste 
|  prevailed   throughout  Europe,  and  hence  the 
',  different  names,  cinque  cento,  renaissance,  re- 
I  vival,  given  to   that   style  which   supplanted 
i  everywhere  the  so-called  Gothic  architecture. 
Brunelleschi  of  Florence,  who  died  in  1444,  was 
among  the  first  to  encourage  and  disseminate 
this  taste  for  a  return  to  the  classic  architec 
ture.      He   had   numerous    distinguished    fol 
lowers,  among  whom  were  Alberti,  Bramante, 
!  Peruzzi,  Sangallo,  San  Micheli,  Palladio,  Sca- 
mozzi,  and  many  others,  who  obtained  a  well 
I  deserved    reputation.      In    their    productions 
the   different    elements   of    the    classic   style 
are  happily   introduced.     The   application  of 
these  elements  to  ecclesiastical,  and  more  es- 
i  pecially  to  secular  structures,  accounts  for  the 
|  liberties  taken  with   them,   among  which  we 
|  will  cite  the  following :  the  great  variety  given 
\  to  the  intercolumniation  of  columns  ;  the  su 
perposition  of  different  orders,  with  and  with- 
|  out  broken  entablatures ;    the  frequent  use  of 
!  engaged   columns   and  pilasters ;    the  various 


ARCHITECTURE 


665 


forms  given  to  the  pediments ;  the  substitution 
of  columns  for  piers  supporting  arcades;  the 
decoration  of  blank  walls  with  medallions,  fo 
liage,  and  scrolls  of  various  sorts,  together  with 


Decorated  Arch  ^Gothic),  Dorchester,  Oxfordshirs, 


designs  of  animals  arranged  in  imitation  of  an 
cient  arabesques.  These  and  many  other  so- 
called  liberties  originated  a  style  peculiarly 
well  adapted  to  the  wants  of  modern  civiliza 
tion.  Michel  Angelo  made  several  innovations 
in  architecture,  as  well  as  in  the  other  arts. 
He  abolished  many  capricious  ornaments ;  and 
instead  of  superimposing  several  orders,  distin 
guishing  as  many  stories,  he  employed  one, 
comprising  the  whole  height  of  the  edifice. 
To  him  we  are  indebted  for  certain  bold  ele 
ments  of  design,  although  generally  wanting  in 
grace  and  purity.  To  his  followers,  Bernini, 
Boromini,  Fontana,  and  others,  is  to  be  attrib 
uted  in  a  great  measure  the  decadence  which 
followed  the  architecture  of  the  16th  century. 
From  Italy  the  renaissance  was  introduced 
into  France.  Among  those  who  distinguished 
themselves  in  this  kingdom  were  Pierre  Lescot, 
Philibert  de  Lorme,  and  Jean  Bullant.  Later 
appeared  De  Brosse,  Androuet  du  Cerceau, 
and  finally  Perrault,  under  Louis  XIV.  Eng 
land  boasts  Inigo  Jones,  her  Palladio,  followed 
by  Christopher  Wren,  Sir  Robert  Taylor,  Sir 
William  Chambers,  and  many  others  of  merit 
and  distinction.  VII.  MODERN  ARCHITECTURE. 
The  admirable  architectural  forms  brought  in 


by  these  men  continue  in  use  in  all  civilized 
countries  to  this  day,  and  have  been  carried 
wherever  European  civilization  has  extended. 
Their  reign  has  not,  however,  been  undisputed. 
The  spirit  of  scientific  inquiry  which  has  char 
acterized  the  last  hundred  years  has  not  only 
enlarged  our  knowledge  of  architectural  forms, 

|  but  has  promoted  a  more  exhaustive  study  of 

:  the  principles  of   the    art.     New   movements 

1  have  accordingly  arisen,  avowedly  actuated 
by  these  researches,  directed  either  to  improv 
ing  the  so-called  classical  style,  or  to  supplant 
ing  it  altogether.  These  two  movements  are 
known  as  the  Greek  and  the  Gothic  revival. 
Both  took  their  origin  in  England.  The  Greek 
revival  dates  from  1762,  when  Messrs.  Stuart 
and  Revett  published  the  results  of  their  re 
searches  among  the  antiquities  of  Attica.  The 
Gothic  revival  may  be  said  to  date  from  Hor 
ace  Walpole's  works  at  Strawberry  Hill  about 
100  years  ago,  but  its  modern  development  did 
not  begin  till  about  1820.  In  England  and  the 
United  States  the  Greek  revival  was  merely  a 
reproduction  of  the  Greek  buildings  or  parts 
of  buildings,  which,  however  beautiful  in  their 
original  position,  proved  in  the  more  gloomy 
climate  of  the  north,  and  when  executed  in 
coarser  materials,  uninteresting  and  unattrac 
tive.  The  Greek  originals,  moreover,  were 

'  almost  exclusively  temples,  without  windows, 
and  surrounded  by  columns,  a  model  utterly 
unsuited  to  modern  uses.  The  attempted 
adoption  of  Greek  details  proved  equally  un 
satisfactory.  The  movement  made  consider 
able  mark  in  England,  the  British  museum  be 
ing  perhaps  its  chief  example.  In  this  country 
the  Greek  style  was  adopted  for  the  public 

i  buildings  at  Washington  and  for  post  offices, 
custom  houses,  hotels,  and  banks,  in  marble 

i  or  granite,   in  all  our  principal    cities.      This 

;  fashion,  for  government  buildings  at  least,  has 

I  not  yet  passed  away!  Imitations  of  these  works 
in  wood  were  very  common  in  the  first  half  of 
this  century,  as  may  everywhere  be  witnessed 

;  in  country  towns ;  and  a  certain  style  of  church 
with  Greek  details  and  a  tower  imitated  from 

;  the   choragic    monument    or    the    temple  of 

;  the  Winds  is  still  common.  In  joinery,  the 
Greek  forms  of  mouldings  both  here  and  in 
England  have  become  almost  universal.  In 

!  other  countries  the  excitement  caused  by  the 
discovery  of  Gre'ek  art  was  less  superficial, 
and  proved  a  more  efficient  inspiration.  In 

I  Scotland,  where  the  architecture  has  always 
exhibited  much  independence  and  local  charac- 

;  ter,  the  "Greek"  style,  in  the  hands  of  Mr. 
Hamilton  and  the  Adams  brothers,  shows  great 

I  freedom  of  treatment  and  refinement  of  taste. 
More  recently,  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Thomson, 

;  at  Glasgow,  it  has  developed,  with  great  ele- 

|  gance  and  beauty,  forms  perfectly  adapted  to 
modern  uses.  A  similar  effort  was  made  in 

.  Germany,  chiefly  in  Berlin  and  Munich,  to  rec 
oncile  the  methods  of  the  Greeks  with  mod- 

\  ern  needs ;  and  in  spite  of  a  general  effect  of 
bareness  and  hardness,  it  is  impossible  to  deny 


006 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHON 


to  the  best  works  of  Schinkel  and  Klenze  a 
good  measure  of  admiration.  It  was  only  in 
France,  however,  in  an  atmosphere  at  once 
thoroughly  artistic  and  highly  intellectual,  that 
the  Greek  revival  showed  enough  vigor  to 
throw  aside  the  methods  of  the  ancients  and  to 
create  new  forms.  The  pedantic  fashions  of  : 
the  first  empire,  which  however  hardly  ex 
tended  their  influence  in  architecture  heyond  : 
the  schools,  gave  place  in  the  reign  of  Louis  I 
Philippe  to  a  new  style,  which  has  been  called  ! 
the  neo-grecque,  or,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
Romanesque,  founded  upon  Roman  methods, 
the  romantique,  though  it  has  little  in  com-  • 
rnon  with  the  contemporary  romantic  school 
in  literature.  The  column  of  July,  parts  of  ; 
the  Palais  de  Justice,  the  Bibliotheque  Ste.  ] 
Genevieve,  and  the  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts,  by 
MM.  Due,  Labrouste,  and  Duban,  are  the  typ 
ical  monuments  of  this  style.  Their  erection 
marks  a  new  era  in  architecture.  Hardly  a 
building  of  note  has  since  been  erected  in 
France  which  has  not  been  more  or  less  affect 
ed  by  their  example,  and  it  has  sensibly  modi 
fied  the  related  forms  in  use  in  Germany.  The 
influence  of  this  style  is  also  extending  in  the 
United  States,  mainly  through  the  agency  of 
the  ecolc  dcs  beaux  arts  of  Paris,  whose 
pupils  or  pupils'  pupils  are  rapidly  multiply 
ing  here.  Meanwhile  in  England,  the  Greek 
movement  having  failed,  surviving  only  long 
enough  to  kill  the  Roman  classical  style,  the 
field  was  left  open  for  the  revival  of  the 
medieval  architecture,  which,  fostered  by  ec 
clesiastical  patronage  and  by  archaeological 
studies,  has  during  the  last  50  years  gradually 
engrossed  nearly  all  the  talent  of  the  country. 
Beginning,  as  the  Greek  revival  began,  with  a 
period  of  pedantry  and  purism,  under  the  guid 
ance  of  the  elder  and  younger  Pugin,  and  used 
at  first  chiefly  for  ecclesiastical  buildings,  the 
ascendancy  of  the  Gothic  style  was  finally 
established  when  in  1840  it  was  decided  to 
adopt  it  for  the  new  houses  of  parliament.  This 
great  undertaking  educated  a  large  body  of 
workmen  in  all  the  decorative  arts  of  the  mid 
dle  ages,  and  gave  an  immense  impulse  to  the 
Gothic  movement.  Subsequent  works  show 
not  only  greater  knowledge  and  skill,  but 
more  freedom  of  mind,  both  in  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  work.  The  works  of  Scott, 
Waterhouse,  Street,  Burges,  and  Butterfield 
exhibit  this  gradually  increasing  tendency.  It 
may  fairly  be  said  that  in  the  hands  of  these 
architects  the  "Victorian  Gothic,"  as  it  has 
been  called,  differs  as  much  from  the  various 
Gothic  styles  of  the  middle  ages  as  they  differ 
from  each  other.  A  similar  movement  has 
meanwhile  been  going  on  in  France  and  Ger 
many,  but  less  successfully.  In  Germany,  after 
long  and  not  altogether  happy  efforts  to  re 
vive  round-arched  or  Lombardic  styles,  the 
proper  pointed  Gothic  has  been  taken  up,  stim 
ulated  by  the  great  works  for  the  completion 
of  the  Cologne  cathedral.  The  Votive  church 
at  Vienna  is  perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  ex 


ample  of  this  movement.     In   France  a  taste 
for   medieval   work   has  found  its  chief  field 
in  the  restoration,  often  amounting  to  recon 
struction    and    completion,  of  cathedrals   and 
other  monuments ;  a  work  which,  in  the  hands 
among  others  of  MM.  Lassus  and  Viollet-Le- 
duc,   has   been    performed    with    consummate 
knowledge  and  skill.     The  new  buildings  in  the 
pointed  style  seem,  however,  timid  and  ineffec 
tive,  and  it  is  in  the  Romanesque  or  round- 
arched  Gothic  that  the  French  seem  most  at 
home.     Its  influence  is  seen  not  only  in  works 
avowedly   medieval,    but   much    of    the   new 
Greek  work  so  called,  especially  that  in  which 
the  arch  is  used,  recalls  these  models.     The 
adherents  of  the  Gothic  revival  in  this  coun 
try  are  as  numerous  and  devoted  as  those  of 
the  Greek   revival.      But   there  is  less  parti- 
!  sanship  here,  perhaps,  than  abroad,  and  it  is 
more  common  for  architects  to  practise  in  both 
j  ways  at  once. — See  Fergusson's  "  History  of 
Architecture,"  Durand's  Parallele,  Napoleon's 
j  Egyjite,  Stuart  and  Revett's   "Attica,"  Leta- 
!  rouilly's    "Rome,"   Viollet-le-Duc's   Diction- 
I  naire,  Eastlake's  "Gothic  Revival,"  and  tie 
i  works  of  Piranesi,  Gailhabaud,  Penrose,  Pu- 
!  gin,  Ruskin,  Daly,  &c.  ;  also  "  The  Builder," 
1  Remie  generale  cl*  architecture,  &c. 

ARCHON  (Gr.  apx^v,  ruler),  a  chief  magistrate 
j  of  ancient  Athens,  first  chosen  instead  of  a  king 
!  after  the  death  of  Codrus,  about  1008  B.  C. 
Medon,  the  son  of  Codrus,  was  the  first  archon, 
and  the  office  was  hereditary  in  his  family  till 
714  B.  C.,  when  it  was  thrown  open  to  all  the 
eupatrid.-e    or    patricians.      Previous    to    752 
B.  C.  the  archon  held  his  office  during  life;  at 
that  time  his  term  was  limited  to  ten  years,  and 
in  683  to  one;    and  at  this  latter  epoch  the 
|  office  was  divided  among  nine  persons.     Sev- 
j  eral  years  afterward  the  archonship  was  made 
:  accessible  to  the  citizens  generally,  who  were 
I  subject,  however,  to    some  restrictions  as  to 
i  qualification.  »The  power  of  the  archons  be- 
j  came  limited  by  degrees,  and  at  last  they  had 
:  very  little  influence  in  the  management  of  the 
I  government.     One  of  the  nine  was  called  the 
|  archon,  as  being  the  chief  of  the  whole  body, 
I  and  his  duty  was  to  superintend  the  greater 
|  Dionysiac   festivals  in  honor  of  Bacchus,  and 
i  the  Thargelia  in  honor  of  Apollo  and  Diana,. 
!  and  to  exercise  a  general  care  over  orphans, 
!  and  jurisdiction  in  matters  relating  to  the  law 
I  of    inheritance.       He    was    sometimes    styled 
I  eponymus  (e~uvv/uo£,  one  from  whom  something 
is  named),  because  he  gave  the  designation  to 
;  the  year,  as  did  the  consuls  at  Rome.      The 
|  second  archon  was  entitled  king  (jSacifavc'),  as 
he  occupied  the  place  of  the  ancient  kings  with 
regard  to  all   public  religious  worship.      The 
third  archon  was  called  polernarch  (Tro/^ap^of, 
i  commander-in-chief),    and  originally  had   su 
preme  control  over  the  army;    at  the  battle 
of  Marathon  we  find  him  in  command  of  the 
j  right  wing.     But  it  was  at  length  found  in- 
|  expedient  to   intrust   this   important  function 
,  to  a  person  chosen  by  lot;   and  after  the  bat- 


AKCIIYTAS   OF   TARENTUM 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


GGT 


tie  of  Marathon  (490)  the  puleinurch  ceased  to 
exercise  such  authority,  his  duties  being  in 
aftertimes  confined  to  attending  to  the  affairs 
of  the  alien  residents  of  Athens,  to  the  man 
agement  of  the  funeral  games  in  honor  of  Athe 
nians  who  had  fallen  in  battle  for  their  country, 
and  the  superintendence  of  other  similar  rites. 
Each  of  these  three  archons  was  allowed  two 
assistants,  whose  appointment  had  to  be  sanc 
tioned  by  the  senate.  The  rest  of  the  archons 
were  styled  thesmothetse  (decfioderai,  lawgivers), 
though  this  name  was  also  sometimes  applied  to 
the  whole  body.  At  the  expiration  of  their 
year  of  office,  the  archons  were  obliged  to 
submit  to  an  examination  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  they  had  performed  their  duties,  and,  if 
such  examination  proved  satisfactory,  were  ad 
mitted  members  of  the  court  of  the  Areopagus. 

AKCIIYTAS  OF  TARENTUM,  an  Italian  Greek 
philosopher,  mathematician,  general,  and  states 
man,  in  the  early  part  of  the  4th  century  B.  C. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  seven  times  general  of 
the  Tarentine  forces,  and  to  have  always  been 
victorious.  He  evinced  no  less  capacity  in  po 
litical  atfairs.  He  was  very  intimate  with  Plato, 
was  the  first  who  applied  mathematical  prin 
ciples  to  practical  mechanics,  and  constructed 
various  machines  and  automatons.  He  was 
accidentally  drowned  while  crossing  the  Adri 
atic.  A  collection  of  the  works  ascribed  to 
Archytas  will  be  found  in  Orelli's  Opusculci 
Grcecorum. 

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE,  a  town  of  France,  in  Cham 
pagne,  department  of  Aube,  16  m.  X.  by  E.  of 
Troves ;  pop.  in  1866,  2,820.  It  contains  cotton 
and  spinning  manufactories  and  manufacto 
ries  of  cotton  hosiery,  and  is  an  entrepot  for 
iron  and  for  the  wooden  wares  made  in  the 
Vosges.  Near  this  town,  March  20  and  21, 
1814,  Napoleon  fought  the  allied  army  under 
Schwartzenberg,  before  whose  overwhelming 
numbers  he  was  compelled  to  retreat  on  the  sec 
ond  day,  though  rather  successful  on  the  first. 

ARCOLE,  a  village  of  Venetia.  on  the  Alpone, 
a  small  affluent  of  the  Adige,  15  m.  E.  S.  E.  of 
Verona;  pop.  about  1,600.  It  is  famous  for 
the  victory  gained  there  by  Napoleon  in  his 
first  Italian  campaign,  over  the  Austrians, 
Nov.  15-17, 1796. 

ARCOS  DE  LA  FRONTERA  (anc.  Arcolriga),  a 
town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  and  29  m.  N. 
E.  of  Cadiz,  situated  on  the  Guadalete;  pop. 
11,500.  The  town  is  in  a  very  strong  position, 
and  portions  of  its  ancient  walls  and  towers 
remain. 

ARCOT.  I.  A  district  of  the  Carnatic,  in  the 
presidency  of  Madras,  British  India,  divided 
into  two  collectorates,  North  and  South  Arcot, 
and  lying  between  lat.  11°  and  14°  N.  and  Ion. 
78°  and  80°  E.  ;  area,  12,459  sq.  m.,  of  which 
North  Arcot  contains  7,526,  and  South  Arcot 
4,933;  pop.  2,638,174.  The  surface  is  low  in  the 
eastern  part,  but  rises  into  hills  in  the  western. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Palaur,  the  Punnair, 
and  the  Coleroon.  The  climate  is  exceedingly 
hot  and  dry,  and  in  the  summer  the  beds  of 


!  many  of  the  streams  are  bare.     This  has  led  to 
|  the  construction  of  huge  tanks  or  artificial  lakes, 
I  of  which  there  are  many  in  North  Arcot;   one 
I  at  Caverypank   is  8  m.  long  and  3  m.  wide. 
The  soil  when  well   irrigated    produces   good 
crops,  principally  of  grain  and  cotton.     Arcot 
i  was  ceded  to  the  British  in  1801,  on  condition 
!  that  they  should  pay  the  claims  of  the  creditors 
of  its  former  ruler,  Azim  ul-Omrah,  nabob  of 
the  Carnatic.     The  committee  appointed  to  in- 
;  vestigate  these  claims   found    them  immense, 
;  and  a  large  sum  from  the  annual  revenue  of  the. 
district  was  set  apart  for  their  payment.     The 
'  finances  of  Arcot,   especially  under  the  mal 
administration  of  Hastings  in  India,  while  the 
province  was  partially  conquered,  but  before 
its  cession,  had  long  before  formed  a  subject  of 
discussion  in  the  English  parliament,  and  con 
cerning  them  Edmund  Burke  made  one  of  his 
most  famous  speeches,  Feb.  28,  1785.     II.  The 
principal  town  and  capital  of  the  preceding  dis 
trict,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Palaur,  65  m.  W.  by 
S.  of  Madras;   pop.  about  60,000.     It  is  sur 
rounded  by  a  wall ;  and  the  town  itself  is  of 
I  comparatively  modern  construction,  though  a 
fortress,  now  partially  destroyed,  has  existed 
for  centuries.     In  1751  Clive  withstood  here  a 
remarkable  siege  of  50  days. 

ARCTIC  DISCOVERY.  Until  within  a  recent 
!  period  it  was  believed  that  Columbus  and 
j  Cabot  were  the  actual  first  discoverers  of  the 
I  American  continent.  Careful  researches  on  the 
:  part  of  northern  antiquaries,  however,  would 
•  seern  to  prove  that  portions  of  the  American 
;  coast — some  maintain  as  far  south  as  what  is, 
|  now  Long  Island — were  known  to  the  seamen 
|  or  sea  kings  of  Norway  as  early  as  the  9th  and 
\  10th  centuries.  Newfoundland  and  Greenland 
|  were  the  regions  best  known  to  these  rovers. 
j  In  1000  a  Norwegian,  with  a  crew  of  Ice- 
i  landers,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts, 
I  which  he  named  Vinland.  This  party  erected 
monuments  on  an  island  in  Baffin  bay,  where 
I  they  were  discovered  in  1824.  They  estab- 
I  lished  colonies  on  the  Greenland  coast,  which 
!  flourished  for  some  years,  making  great  gains 
I  by  the  fisheries,  which  they  pursued  as  far  as 
i  Lancaster  sound,  and  even  to  Barrow  strait. 
I  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen  were  for  several 
!  centuries  prosperous  colonies.  Iceland,  then  at 
!  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  found  here  a  fair 
i  field  for  the  enterprise  of  its  inhabitants,  who 
|  not  only  followed  commerce  and  the  fisheries, 
but  propagated  their  faith  in  the  new  land,  and 
i  built  up  numerous  churches  and  convents, 
whose  ruins  are  still  found  along  the  Greenland 
|  coasts.  The  Icelanders  and  Northmen,  then, 
i  were  the  first  arctic  explorers.  As  the  Green 
land  and  Spitzbergen  colonies  perished,  and  the 
|  most  important  Icelandic  expedition  was  lost 
!  and  never  heard  from,  while  Iceland  itself 
I  and  the  countries  of  the  north  were  distracted 
|  by  internal  troubles,  no  trace  of  the  dis- 
|  coveries  made  by  these  people  was  communi- 
j  cated  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  In  1380  two  Ve- 
!  netian  navigators,  Zeni  by  name,  voyaged  to> 


668 


ARCTIC  DISCOVERY 


90"      J.rmiriturtpWpst  8;0°  r  from  Greenwich.  7,0 


the  north,  and  brought  back  tidings  of  what 
they  had  seen.      Their   discoveries,  however, 
resulted  in  nothing  important.      In  1497  the  \ 
Cabots,  John  and  Sebastian,  landed  in  Labra-  i 
dor,  and  afterward  projected  a  voyage  toward  | 
the  north  pole.     They  penetrated  as  far  as  67° 
30'  N.,  that  is  to  say,  about  half  way  up  Davis  ; 


strait.  They  hoped  to  sail  westward  around 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  American  con 
tinent,  and  thus  reach  the  much  desired  Cathay. 
These,  then,  were  the  first  seekers  for  the  north 
west  passage.  The  next  explorers  were  the 
brothers  Cortereal,  who  made  in  all  three 
voyages,  extending  as  far  as  60°  N.,  but  result- 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


660 


ing  in  nothing  but  disaster  to  the  adventurers 
and  loss  of  life.  This  was  in  1500-1502.  In 
1553  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  was  sent  out  by  the 
Muscovy  company  to  find  a  northeast  passage 
to  Cathay  and  India.  He  penetrated  to  Xova 
Zembla,  but  was  driven  back  by  the  ice  as  far 
as  the  mouth  of  the  Arzina  in  Lapland,  where 
he  and  his  crew  perished.  In  1576-'8  Martin 
Frobisher  made  three  voyages  to  the  north 
west.  He  discovered  the  entrance  to  Hudson 
and  Frobisher  straits  leading  into  Hudson  bay. 
These  were  the  first  voyages  on  which  we  hear 
of  scientific  investigations  being  made.  In 
1578  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  a  relative  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  received  authority  to  make  a 
voyage  of  discovery  on  the  American  conti 
nent  ;  but  this,  too,  was  practically  without 
result.  Next  followed  (1585-'7)  Davis,  who 
made  more  important  accessions  to  a  knowl 
edge  of  the  polar  sea  than  any  of  his  predeces 
sors.  He  first  fairly  discovered  the  strait  which 
bears  his  name,  and  surveyed  portions  of  the 
coast  of  Greenland.  These  and  other  naviga 
tors,  Danes,  French,  and  Dutch,  were  stimulat 
ed  to  energetic  efforts  for  finding  a  northern 
passage  to  India,  in  great  part  because  Spain, 
then  in  her  glory  and  power,  monopolized  the 
trafiic  across  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans, 
and  dealt  summarily  with  all  intruders. — The 
Dutch  persevered  in  their  search  for  a  north 
east  passage.  William  Barentz  made  three 
voyages  in  this  direction,  1594-'6.  He  and  his 
crew  suffered  much,  and,  so  far  as  the  prime 
object  of  their  expedition  was  concerned,  ac 
complished  nothing  material.  Barentz  him 
self  perished  on  the  third  voyage,  when  his 
crew  were  in  boats  near  the  Icy  cape,  a  head 
land  of  Alaska,  in  the  Arctic  ocean.  Henry 
Hudson  set  out  in  1607,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Muscovy  company,  with  orders  to  steer 
directly  toward  the  north  pole.  He  advanced 
beyond  lat.  80°,  steering  due  north  between 
Greenland  and  Spitzbergen,  and  returned  con 
vinced  that  a  passage  in  that  direction  was  im 
possible.  The  following  year  (1608)  he  tried  to 
discover  a  northeast  passage  to  India,  between 
Nova  Zembla  and  Spitzbergen.  He  pushed 
forward  as  far  as  lat.  75°,  and  returned  the 
same  year.  The  next  year  he  tried  again,  but, 
finding  his  way  impeded  by  ice,  returned  and 
sailed  westward,  and,  searching  along  the 
American  coast  for  a  passageway,  discovered 
the  bay  of  New  York  and  the  river  which  bears 
his  name.  In  1610  Hudson  set  sail  upon  a 
fourth  expedition.  He  sailed  up  the  strait 
named  after  him  into  the  mouth  of  Hudson 
bay,  penetrating  several  hundred  miles  further 
to  the  west  than  any  one  had  ever  gone  before. 
The  expedition  wintered  on  one  of  the  islands 
in  the  mouth  of  the  bay.  Their  progress  in  the 
spring  was  beset  with  storms,  the  provisions 
gave  out,  the  crew  mutinied,  and  finally  a  por 
tion  of  the  mutineers  returned  to  England  with 
out  Hudson,  whom  they  set  adrift  to  perish. — 
It  was  now  supposed  that  Hudson  bay  was  a 
great  outlet  into  the  Pacific  waters,  and  san- 


|  guine  expectations  were  entertained  that  here 
I  would  be  found  the  desired  northwest  passage. 
j  Within  the  next  five  years  several  expeditions. 
i  were  made  into  Hudson  bay ;  and  two  impor- 
:  tant  channels,  Fox  channel  and  Sir  Thomas- 
•  Rowe's  Welcome,  were  partially  explored.     In 
|  1616  Baffin  explored  the  bay  called  after  him, 
j  even  entering  the  mouth  of  Lancaster  sound. 
|  Baffin's  survey  was  very  exact,  and  for  upward 
of  50  years  after  his  explorations  no  navigator 
penetrated  beyond  him.      Meantime,  however,, 
the  Russians  were  seeking,  by  overland  expedi 
tions  through  Siberia,  and  by  vessels  through 
Behring  strait,  to  establish  the  practicability 
i  of  a  passage  to  the  northeast.     On  one  of  these 
j  expeditions  the  extreme  variation  of  the  mag- 
i  netic  needle  was  first  closely  remarked.      In 
|  1741  Behring  set  sail  with  an  expedition  from 
the  harbor  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  (Petropav- 
lovsk)  in  Kamtchatka.     After  various  buffet- 
ings  before  severe  gales,  having  twice  made 
the  American  coast  and  been  driven  off  to  sea, 
Behring  died ;  the  vessels  were  wrecked ;  the 
crews  wintered  on  an  island  known  as  Behring 
island,  built  a  small  vessel  the  following  spring, 
and  finally  reached  Kamtchatka  Aug.  25,  1742. 
!  Only  a  bare  mention  can  be  made  of  the  ex- 
i  peditions  of  Shalaroff  (1760),  who  perished  of 
i  starvation  with  all  his  crew;    of  Andreyeff; 
I  and  of  Capt.  Billings,  who  started  from  the 
|  mouth  of  the  Kolyma  in  Siberia.      None  of 
I  these   resulted   in  important   additions  to  the 
I  stock  of  geographical  knowledge;  and  so  we 
come  to  the  last  of  the  Russian  efforts — the 
sledge  expeditions  of  Von  Wrangell  and  Anjou, 
i  in  1820-'23.      These  explorers  penetrated  to 
I  lat.  70°  51'  N.,  Ion.  157°  25'  W.,  and  reported 
|  an  open  sea  in  the  distant  north,  which  pre- 
I  eluded  further  operations  with  sledges.      The 
\  natives   whom    they    met    at   various    points 
|  spoke  of  land  still  further  north,  but  they  did 
not  see  it. — Hudson  bay  was  yet  considered  a 
I  great  outlet  toward  the  northwest,  and  in  1743 
|  the   British   parliament   offered   a  reward   of 
£20,000  to  the  crew  who  should  accomplish  a 
northwest  passage  through  it.     Between  1769 
and  1772  Samuel  Hearne  made  three  overland 
journeys  north  toward  the  polar  sea.     In  the 
third  he  discovered  and  traced  to  its  mouth 
the  Coppermine  river.     From  this  time  forth 
|  the  arctic  explorations  were  no  longer  merely 
I  for  purposes  of  advantaging  commerce,  but  in 
!  great  part  for  scientific  objects.     In  1773  Capt. 
i  Phipps  (Lord  Mulgrave)  was  sent  out  with  in- 
!  structions  to  reach   the  north  pole.      Sailing 
j  along  the  shores  of  Spitzbergen,  he  reached  lat. 
!  80°  48' — about  as  far  north  as  Hudson  had  gone. 
I  In  1776  Capt.  Cook  sailed  on  his  last  expedition, 
with  instructions  to  attempt  the  polar  sea  by 
!  way  of  Behring  strait.      He  penetrated  only 
to  lat.  70°  45'.     A  vessel  was  despatched  to 
Baffin  bay  to  await  him,  but  the  ice  formed  a 
!  solid   barrier   across    his   path.      Previous   to 
i  Cook's  expedition  the  conditions  of  the  par- 
!  liamentary  reward  had  been  extended  so  as  to 
i  include  any  northern  passage  for  ships,  and  an 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


additional  reward  of  £5,000  was  offered  to  the  ! 
crew  that  should  penetrate  to  within  1°  of  the  i 
pole.     In  1789  Mackenzie,  in  a  land  expedition,  , 
discovered  and  traced  to  its  mouth  the  river  ; 
called  after  him. — The  next  two  expeditions  set  j 
sail  in  1818:  one  under  the  command  of  Capt.  i 
Ross  and  Lieut.  Parry,  to  discover  the  north-  | 
west  passage ;  the  other  under  Capt.  Buchan 
and   Lieut.  (Sir  John)  Franklin,  to  penetrate  j 
to  the  north  pole.     Of  the  latter  expedition  j 
the  objects  were  entirely  scientific.     The  com-  ; 
manders  were  instructed   to   pass   northward 
between  Spitzbergen  and   Greenland  without 
stop,  and  to  make  every  effort  to  reach  the 
pole.     They  found  the  temperature  along  the 
western    shore   of    Spitzbergen    unexpectedly  ! 
mild ;  but  they  did  not  succeed  in  penetrating 
further  than  80°  34',  and  did  not  get  clear  of 
the   ice   without    encountering    great    danger. 
One  of  the  ships,   the  Dorothea,  being  much 
shattered  by  the  ice,  the  expedition  was  finally 
abandoned,  and  the  two  vessels  returned  home. 
With  the  other  expedition  it  was  proposed  to  j 
explore  the  great  openings  reported  by  Baffin 
to  exist  at  the  western  extreme  of  Baffin  bay. 
The  expedition  sailed  April  18,  1818,  passed 
along  the  Greenland  coast,  and  finally,  Aug. 
30,  entered  Lancaster  sound.     They  were  now 
upon  unexplored  ground.    It  was  not  supposed 
that  Lancaster  sound  was  in  point  of  fact  more 
than  a  bay,  and  the  vessels  were  steered  into 
it  with    many   misgivings.      After    sailing   up 
some  00  m.  it  was  thought  that  land  was  dis 
covered,    extending    completely    across    from 
shore  to  shore  of  the  supposed  bay ;  and,  the 
weather  threatening  a  storm,  the  vessels  were 
put  about.     After  exploring  the  coast  to  the 
southward  and  eastward  for  some  distance,  the 
vessels  returned  to  England,  where  they  ar 
rived  in  October  of  the  same  year.     Capt.  Ross 
reported  Lancaster  sound  to  be  a  bay  through 
which  there  was  no  practicable  outlet  to  the 
ocean  beyond.     In  this  opinion  several  of  his  j 
officers  by  no  means  agreed;  and  it  appears  ! 
that  he  failed  to  convince  the  scientific  public  i 
of  England  of  the  correctness  of  his  view. — 
Lieut.  Parry,  who  was  as  positive  and  sanguine  \ 
that  Lancaster  inlet  was  a  sound  as  was  Ross  \ 
that  it  was  a  bay,  was  intrusted  with  another  j 
expedition.      The  Hecla  was  his  own  vessel. 
The  Griper,  under  the  command  of  Lieut.  Lid-  i 
don,  was  the  consort.     The  expedition  num 
bered  04  men,  and  was  fitted  out  with  provi 
sions  for  two  years.     The  vessels  sailed  May  ! 
11,  1819,  first  fell  in  with  ice  June   18,  and 
found   themselves  firmly   beleaguered  on   the  { 
25th.     They  entered  Lancaster  sound  July  30,  | 
but  it  was  not  till   Aug.   3  that  both  vessels  | 
were  able  to  lay   their  course  fairly  up    the  i 
channel.     Then  they  made  a  rapid  run  as  far 
as  the  mouth  of  Barrow  strait,  and  on  passing  j 
the   mouth   of    Prince   Regent   inlet   had   ad-  ! 
vanced   further  than  any  mariners   had  ever  I 
gone  before   them.      They  were  approaching 
the  magnetic  pole,  and  found  their  compasses  j 
of  little   use.      Proceeding   through   Melville 


sound,  on  Sept.  4  Parry  announced  to  his  crew 
that,  having  passed  the  110th  meridian,  they 
were  entitled  to  the  reward  of  £5,000  offered 
by  parliament  for  this  achievement.  On  Sept. 
20  they  were  imbedded  in  ice,  and  further 
progress  was  stopped.  They  cut  their  way 
out  and  returned  to  Melville  island,  where 
they  passed  the  winter.  On  Aug.  2  of  the 
following  year  the  mass  of  ice  broke  up  and 
fioated  out,  setting  the  explorers  at  liberty. 
By  the  loth  they  were  again  imbedded  in  ice, 
having  made  but  little  advance.  They  finally 
put  about  for  home,  reaching  Britain  in  safety, 
and  with  the  crews  in  a  healthy  condition. 
So  successful  a  voyage  raised  high  the  expecta 
tions  of  all  interested,  and  it  was  determined 
to  send  Parry  out  again.  He  accordingly 
sailed,  in  command  of  the  Hecla  and  Fury,  in 
May,  1821,  with  instructions  to  make  for  Re 
pulse  bay  by  way  of  Hudson  strait,  with  the 
expectation  of  thus  avoiding  much  of  the  ice. 
— Before  this,  however,  in  September,  1819,  an 
overland  expedition  was  sent  out  from  York 
Factory,  on  the  western  shore  of  Hudson 
bay,  with  instructions  to  explore  the  northern 
coast  of  America,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Cop 
permine  eastward.  This  expedition  consisted 
of  Lieut.  (Sir  John)  Franklin,  Dr.  (Sir  John) 
Richardson,  two  midshipmen,  Messrs.  Hood  and 
Back,  and  a  seaman  named  Hepburn.  In  the 
event  of  Parry's  making  the  coast  on  his  first 
expedition,  the  tAvo  expeditions  were  to  co 
operate.  They  reached  Chipewyan  on  March 
26,  having  accomplished  a  foot  journey  of  856 
m.  with  the  weather  so  intensely  cold  that  the 
mercury  sank  to  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer 
and  then  froze.  In  July,  1820,  they  travelled 
500  m.  more  to  Fort  Enterprise,  where  the 
party  wintered,  while  Mr.  (Sir  George)  Back 
returned  to  Fort  Chipewyan,  to  hurry  along 
the  supplies  necessary  for  the  next  season's 
operations.  Mr.  Back,  after  innumerable 
hardships,  returned  to  Fort  Enterprise  March 

17,  1821,  having  travelled  over  1,100  m.,  some 
times  two  or  three  days  without  tasting  food, 
with  no  covering  at  night  but  a  blanket  and 
deerskins,  and  with  the  thermometer  ranging 
between  47°  and  57°  below  zero.     On  June  30, 
1821,   the  party  having  dragged  their  canoes 
and  supplies  from  Fort  Enterprise  to  the  Cop 
permine,  80  m.,  embarked  on  that  stream  and 
floated  seaward.     They  reached  the  sea  July 

18,  and  immediately  commenced  paddling  to 
the    east.      They    sailed    and    paddled    along 
shore  550  in.,  and  imagined  themselves  upon 
the   point   of  emerging    into  the  vast  Arctic- 
ocean,  when,  to  their  dismay,  they  discovered 
that  they  had  just  readied  the  bottom  of  a  huge 
bay.     With  but  three  days'  provisions  remain 
ing,  they  turned  back,  Sept.  1,  and,  unable  even 
to  reach  their  starting  point,  built  two  small 
canoes  of  their  larger  ones,  and  ascended  Hood 
river,  a  short  distance  west  of  Point  Turnagain, 
the  spot  where  they  gave  up  further  progress 
eastward.     Short  of  food,  in  a  country  deserted 
by  animals,  ill   provided  with   all  that  could 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


G71 


facilitate  their  progress,  eating  the  remains 
of  their  old  shoes  and  whatever  scraps  of 
leather  they  had,  obliged  from  exhaustion  to 
abandon  their  canoes  when  they  came  to  rap 
ids,  subsisting  at  the  last  upon  rock  tripe  and 
mosses,  disappointed  in  finding  assistance  at  a 
station  where  they  had  expected  it,  the  suffer 
ings  of  the  party  were  almost  unparalleled,  and 
such  as  but  few  men  could  have  endured.  They 
lost  two  of  their  companions,  and  in  July, 
1822,  reached  York  Factory,  whence  they  had 
started  three  years  before.  In  these  three  years 
they  had  made  a  journey  of  over  5,500  m., 
without  accomplishing  their  object. — Mean 
time,  Captains  Parry  and  Lyon,  in  the  Fury  and 
Ilecla,  made  Southampton  island,  the  terminus 
of  Hudson  strait,  early  in  August,  1821,  and 
immediately  steered  to  the  north  up  Fox  chan 
nel.  Passing  a  bay  hitherto  unknown,  which 
they  named  after  the  duke  of  York,  they  en 
tered  Repulse  bay,  in  the  hope  of  finding  here 
an  outlet  toward  the  Arctic  ocean.  Leaving 
Repulse  bay,  they  started  upon  the  exploration 
of  a  hitherto  entirely  unknown  region.  They 
made  slow  progress,  exploring  every  indenta 
tion  of  the  coast.  Toward  the  close  of  Sep 
tember  the  ice  began  to  accumulate,  and  Parry 
was  obliged  to  cut  into  a  large  floe,  and  make 
there  a  winter  harbor  for  his  vessels.  It  was 
July  before  they  were  once  more  free  of  ice, 
and  able  to  make  progress  on  their  voyage. 
They  made  their  way  up  Fox  channel  slowly, 
against  a  current  setting  to  the  southward,  and 
reached,  Aug.  14,  the  small  island  of  Igloolik, 
situated  at  the  entrance  of  a  strait  called  after 
ward  the  strait  of  the  Fury  and  Ilecla.  The 
ships  were  long  detained  here  by  ice,  reached 
the  middle  of  the  strait  only  in  September,  and 
were  obliged  to  return  to  Igloolik  for  the  win 
ter,  Oct.  30.  The  next  spring  (1823)  proved 
unfavorable.  The  expeditions  by  land  were 
able  to  effect  but  little,  on  account  of  the 
extreme  ruggedness  of  the  shore.  The  first 
week  in  August  was  past  before  the  ships 
were  released  from  their  harbor ;  and  Parry, 
who  saw  all  advance  to  the  north  prevented, 
returned  home,  arriving  in  England  in  October, 
1823. — Four  expeditions  were  now  fitted  out. 
The  first,  consisting  of  two  ships,  under  Parry, 
was  to  try  Prince  Regent  inlet,  which  it  was 
supposed  would  be  found  to  open  at  its  south 
ern  extreme  into  the  Arctic  sea.  The  second 
party,  under  the  command  of  Franklin,  was 
to  descend  the  Mackenzie  river  to  the  sea,  and 
there  divide,  one  party  turning  to  the  east,  the 
other  endeavoring  to  penetrate  westward,  even 
to  Behring  strait.  Captain  Beechey,  in  the 
Blossom,  was  despatched  around  Cape  Horn,  to 
sail  through  Behring  strait  and  make  headway 
to  the  east  as  far  as  Kotzebue  sound,  where 
he  was  to  wait  for  Franklin's  overland  party. 
The  fourth  expedition  (Capt.  Lyon,  in  the  Gri 
per)  was  to  pass  to  the  south  of  Southampton 
island,  up  Sir  Thomas  Howe's  Welcome,  to 
Repulse  bay ;  then  to  cross  the  Melville  isth 
mus,  and  survey  the  coast  as  for  as  Franklin's 


I  Point  Turnagain.     This  expedition  was  unfor 
tunate  ;  the  vesssel  was  twice  nearly  wrecked, 
I  and  the  expedition  was  abandoned  when  yet 
;  80  m.  distant  from   Repulse  bay.     Parry's  ex- 
|  pedition  sailed  in  May,  1824,  entered  Lancas- 
:  ter  sound  in  September,  got  into  the  ice,  and 
j  was  obliged  to  winter  in  Port  Bowen,  near  the 
j  entrance  of  the  sound.     The  following  July, 
I  when  starting  forward  again,   the   Fury  was 
wrecked,  and  Parry  returned  to  England  in  the 
|  Ilecla,  with  a  double  crew.     The  only  object 
i  gained  by  this  disastrous  expedition  was  a  con- 
!  trivance  whereby  the    compass  Avas    made  to 
I  work  perfectly  under  all  circumstances,  and  in 
all  places,  no  matter  how  near  the  magnetic 
!  pole,  thus  obviating  a  most  serious  difficulty  in 
;  arctic  navigation.     This  was  accomplished  by 
;  simply  placing  a  small  circular  plate  of  iron 
j  near  the  compass. — We  come  now  to  Frank- 
I  lin's    expedition.      The    officers    forming    his 
!  staff  were  Dr.    Richardson,  Lieut.   Back,  Mr. 
Kendall,  and  Mr.  T.  Drummond,  a  naturalist. 
;  They  arrived  at  Fort  Chipewyan  in  July,  1825  ; 
|  passed  on  to  Great  Bear  lake,  where  the  party 
!  were   to  winter ;    and    thence  a  small    party 
|  with  Franklin  descended  the  Mackenzie  to  the 
!  sea,  which  they  reached  at  a  point  in  lat.  69° 
\  14',  Ion.  135°  57',   1,045  m.  from  Great  Slave 
1  lake.     On  June  28,  1826,  the  whole  party  again 
|  started  from    their    quarters  down   the  Mac- 
'  kenzie.     The  expedition  separated,   according 
I  to  the  previously  planned  course  of  operations. 
Franklin,  going  to  the  westward,  reached  the 
!  sea,  and  penetrated  as  far  west  as  Return  Reef, 
i  in  lat.  70°  24'  and  Ion.  149°  37'  W.,  whence  on 
'  Aug.  18  he  set  out  on  his  return  to  the  Mac 
kenzie,  the  weather  becoming  bad,  and  he  being 
;  unaware  that  Beechey  was  waiting  for   him 
;  but  146  m.  to  the  westward.     The  hitter,  in 
the  Blossom,  had  passed  through  Behring  strait 
and  anchored  near  Chamisso  island,  in  Kotze- 
|  hue  sound,  on  July  22.     He  waited  here  till 
|  the  advancing  season  made  further  stay  dan 
gerous,  and  then  sailed  for  Petropavlovsk.    The 
•  following   year  (1827)   he    again  anchored  in 
Kotzebue  sound,  but  of  course  did  not  meet 
Franklin's  party  as  he  had  hoped.     Franklin 
i  traced  the  coast  for  374  in.  from  the  mouth 
i  of  the  Mackenzie.     His  voyage  extended  over 
,  2,000  m.     The  other  party,  under  Dr.  Richard- 
;  son,  accomplished  but  little.     The  whole  ex 
pedition  wintered  at  Great  Bear  lake,  where 
Franklin  instituted  a  series  of  observations  on 
I  terrestrial  magnetism. — In  1806  Mr.  Scoresby, 
!  a  whaleman  and    private  discoverer,    accom- 
;  panied  by  his  son,  had  penetrated  as  far  as  81° 
30'  north,  further  than  any  one  had  gone  before 
him.    Buchan  and  Franklin  so  completely  failed 
in  the  ship  expedition  in  1818,  that  Mr.  Scores- 
I  by  was  led  to  advise  an  expedition  to  proceed 
i  by  boats  so  fixed  on  sledges  as  to  be  easily 
I  dragged  over  the  ice.     Capt.   Parry  received 
i  the  command  of  an  expedition  fitted  out  in 
|  accordance  with  this  idea.    Two  boats,  covered, 
!  well  built,   and  set  upon  sledges,  were  to  be 
;  landed    upon    the    northern    shore    of    Spitz- 


G72 


ARCTIC  DISCOVERY 


bergen,  whence  they  were  to  be  dragged  or  j 
sailed  as  ice  or  "water  presented  itself.     It  was 
June  20,  1827,  before  Parry  started  with  his  ! 
boats,    which    contained   71    days'  provisions.  | 
They  met  with  many  difficulties  from  the  out-  | 
set — thin  ice,  rough  ice,  short  tracts  of  water  j 
interspersed  with  shorter   tracts   of  ice,    and  j 
snow-blindness   among   the    crews.     The    last  j 
evil  they  obviated  by  travelling  altogether  at  | 
night,  completely  reversing  the  usual  order  of  j 
living,   and  for  many  days  sleeping  regularly  ; 
by  day  and  pushing  forward  by  night.     In  five  j 
days  of  unremitting  exertions,  from  June  24  to  j 
29,  they  made  but  10  in.  due  north.     The  ice 
on  which  they  travelled  moved  to  the  south  in 
a  body  about  as  fast  as  they  could  move  north 
ward,  and  on  reaching  82°  45'  they  gave  up 
their  attempt  to  reach  the  pole,     they  were  j 
then  by  observation  distant  from  the  Ilecla  i 
172  m.     To    attain    this    distance  they    had 
actually  passed  over  292  m.  of  ice  and  water ; 
and    having  to  make    several  of   their  days' 
journey  over  three  or  four  times  on  account  of 
the  moving  ice,   it  was  calculated   that  they  j 
really  travelled  668  m.     They  returned   from 
this  most  discouraging  and  laborious  expedi 
tion  Aug.   21. — The  object  of  the  expedition  ! 
fitted  out  by  Sir  Felix  Booth,  and  commanded  j 
by  Capt.  Ross  and  his  nephew,   Commander  ; 
(Sir  James)  Ross,  in  the  Victory,  a  vessel  fitted  j 
to  use  steam  in  calm  weather,  was  to  find  a 
northwest  passage  by  some  opening  leading  out  ! 
of  Prince  Regent  inlet.     The  Victory  sailed  in 
May,  1829,  entered  Prince  Regent  inlet  Aug.  9, 
made  the  scene  of  the  Fury's  wreck  on  the  | 
12th,   and   on  the  15th   reached  the  furthest  ; 
point  achieved  by  Parry.     During  the  months  ! 
of  August  and  September  the  explorers  worked  j 
their   way  along  300  in.    of  hitherto  undis-  I 
covered  coast,  and  finally  reached  a  point  only  j 
about  200  m.  distant  from  the  extreme  point  : 
reached  by  Franklin  on  his  last  expedition  from  i 
the  westward.     On  Oct.  7  they  went  into  win-  i 
ter  quarters  at  a  place  they  named  Felix  harbor. 
Sept.  17,  1830,  they  once  more  got  under  way. 
After  making  3  m.  they  again  entered  winter 
quarters,  where  they  remained  till  Aug.  28, 
1831.     After  making  4  m.  (which  consumed  a  ' 
month's  time)  they  again,  Sept.  27,  went  into 
winter  quarters.     It  was  during  April,  1831, 
that  Capt.  Ross,  on  a  sledging  expedition,  for 
the  first  time  reached  and  fixed  the  position  of 
the  true  magnetic  pole.     The  spot  was  in  lat. 
70°  5'  17",  and  Ion.   96°  46'  45"  W.     Scurvy  j 
appearing   among    the    crew,    it    was    finally  : 
deemed  best  to  abandon  the  ship,  and  with  the 
boats  on  sledges  to  make  for  the  place  of  the  | 
Fury's  former  wreck.     After  almost  incredible  j 
hardships  they  reached  this  spot  July  1,  1832,  ; 
having  left  their  ship  April  23.     Here,  on  Fury 
beach,    they    were    obliged   to    pass    another 
winter — 1832-'3.    The  men  suffered  much,  and  ; 
several  died.     They  started  again  for  the  open 
sea  July  8,  1833,  and  on  Aug.  26  descried  a  i 
vessel,  which  took  them  on  board.     The  cap 
tain  refused  at  first  to  believe  that  Capt.  Ross  i 


and  his  crew  stood  before  him.  They  had 
been  given  up  for  dead  for  two  years  past.  On 
Sept.  30,  1833,  they  reached  the  Orkneys,  hav 
ing  been  absent  since  May,  1829. — In  Feb 
ruary,  1833,  Back,  with  Dr.  King,  a  naturalist 
and  surgeon,  left  England  for  an  overland  ex 
pedition  in  search  of  Ross's  party.  They  reached 
Fort  Resolution,  on  the  Great  Slave  lake,  Aug. 
8,  passed  on  to  the  north  and  east,  but  re 
turned  to  winter  at  Fort  Reliance,  where  they 
suffered  terribly  from  scarcity  of  food  and  a 
temperature  of  102°  below  the  freezing  point. 
On  April  25,  Avhen  they  were  preparing  to 
start  for  the  seacoast  to  the  north  and  east, 
they  received  news  of  the  safety  of  Ross  and 
his  party.  On  June  28  they  launched  their 
boats  on  the  Thlew-ee-choh  or  Great  Fish  (after 
ward  called  Back)  river,  which  they  hoped 
would  take  them  to  the  polar  sea.  After  a  diffi 
cult  navigation  of  530  m.  they  reached  the 
ocean,  at  lat.  67°  11'  K  and  Ion.  94°  30'  W., 
and  pushed  on  along  shore ;  but  they  met  with 
constant  impediments,  and  were  finally,  Aug. 
14,  obliged  to  turn  back.  The  extreme  point 
they  reached  was  in  lat.  68°  13'  X.  and  Ion. 
94°  58'  W.  Back  returned  to  England  in  Sep 
tember,  1835,  and  in  June,  1836,  set  out  in  the 
Terror  to  complete  the  exploration  of  the  sup 
posed  water  connection  between  Ross's  winter 
harbor,  in  Prince  Regent  inlet,  and  Point  Turn- 
again,  which  Ross  had  so  vainly  attempted  to 
reach.  They  were  unfortunate  from  the  first, 
and  accomplished  nothing. —  Simultaneously 
with  this  expedition,  the  Hudson  Bay  company 
sent  out  two  men,  Dease  and  Simpson,  to  de 
scend  the  Mackenzie  river  to  the  sea,  and  fol 
low  the  coast  to  the  west,  as  far  as  the  point 
from  which  Beechey  turned  back  to  go  out 
of  Behring  strait.  This  would  complete  the 
survey  of  all  that  part  of  the  American 
shores.  They  reached  Return  Reef,  Franklin's 
furthest  point  (August,  1826),  in  July,  1837. 
Beyond  this  no  one  had  ever  been.  They 
reached  Point  Barrow,  the  extreme  point  at 
tained  by  Beechey  in  1826,  Aug.  4,  and  thus 
completed  their  task.  They  discovered  on  the 
way  two  large  rivers,  which  they  called  the 
Garry  and  the  Colville.  Returning  to  winter 
quarters  on  Great  Bear  lake,  they  started  on 
another  expedition  to  explore  to  the  eastward, 
in  June,  1838.  Reaching  the  coast  by  way  of 
the  Coppermine,  and  finding  their  progress 
stopped  by  the  ice,  a  portion  of  the  party  set 
out  to  the  eastward  on  an  overland  expedition. 
Passing  Franklin's  Point  Turnagain,  the  fur 
thest  point  hitherto  reached  from  the  west,  they 
discovered  an  ice-encumbered  strait  (Dease 
strait),  and  at  its  eastern  extremity  a  large 
headland.  To  the  north  lay  an  extensive 
tract  of  land,  now  first  seen,  and  which  they 
called  Victoria  land.  Surmounting  the  ice 
bound  cape,  the  explorers,  to  their  surprise, 
found  the  sea  beyond  entirely  free  of  ice,  Vic 
toria  land  stretching  for  40  m.  to  the  E.  N.  E., 
and  the  American  coast  trending  to  the  S.  E. 
This  was  the  limit  of  their  explorations  in 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


1838.  In  an  expedition  the  following  year 
they  sailed  through  Dease. strait,  and  not  only 
settled  the  coast  line  up  to  the  spot  which  Back 
had  reached  in  1884,  but  went  beyond,  and 
explored  the  estuary  of  Back,  which  here 
forms  a  deep  indentation  in  the  northern 
coast  of  the  American  continent.  In  fact, 
they  joined  their  discoveries  very  nearly  to 
those  of  Ross,  and  were  at  one  time  within  90 
m.  of  the  place  he  fixed  upon  as  the  locality, 
during  that  year,  of  the  magnetic  pole. — The 
entire  American  coast,  along  the  polar  sea, 
was  now  explored,  except  that  portion  lying 
between  Dease  and  Simpson's  extreme  point 
on  the  west  of  Boothia  and  Ross's  winter 
quarters  on  the  east  side  of  the  same  land,  and 
that  tract  lying  between  Ross's  winter  quarters 
and  the  extreme  point  reached  by  Parry  in 
1822,  at  the  entrance  of  the  strait  of  the  Fury 
and  Hecla.  The  main  question  now  was  on 
the  possibility  of  passing  with  ships  between 
Boothia  and  the  American  mainland,  as,  if 
this  were  possible,  thev  passage  down  Prince 
Regent  channel  would  be  the  easiest  one  for 
the  accomplishment  of  a  voyage  to  the  north 
west.  To  settle  this  question  the  Hudson  Bay 
company  in  1846  sent  out  Dr.  John  Rae.  He 
and  his  party  reached  Chesterfield  inlet  July  13, 
184G,  passed  Repulse  bay  safely,  and  conveyed 
their  boats  thence  into  Committee  bay,  at  the 
bottom  of  Boothia  gulf.  Wintering  at  Repulse 
bay,  the  result  asked  for  from  their  expedition 
was  not  attained  till  1847.  On  April  5  of  that 
year  they  started  again  into  Committee  bay.  On 
the  18th  they  reached  an  inlet  which  Sir  John 
Ross  had  before  discovered,  in  one  of  his  land 
excursions,  during  his  two  winters'  sojourn  on 
the  coast  of  Boothia,  and  (Ross  having  estab 
lished  the  continuity  of  the  coast  to  that  point) 
thus  proved  that  Boothia  is  connected  with  the 
American  mainland,  and  that  consequently 
there  is  no  outlet  toward  the  west  through 
Prince  Regent  inlet.  Returning  to  recruit, 
May  12,  Dr.  Rae  set  out  to  explore  the  E. 
shore  of  Committee  bay,  and  connect  his  sur 
veys,  if  possible,  with  those  of  Parry  (1822) 
in  the  Fury  and  Ilecla  strait.  On  May  27  the 
party  reached  a  point  from  which,  during  an 
interlude  in  the  storm,  they  saw  a  headland, 
which  Rae  calls  Cape  Ellice,  and  computes  to 
be  in  lat.  69°  42'  N.  and  Ion.  85°  8'  W.,  that 
is  to  say,  within  10  m.  of  the  Fury  and  Ilecla 
strait.  This  completed  the  entire  survey,  with 
the  exception  of  Fury  and  Ilecla  strait  itself; 
and  thus  was  finished,  with  this  exception,  a 
geographical  exploration  of  the  N".  coast  of  the 
entire  American  continent,  on  May  27,  1847. — 
\Ve  come  now  to  the  last  voyage  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  The  achievement  of  a  northwest 
passage  was  his  life  dream,  and  to  him  was  in 
trusted  a  new  and — so  it  was  hoped — final  ex 
pedition.  The  Erebus  and  the  Terror,  long 
tried  in  arctic  navigation,  were  the  vessels 
chosen  for  the  voyage.  Each  was  fitted  with 
a  small  steam  engine  and  screw  propeller.  Sir 
John  Franklin  commanded  the  Erebus,  Capt. 
VOL.  i. — 43 


Richard  Crozier  the  Terror.  The  vessels  sailed 
May  19,  1845,  in  company  with  a  tender,  with 
additional  stores.  This  tender  \vas  relieved 
and  sent  home  in  Davis  strait,  where  the  ves 
sels  were  fully  provisioned  and  equipped  for  a 
three  years'  stay.  On  July  26,  1845,  they 
were  seen  by  a  whale  ship,  in  lat.  74°  48'  and 
Ion.  66°  13',  about  the  centre  of  Baffin  bay, 
moored  to  an  iceberg,  and  awaiting  an  opening 
into  Lancaster  sound.  This  is  the  last  time 
the  vessels  were  ever  seen.  The  instructions 
of  the  admiralty  directed  Franklin,  after  send 
ing  home  the  transport  from  Davis  strait,  to 
make  the  best  of  his  way  to  Baffin  bay,  and 
through  this  into  Lancaster  sound;  then  to 
push  westward  in  about  lat.  74°  15'  as  far  as 
about  Ion.  98°  W.  From  that  point  Franklin 
was  to  penetrate  to  the  southward  and  west 
ward  toward  Behring  strait.  Toward  the 
close  of  1847,  nothing  having  been  heard 
of  the  expedition,  alarm  began  to  be  felt 
as  to  its  safety,  and  early  the  following  year 
(1848)  three  different  expeditions  for  succor 
were  despatched  by  the  British  government. 
The  first  of  these,  in  the  Plover,  Commander 
Thomas  Moore,  and  the  Herald,  Capt.  Kellett, 
was  to  enter  Behring  strait,  and  advance  at 
least  as  far  as  Chamisso  island,  in  Kotzebue 
sound,  and  then  to  examine  the  coast  further 
to  the  eastward  in  boats.  The  expedition  was 
joined  by  the  Xancy  Dawson,  a  pleasure  yacht 
owned  and  commanded  by  Mr.  Robert  Shed- 
don,  who  took  a  very  active  part  in  all  the 
operations.  The  vessels  reached  Chamisso 
island,  July  14,  1849,  proceeded  immediately 
on  to  Icy  point,  and  thence  sent  the  boat  ex 
pedition  on  to  explore,  if  possible,  as  far  as  the 
Mackenzie  river.  The  vessels  meantime  stood 
to  the  north,  until,  in  lat.  72°  51'  and  Ion.  163° 
48',  they  were  brought  to  by  densely  packed  ice. 
Still  exploring,  on  Aug.  17  they  discovered  some 
islands,  and  a  large  body  of  land,  in  about  lat. 
71°  30'.  On  Aug.  24  part  of  the  boat  expedi 
tion  rejoined  the  vessels,  the  remainder,  two 
whale  boats,  having  been  despatched,  accord 
ing  to  previous  instructions,  up  the  Mackenzie 
river,  to  proceed  homeward  by  way  of  Fort 
Hope  and  York  Factory.  The  returned  boats 
had  explored  the  shore  as  far  as  Dease  inlet, 
but  had  found  no  traces  of  the  lost  voyagers. 
The  following  summer  (1850)  the  two  vessels 
reexplored  the  same  ground,  but  again  without 
meeting  with  any  traces  of  Franklin.  The 
Plover,  Capt.  Kellett,  was  left  to  winter  in 
Grantley  harbor,  and  the  Herald  returned 
home.  Meantime  part  of  the  land  party,  under 
Sir  John  Richardson,  reached  the  polar  sea, 
Aug.  4,  1848,  making  deposits  of  pemmican  by 
the  way,  at  convenient  points,  along  Mackenzie 
river.  They  then  explored  the  shore  to  the 
east  for  800  m.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Copper 
mine,  but  found  no  traces  of  Sir  John  Frank 
lin.  The  next  summer  (1849)  Sir  John  Rich 
ardson  having  returned  to  England,  Dr.  Rae 
explored  the  shores  of  Wollaston  sound,  and 
in  1850  he  repeated  his  explorations,  but  with 


G74 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


no  more  success.  The  third  expedition,  under 
command  of  Sir  James  Ross,  sailed  from  Eng 
land  May  12,  1848,  explored  the  S.  side  of  Lan 
e-aster  sound  as  far  as  Cape  York,  and  thence 
across  the  month  of  Prince  Regent  inlet,  win 
tered  at  Leopold  harbor,  and  the  following 
spring  (1849)  explored  the  shores  of  North  Som 
erset  as  far  as  lat.  72°  38'  and  Ion.  95°  40'  W., 
concluding  that  North  Somerset  and  Boothia 
were  united  by  a  narrow  isthmus,  where  Bel- 
lot  strait  was  afterward  found.  They  also  ex 
plored  portions  of  the  shore  N.  of  Barrow 
strait,  and  both  sides  of  Prince  Regent  inlet. 
The  expedition  returned  to  England  Nov.  3, 
1849,  without  having  fallen  upon  any  traces 
of  Franklin.  The  general  opinion  of  those  best 
acquainted  with  arctic  navigation,  and  with 
Sir  John  Franklin,  was  that  his  party  was  ice 
bound  among  the  islands  to  the  westward  of 
Melville  island.  Thither,  therefore,  were  the 
next  efforts  mainly  to  be  directed. — In  March, 
1849,  the  British  government  gave  notice  that 
£20,000  would  be  awarded  to  any  private  ex 
ploring  party,  of  any  country,  which  should 
render  efficient  aid  to  the  missing  explorers. 
In  1849  Lady  Franklin  had  a  supply  of  coals 
and  provisions  landed  upon  Cape  Hay,  S.  side 
of  Lancaster  sound.  In  1850  three  new  expe 
ditions  were  sent  out  by  the  British  govern 
ment,  with  instructions  mainly  identical  with 
those  of  1848.  The  year  1850  was,  however, 
to  see  many  more  expeditions  than  these  three 
of  the  government.  In  fact,  there  were  in  all 
no  fewer  than  eight.  First  on  the  list  comes 
the  continuation  of  Dr.  Rae's  expedition  of 
1849.  He  was  to  penetrate  further  to  the 
north  than  he  had  been  able  to  do  before,  and 
to  examine  the  shores  of  Banks  land,  the  coast 
about  Cape  Walker,  and  the  N.  side  of  Victoria 
land.  Two  smaller  parties  were  at  the  same 
time  to  follow  the  mainland  to  the  westward, 
toward  Point  Barrow,  one  descending  the  Mac 
kenzie,  the  other  the  Colville.  Next  comes  the 
Behring  strait  expedition,  consisting  of  the  En 
terprise,  Capt.  Collinson,  and  the  investigator, 
Commander  McClure.  They  were  instructed 
to  cruise  in  company  as  far  to  the  eastward  as 
they  could  get ;  to  make  friends  of  the  Esqui 
maux  ;  to  make  occasional  deposits  of  provi 
sions  ;  and  to  prevent  by  every  means  any  de 
tention  of  the  vessels  in  the  ice.  The  Inves 
tigator  and  Plover  (the  last  already  in  the 
Pacific)  wrere  last  in  getting  through  Behring 
strait.  The  Baffin  bay  expedition,  sent  out  by  the 
government,  consisted  of  the  Resolute,  Capt. 
Austin,  and  the  Assistance,  Capt.  Ommaney — 
sailing  vessels — and  the  Pioneer  and  Intrepid, 
Capt.  Sherard  Osborn,  both  screw  propeller 
steamers.  The  instructions  to  this  expedition 
were  mainly  of  a  similar  tenor  to  those  given 
the  Behring  strait  commanders.  This  fleet 
sailed  in  the  spring  of  1850.  The  schooner 
Felix  and  a  small  tender,  the  Mary,  formed  an 
expedition  put  forward  by  public  subscription, 
and  commanded  by  Sir  John  Ross.  He  sailed 
in  April,  1850,  provisioned  for  18  months,  and 


designing  to  commence  at  Cape  Ilotlmm,  at 
the  W.  side  of  the  entrance  of  Wellington 
channel,  and  examine  all  the  headlands  to 
Banks  land.  Finding  nothing,  he  then  in 
tended  to  leave  his  tender  and  push  forward 
for  a  second  season  in  the  Felix.  The  Lady 
Franklin,  fitted  out  by  Lady  Franklin,  and 
commanded  by  Capt.  Penny,  with  the  brig 
Sophia,  sailed  also  in  1850,  intending  to  explore 
as  circumstances  should  seem  to  direct,  but 
having  a  general  plan  somewhat  similar  to  the 
government  expedition.  Lady  Franklin  also 
fitted  out  and  defrayed  two  thirds  of  the  ex 
pense  of  another  expedition,  consisting  of  the 
schooner  Prince  Albert,  commanded  by  Com 
mander  Charles  Forsyth  and  Mr.  W.  P.  Snow, 
both  volunteers.  Their  object  was  to  examine 
the  shores  of  Prince  Regent  inlet  and  the  gulf 
of  Boothia,  and  to  send  out  overland  travel 
ling  parties  to  explore  the  W.  side  of  Boothia, 
down  to  Dease  and  Simpson  strait.  The 
Albert  sailed  in  June,  1850.  The  Advance 
and  Rescue,  under  the  command  of  Lieut.  De 
Haven,  formed  an  American  expedition,  fitted 
out  by  the  United  States  government,  but  at 
the  cost  chiefly  of  Mr.  Henry  Grinnell  of  Nevr 
York.  This  expedition  left  New  York  May 
24,  1850.  Its  plan  was  to  push  forward  with 
out  delay  toward  Banks  land  and  Melville 
island,  and  generally  make  the  best  use  of  every 
opportunity  for  exploring  in  that  direction. 
Lastly  comes  the  North  Star,  a  transport  ship, 
containing  stores  for  the  expedition  of  Sir 
James  Ross.  She  wintered  at  the  head  of  Wos- 
tenholm  sound,  in  lat.  76°  33',  further  north 
than  any  vessel  ever  wintered  except  Dr. 
KaneX  an(^  returned  to  England  in  September. 
1850.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  wrere  now  no 
fewer  than  11  vessels,  exclusive  of  the  North 
Star,  in  the  eastern  arctic  waters. — Capt.  Om 
maney  of  the  Assistance  came  upon  the  first 
traces  of  the  missing  mariners  at  Cape  Riley, 
Aug.  23,  1850.  A  more  minute  examination 
of  the  country  immediately  surrounding  gave 
indisputable  proof  that  Franklin's  party  had  so 
journed  about  there  for  some  time.  The  site 
of  a  tent  paved  with  small  stones,  quantities 
of  birds'  bones  lying  around,  as  also  meat  canis 
ters,  were  the  traces  discovered  at  Cape  Riley. 
At  Beechey  island,  about  3  m.  W.  of  the  cape, 
and  just  at  the  entrance  of  Wellington  chan 
nel,  Lieut.  Osborn  finally  came  upon  an  en 
campment  of  the  party — in  fact,  the  first  winter 
quarters  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  The  objects 
here  discovered  were  a  large  number  of  empty 
meat  tins,  the  embankment  of  a  house,  with 
carpenters'  and  armorers'  working  places,  and 
other  remains  of  a  large  establishment,  and 
finally,  the  graves  of  three  men  belonging  to 
the  Erebus  arid  Terror,  which  bore  date  of  the 
winter  of  1845-'6.  Further  on,  on  the  island, 
there  were  the  remains  of  a  garden,  and  vari 
ous  articles  of  apparel  lying  about.  Lieut.  De 
Haven,  of  the  American  expedition,  visited  the 
place  on  Aug.  25,  and  made  another  thorough 
search.  The  officers  of  the  Prince  Albert,  as 


ARCTIC    DISCOVERY 


CM  5 


AVI' 11  as  dipt.  Penny,  also  examined  the  entire 
ground  very  minutely.  Singularly,  not  all  this 
searching  brought  to  light  any  document  which 
could  give  the  slightest  trace  of  the  future  in 
tentions  of  the  party.  The  government  ships 
wintered  but  little  distance  troin  each  other ; 
and  the  spring  of  1851  was  devoted  to  land 
expeditions,  in  which  the  shores  of  Wellington 
channel,  the  coast  of  Banks  land,  and  the 
waters  leading  from  Barrow  strait  to  Melville 
island,  were  to  be  thoroughly  explored.  The 
various  parties  made  a  thorough  search  on 
their  different  routes,  and  explored  675  m.  of 
hitherto  undiscovered  coast,  but  found  no  trace 
of  the  lost.  Lieut.  McClintock's  party  reached 
on  this  occasion  the  furthest  western  limit  ever 
attained  by  arctic  explorers  starting  from  Baf 
fin  bay,  a  point  in  Ion.  114°  20'  W.  and  lat.  74° 
OS'.  From  the  lameness  of  animals  found  here 
about  it  would  seem  that  few  if  any  human 
beings  had  ever  touched  this  point  before. 
Dr.  Kane's  opinion,  on  examining  the  sledge 
tracks  about  Cape  Riley,  was  that  Sir  John 
Franklin  had  passed  to  the  north,  with  his 
ships,  on  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  1846 ; 
had  gone  through  Wellington  channel  into  the 
supposed  great  polar  basin,  and  had  never  re 
turned.  The  American  expedition,  which  had 
gallantly  led  the  way  wherever  they  could  go, 
and  whose  commander  earned  for  himself  at 
the  hands  of  the  English  the  sobriquet  of  "  the 
mad  Yankee,"  after  undergoing  much  suffering 
and  considerable  danger,  arrived  in  New  York, 
the  Advance  on  Sept.  30,  and  the  Rescue  on 
Oct.  3,  1851.  On  June  3,  1851,  the  Prince 
Albert,  which  had  brought  to  England  news 
of  the  discovery  at  Beechey  island,  was  de 
spatched  by  Lady  Franklin  on  another  expedi 
tion  to  explore  the .  shores  of  Prince  Regent 
inlet.  She  returned  in  October,  1853.  The 
conclusion  drawn  from  the  failure  of  all  the 
expeditions,  including  Dr.  Rae's  of  1851,  which 
was  very  thorough,  was  that  Franklin  had 
never  reached  so  far  south  as  the  American 
mainland,  or  the  peninsulas  connected  with  it. 
— Sir  John  Ross  had  brought  back  a  report  that 
the  Franklin  party  had  been  murdered  in 
Wostenholm  sound  by  the  Esquimaux.  To  es 
tablish  the  truth  or  falsity  of  this  rumor,  Lady 
Franklin  sent  the  Isabel  screw  steamer,  Com 
mander  Inglefield,  to  explore  this  sound.  He 
left  England  in  July,  1852  ;  examined  Wosten 
holm  sound,  finding  no  traces  of  the  missing 
ones ;  sailed  up  Smith  sound  to  lat.  78°  28'  21", 
140  m.  further  than  previous  navigators  had 
reached ;  found,  as  he  thought,  a  more  genial 
climate  than  existed  to  the  south ;  and  estab 
lished  in  this  voyage  the  presence  of  a  strait  or 
channel  connecting  Baffin  bay  with  the  great 
polar  basin.  Meantime,  following  the  Welling 
ton  channel  theory,  Sir  Edward  Belcher  was 
sent  out  in  April,  1852,  in  command  of  five  ves 
sels,  the  Assistance,  Resolute,  Xorth  Star.  Pio 
neer,  and  Intrepid — the  last  two  steamers. 
The  Xorth  Star  was  to  be  the  depot  and  store 
ship ;  the  Resolute  and  Intrepid  were  to  steer 


west,  to  the  assistance  of  Collinson  and  M<-- 
Clure ;  and  the  Assistance  and  Pioneer  were  to 
push  up  Wellington  channel. — In  the  spring  of 
1853  more  expeditions  were  sent  out.  The 
chief  of  these  was  that  fitted  out  by  Mr.  Grin- 
nell  of  New  York,  Mr.  Peabody  of  London, 
and  others,  and  commanded  by  Dr.  E.  K.  Kane, 
who  had  acted  as  surgeon,  naturalist,  and  his 
torian  of  the  former  Grinnell  expedition,  under 
De  Haven.  Lady  Franklin  sent  out  the  Rat 
tlesnake  and  Isabel,  steanier,*for  Behring  strait, 
to  assist  Collinson  and  McClure.  Dr.  Rae  was 
despatched  for  another  exploration  of  Boothia. 
And  finally,  the  Lady  Franklin  and  Phoenix, 
Capt.  Inglefield,  were  sent  to  Barrow  strait,  to 
aid  Sir  Edward  Belcher.  With  Inglefield  on 
this  expedition  was  Bellot,  a  gallant  young 
Frenchman,  who  was  lost  Aug.  18,  1853,  by 
being  blown  off  some  floating  ice.  The  west 
ward  expedition  of  Belcher  made  a  number  of 
explorations  in  the  general  direction  of  their 
line  of  search,  toward  Melville  island.  They 
found  no  traces  of  Franklin,  but  fortunately 
succeeded  in  finding  and  rescuing  McClure  and 
his  ship's  company,  who  had  been  buried  in 
the  arctic  ice  since  the  summer  of  1850,  three 
years.  These  returned  home  with  Belcher, 
abandoning  their  ship,  and  are  thus  the  first 
and  only  ship's  company  who  ever  entered 
Behring  strait  and  returned  to  Europe  by  Baf 
fin  bay.  Thus  was  established,  at  last,  the 
great  fact  that  there  is  a  continuous  passage 
by  water  from  Baffin  bay  to  Behring  strait, 
parallel  with  the  coast  of  the  American  conti 
nent.  McClure  reached  in  his  ship  in  1850  a 
point  within  60  m.  of  the  western  terminus  of 
Barrow  strait,  and  thus  had  nearly  passed 
through  with  his  vessel.  The  crews  under 
Belcher's  command  had  meantime  made  exten 
sive  explorations  by  land  during  the  spring  and 
autumn  of  1853,  and  the  spring  of  1854.  "The 
Assistance  and  Pioneer  penetrated  up  Welling 
ton  channel  to  lat.  78°  10',  making  various  dis 
coveries  of  new  land  and  islands.  When  the 
vessels  were  brought  to  by  ice,  the  officers  set 
out  on  sledges,  and  penetrated  overland  to  a  point 
which  Belcher  considered  an  opening  into  Jones 
sound  from  the  east.  Here,  to  their  surprise, 
as  early  as  May  20,  all  sledging  operations  were 
stopped  by  open  water.  They  found  at  various 
points  structures  of  ice  too  well  built  to  be  the 
work  of  natives,  but  nowhere  the  slightest  tan 
gible  trace  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  In  the  spring 
of  1854  the  vessels  composing  the  expedition, 
the  Assistance,  Resolute,  Pioneer,  Intrepid, 
and  McClure's  ship,  the  Investigator,  were 
abandoned,  their  crews  taken  on  board  the 
!N~orth  Star,  Phoenix,  and  Talbot,  and  the  entire 
party  arrived  in  England  in  September,  1854. 
It  must  be  mentioned  here  that  McClure,  in  Au 
gust,  1850,  discovered  in  the  ear  of  an  Esqui 
maux  chief,  near  the  mouth  of  Mackenzie  river, 
a  flat  brass  button.  On  being  asked  where  he 
obtained  this,  the  chief  made  answer  that  it  had 
been  taken  from  the  ear  of  a  white  man  who 
had  been  killed  by  one  of  his  tribe.  The  white 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


man  belonged  to  a  party  which  had  landed  at 
Point  Warren,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Macken 
zie,  and  there  built  a  house.  Nobody  knew 
how  they  came,  as  they  had  no  boat ;  but  they 
went  inland.  The  man  killed  had  strayed  from 
the  party,  and  he  (the  chief)  and  his  son  had 
buried  him  on  a  hill  at  a  little  distance.  When 
or  the  exact  spot  where  this  occurred  could 
not  be  ascertained.  Neither  the  grave  nor  the 
house  was  found.  Collinson,  McClure's  com 
panion  on  the  Behring  strait  expedition, 
eventually  returned  to  England  by  the  way  he 
came.  He  made  numerous  discoveries  of  land, 
and  explorations  in  the  neighborhood  of  Banks 
land,  Wollaston  land,  Albert  land,  and  Victo 
ria  land.  At  Cambridge  bay  in  Prince  Albert 
sound,  in  about  lat.  70°  and  Ion.  117°,  where 
his  vessel  passed  the  winter  of  1852-%  he  saw 
in  the  possession  of  the  Esquimaux  a  piece  of 
iron  and  fragments  of  a  hatch  frame  or  door 
way.  These  he  thought  must  have  belonged 
to  Franklin's  ships;  but  he  was  unable  to  ob 
tain  any  intelligence  in  regard  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  Esquimaux  came  into  possession  of 
them. — There  remained  now  Dr.  Rae's  expe 
dition  to  Boothia,  and  Dr.  Kane's  American 
expedition,  to  hear  from.  Dr.  Rae  reached  Pelly 
bay,  on  the-  S.  W.  side  of  the  gulf  of  Boothia, 
N.  W.  of  Committee  bay,  in  April,  1854.  Here 
he  met  Esquimaux  who  had  in  their  possession 
various  articles  of  silverware,  &c.,  belonging 
to  officers  of  both  the  Erebus  and  Terror. 
The  intelligence  obtained  by  him  of  the  natives 
may  be  summed  up  as  follows :  In  the  spring 
of  1850  some  Esquimaux  killing  seals  near  the 
1ST.  shore  of  a  large  island  known  as  King  Wil 
liam  land  (some  distance  westwrard  of  Pelly 
bay),  saw  a  party  of  about  40  white  men  pass 
to  the  southward,  along  the  W.  shore  of  this 
island.  They  were  dragging  a  boat  and  sledges 
with  them.  They  could  not  speak  Esquimaux, 
but  the  natives  gathered  that  their  ships  had 
been  crushed,  and  they  were  now  going  where 
they  could  find  deer  to  shoot.  They  purchased  a 
little  provision  from  the  natives,  who  judged 
that  they  were  nearly  destitute  of  food.  >  The 
officer  with  them  was  described  as  a  tall,  stout, 
middle-aged  man.  At  a  later  date,  the  same 
season,  but  previous  to  the  disruption  of  the  ice, 
the  corpses  of  some  30  persons,  and  some  graves, 
were  discovered  on  the  continent,  and  five 
dead  bodies  on  an  island  near  it,  about  a  long 
day's,  journey  N.  W.  of  the  mouth  of  a  large 
river  supposed  to  be  Back  river.  Of  the 
bodies,  on  the  island,  one  was  supposed  to  be  a 
chief,  as  he  had  a  telescope  slung  about  his 
neck.  These  men,  from  all  appearances,  had 
been  driven  to  cannibalism  before  they  perished. 
From  the  fact  that  shots  were  heard,  and  the 
feathers  of  wild  fowl  were  found  near  the 
bodies,  it  is  conjectured  that  a  few  of  the  men 
survived  till  May,  1851.  They  seem  to  have 
had  an  abundance  of  ammunition.  There  were 
also  numbers  of  telescopes,  guns,  watches,  &c., 
pieces  of  which  articles  were  found  among  the 
natives  by  Dr.  Rae,  in  considerable  quantities. 


Dr.  Rae's  opinion  was  that  the  party  died  by 
starvation,  and  not  by  the  hands  of  the  natives. 
Mr.  James  Anderson  was  sent  out  in  1855,  to  ex 
plore  more  perfectly  the  spot  designated  as  the 
scene  of  so  much  suffering.  On  June  80,  a  little 
way  from  the  mouth  of  Back  river,  he  came 
upon  some  Esquimaux,  who  had  with  them 
numerous  articles  belonging  to  a  boat  equipage. 
The  natives  stated  that  the  owners  of  these 
articles  had  died  of  starvation.  On  reac-hing 
Montreal  island,  where  the  five  men  had  perish 
ed,  according  to  report,  Mr.  Anderson  found 
chain  hooks,  tools,  rope,  bunting,  and  a  num 
ber  of  sticks  strung  together,  on  one  of  which 
was  carved  the  name  of  Mr.  Stanley,  surgeon 
of  the  Erebus.  On  a  plank  was  found  the  word 
u  Terror.""  Not  a  vestige  of  the  remains,  nor 
any  paper,  was  found.  At  Point  Ogle  some 
small  articles  were  also  found,  but  no  bodies. 
i  The  party  were  unable  to  reach  King  William 
I  land,  the  scene  of  the  chief  disaster. — Dr. 
|  Kane,  the  American  explorer,  sailed  in  the  Ad- 
I  vance  from  New  York,  May  30,  1853.  Tho 
discoveries  of  Inglefield  in  Smith  strait,  and 
those  of  Belcher  at  the  head  of  Wellington 
channel,  had  convinced  him  that  there  was 
somewhere  between  lat.  80°  N.  and  the  north 
pole  a  vast  open  sea,  and  a  milder  climate  than 
was  found  some  degrees  to  the  south  ;  and 
further,  that  in  this  sea  were  to  be  sought,  and 
he  hoped  found,  tidings  of  Sir  John  Franklin's 
long  absent  expedition.  His  determination  was 
therefore  to  penetrate  as  far  up  Smith  strait 
as  possible,  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  enter 
the  polar  sea,  and  there  have  clear  water  for  his 
explorations.  He  entered  the  ice  Aug.  2,  and 
on  the  20th  found  shelter  from  a  hurricane  un 
der  lee  of  a  rocky  island,  which  he  named  God 
send  ledge.  Leaving  his  men,  on'the  subsidence 
of  the  gale,  to  tow  the  vessel  along  the  ice,  Dr. 
Kane,  Aug.  29,  passed  ahead  with  a  boating 
party  to  explore  the  coast.  He  thus  passed 
numerous  points  of  land,  and  reached  Cape 
George  Russell,  whence  he  saw  the  great  glacier 
of  Humboldt,  with  Cape  Jackson  on  one  side, 
Cape  Barrow  on  the  other,  and  a  sea  of  solid 
ice  between.  Not  finding  on  this  trip  a  good 
place  for  winter  quarters,  he  returned,  and  the 
Advance  was  moored  for  the  winter  in  Van 
Rensselaer  harbor,  in  lat.  78°  37'  and  Ion.  70° 
40'.  During  the  continuance  of  daylight  in  the 
autumn  excursions  were  made  into  the  interior 
of  Greenland,  in  which  over  800  m.  were  trav- 
I  ersed,  and  the  coast  was  traced  for  125  m.  to  the 
I  north  and  east.  Kane's  Avinter  harbor  is  further 
|  north  than  that  of  any  other  expedition  what 
ever.  The  crew  wrere  much  enfeebled  by  the 
long  winter,  and  it  was  not  till  April  that  Kane 
started  on  his  chief  sledging  tour  to  the  north. 
Owing  to  the  severity  of  the  climate  and  great 
obstacles,  the  expedition  failed  in  its  main  ob 
ject;  but  they  discovered  on  this  trip  some  re 
markable  natural  features:  the  Three  Brother 
Turrets,  Tennyson's  Monument,  and  the  great 
glacier  of  Humboldt.  They  returned  to  the 
vessels  May  14.  Dr.  Hayes  and  William  God- 


ARCTIC  DISCOVERY 


677 


frey  started  on  another  expedition  May  20. 
They  crossed  Smith  strait,  and  attained  to  lat. 
79°  45'  and  Ion.  69°  12.  They  saw,  30  m. 
ahead,  two  capes,  which  they  named  Capes 
Joseph  Leidy  and  John  Frazer.  On  June  30 
Messrs.  McGary  and  Bonsall  left  on  a  third  ex 
pedition,  Kane  being  yet  ill.  They  reached 
Humboldt  glacier  on  the  15th.  Four  of  the 
party  returned  on  the  24th,  entirely  blind. 
Two,  Mr.  Morton  and  a  companion,  pushed  on, 
and  on  June  21  saw  open  water  to  the  north, 
called  by  them  Kennedy  channel.  They  pene 
trated  as  far  as  Cape  Constitution  in  Washing 
ton  land,  lat.  82°  27'.  The  open  channel  abound 
ed  with  animal  life,  such  as  bears,  birds,  and 
seals.  The  results  of  this  excursion  seemed  to 
Kane  to  prove  that  Smith  strait  in  fact  opens 
into  Kennedy  channel,  and  this  into  a  great  open 
polar  sea,  abounding  with  life.  The  shores  of 
Kennedy  channel  and  Smith  strait  had  been 
explored  for  760  m.  Mr.  Morton  returned 
to  the  ship  on  July  10.  Dr.  Kane,  seeing  no 
probability  of  the  release  of  his  vessels  during 
this  summer,  determined  to  communicate  with 
Belcher's  expedition.  Failing  in  this,  it  was 
determined  that  part  of  the  crew  should  aban 
don  the  vessel.  The  party,  however,  returned 
after  a  few  days,  and  the  crew  were  beset  for 
another  winter.  It  was  resolved  to  abandon 
the  brig  in  early  spring,  and  make  for  the 
Danish  settlements  at  the  south.  On  May  17 
they  left  in  boats  and  sledges,  and,  after  much 
privation  and  many  narrow  escapes,  reached 
Uperaavik  Aug.  9,  in  84  days  from  the  time 
of  leaving  the  Advance.  Fears  for  Kane's 
safety  had  induced  the  United  States  navy  de 
partment  to  send  out  in  the  spring  of  1855  two 
vessels,  the  Release  and  the  steamer  Arctic,  to 
the  relief  of  the  missing  brig's  crew.  Capt. 
Hartstene,  who  commanded  this  expedition, 
reached  lat.  78°  32',  and  then  found  his  on 
ward  progress  stopped  by  a  firm  barrier  of  ice. 
Returning,  he  found  Kane  and  his  crew  at  Uper- 
navik,  and  returned  with  them  to  the  United 
States  in  the  fall  of  1855.  In  a  scientific  point 
of  view,  Dr.  Kane's  expedition  attained  most 
important  results.  These  are  thus  summed  up 
by  himself  in  his  report  to  the  navy  depart 
ment  of  the  United  States : 

1.  The  survey  and  delineation  of  the  N.  coast  of  Greenland 
to  its  termination  by  a  great  glacier. 

2.  The  survey  of  this  glacial  mass,  and  its  extension  north 
ward  into  the  new  land  named  Washington. 

3.  The  discovery  of  a  large  channel  to  the  northwest,  free 
from  ice,  and  leading  into  an  open  and  expanding  area,  equally 
free.    The  whole  embraces  an  iceless  area  of  4,200  m. 

4.  The  discovery  and  delineation  of  a  large  tract  of  land, 
forming  the  extension  northward  of  the  American  continent. 

5.  The  completed  survev  of  the  American   coast  to  the 
south  and  west,  as  far  as  Cape  Sabine ;  thus  connecting  our 
survey  with  the  last  determined  position  of  Captain  Ingle- 
n'eld.  and  completing  the  circuit  of  the  straits  and  bay  here 
tofore  known  at  their  southernmost  opening  as  Smith  sound. 

—The  Resolute,  one  of  Sir  E.  Belcher's  expedi 
tion,  was,  as  before  mentioned,  abandoned  May 
15,  1854,  not  far  from  Beechey  island.  On  Sept. 
15,  1855,  she  was  discovered  by  Capt.  Bud- 
dington,  of  the  George  Henry,  whale  ship,  of 
New  London,  off  the  W.  shore  of  Baffin  bay, 


in  lat.  67°  N.  The  vessel  was  encumbered  with 
ice,  but  was  perfectly  tight  and  seaworthy. 
The  distance  between  the  place  where  she  was 
abandoned  and  that  where  she  was  retaken 
was  at  least  1,200  m.  She  was  brought  to  New 
London,  purchased  by  the  United  States  govern 
ment  by  order  of  congress,  thoroughly  refitted, 
and  presented  to  Queen  Victoria  and  the  Brit 
ish  government,  in  December,  1856.  The  Brit 
ish  government  took  possession  of  her,  and  had 
her  stripped  and  laid  up  in  ordinary  in  Wool 
wich  dockyard. — In  1857  Lady  Franklin,  hav 
ing  resolved  to  send  out  a  vessel  at  her  own  ex 
pense  for  a  fresh  search  for  her  husband,  offered 
the  command  of  the  proposed  expedition  to 
Capt.  Francis  McClintock,  who  had  served 
with  distinction  in  the  arctic  expedition  with 
Sir  James  Ross,  Capt.  Austin,  and  Sir  Ed 
ward  Belcher.  (See  MCCLINTOCK.)  The  screw 
steamer  Fox,  of  only  177  tons,  formerly  the 
pleasure  yacht  of  Sir  Richard  Sutton,  was  pur 
chased,  refitted,  and  equipped  with  a  crew  of 
24  volunteers.  Capt.  Allen  Young  of  the 
merchant  service  contributed  to  the  cost,  and 
also  acted  gratuitously  as  sailing  master.  Lieut. 
W.  R,  Hobson,  Dr.  David  Walker,  and  Carl 
Petersen,  interpreter,  so  favorably  known  as 
the  companion  of  Dr.  Kane,  were  the  princi 
pal  other  members  of  the  party.  The  little 
vessel  left  Aberdeen  July  1.  McClintock's 
plan  was  to  examine  a  tract  about  300  m. 
square  lying  W.  of  Boothia,  and  between  the 
northern  limits  of  the  explorations  of  Rae  and 
Anderson  and  the  southern  boundaries  of  those 
of  Sir  James  Ross,  Austin,  and  Belcher,  while 
to  the  west  he  expected  to  penetrate  as  far  as 
the  track  of  Collinson  and  McClure.  Having 
purchased  35  Esquimaux  dogs  at  Disco,  on  the 
coast  of  Greenland,  and  taken  on  board  two 
of  the  natives  as  drivers,  the  Fox  pushed  on 
toward  Lancaster  sound  until  on  Aug.  17 
she  was  beset  in  Baffin  bay  nearly  opposite  the 
entrance  to  that  channel.  For  eight  months 
the  ice  held  her  fast,  but  the  moving  pack  mean 
while  carried  her  back  upon  her  course,  and 
when  finally  released,  April  25,  1858,  she  had 
drifted  1,395  m.  to  the  southward.  McClin 
tock  refitted  at  Holsteinborg,  arrived  in  Lan 
caster  sound  July  12,  'sailed  through  Barrow 
strait,  and  attempted  to  pass  down  Peel  sound, 
between  North  Somerset  and  Prince  of  Wales 
land ;  but  having  been  stopped  here  by  the  ice, 
he  passed  northeastward  around  North  Somer 
set  in  the  hope  of  reaching  the  mouth  of  Back 
river  through  Bellot  strait,  which  is  the  water 
communication  between  Prince  Regent  inlet 
and  the  western  sea  (now  known  as  Franklin 
strait),  and  separates  the  North  American  con 
tinent  from  North  Somerset.  He  found  the 
strait  obstructed  by  moving  ice,  but  after  much 
difficulty  and  danger  pushed  through  it  on 
Sept.  6.  A  frozen  barrier  stretched  across  its 
western  end,  and  here  the  Fox  remained  moored 
j  for  three  weeks,  when  she  took  up  her  winter 
I  quarters  at  Port  Kennedy,  on  the  N.  shore  of 
I  the  strait.  In  the  mean  time  extensive  sledge 


078 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


journeys  were  undertaken.  Lieut.  Ilobson 
carried  out  provisions  toward  the  magnetic 
pole,  Capt.  Young:  established  a  depot  on  the 
further  side  of  Franklin  strait,  and  McClintock 
and  Petersen  travelled  southward  in  the  hope 
of  gathering  some  information  from  the  natives. 
On  March  1,  1859,  McClintock  met  a  party  of 
Esquimaux  near  Cape  Victoria,  and  learned 
from  them  that  several  years  before  a  ship  had 
been  crushed  in  the  ice  and  sunk  in  deep  water 
off  the  N.  W.  shore  of  King  William  land. 
Her  people  went  away  to  a  great  river,  where 
they  all  died  of  starvation,  and  their  bodies 
were  found  the  next  year.  It  was  impossible 
to  obtain  any  information  respecting  the  num 
ber  of  white  men,  or  the  length  of  time  since 
they  left  the  ship.  Another  interview  with 
some  of  the  natives  in  April  confirmed  these 
statements,  and  threw  light  upon  the  fate  of 
Franklin's  second  vessel,  which  they  said 
drifted  ashore  at  King  William  land.  The 
skeleton  of  one  man  wras  found  on  board. 
Sending  Ilobson  to  search  for  the  wreck,  Mc 
Clintock  explored  the  E.  shore  of  King  Wil 
liam  land,  and  on  May  7  came  upon  a  vil 
lage  of  Esquimaux,  from  whom  he  learned 
that  when  the  white  people  marched  toward 
the  great  river  "  many  of  them  dropped  by  the 
way,"  and  their  bodies  were  found  the  next 
winter ;  some  were  buried  and  others  were 
not.  Point  Ogle,  Montreal  island  in  the  estu 
ary  of  Back  river,  and  Barrow  inlet  were 
searched,  with  no  better  success  than  the  dis 
covery  of  a  few  scraps  of  iron,  tin,  and  copper  ; 
and  McClintock,  having  now  reached  the  track 
of  Anderson  and  Stuart  (1855),  resolved  to  fol 
low  the  S.  and  W.  coasts  of  .King  William  land 
until  he  met  Ilobson.  The  first  trace  of  the 
long  lost  crew  was  found  near  Cape  Herschel, 
the  western  limit  of  Simpson's  explorations. 
It  was  a  bleached  skeleton  lying  at  full  length 
on  the  beach  ;  fragments  of  European  clothing, 
a  pocketbook,  and  a  few  letters  were  picked 
up  about  it.  A  day's  march  JSL  E.  of  Cape 
Crozier  the  party  came  across  a  boat  fitted  to 
a  sledge  and  apparently  prepared  for  naviga 
ting  the  river.  In  it  were  two  skeletons,  two 
loaded  guns,  and  various  other  relics,  including 
Sir  John  Franklin's  silver  plate,  besides  fuel, 
ammunition,  chocolate,  tea,  and  tobacco.  Its 
head  was  turned  toward  the  abandoned  ships, 
from  whose  first  position  it  was  about  G5  m. 
distant.  A  record  was  also  found  which  had 
been  left  here  five  days  before  by  Ilobson,  who 
in  the  mean  time  had  made  still  more  interest 
ing  discoveries.  After  separating  from  McClin 
tock  he  had  tracked  the  N".  and  W.  shores  of 
King  William  land  almost  to  Cape.  Herschel. 
Near  Cape  Felix,  the  northermost  point  of  the 
island,  he  found  a  ruined  cairn,  three  tents, 
and  other  traces  of  Franklin's  party,  but  no 
record ;  two  smaller  cairns  were  afterward 
examined,  and  on  May  6  a  large  one  Avas  ob 
served  at  Point  Victory,  where  Sir  James 
Ross  had  touched  in  1830.  Lying  among  some 
stones  which  had  fallen  from  the  top  of  the 


structure  was  a  tin  ease  enclosing  a  record, 
the  first  authentic  account  ever  obtained  of 
the  history  of  the  lost  expedition.  It  was 
written  on  one  of  the  printed  forms  used  in 
discovery  ships  for  the  purpose  of  being  en 
closed  in  bottles  and  thrown  overboard  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  direction  of  the  currents. 
It  read  as  follows : 

28  of  May.  1S4T.— II.  M.  ships  Erebus  and  Terror.  Win 
tered  in  the  ice  in  lat.  70"  5'  N.,  Ion.  98°  23'  W.  Having 
wintered  in  184G-'7  at  Beechey  island  in  lat.  74°  43'  28"  N., 
Ion.  91°  39'  15"  W.,  after  having-  ascended  Wellington  chan 
nel  to  lat.  77°  and  returned  by  the"  W.  side  of  Corn  wall!  s 
island.  Kir  John  Franklin  commanding  the  expedition.  All 
well.  Party  consisting  of  2  officers  and  0  men  left  the  ships 
on  Monday,  24th  May,  1847.  Wm.  Gore,  Lieut.;  (Jhas.  F. 
DCS  Voiux.  Mate. 

Around  the  margin  was  written  in  a  different 
hand : 

April  25, 1848.— H.  M.  ships  Terror  and  Erebus  were  de 
serted  on  the  22d  April,  5  leagues  N.  N.  W.  of  this,  having 
been  beset  since  12th  Sept.  Ib46.     The  officers  and  crews, 
consisting  of  105  souls,  under  the  command  of  Captain  F.  li. 
|    M.  Crazier,  landed  here— in  lat.  69°  87"  42",  Ion.  98"  4'  15". 
j    This  paper  was  found  by  Lt.  Irving  under  the  cairn  supposed 
to  Lave  been  built  by  Sir  James  Ross  in  1S>31,  4  miles  to  the 
1    northward,  where  it  had  been  deposited  by  the  late  Corn- 
j    mander  Core  in  June,  1847.     Sir  James  Ross's  pillar  has  not 
!    however  been  found,  and  the  paper  has  been  transferred  to 
;    this  position,  which  is  that  in  which  Sir  J.  Ross's  pillar  was 
[    erected.    .Sir  John  Franklin  died  on  the  llth  June,  Ib47,  and 
i    the  total  loss  by  deaths  in  the  expedition  has  been  to  this 
!   date  9  officers  and  15'rneu.*  JAMES  FITZJAMES.  Captain 

F.  R.  M.  CROZIER,  II.  M.  S.  Erebus. 

Captain  and  senior  offir. 
i   and  start  on  to-morrow,  26th, 
:   for  Back's  Fish  river. 

!  The  date  184C-'7  given  as  that  of  Franklin's 
j  wintering  at  Beechey  island  is  evidently  an 
j  error;  it  should  be  1845-'G.     Vast  quantities 
of  clothing  and  other  articles  were  found  here. 
The  wreck  was  not  seen,  nor  were  any  more 
skeletons  found ;    but  this  indeed  was  hardly 
to  have  been  expected,  as  the  route  toward 
Back  river  was  almost  all  the  way  over  ice 
which   breaks    up   in   summer.      Meeting  no 
more- of  the  Esquimaux  nor  further  traces  of 
the  lost  voyagers,  and  feeling  certain  that  the 
whole   expedition  had    perished,    McClintock 
returned  to  his   vessel,   June   19,   carrying   a 
great  number  of  relics,  many  of  which  had 
been  purchased  from   the  natives.       Besides 
solving  the  problem  which  had  engaged  arctic 
enterprise  for   11    years,    his   expedition   had 
completed  the  delineation  of  the  N.  shore  of 
the  American,  continent ;    laid  down  the  pre 
viously    unknown    outline    of    Boothia    and 
the  coast  of  King  William  land ;   proved  the 
navigability  of  Bellot  strait,  the  existence  of 
which  was  before  doubted ;  opened  a  new  and 
capacious  channel  extending  N.  WT.  from  Vic 
toria  strait  to  Parry  or  Melville  sound,  and 
|  since  named  at  the  suggestion  of  Lady  Frank- 
j  lin  McClintock  channel;  observed  many  inter- 
i  esting    facts    in    terrestrial   magnetism ;    and 
j  finally,  proved  Sir  John  Franklin  to  be  the  dis- 
I  coverer  of  the  northwest  passagV     With  the 
I  aid  of  McClintock's  narrative  we  are  now  able 

*  These  figures  make  the  original  force  of.  Franklin's  expe- 
j  dition  129,  whereas  it  has  commonly  been  stated  at  138.     It 
has  been  ascertained,  however,  that  only  134  actually  left 
England,  and  5  of  those  returned. 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


679 


to  trace  out  Franklin's  last  voyage.  During 
the  first  season  it  was  unusually  prosperous. 
Passing  up  Lancaster  sound,  he  explored  Wel 
lington  channel  (then  an  unknown  sea)  to  a 
point  further  N.  than  was  reached  by  either 
Penny,  De  Haven,  or  Belcher;  sailed  around 
Cornwallis  island,  and  wintered  at  Beechey 
island.  In  the  spring  and  summer  of  1846  he 
either  navigated  Bellot  strait,  or  more  prob- 
ably  pushed  through  Peel  sound,  reaching  Vic 
toria  strait,  where  he  was  finally  beset  in  Sep 
tember,  and  thus  supplied  the  only  link  want 
ing  to  complete  a  chain  of  water  communica 
tion  between  the  -two  oceans.  The  skeletons 
found  in  the  boat  near  Cape  Crozier  show  that 
after  the  abandonment  of  the  Erebus  and  Ter 
ror  a  party  attempted  to  return,  for  what  pur 
pose  can  only  be  conjectured.  The  Fox  found 
herself  free  from  ice  on  Aug.  9,  and  immediately 
made  sail  for  home,  reaching  the  Isle  of  Wight 
Sept.  20.  See  McClintock's  "Narrative  of 
the  Discovery  of  the  Fate  of  Sir  John  Frank 
lin  and  his  Companions "  (London  and  Bos 
ton,  I860);  also  "The  Search  for  Sir  John 
Franklin,"  in  the  "  Cornhill  Magazine,"  No. 
I.,  January,  1860  (by  Capt.  Allen  Young). 
— Dr.  Isaac  I.  Hayes,  a  member  of  Kane's 
party,  and  a  firm  believer  in  the  theory  of  the 
open  polar  sea,  soon  succeeded,  with  the  aid 
of  private  subscriptions,  in  organizing  and  fit 
ting  out  another  arctic  exploring  expedition. 
With  a  company  of  only  14  men,  he  left  Bos 
ton  July  6,  1860,  in  the  schooner  United  States, 
and  proceeded  directly  to  the  Greenland  ports 
of  Proven  and  Upernavik ;  at  the  latter  place 
he  arrived  Aug.  12,  and  besides  adding  to 
his  crew  three  Danes  and  three  Esquimaux 
hunters,  he  secured  sledge  dogs  for  the  win 
ter's  work.  Carruthers,  one  of  the  schooner's 
crew,  died  at  Upernavik.  Leaving  port,  Dr. 
Hayes's  expedition  entered  Baffin  bay  about 
Aug.  20,  but  was  so  delayed  by  ice,  among 
which  the  schooner  was  often  becalmed,  that 
although  the  party  had  hoped  to  reach  some 
point  between  lat.  79°  and  80°,  the  schooner 
was  frozen  in  at  a  point  but  little  N.  of  lat.  78°, 
in  a  harbor  which  Hayes  named  Port  Foulke. 
During  the  winter  Dr.  Hayes  made  several 
sledge  expeditions,  but  attained  no  important 
results  until  April  3,  when, .  with  several 
sledges  drawn  by  dogs,  a  life  boat  upon  an 
other  sledge  drawn  by  men,  and  12  of  the  ship's 
company,  he  started  from  Port  Foulke  to  cross 
Smith  sound  to  Grinnell  land;  for  along  the 
coast  of  this  Hayes  had  determined  to  proceed, 
all  progress  along  the  E.  shore  of  the  sound 
being  prevented  by  impassable  glaciers.  After 
encountering  difficulties  of  every  kind,  and 
after  sending  back  nearly  all  of  the  party  and 
several  sledges,  with  the  life  boat,  which  could 
be  carried  no  further,  Hayes  and  three  of  his 
men  succeeded  (May  11)  in  reaching  Grinnell 
land  at  a  point  called  Cape  Hawks.  They  im 
mediately  turned  to  the  north,  and  for  several 
days  skirted  the  coast,  travelling  on  smoother  ice 
and  with  less  danger  than  before.  But  Hayes's 


companions  were  greatly  exhausted,  and  he 
was  finally  compelled  to  leave  two  of  them. 
On  May  18, 1861,  Dr.  Hayes  and  his  remaining 
companion,  Knorr,  who  had  been  travelling 
among  soft  ice  for  several  days,  reached  a  point 
(lat.  81°  35',  Ion.  70°  30')  beyond  which  further 
progress  was  impossible  on  account  of  rotten 
ice  and  cracks.  This  was  the  most  northerly 
land  ever  reached ;  and,  climbing  a  headland, 
Hayes  found  himself  standing  upon  what  he 
believed  to  be  the  shores  of  the  polar  sea, 
which,  though  then  encumbered  with  soft  ice 
and  floes,  would,  he  felt  confident,  be  entirely 
open  in  the  summer  months.  To  the  north 
he  saw  a  lofty  headland,  klthe  most  northern 
known  land  upon  the  globe."  Having  no  boat, 
Hayes  'was  obliged  to  turn  back ;  rejoining  all 
his  companions,  he  reached  the  schooner  about 
the  1st  of  June,  after  a  wearisome  journey. 
Without  making  further  important  explora 
tions,  for  which,  the  schooner  had  been  unfitted 
by  injuries  from  the  ice  and  storms,  the  expedi 
tion  returned  successfully  to  Boston  in  October, 
1861.  The  civil  war  had  broken  out,  and  this 
led  Dr.  Hayes  to  at  once  abandon  the  project 
he  had  formed  of  returning  immediately  with  a 
steamer  to  the  arctic  seas.  In  his  story  of  the 
voyage  (uThe  Open  Polar  Sea,"  New  Y'ork, 
1867),  he  declared  that  he  had  by  no  means 
given  up  the  ultimate  accomplishment  of  hig 
plan.— In  1860  Capt.  Charles  F.  Hall,  who  had 
for  more  than  ten  years  been  deeply  interested 
in  arctic  discovery,  left  New  London,  Conn.,  in 
a  whale  ship,  which,  in  pursuance  of  his  plan, 
landed  him  on  the  W.  coast  of  Davis  strait, 
whence  he  intended,  with  boat  and  sledge,  to 
make  further  search  for  evidences  of  the  fate 
of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  men.  He  lost  his 
boat,  and  was  obliged  to  confine  his  explora 
tions  within  comparatively  narrow  limits.  He 
made,  however,  an  important  discovery — some 
traces  of  the  expedition  under  Frobisher,  300 
years  before.  On  Sept.  30  Hall  returned.  In 
1864  he  again  sailed  for  the  arctic  countries, 
landing,  with  only  two  Esquimaux  as  compan 
ions,  on  the  coast  of  Hudson  bay.  He  pene 
trated  to  the  north  as  far  as  Fury  and  Hecla 
strait,  journeyed  into  King  William  land,  and 
met  with  much  success.  Besides  bringing  home 
many  actual  relics  of  Franklin's  party,  he  suc 
ceeded  in  obtaining  such  exact  information 
from  the  Esquimaux  at  various  points  as  led 
him  to  suppose  that  Franklin  had  actually  ac-, 
complished  the  discovery  of  the  northwest 
passage  before  his  vessels,  then  in  winter  quar 
ters  (at  O'Reilly  island,  Capt.  Hall  believes), 
were  abandoned  by  their  crews.  Hall  seems 
to  have  finally  established,  by  the  universal  tes 
timony  of  the  tribes  he  visited,  the  truth  of  the 
Esquimaux  story  that  Franklin's  men  died  of 
starvation  in  King  William  land.  He  did  not, 
however,  succeed  in  finding  any  records  of  the 
expedition.  After  spending  five  successive  years 
among  the  Esquimaux,  passing  much  of  the 
time  near  Repulse  bay,  and  after  acquiring  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  their  language  and  cus- 


680 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


ARCTURUS 


toms,  Capt.  Hall  returned  in  September,  1869, 
to  the  United  States,  where  he  applied  himself 
to  the  organization  of  a  new  expedition. —  A 
German  arctic  expedition,  organized  by  Dr. 
Petermann  of  Gotha,  and  placed  under  the 
command  of  Capt,  Koldewcy,  left  Bremen  in 
the  spring  of  1868,  in  the  Greenland,  a  vessel 
of  80  tons  burden.  Leaving  Bergen,  Norway, 
in  May,  Koldewey  succeeded  in  reaching  a 
point  in  lat.  81°  5'  N.,  Ion.  16°  W.  He  returned 
in  October  to  Bremen.  In  1868  the  Swedish 
government  also  sent  out  an  expedition,  which 
sailed  to  the  north  of  Spitzbergen,  but  with 
out  any  noteworthy  discoveries. — In  1869  Dr. 
Hayes  visited  Upernavik  to  make  preparations 
for  the  expedition  he  had  not  ceased  to  plan  ; 
he  then  hoped  to  undertake  it  during  the  year 
1870.  In  a  small  steamer,  the  Panther,  Dr. 
Hayes  and  his  party  made  a  short  voyage  about 
the  arctic  seas,  but  did  not  prosecute  any  ex 
tensive  explorations. — On  June  15,  1869,  an 
other  German  expedition  left  Bremen ;  the 
vessels  were  the  Germania,  under  Capt.  Hege- 
mann,  and  the  Hansa,  under  Capt.  Koldewey. 
Through  a  mistake  in  the  reading  of  signals, 
the  two  vessels  parted  in  July,  the  Germania 
following  the  E.  coast  of  Greenland,  and  win 
tering  in  Sabine  bay;  while  the  Hansa  was 
wrecked  in  October  among  the  ice  along  the 
shore.  Her  crew  took  refuge  on  a  field  of 
moving  ice,  which,  as  it  floated  southward, 
gradually  diminished,  until,  after  it  had  become 
a  mere  raft,  they  were  obliged  to  take  to  their 
three  boats,  by  means  of  which  they  finally 
reached  Friedrichsthal,  near  Cape  Farewell. 
They  reached  home  in  the  summer  of  1870. 
Meanwhile  the  Germanna  had  endeavored,  but 
without  success,  to  reach  high  latitudes  by  fol 
lowing  the  E.  coast  of  Greenland ;  and  in  the 
autumn  she  also  returned  to  Bremen.  Though 
the  voyage  contributed  much  to  scientific 
knowledge,  no  new  discoveries  of  importance 
were  made  by  either  of  the  crews.  Several 
other  expeditions  were  sent  out  from  the  con 
tinent  of  Europe  in  1869,  but  they  accomplished 
little  beyond  scientific  research,  conducted  in 
regions  already  known. — Still  less  was  done  in 
1870.  Capt.  Sherard  Osborn,  of  the  British 
navy,  had  for  several  years  urged  a  new  ex 
pedition  by  way  of  Smith  sound  in  search  of 
the  open  polar  sea,  but  his  views  were  not 
sustained  by  the  board  of  admiralty,  and  he 
failed  to  secure  aid  from  the  government.  A 
French  scheme  for  arctic  exploration  was 
abandoned  on  account  of  the  war  with  Ger 
many. — In  1871  several  arctic  voyages  were 
begun.  In  the  summer  James  Lament,  an 
Englishman,  sailed  to  the  eastward  of  Green 
land,  but  made  no  new  discoveries.  In  June 
the  Austrian  lieutenants  Payer  and  Weyprecht, 
in  a  small  Norwegian  sailing  vessel,  sailed  from 
Tromso,  Norway,  into  the  Arctic  sea  to  the 
north  of  Nova  Zembla,  where  they  succeeded 
in  discovering  an  open  ocean  in  \yhich  naviga 
tion  was  only  impeded  by  very  light  and  scat 
tered  ice.  In  October  thev  returned  to  Troinso, 


having  penetrated  to  lat.  78°  41'  N.     Dr.  Peter- 
maun,  the  German  geographer,  looks  upon  the 
discoveries  made  by  this  unpretending  expedi- 
;  tion   as  most   important,   as  he   believes  that 
i  Payer  and  Weyprecht  actually  penetrated  into 
j  the  open  polar  sea,  and  found  the  entrance  of 
I  the  best,  if  not  the  only  water  passage  to  the 
1  neighborhood  of  the  pole.     Their  discoveries 
!  seem  also  to  confirm  the  theory  originally  ad- 
I  vanced  by  Capt.  Silas  Bent  of  the  TJ.  S.  navy, 
that  the  pole  can  best  be  reached  by  following 
;  the  course  of  the  Gulf  stream  northward  be- 
!  tween    Spitzbergen  and   Nova  Zembla;    it   is 
claimed  by  the  supporters  of  this  theory  that 
the  warmer  water  of  the  great  current  not  only 
keeps  the  northern  channel  free  from  ice  at  this 
point,  but  is  the  cause  of  the  open  polar  sea. 
An  expedition  fitted  out  by  A.  Rosenthal  of  Bre- 
merhaven  began  in  1871  the  exploration  of  the 
ocean  N.  of  Siberia.     The  Norwegian  captains 
Tobiesen  and  Mack  confirmed  the  discovery  of 
Payer  and  Weypreeht.     Another  Norwegian, 
Capt.  Carlsen,   discovered  the  remains  of  the 
winter  quarters  established  275  ye;ir.s  before  at 
the  N.  E.  end  of  Nova  Zembla  by  the  Dutch 
captain  Barentz.     Ulve  and  Smyth   sailed   to 
the  north  of  Spitzbergen  and  found  open  water 
even  in  lat.  80°  27'.     Finally,  Capt,  Hall  or 
ganized  at  last,  with  the  aid  of  congress,  his 
long  desired  American  expedition  toward  the 
pole  ;  and  on  June  29  he  sailed  from  New  York 
with  a  well  selected  corps  of  assistants  and 
crew,  in  the  wooden  steamer  Polaris,  of  about 
400  tons.     For  nearly  two  years  no  important 
news  was  received  from  the   explorers.     On 
April  29,  1873,  the  British  steamship  Tigress 
struck  an  ice  floe  in  lat.  53°  35'  N.,  Ion.  35° 
W.     On  this  floe  were  found  Capt.  Tyson,  one 
of  Hall's  officers,  and  18  others,  who  had  been 
196  days  on  the  ice,  and  drifted  about  2,000 
miles.     They  reported  that  on  Oct.  15,  1872, 
the  Polaris  being  fast  in  the  ice  about  lat.  77° 
35',  and  leaking  badly,  they  had  been  ordered 
to  land  provisions  ;  and  that  while  so  engaged 
the  floe  broke  up,  and  they  were  separated 
from  the  ship  and  rapidly  drifted  southward, 
without  seeing  her  again.     Their  report  gave 
the  following  details  of  the  expedition.     Capt. 
Hall  sailed  up  Kennedy  channel  and  through 
a   strait  which    he   named   Robeson,   and   on 
Aug.    24,    1871,    reached   lat.   82°   10'  N.     It 
being  deemed  prudent  to  fall  back,  the  Po 
laris  was  taken  on  Sept.  5  into  winter  quar 
ters  in   Thank  God  bay,  lat.  81°  38'  N.     On 
Oct.  10  Capt.  Hall  started  on  a  sledge  expe 
dition,  but  did  not  go  beyond  lat.  82°.     On 
|  his  return  he  was  taken  suddenly  ill,  and  died 
on  Nov.  8.     The  command  then  devolved  on 
j  Capt.  Buddington,  who  resolved  to  return,  and 
I  on    Aug.    12,    1872,    the   Polaris   was    turned 
southward.     She  drifted  with  the  ice  into  Baf- 
!  fin  bay,  where  Tyson  left  her. 

ARCTl'RIS  (Gr.  apK-oc,  bear,  and  ot>/™?,  guard. 

i  or  ovpa,  tail),  formerly  a  constellation  near  the 

Great  Bear.    Later  the  name  was  confined  to  the 

largest  star  in  the  constellation,  which  was  after- 


ARCUEIL 

ward  called  Bootes.  It  is  a  star  of  the  first  mag 
nitude,  and  was  at  one  time  erroneously  believ 
ed  to  be.  the  star  nearest  to  our  system. 

AlUTEIL,  a  village  of  France,  department  of 
Seine,  on  the  Bievre,  3i  in.  S.  of  Paris;  pop. 
in  I860,  5,024.  It  is  celebrated  for  an  aque 
duct  constructed  there  by  the  Roman  emperor 
Julian  during  his  abode  in  Paris,  to  convey  wa 
ter  from  the  Bievre  to  his  palace.  Remains  of 
this  are  still  seen  near  the  modern  aqueduct, 
constructed  by  Maria  de'  Medici  in  1618,  to 
bring  water  to  supply  the  gardens  and  the 
palace  of  the  Luxembourg  and  the  fountains  of 
Paris.  Arcueil  was  for  a  long  time  the  resi 
dence  of  the  chemist  Berthollet,  whose  friends, 
meeting  here  for  scientific  study  under  the  name 
of  societe  d?Arciwil,  published  several  volumes 
of  memoirs.  The  house  of  Berthollet  is  now 
a  college  of  that  branch  of  the  Dominican  order 
founded  by  Lacordaire. 

ARCY,  Grotto  of,  a  vast  and  beautiful  sta-  j 
lactitic  cavern,  which  consists  of  many  com-  ! 
partments.  near  Vermenton,  department  of  j 
Yonne,  in  France,  12  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Auxerre.  1 
The  hill  in  which  this  remarkable  cavern  exists  j 
stretches  into  the  valley  of  the  river  Cure,  j 
One  of  the  compartments  of  the  grotto  is  1,200  ! 
feet  long,  85  high,  and  40  wide.  In  the  first  | 
two  compartments  are  found  large  blocks  of  j 
stone,  and  in  the  second  compartment  is  a  ' 
spring  of  good  water.  In  the  other  chambers  ' 
stalactites  hang  from  the  roof,  while  stalag-  | 
mites  rise  column-like  from  the  ground.  The  ! 
caverns  are  supposed  to  have  been  quarries  | 
in  former  times,  but  have  been  abandoned  so  I 
long  that  every  trace  of  human  labor  is  obliter-  j 
ated.  It  is  said  that  the  stone  with  which  the  j 
cathedral  of  Auxerre  was  built  was  taken  from  ! 
the  grotto  of  Arcy. 

ARDABIL,  Ardebil,  or  Erdebil,  a  town  of  Per-  i 
sia,  in  the  province  of  Azerbijan,  110  m.  E.  of  ! 
Tabriz,  and  So  m.  W.  of  the  Caspian,  situated 
5,000  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sa- 
valan  mountains ;  pop.  about  4,000.    A  fine  and 
fertile  situation  has  made  it  a  favorite  resort  j 
of  Persian  princes.     Abbas  Mirza  had  a  fort  i 
built  there  as  a  protection  against  the  Russians,  j 
who  were  for  some  time  in  possession  of  the  ! 
town    during    the   war   of   1826-^8.      It 'was 
flourishing  in  former  centuries  under  the  Suf-  I 
fites,  whose  founder  as  well  as  the  first  shah  i 
of  that  dynasty  are  buried  here  in  a  beautiful  i 
mausoleum  which  is  a  resort  of  pilgrims.     The  j 
town  has  been  devastated  by  earthquakes  and  I 
is  in  decay,  though  still  retaining  some  com- 
meroia.1  importance. 

ARDECHE,   a   S.  E.   department  of    France,  | 
bounded  E.  by  the  Rhone;  area,  2,134  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872.  380,277.    The  river  Ardeche,  from 
which   it  has  its  name,  rises  near  its  centre 
and  flows  S.  S.  E.  to  the  Rhone.     The   Loire 
has  its  source  near  that  of  the  Ardeche,  and  I 
flows  in  the  opposite  direction.    A  large  portion 
of  the  surface  is  occupied  by  branches  of  the 
Cevennes  mountains.  The  department  is  rich  in 
iron  and  coal,  but  deficient  in  agricultural  pro- 


ARDITI 


GS1 


ducts,  though  potatoes  are  largely  raised,  chest 
nuts  are  plentiful  in  the  forests,  and  "the  pas- 
,  turage  is  fine.    Wine,  silk,  and  wool  are  among 
i  the  principal  exports,  as  well  as  various  manu 
factured  goods,   including   famous   stationery. 
|  Privas  is  the  capital,  and  the  other  chief  towns 
are  Annonay  and  Aubenas.     The  department 
is  divided  into  the  three  arrondissements  of 
Privas,  Largentiere!  and  Tournon. 

ARDEMES,  a  X.  E.  department  of  France, 
bounded   N".  by  Belgium;  area,  2,021  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1872,  320,217.     The  forest  of  the  Ar 
dennes,  an  elevated  wooded  tract,  from  which 
\  it  is  named,  begins  in  its  X.  part,  thence  spread- 
i  ing  in  various  branches,  but  chiefly  along  the 
Meuse  and  Sambre,  over  the  Belgian  provinces 
!  of  Namur,  Hainault,  and  Liege,  and  over  Lux- 
i  emburg.     The    department   is   also  traversed, 
;  mainly  in  the  east  and  centre,  by  ridges  and  off- 
|. shoots  of  the  Argonnes.     The  principal  rivers 
i  are  the  Meuse  and  the  Aisne.    The  valley  of  the 
latter  is  remarkable  for  its  large  crops,  and  there 
are  other  very  fertile  valleys.    Among  the  sheep 
are  several  long-wooled  and  /merino  breeds ; 
the  horses  are  fine,  and  game  abounds.    There 
ave  iron,  lead,  calamine,  and  coal  mines,  and 
important  slate  and  marble  quarries.    Xails  and 
other  iron  wares,  earthenware,  glass,  leather, 
woollens,  firearms,  and  other  articles  are  man 
ufactured.     Timber  is  the  fuel  used  in  the  iron 
and  copper   works,    besides    being  exported. 
The  capital. is  Mezieres.      Sedan  is  the  chief 
place  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  and  Charle- 
ville  for  the  iron  trade.     The  department  is 
divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Mezieres, 
Rocroy,  Rethel,  Youziers,  and  Sedan. 

ARDESHIR,  Ardshir,  or  Artaxerxes,  Babrgan, 
founder  of  the  Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sassan- 
ides  in  A.  D.  226,  died  about  240.  According 
to  a  critical  opinion  not  fully  established,  he 
was  the  son  of  Babek,  son  of  Sassan,  a  shepherd, 
who  claimed  descent  from  the  line  of  the  ancient 
Persian  kings ;  and  the  son  gradually  gained  an 
importance  which  brought  upon  him  the  enmity 
of  Artaban,  the  last  ruler  of  the  Parthian  em 
pire.  Ardeshir  then  announced  his  intention  to 
recover  the  throne  of  his  ancestors  and  to  exter 
minate  the  Arsacide  usurpers.  lie  gave  battle 
to  Artaban,  whom  he  vanquished  and  put  to 
death,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
shahan  shah,  "king  of  kings."  He  rapidly  re 
covered  the  provinces  constituting  the  old  Per 
sian  empire,  and  even  extended  its  limits.  A  war 
with  the  Romans  was  of  short  duration.  During 
the  years  of  profound  repose  which  marked  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  he  cultivated  the  arts 
of  peace,  and  as  a  jurist  and  legislator  showed 
remarkable  capacity.  His  principal  achieve 
ment  at  home  was  the  restoration  of  the  pure 
Zoroastrian  religion. 

ARDITI,  Lnigi,  an  Italian  violinist  and  com 
poser,  born  at  Crescentino  in  Piedmont,  July 
22,  1822.  He  received  his  musical  education 
in  the  conservatory  at  Milan,  and  first  made 
himself  known  in  public  concerts  as  a  violin 
ist  in  1839.  In  1841  his  opera  /  Briganti 


682 


ARE 


AKEQUIPA 


was  produced  at  Milan.  In  1851  he  visited 
Havana  'and  the  United  States,  and  was  for 
several  seasons  conductor  at  the  Italian  opera 
houses  in  New  York.  While  in  that  city  he  com 
posed  an  opera  entitled  La  Sjjia,  the  plot  of 
which  was  hased  upon  incidents  in  Cooper's 
novel  ik  The  Spy.*'  To  identity  it  as  an  Ameri 
can  work,  'k  Hail  Columbia"  was  introduced  as 
the  finale.  The  opera  was  brought  out  at  the 
New  York  academy  of  music  March  24,  1850, 
but  its  merits  did  not  entitle  it  to  any  great 
success.  Shortly  after  this  production  Arditi 
went  to  London,  where  he  became  the  leader  of 
the  opera  at  her  majesty's  theatre.  His  songs 
have  met  with  a  greater  popularity  than  his 
more  ambitious  compositions. 

ARE  (from  Lat.  area,  a  broad  piece  of  level 
ground),  the  unit  of  surface  in  the  French  sys 
tem  of  measures,  equivalent  to  a  square  deca 
metre,  or  1,076*44  English  square  feet.  Parts 
of  an  arc  are  expressed  by  Latin  prefixes,  de- 
ciare,  centiare,  &c.,  signifying  one  tenth,  one 
hundredth,  CYC.,  of  an  are.  Multiples  of  an  are 
have  Greek  prefixes,  decare,  hectare,  &c.,  sig 
nifying  ten,  one  hundred,  &c.,  ares. 

ARENDAL,  a  town  of  S.  E.  Norway,  on  .a 
river  of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  and  40 
in.  N.  E.  of  Christiansand  ;  pop.  in  1865,  7,181. 
It  is  built  on  piles  and  islands,  and  has  been 
called  "Little  Venice"  on  account  of  its  canals 
and  picturesque  appearance.  The  harbor  is 
protected  by  the  opposite  island  of  Tromo, 
and  there  is  an  active  trade  in  iron  and  timber. 

AREOLAR  TISSUE.     See  CELLULAR  TISSUE. 

AREOMETER.     See  HYDROMETER. 

AREOPAGIS,  the  hill  (Gr.  Trdyof)  of  Ares  or 
Mars,  a  craggy  eminence  in  ancient  Athens, 
not  far  from  the  Acropolis,  famous  as  the  spot 
where  the  celebrated  council  or  court  of  the 
same  name  held  its  sittings.  This  body  was, 
above  all  similar  courts  of  Greece,  distinguished 
by  its  great  antiquity  and  high  character.  Its 
origin  is  can-led  back  by  ancient  writers  as  far 
as  the  time  of  Cecrops  ;  but  Solon  is  supposed 
to  have  framed,  or  at  least  greatly  modified,  the 
historical  constitution  of  the  Areopagus,  and  to 
have  extended  its  functions,  so  that  from  being 
merely  a  criminal  tribunal,  its  jurisdiction 
reached  the  general  morals  of  society  and  the 
political  affairs  of  the  state — touched  every 
thing,  in  fact,  which  concerned  the  public 
weal.  It  is  not  known  of  how  many  members 
the  Areopagus  Avas  composed,  and  possibly  the 
number  was  unlimited,  the  members  serving 
for  life,  and  consisting  of  ex-archons  of  un 
spotted  character.  Pericles  is  said  to  have  de- 
E  rived  it,  of  a  portion  of  its  prerogatives,  and 
iter  its  members  were  made  responsible  to  the 
people.  Its  fame  was  alive  in  the  time  of  Ci 
cero,  and  even  as  late  as  the  emperor  Theodo- 
sius.  In  the  records  of  Christendom  the  hill  of 
Mars  is  memorable  as  the  spot  where  the  apos 
tle  Paul  commenced  the  delivery  of  a  discourse, 
the  outline  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  book 
of  Acts.  There  is  no  intimation  that  Paul  was 
brought  before  the  council  of  the  Areopagus. 


AREQHPA.  I.  A  S.  department  of  Peru, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  the  Pacific ;  area,  about 
45,000  sq. 'm. ;  pop.  about  200,000.  It  is 
divided  into  the  provinces  of  Arequipa,  Islay, 
Castella,  Camana,  Union,  Condesuyos,  and 
Cailloma.  The  eastern  section  is  a  high  table 
land  belonging  to  the  Andes  region ;  the  rest 
lies  between  the  main  range  of  the  Andes 
and  the  Pacific.  The  mountains  are  for  the 
most  part  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  from 
which  rises  the  volcano  of  Misti  or  Arequipa 
to  a  height  of  about  20,000  ft.  The  west 
ern  section  is  very  fertile,  and  is  watered 
by  the  Ocona,  Camana,  and  other  rivers,  all 
of  which  flow  to  the  Pacific.  By  reason  of 
the  diversity  of  elevation,  almost  every  known, 
vegetable  product  of  the  earth  is  raised. 
Oil,  wine,  and  brandy  of  good  quality  are 
made,  and  the  fruits  of  the  department 
have  earned  for  it  the  title  of  the  garden  of 
Peru.  The  western  portion  is  covered  with 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  while  the  mountains 


Volcano  of  Misti  or  Arequipa. 

and  plateaux  abound  with  llamas,  alpacas,  gua- 
nacos,  vicunas,  and  other  wool-bearing  quad 
rupeds.  Silver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  sulphur,  rock 
crystal,  and  coal  are  found.  Earthquakes  are 
very  frequent  and  disastrous,  and  are  invariably 
accompanied  by  eruptions  of  the  volcanoes  of 
Misti,  Ornate,  Tutupaca,  and  Ubinas.  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  preceding  department,  sit 
uated  7,850  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the  river 
Chili,  40  m.  from  the  coast,  in  lat.  16°  30'  S., 
Ion.  72°  20'  W.,  480  m.  S.  W.  of  Lima,  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  district  and  near  several  gold 
and  silver  mines;  pop.  about  35,000.  It  was 
one  of  the  best  built  towns  in  South  America, 
having' a  cathedral  and  several  other  churches, 
9  convents,  a  college,  a  hospital,  and  houses  of 
stone  solidly  constructed  and  vaulted ;  but  it 
was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  the  earthquake 
of  Aug.  13-15,  1808,  in  which  nearly  every 
house  was  levelled  with  the  -ground  and  600 
persons  were  killed.  A  similar  disaster  had 


ARES 


ARGALL 


cs.: 


happened  to  the  city  on  four  previous  occa 
sions.  Its  ancient  site  was  two  leagues  E.  of 
the  present  one ;  the  removal  was  made  after 
Arequipa  had  been  nearly  buried  in  ashes  from 
the  volcano  of  Misti  i^  the  16th  century. 

ARES.     See  MARS. 

ARETEtS,  a  Greek  physician  of  Cappado- 
cia,  tloarished  about  A.  D.  100.  His  contem 
poraries  rank  him  next  to  Hippocrates.  He 
wrote  a  comprehensive  treatise,  in  eight  books, 
on  acute  and  chronic  diseases,  which  is  still 
extant,  and  was  published  by  Wigan  (Oxford, 
1723)  and  by  Kiilm  (Leipsic,  1828). 

ARETHISA,  a  fountain  in  the  island  of  Orty- 
gia,  which  formed  a  part  of  the  ancient  Syra 
cuse,  in  Sicily.  The  ancients  supposed  its 
waters  to  he  united  with  those  of  the  river  Al- 
pheus  in  Peloponnesus.  The  naiad  of  the  foun 
tain  was  the  nereid  Arethusa.  (See  ALPIIEUS.) 
— Another  Arethusa  was  one  of  the  Hesperides, 
the  guardians  of  the  golden  apples,  to  obtain 
which  was  one  of  the  12  labors  of  Hercules. 

ARETIXO.  I.  Guido,  or  Gnido  d'Arczzo,  a  Bene 
dictine  monk,  born  at  Arezzo  near  the  end  of 
the  10th  century.  He  early  occupied  himsalf 
in  devising  new  methods  of  writing  and  teach 
ing  music.  Instead  of  a  group  or  tetrachords 
like  the  Greek  method,  or  of  heptachords  such 
as  Gregory  adopted,  he  proposed  a  new  system, 
consisting  of  hexachords.  The  six  syllables  by 
which  he  designated  his  notes  were  suggested 
to  him,  it  is  said,  by  a  Latin  hymn  to  St.  John: 

UT  queant  laxis  TP.E'sonare  fibris 
J//ra  gestorum    ^'./Imuli  tuorum, 
SOLve  polluti      Z^lbii  rcatuin, 
Sancte  Johannes. 

To  the  seventh  note,  si,  he  gave  no  name,  and 
for  a  long  time  it  continued  to  be  called  b. 
Guide's  new  method  of  solmization  attracted 
much  attention.  AVhereas  ten  years  had  been 
x-equired  to  learn  to  read  music,  a  chant  could 
be  mastered  by  this  method  in  a  few  days,  and 
a  year  sufficed  to  make  a  skilful  singer."  Pope 
John  XVIII.  (1024-'33)  invited  Guido  to  his 
court  and  was  greatly  pleased  with  his  plan. 
Guido  not  only  facilitated  the  reading  of  music, 
but  simplified  the  manner  of  writing  it.  Since 
St.  Gregory,  attempts  had  been  made  to  im 
prove  musical  notation.  Already  the  seven 
letters,  formerly  written  on  one  line,  were 
placed  on  parallel  lines,  to  indicate  the  rising 
and  falling  of  the  voice.  Guido,  instead  of  re 
peating  the  letter,  wrote  it  at  the  beginning  of 
the  line,  and  each  time  it  occurred  marked  a 
point  on  the  line.  He  ended  by  placing  the 
points  within  the  lines,  thus  rendering  the 
written  composition  more  compact.  Guido  has 
the  fame  of  being  the  inventor  of  the  modern 
gamut.  II.  See  BEUXI,  LEOXAEDO.  III.  Pietro, 
an  Italian  writer,  born  in  Arezzo  in  1492,  died 
in  Venice  in  1557.  He  was  the  natural  son  of 
a  gentleman  named  Luigi  Bacci,  and  was 
brought  up  by  his  mother,  Tita.  While  still 
very  young  he  was  obliged  to  leave  his  native 
city  on  account  of  having  written  a  sonnet 
against  indulgences,  and  went  to  Perugia,  where 


for  a  long  time  he  supported  himself  as  a  book 
binder.     Thence  he  went  on  foot  to  Rome,  and 
obtained  employment  in  the  service  of  Popes 
Leo  X.  and  Clement  VII. ;   but,  having  com- 
i  posed  1 G  sonnets  for  as  many  licentious  designs 
1  of  Giulio  Romano,  he  was  forced  to  retire  to 
!  Arezzo  (1524),  and  soon  afterward  to  the  court 
,  of  Giovanni  de'  Medici.    At  length  he  returned 
,  to  Rome,  where  he  made  love  to  a  cook,  and 
'  composed  a  sonnet  in  her  praise.     A  Bolognese 
gentleman,  Achille  della  Volta,  was  a  rival  lover, 
and  finding  Aretino  one  day  alone,  stabbed  him 
j  five  times  in  the  breast  and  maimed  his  hands 
!  (1525).    Displeased  with  the  refusal  of  the  pope 
i  to  punish  his  assailant,   Aretino  sought  once 
more  the  court  of  Giovanni  de'  Medici.     This 
;  prince  having  been  killed  in  battle  in  1526, 
]  Aretino  resolved  to  have  no  more  protectors, 
;  but  to  support  himself  by  his  pen.     With  this 
j  view  he  went   to  Venice  in  1527,   where  he 
I  chiefly  passed  the  rest  of  his  life,  becoming  re 
conciled  with  the  pope  in  1530.     His  end  was 
peculiar.     Having  heard  of  some  excesses  of 
his  sisters,  he  found  them  so  comical  that  he 
threw  himself  back  in  his  chair  laughing,  fell 
over  backward,  and  was  killed. 

AREZZO.    I.  A  province  of  Italy,  in  Tuscany ; 

area,  1,276  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  239,901.     It"is 

watered  by  the  Aruo,  and  includes  the  valley 

;  of  the  Chiana,  20  m.  long,  formerly  a  vast  and 

I  pestilential  marsh,  but  which  has  been  drained 

:  within   the   last   century   and   converted  into 

about  40  sq.  in.  of  the  most  fertile  land  of  Italy 

;  and  perhaps  of  Europe.     Arezzo  is  famous  for 

|  its  wines,   corn,   oil,   and  fruits.     Among  the 

I  towns  of  this  province  are  Cortona  and  Monte- 

I  pulciano.     II.  A  city  (anc.  Arretium  or  Are- 

\  tium\  capital  of  the  preceding  province,  situ- 

I  ated  in  a  fertile  valley,  near  the  confluence  of 

the  Chiana  and  Arno,  about  3G  m.  S.  E.  of 

Florence;    pop.   38,907.     In   antiquity  it  was 

\  one   of  the   principal   states   of  Etruria.     Its 

extensive  wralls  are  undoubtedly  Etruscan,  and 

were  of  importance  to  the  Romans  as  a  bar- 

i  rier  against  the  Cisalpine  Gauls.     It  was  cele- 

j  brated    for   its   terra-cotta   vases,    ranked    by 

Pliny   with   those. of  Samos   and    Saguntum. 

During  the  contest  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibel- 

lines,  Arezzo,  then  a  very  populous  city,  fought 

against   Florence,   but  was  finally  obliged   to 

|  yield.     Among   the   public   buildings   are   the 

<  magnificent  Loggie,  by  Arasari,  the  cathedral 
I  and  several  beautiful  churches,  the  Museo  Bac- 

<  ci,  and  the  Palazzo  Publico,   which  has  upon 
;  its  front  a  curious  series  of  the  armorial  bear- 
|  ings  of  the  successive  podestas,  amounting  to 
:  several   hundreds.     It   is   the   birthplace  of  a 
;  number  of  distinguished   men,   hence   known 
j  by  the  surname  of  Aretino,  as  well  as  of  Pe- 

|  trarch,  Vassari,  and  others. 

ARG.EIS,  Mount.     See  ARJISH. 

ARGALI.     See  SHEEP. 

ARGALL,  Sanmel,  one  of  the  early  adventurers 

!  to  Virginia,  born  in  Bristol,  England,  in  1572, 

.  died  in  1639.     His  first  public  exploit  was  the 

abduction   of  Pocahontas,    in  1612,   from  the 


684 


ARGELANDER 


ARGENSON 


care  of  a  chief  who  had  been  intrusted  by  Pow- 
hatan  with  the  charge  of  his  daughter,  but  who 
surrendered  her  for  the  bribe  of  a  brass  kettle. 
Taking  her  to  Jamestown,  he  gave  her  to  the 
governor,  Lord  Delaware.  In  1617  he  became 
deputy  governor  of  Virginia,  in  which  office  he 
demeaned  himself  so  tyrannically  that  he  was 
recalled  in  1619,  returning  to  England  with 
immense  wealth.  Under  the  governorship  of 
Sir  Thomas  Dale  he  commanded  an  expedition 
which  sailed  in  1013  to  Port  Royal  in  Xova 
Scotia,  which  place  he  reduced  and  plundered, 
driving  the  French  colonists  into  the  woods. 
He  also  destroyed  the  French  settlement  of 
St.  Saviour  on  Mount  Desert  island.  It  has 
been  stated  that  on  his  return  to  Virginia 
he  appeared  before  New  Amsterdam,  and 
summoned  the  Hollanders  to  surrender  their 
territory  on  the  ground  that  Henry  Hud 
son,  its  discoverer,  was  an  Englishman ;  but 
Brodhead,  in  his  "History  of  NewT  York,"  ar 
rives  at  the  conclusion  that  the  whole  story  is 
fabulous.  After  the  death  of  Lord  Delaware, 
Argall  took  charge  of  his  estate,  and  letters  of 
Lady  Delaware  now  in  existence  accuse  him 
of  the  most  flagrant  peculation. 

ARGELAXDEK,  Friediieh  Willielm  Angnst,  a 
German  astronomer,  born  at  Memel,  March  22, 
1799.  He  attended  the  university  of  Konigs- 
berg,  where  he  at  first  devoted  himself  to  po 
litical  science.  His  attention  was  turned  toward 
the  study  of  astronomy  by  the  lectures  of  Bes- 
sel,  and  in  1821  he  was  made  his  assistant  in 
the  observatory.  In  1822  he  was  appointed 
an  instructor  in  the  university.  In  the  same 
year  he  published  his  Untersuchungen  ul>cr  die 
Bahn  des  grossen  Kometen  Ton  1811,  establish 
ing  the  length  of  the  comet's  period  as  2,840 
years.  In  1823  he  was  made  chief  of  a  new 
observatory  at  Abo,  where  he  passed  several 
years,  publishing  in  1830  and  1832  the  results 
of  his  observations  in  560  different  cases  (Obser 
vation  es  Astronomies  Abom  factm,  3  vols.,  Hel- 
singfors),  and  in  1835  the  determination  of  the 
positions  of  the  stars  he  had  observed  (DLX 
Stellarum  Fixarum  Positioner  Media?).  In 
1837  appeared  his  great  work,  Ueber  die  eigene 
Bewegung  des  Sonnensy  stems  (St.  Petersburg), 
in  which  he  proved  the  truth  of  Herschel's 
theory  concerning  the  independent  movement 
of  the  solar  system.  In  1832  he  had  been  ap 
pointed  a  professor  at  the  university  of  Hel- 
singfors,  and  after  superintending  the  building 
of  an  observatory,  which  was  completed  about 
the  time  of  the  publication  of  his  last-mentioned 
work,  he  accepted  a  professorship  at  Bonn. 
Here  also  he  took  charge  of  the  building  of  a 
new  observatory,  and  completed  it  in  1845. 
He  published  in  1846  Durclimusteru-ng  des 
nordliclien  Himmels  zwischen  45°  and  80°  nord- 
licher  Breite  (Bonn).  His  other  noteworthy 
works  are  :  Neue  Uranographie  (Berlin,  1843) ; 
Atlas  des  nordliclien  gcstirnten  Himmels  (Bonn, 
1857);  and  a  catalogue  of  more  than  216,000 
stars,  printed  in  the  third  and  fourth  volumes 
of  the  Astronojnische  Beobaclitungen  auf  der 


Sternwarte  zu  Bonn.  He  was  chosen  a  mcm- 
I  her  of  the  French  institute  in  1850.  Within 
I  the  last  ten  years  he  has  devoted  himself  to  ob- 
:  servations  of  variable  stars. 

ARGENS,  Jean  Baptiste  de  Boyer,  marquis  d',  a 
;  French  writer,  born  in  Aix,  June  24,  1704,  died 
in  Toulon,  June  11,  1771.  He  entered  the  army, 
but  in  consequence  of  an  escapade  with  an 
actress  his  relatives  procured  his  appointment 
|  as  secretary  of  legation  to  the  French  embassy 
at  Constantinople.  On  his  return  from  Turkey 
he  again  joined  the  army  ;  but  during  the  siege 
|  of  Kehl  he  was  wounded,  and  soon  after  a  fall 
;  from  his  horse  disabled  him  for  military  service. 
:  As  his  father  had  disinherited  him,  he  took  to 
literature  to  support  himself;  and  availing 
himself  of  the  liberty  of  the  press  in  Holland, 
he  published  there  his  Lettres  juives,  Lettres 
chinoiscs,  and  Lettres  cabalistiques,  each  in 
several  volumes.  These  attracted  the  atten 
tion  of  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  the  future 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  wished  him  to  come 
to  Berlin ;  but  D'Argens  would  not  go,  be 
cause,  as  he  wrote  in  apology,  he  was  afraid 
that  his  tall  figure  would  tempt  King  Frederick 
William  to  enroll  him  in  his  army.  However, 
after  the  accession  of  Frederick  the  marquis 
went  to  Potsdam,  was  appointed  director  of 
fine  arts  in  the  academy  of  Berlin,  and  was  on 
the  best  of  terms  with  the  king  until  he  mar 
ried  an  actress  without  asking  the  royal  con 
sent.  He  then  returned  to  France,  where  he 
remained  till  his  death.  His  most  important 
work  is  his  Ilistoire  de  Vesprit  liumain. 

ARGENSON,  Voycr  d',  a  distinguished  French 
family  of  Touraine.  I.  Rene  Louis,  marquis  d', 
born  Oct.  18,  1694,  died  Jan.  10,  1757.  In 
1741  Louis  XV.  appointed  him  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  and  he  held  this  office  till  1747, 
wrhen  the  intrigues  of  Spain,  whose  policy  he 
had  frustrated  in  his  negotiations  with  Italy, 
brought  about  his  resignation.  From  that 
time  he  devoted  himself  principally  to  litera 
ture,  and  wrote,  besides  essays,  Considerations 
stir  le  gouvernement  de  la  France.  II.  Marc 
Pierre,  count  d',  "brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
Aug.  18,  1696,  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  22,  1764. 
He  was  for  some  time  secretary  of  the  war  de 
partment  under  Louis  XV.,  and  in  this  capacity 
!  did  much  for  France  during  the  war  which  pre- 
I  ceded  and  the  peace-  which  followed  the  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748.  D'Alembert  and 
I  Diderot  dedicated  to  him  their  Encyclopaedia, 
!  begun  during  his  ministry,  and  he  furnished 
Voltaire  with  valuable  materials  for  his  Siecle 
de  Louis  XIV.  HI.  Marc  Antoine  Rene  de  Palmy, 
son  of  Rene  Louis,  born  in  1722,  died  in  1787. 
He  was  ambassador  in  Switzerland,  Poland, 
and  Venice,  but,  disappointed  in  obtaining  the 
Roman  mission,  he  resigned  his  public  offices 
and  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits.  He 
edited  40  volumes  of  the  Bibliotheque  unixcr- 
selle  des  romans,  including  some  of  his  own 
novels.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
'  academy,  and  appointed  governor  of  the  arsenal, 
i  and  distinguished  himself  by  the  splendid  col- 


ARGENTAN 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


G85 


lection  of  150,000  volumes  with  which  he  en 
dowed  its  library.  IV.  Marc  Ren5,  grandson  of 
Rene  Louis,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  10,  1771,  died 
there,  Aug.  2,  1842.  He  served  for  a  time  as 
adjutant  of  Gen.  Lafayette.  In  1809  lie  be 
came  prefect  of  the  department  of  Deux-Nethes 
(Yiow  province  of  Antwerp,  Belgium),  but  relin 
quished  his  place  on  account  of  a  disagreement 
with  the  ministry,  caused  by  D'Argenson's  re 
fusal  to  sequester  the  property  of  the  mayor  of 
Antwerp,  lie  took  an  active  part  in  the  ex 
pulsion  of  the  English  from  Walcheren.  Du 
ring  the  hundred  days  he  was  a  member  of  the 
house  of  representatives  for  Belfort,  and  be 
longed  to  the  deputation  who  besought  the 
allied  forces  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  Bour 
bons.  He  was  reflected  as  deputy  after  the 
second  restoration,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  eloquent  denunciation  of  the  massacre 
of  the  Protestants  in  the  south  of  France.  In 
1830  he  reentered  the  chamber  of  deputies  as 
member  for  Strasburg,  and  created  a  great 
sensation  by  taking  his  parliamentary  oath 
with  the  words  Je  le  jure,  sauf  les  progres  de 
la  raison  publique.  In  May,  1832,  he  was  one 
of  the  opposition  members  who  signed  the 
famous  Compte  rendu,  and  in  October,  1833,  he 
signed  the  manifesto  of  the  societe  des  droits 
de  Vhomme.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  leaders 
of  the  secret  society  charbonnerie  democra- 
tique,  and  was  designated  as  the  future  dic 
tator  of  France  in  case  of  a  revolution. 

ARGENTAN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Orne,  in  Normandy,  situated  on  the 
river  Orne,  22  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Alengon ;  pop.  in 
1866,  5,401.  It  is  finely  situated  on  a  hill  in  the 
midst  of  fertile  plains ;  and  the  ramparts  and 
ditches  have  been  converted  into  promenades. 
There  are  two  large  Gothic  churches  and  a  col 
lege.  Formerly  the  town  was  famous  for  its 
laces  (point  d'Argentan  and  point  d"1  Alencori), 
but  the  chief  industry  consists  at  present  in 
manufacturing  gloves,  leather,  and  embroidery, 
and  in  exporting  cattle  and  cheese. 

ARGENTEUIL,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de 
partment  of  Seine-et-Oise,  on  the  Seine,  5  m. 
N.  W.  of  Paris ;  pop.  in  1866,  8,176.  It  carries 
on  an  active  trade  in  wine  of  inferior  qual 
ity.  Among  the  adjoining  country  seats  is 
the  chateau  du  Marais,  formerly  owned  by 
Mirabeau.  The  town  originated  from  the  con 
vent  or  priory  of  Argenteuil  founded  in  the 
7th  century,  and  converted  by  Charlemagne 
into  a  nunnery,  of  which  Heloi'se  became  ab 
bess,  after  having  been  educated  and  taken  vows 
there.  Its  ruins  are  still  extant. 

ARGENTEt'IL,  a  W.  county  of  the  province 
of  Quebec,  Canada,  bounded  S.  by  the  Ottawa 
river ;  area,  850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  12,806. 
The  soil  is  in  many  parts  of  exceptionally  good 
quality.  There  is  a  quarry  of  French  buhr- 
stone  in  Grenville  township.  Capital,  Lachute. 

ARGEXTEUS  CODEX,  an  old  uncial  MS.  of  the 
four  gospels  in  the  Hoeso-Gothic  dialect,  written 
or  stamped  in  silver  letters  (except  the  initials, 
which  are  in  gold)  on  violet-colored  vellum. 


[  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  executed  about  the 
:  6th  century,  and  is  a  copy  of  the  version  made 
,  in  the  4th  by  Ulfilas,  the  Arian  bishop  of  the 
;  Mo2so-Goths.  This  codex  was  discovered  in 
i  the  library  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Wer- 
|  den  in  1597,  and  after  changing  hands,  either 
!  honestly  or  by  stealth,  several  times,  came  at 
,  length  into  the  possession  of  the  library  of 
j  Upsal  for  the  consideration  of  about  $1,250. 
|  Facsimile  editions  of  some  portions  of  it  have 
i  been  published  by  Knittel,  and  also  by  Angelo 
|  Mai  (1819).  Mai  also  discovered  some  palhnp- 
I  sests  of  this  version  in  the  Ambrosian  library, 
|  which  have  been  published.  These  more  recent 
discoveries  have  aided  to  fill  the  chasms  in  the 
Argenteus  Codex,  and  so  to  enhance  its  value 
to  Biblical  literature. 

ARGENTINE    REPUBLIC    (La  Eepullica  Ar 
gentina;  formerly  more  commonly  called  AE- 
GENTINE  CONFEDERATION),  an  independent  state 
of  South  America,  between  lat.  21°  and  41°  S., 
and  Ion.  53°  and  71°  17'  W.,  bounded  X.  by  Bo 
livia,  E.  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the 
Atlantic,  S.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean  and  Patago 
nia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Rio  Ne- 
j  gro,  and  W.  by  the  Andes,  separating  it  from 
j  Chili.     The  Argentines  dispute  with  Chili  the 
j  right  to  the  territory  S.  of  the  Rio  Negro  as  far 
I  as  Tierra  del  Fuego,  according  to  the  original 
!  division  by  the  government  of  Spain.    The  area 
j  of  the  republic,  including  the  undisputed  por- 
j  tion  of  the  Gran  Chaco,  is  841,000  sq.  m.    If  to 
this  be  added  that  part  of  the  Chaco  from  the 
j  Bermejo  N.  to  lat.  22°,  as  claimed  by  the  gov 
ernment,  the  area  would  be  about  1,000,000  sq. 
m.     The  14  provinces  into  which  the  country 
is  divided,  with  their  area  and  population,  ac 
cording  to  the  census  of  1869,  are  as  follows: 


PROVINCES. 


Area,  sq.  m.j     Population. 


LITTORAL  OR  EIVERINE  PROVINCES. 

Buenos  Ayres 70.000 

Corrientes ,  60.000 

Entre-Eios !  50.000 

Santa  Fe i  20,000 

ANDINE  PROVINCES. 

Catamarca. ...  i  35.000 

Mendoza 65.000 

La  Eioja :  35.000 

San  Juan 33,000 

CENTRAL  PROVINCES. 


Cordoba 

San  Luis 

Santiago  del  Estero 

Tucuman  . . , 


NORTHERN  PROVINCES. 


Salta 


60.000 
20.000 
35.000 
28,000 


50.000 


Jujuy 30,000 

Total...  .     591,000 


343,366 
120.198 
115.963 

75,178 


79.551 
59.269 
48.493 
53,007 


20^.771 

52,761 

132.763 

103,602 


85,959 
37,357 

1,526,7:38 


!  These  figures  show  an  increase  of  140  per  cent. 
|  as  .compared  with  the  census  of  1836.  All 
j  the  provincial  capitals  bear  the  names  of 
I  their  respective  provinces  except  that  of  Entre- 
!  Rios,  which  is  Concepcion  (La  Concepcion  del 


686 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


Uruguay).  The  chief  towns,  with  their  pop 
ulation  in  1809,  are:  Buenos  Ayres,  177,787; 
(Jorrientes,  10,070;  Concepcion,  6,513;  Santa 
Fe,  10,670;  Catamarca,  5,718;  Mendoza,  8,124; 
La  Rioja,  4,489;  San  Juan,  8,853;  Cordoba, 
28,523;'  San  Luis,  3,748;  Santiago,  7,775; 
Tucumun,  17,438;  Salta,  11,710;  Jujuy,  3,072. 
These,  added  to  the  provincial  population,  and 
47,270  absent  at  war,  make  a  total  population 
of  1,879,410.  The  number  of  immigrants  in 


!  1803  was  10,400;  in  1804,  11,082;  in  1865, 
11,770;  in  1800,  13,900;  in  1867,  23,900;  in 

|  1808,  29,384;  in  1809,  37,934;  in  1870,  39,007; 

I  in  1871,  over  40,000.  The  principal  centres 
of  immigration  are  Buenos  Ayres,  Santa  Fe, 

I  Entre-Rios,    Cordoba,    Corrientes,    Salta,    and 

I  San  Juan.  The  foreign  population  in  the  prov 
ince  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  set  down  in  1809  at 
250,000,  made  up  of  the  following  elements : 

;  Italians,  70,000;  Basques,  40,000;  French,  30,- 


i 

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Comprised 


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#,          % ^  3"^.     1^'''  •  Fip^ ^        x 


i^§-S|p^"'|^?^ 

M^^£^vSS>b|^|V  ft.SjS^^'*?^    J^""W?^/^K  ^ 

^p^hf«>S)la^»     o^L^S^NflAQJUfc^   ^fc^# *•«*•  f ^ff    gJ8'*"*!    ^ 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


687 


000;  Spaniards,  30,000;  Irish,  30,000;  English 
and  Scotch,  10,000;  Germans,  10,000  ;  other 
nationalities,  30,000.  The  number  of  Italians 
at  present  in  the  province  exceeds  00,000,  up 
ward  of  40,000  of  whom  (or  about  one  fourth 
of  the  entire  population)  are  in  the  city  of  Bue 
nos  Ayres.  In  the  upper  provinces  there  are 
but  few  foreigners,  Entre-Rios  alone  excepted, 
where  they  are  numerous  and  engaged  in  all 
branches  of  industry.  In  Santa  Fe  there  are 
three  prosperous  colonies.  Cordoba  has  per 
haps  1,500  settlers.  The  most  numerous  class  of 
foreigners  are  Italians,  who  are  in  general  skilled 
in  the  building  trades,  and  have  found  constant 
employment  in  the  various  splendid  buildings 
erected  of  late  years  in  Buenos  Ayres;  many 
of  them  are  also  engaged  in  market  garden 
ing.  The  Genoese  are  chiefly  occupied  in  river 
navigation,  the  monopoly  of  which  is  in  their 
hands.  Besides  this  advantage,  the  crews  of 
the  river  and  coasting  crafts  have  often  equal 
shares  in  the  ventures.  The  Spaniards  present 
a  less  striking  contrast  with  the  Argentines, 
the  Catalans  prospering  as  wine  merchants, 
the  Andalusians  as  cigar  dealers  and  shop 
keepers,  while  the  Galicians  perform  the  du 
ties  of  street  porters,  night  watchmen,  and  do 
mestics.  The  Basques,  after  the  Italians  the 
most  numerous  foreign  community,  are  most 
ly  bricklayers,  milkmen,  shepherds,  saladero 
peons,  &c.,  though  some  are  rich  and  at  the 
head  of  lucrative  enterprises.  To  the  Irish  is 
due  the  development  of  sheep  farming  that  en 
ables  the  Argentine  provinces  to  rival  Australia 
in  the  production  of  wool.  Many  of  them  num 
ber  their  acres  by  thousands,  and  their  flocks  by 
hundreds  of  thousands.  The  aggregate  number 
of  sheep  owned  by  the  Irish  is  estimated  at 
30,000,000.  Of  the  French,  who  are  the  most 
equally  distributed  in  the  provinces,  some  are 
wealthy  wine  merchants,  trading  with  Bor 
deaux,  and  in  general  they  are  found  in  every 
branch  of  commerce,  especially  the  fancy  trade, 
which  they  monopolize.  They  assimilate  more 
with  the  Argentines  than  do  the  English  and 
Germans.  The  English  and  North  Americans 
are  seldom  occupied  in  other  than  mercantile 
pursuits.  The  Argentines  (Argentinos)  are  nat 
urally  active  and  intelligent.  The  Gauchos,  or 
horsemen  of  the  plains,  are  descendants  of  the 
Spanish  colonists,  and  many  of  them  have 
sprung  from  the  best  families'of  the  peninsula. 
They  live  in  rude  huts  built  of  mud,  and  subsist 
almost  entirely  on  the  flesh  of  oxen  and  game, 
both  of  which  abound  in  the  pampas,  and  are 
taken  with  the  lazo  or  the  bolas,  a  missile 
weapon  wielded  with  astounding  dexterity  by 
the  Gauchos.  Of  the  Indians,  who  are  chiefly 
of  Araucanian  descent,  by  far  the  larger  num 
ber  are  independent  and  live  in  separate  tribes, 
governed  each  by  its  cacique.  They  dwell  in 
tents  of  hides,  and  their  subsistence  consists 
mainly  of  maize,  which  they  procure  from  the 
whites  in  exchange  for  cattle',  salt,  and  blankets 
made  by  their  women,  and  of  the  flesh  of  mares, 
these  animals  never  being  ridden,  b'ut  wholly 


reserved  for  food.  Some  Indians  are  employed 
as  farm  laborers.  As  early  as  the  16th  century 
missions  were  established  to  the  east  of  Cor- 
rientes  by  the  Jesuits,  who  did  much  toward 
civilizing  the  Indians;  but  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  order  from  South  America,  near  the 
close  of  the  18th  century,  the  natives  relapsed 
gradually  into  savagism. — The  coast  line  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  which  measures  540  rn.,  is 
generally  low  and  sandy,  and  has  no  very  good 
harbors.  The  principal  port,  Buenos  Ayres, 
on  the  Plata,  is  180  m.  from  the  sea,  and  is 
difficult  of  access  on  account  of  the  shallowness 
of  the  river.  The  only  other  important  ports 
areRosario,  on  the  same  river,  300  in.,  and  San 
Nicolas,  310  m.  from  the  sea,  and  Bahia  Blanca 
and  El  Carmen  on  the  seaboard.  The  northern 
and  Andine  provinces  are  for  the  most  part 
mountainous,  being  covered  with  spurs  diverg 
ing  from  the  Chilian  Cordillera.  There  are  no 
volcanoes  in  activity ;  but  signs  exist  of  some 
extinct,  such  as  that  in  the  vicinity  of  Jujuy, 
from  which  issues  every  morning  a  spiral  col 
umn  of  dust  that  extends  many  miles  over  the 
country.  The  town  of  Oran,  in  Jujuy,  was 
overthrown  by  an  earthquake  early  in  1872. 
Some  peaks  of  the  Despoblado  chain  in  Salta 
attain  a  height  of  14.000  ft.  ;  and  the  culmina 
ting  point  of  the  Aconquija  system,  traversing 
Tucuman  and  Catamarca,  reaches  IT, 000  ft.  at 
its  highest  summit.  The  Cordoba  chain,  in 
the  province  of  that  name,  is  divided  into  two 
branches,  but  presents  no  lofty  peaks.  Among 
the  mountains  of  the  eastern  provinces,  the 
Yerbales  in  the  N.  E.  of  Corrientes  are  worthy 
of  mention  ;  and  the  southern  portion  of  Entre- 
Rios  is  bisected  by  hills  of  considerable  height. 
AVith  these  exceptions,  and  those  of  the  Volcan, 
Ventana,  and  Guamini  ranges  in  the  S.  E.  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  this  country  may  be  regarded  as 
a  vast  unbroken  plain  stretching  from  the  foot 
of  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic  and  the  river 
Uruguay,  and  from  the  Bolivian  boundary  to 
the  frontier  of  Patagonia,  This  plain  may  be 
considered  as  forming  two  grand  regions  :  one, 
from  the  Rio  Negro  to  the  Rio  Salado,  com 
prises  the  pampas;  the  other,  N.  of  the  Salado 
and  W.*of  the  Paraguay,  embraces  the  desert  of 
the  Gran  Chaco,  which  extends,  with  little  in 
terruption,  far  N.  of  the  Bolivian  limits.  The 
vast  tract  of  the  pampas,  over  300,000  sq.  m. 
in  area,  is  itself  distinguishable  into  several 
subdivisions,  differing  in  climate  and  products, 
although  under  the  same  parallel.  Proceeding 
from  Buenos  Ayres,  the  first  of  these  sub-re 
gions  presents  for  nearly  200  m.  an  alternate 
growth  of  clover  and  thistles  ;  the  next  a  cov 
ering  of  long  grass  and  brilliant  flowers,  extend 
ing  without  a  weed  some  400  m.  further  west 
ward  ;  the  third,  reaching  to  the  base  of  the 
Andes,  one  continuous  grove  of  shrubs  and 
small  evergreen  trees,  so  evenly  set  that  a 
horseman  may  gallop  at  random  between  them 
without  inconvenience.  Change  of  season  brings 
little  variation  in  the  aspect  of  the  two  regions 
last  mentioned  ;  but  in  the  first  remarkable 


688 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


mutations  occur.  During  the  winter  months  1 
the  thistles  and  clover  are  exceedingly  rich  and  | 
strong,  and  herds  of  wild  cattle  are  seen  brows-  i 
ing  in  every  direction.  On  the  approach  of 
spring  the  clover  disappears,  and  nothing  is  j 
distinguishable  save  an  immense  forest  of  giant  ! 
thistles,  tall  enough  to  almost  totally  obstruct 
the  view,  and  so  closely  set  and  so  strong  as  to 
form  an  impenetrable  barrier.  In  summer  the 
thistles  give  place  to  a  new  and  luxuriant 
growth  of  clover.  The  Gran  Chaco  is  a  vast 
and  for  the  most  part  unexplored  territory,  the 
interior  of  which  is  exclusively  inhabited  by 
live  nomadic  tribes,  distinct  in  language,  but 
similar  in  physical  appearance.  The  southern 
portion  forms  an  immense  desert  interspersed 
with  sand  pools  ;  the  eastern,  extensive  plains 
and  marshes,  with  here  and  there  tracts  en 
tirely  inundated,  while  the  natural  features  of 
the  northern  part  are  plains  of  magnificent 
pasture,  dense  forests  of  useful  timber,  and  nu 
merous  rivers  and  lagoons.  Some  colonies  have 
been  founded  of  late  years  and  bid  fair  to  pros 
per.  The  government  offers  liberal  grants  of 
land  to  settlers.— The  Rio  de  la  Plata,  with  the 
immense  streams  which  form  it,  is  one  of  the 
greatest,  and  certainly  one  of  the  longest,  rivers 
of  the  western  hemisphere.  The  traveller  can 
take  steamer  at  Montevideo  and  ascend  with 
out  interruption  to  Cuyaba,  in  Matto  Grasso, 
over  2,000  in.  But  it  is  itself  rather  a  vast  estu 
ary  collecting  the  waters  of  large  rivers,  and 
pouring  into  the  Atlantic  an  immense  and  tur 
bid  flood,  which  is  perceptible  more  than  100 
m.  to  seaward,  and  produces  a  powerful  cur 
rent  amid  the  waters  of  the  ocean  to  a  distance 
of  200.  m.  The  depth  of  the  Plata  is  nowise 
proportionate  to  its  width.  At  Montevideo, 
where  the  width  is  75  m.,  a  series  of  sand  banks 
narrow  the  channels  and  render  them  of  diffi 
cult  navigation ;  and  at  Buenos  Ayres,  where 
the  shores  are  28  m.  apart,  even  vessels  of 
medium  draft  have  to  anchor  6  and  sometimes 
8  or  9  m.  from  land.  Up  to  1855  passengers 
and  goods  were  brought  ashore  in  carts  mount 
ed  on  huge  .wheels,  that  went  out  to  meet  the 
boats  at  a  distance  of  two  or  three  cables' 
length  from  the  water's  edge.  In  tkat  year 
two  handsome  piers  1,300  and  1,950  ft.  in 
length  were  constructed  of  wood  and  iron ; 
but  when  the  river  is  low  the  old  expedient  of 
carts  has  to  be  resorted  to.  Of  the  two  great 
rivers  which  unite  to  form  the  Plata,  the  Para 
na  curves  from  S.  to  W.  on  the  N.  E.  border  to 
its  junction  with  the  Paraguay,  at  Tres  Bocas, 
in  lat,  27°  14'  S.,  Ion.  58°  SO'  W.,  whence  it 
flows  nearly  S.  to  Rosario,  in  lat,  33°,  then  turns 
S.  E.,  and  falls  into  the  Plata  by  several  chan 
nels  from  25  to  55  m.  above  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  river  is  navigable  for  the  largest  vessels  to 
its  junction  with  the  Paraguay,  850  m. ;  150  m. 
higher  for  small  steamers;  and  350  m.  further  up 
for  small  boats.  Its  chief  tributaries  in  the  re 
public  are  the  Salado,  which  flows  S.  E.  from 
the  X.  W.  part  of  the  province  of  Salta  about 
600  m.,  and  empties  below  Santa  Fe,  and  the 


Tercero,  which  flows  S.  E.,  receives  the  Cuarto, 
and  empties  about  30  m.  above  Rosario.  The 
Salado  is  said  to  be  navigable  from  the  plains 
of  Salta.  The  Uruguay  forms  nearly  the  whole 
E.  boundary  of  the  republic,  bordering  on  the 
provinces  of  Entre-Rios  and  Corrientes,  to  its 
embouchure  in  the  Plata  by  a  channel  0  m. 
wide.  This  river  is  usually  flooded  from  June 
to  November,  and  is  navigable  for  steamers  up 
to  Salto  Grande,  about  200  m.  The  Paraguay, 
after  a  long  course  through  Brazil  and  on  the 
frontier  of  Bolivia,  forms  the  dividing  line  be 
tween  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Paraguay 
for  350  m.  to  its  confluence  with  the  Parana, 

i  25  m.  above  Corrientes,  receiving  in  that  dis- 

j  tance  the  Pilcomayo  and  Bermejo.  These  are 
both  large  rivers  flowing  S.  E.  through  the 
Gran  Chaco,  but  the  former  is  too  shallow  for 
navigation,  while  the  latter  has  been  navigated 
by  steamers  for  1,200  m.  by  its  tortuous  course. 
The  Colorado  or  Mendoza,  formed  by  the  union 
of  various  streams  springing  from  the  volcanoes 
of  the  Chilian  Cordillera,  holds  a  generally  S. 
E.  course  and  flows  into  the  Atlantic  at  Union 
bay.  It  is  navigable  for  upward  of  100  m.  from 
the  sea.  There  is  a  second  Rio  Salado  in  the 
province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  S.  of  the  capital, 
but  it  is  dry  for  most  of  the  year.  The  Negro, 

;  which  forms  the  S.  boundary  of  the  republic 

|  as  far  W.  as  Ion.  70°,  falls  into  the  Atlantic 
below^  El  Carmen,  and  has  been  navigated  al 
most  throughout  its  entire  course,  or  about  500 
m.  The  pampsean  plains  are  drained  by  innu 
merable  streams,  some  of  considerable  volume, 
whose  waters,  for  the  most  part  saline,  spread 
and  are  lost  in  the  marshes  or  salt  lakes  that 
abound  in  those  regions.  Among  them  the 
Primero  and  Segundo  are  large  but  not  per 
manent  streams ;  while  the  Tercero  and  Cuarto, 
already  mentioned,  are  perennial.  The  plains 
are  interspersed  with  an  infinite  number  of 
lakes  and  lagoons,  for  the  most  part  salt  AY.  of 
the  Parana  and  Paraguay,  while  those  E.  of 
these  rivers  are  without  exception  fresh.  In 
the  province  of  Corrientes  is  an  extensive  lake, 
the  Ibera,  130  m.  long  and  90  m.  wide,  which 
gives  its  name  to  a  marshy  territory  of  consid 
erable  area.  The  Parana  is  by  some  geologists 

|  supposed  to  have  at  an  early  period  taken  its 
course  through  this  lake ;  and  many  are  of 
opinion  that  the  latter  is  now  filled  by  infiltra- 

I  tion  from  the  great  river,  although  there  exists 
no  visible  connection  bet\veen  them.  No  rivers 

i  run  into  it,  but  it  supplies  four  of  some  mag 
nitude.  The  Ibera  during  the  season  of  the 

:  floods  extends  over  an  estimated  area  of  1,000 
sq.  m.,  but  is  navigable  only  for  canoes.  The 
chief  permanent  lake  of  the  republic  is  the 
Guanacache,  in  the  province  of  Mendoza.  There 

|  are  also  the  Bevedero  and  the  Urre  Laguen, 
or  bitter  lake,  both  of  some  magnitude.  The 
countless  smaller  lakes  or  lagoons  usually  dis 
appear  as  soon  as  the  rains  have  ceased,  and 

|  leave  the  ground  covered  with  a  salt  efflores 
cence  to  a  depth  of  several  inches,  and  in 
some  places  even  of  three  feet, — The  geolo- 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


689 


gical  features  of  the  regions  N.  of  the  Plata 
present  a  striking  contrast  with  those  on  the 
south.  The  former  are  elevated,  and  com 
posed  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  clay  slate;  and 
indeed  all  the  rocks  showing  themselves  above 
the  plain  of  the  Plata,  in  the  Sierra  Ventana 
S.  of  Buenos  Ayres,  in  Entre-Rios,  Cordoba, 
and  the  upper  provinces  generally,  are  granitic, 
a  superposition  of  pure  white  quartz  rock  as 
sociated  with  glossy  clay  slate  occurring,  how 
ever,  over  the  granite  of  the  Ventana.  On 
the  S.  side  of  the  Plata  all  rock  formations 
disappear,  and  not  even  a  pebble  is  to  be 
found  for  hundreds  of  miles  inland.  The  pam- 
psean  regions  are  characterized  by  a  diluvial 
formation  consisting  of  calcareo-argillaceous 
conglomerate  gradually  deposited  during  the 
lapse  of  ages,  in  what  was  once  an  arm  of  the 
Atlantic,  but  is  now  dwindled  within  the  pres 
ent  limits  of  the  estuary  of  the  Plata.  It  may 
be  observed  that  this  same  deposition  is  still 
rapidly  progressing  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  in 
somuch  that  it  is  altogether  likely  that  the 
great  stream  which,  according  to  report,  was 
navigable  for  ships  of  the  heaviest  burthen 
three  centuries  ago,  will  in  the  course  of  ages 
flow  into  the  ocean  by  a  delta,  like  the  Nile  or 
the  Ganges,  instead  of  entering  it,  as  it  now 
does,  through  a  single  mouth.  In  Entre-Rios 
there  occur  at  the  bottom  of  the  cliffs  beds 
containing  sharks'  teeth  and  sea  shells  of  ex 
tinct  species,  passing  above  into  an  indurated 
marl,  and  from  that  into  the  red  clayey  earth 
of  the  pampas,  with  its  calcareous  concretions 
and  the  bones  of  terrestrial  quadrupeds,  clearly 
telling  of  a  large  bay  of  pure  salt  water,  grad 
ually  encroached  on,  and  at  last  converted  into 
a  muddy  estuary  into  which  Hoating  carcasses 
were  swept.  The  number  of  the  fossil  remains 
imbedded  in  the  grand  estuary  deposit,  says 
Darwin,  must  be  extraordinarily  great.  A  line 
drawn  in  any  direction  through  these  regions 
would,  observes  the  same  writer,  cut  through 
some  skeleton  or  bones.  Fossil  mammalia  of 
nine  species  have  been  found :  the  megathe 
rium,  of  huge  dimensions;  the  megalonyx  and 
scelidotherium,  the  latter  edentate  and  prob 
ably  as  large  as  a  rhinoceros,  and  both  allied  to 
the  first;  the  mylodon  Danrinit,  and  another 
gigantic  edentate  quadruped;  a  large  animal 
with  an  osseous  coat  in  compartments,  bearing 
some  resemblance  to  the  armadillo;  an  extinct 
kind  of  horse,  the  eqinis  cttrridens,  indicative 
of  the  existence  and  disappearance  of  a  native 
race  betore  the  introduction  of  the  few  indi 
viduals  by  the  Spanish  colonists  ;  a  pachyder 
matous  animal,  perhaps  the  same  with  the 
macrauchenia  ;  and  the  toxodon,  an  elephant  in 
size,  a  gnawer  by  the  structure  of  the  teeth, 
and  probably  aquatic  like  the  manatee,  to 
which  it  is  allied. — The  Aconquija  mountain 
chain  abounds  in  gold,  silver,  and  copper  ores; 
and  the  Famatina  in  La  Rioja  affords  very  fine 
silver  ores.  Iron  has  been  found  in  the  Gran 
Chaco.  An  immense  mass  of  this  metal,  pre 
sented  by  Sir  W.  Parish  to  the  British  museum, 
VOL.  i. — 44 


and  pronounced  to  be  of  meteoric  origin,  is  re 
garded  by  him  as  a  genuine  production  of  the 
soil.  Salt,  the  most  abundant  mineral  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  exists  in  a  state  of  efflores 
cence  covering  immense  tracts,  and  in  count 
less  brackish  springs  and  pools  ;  but  nowhere 
is  it  so  common  as  near  Bahia  Blanca.  The 
salt  occurring  far  inland  consists  for  the  most 
part  of  sulphate  of  soda,  and  perhaps  7  per  cent, 
of  common  salt,  and  does  not  preserve  meat 
well ;  while  near  the  coast  the  proportion  of 
common  salt  reaches  37  per  cent.,  and  the 
quality  is  superior.  There  are  besides  mines 
of  rock  salt  in  the  country ;  and  sulphate  of 
soda  and  sulphate  of  magnesia,  from  which  the 
magnesia  of  commerce  is  prepared,  occur  in 
various  localities.  Coal  is  found  in  the  N.  W. 
provinces,  also  gypsum,  limestone,  alum,  min 
eral  pitch,  bituminous  shale,  and  large  quanti 
ties  of  sulphur ;  and  there  are  extensive  coal 
beds  in  the  extreme  S.  W.  angle  of  the  country. 
— The  climate,  on  the  whole  perhaps  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world,  exhibits  nevertheless 
considerable  variety.  In  the  north  the  heat  is 
great,  and  in  some  localities  oppressive,  save 
where  tempered  by  fresh  breezes  from  the 
Andes.  On  travelling  southward  a  cooler  tem 
perature  is  experienced,  and  especially  in  the 
province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  where  the  climate 
closely  resembles  that  of  some  portions  of  south 
ern  Europe.  In  the  plains  reaching  from  the 
Andes  to  the  banks  of  the  Parana  there  is  a 
great  deficiency  of  moisture,  while  the  coun 
tries  E.  of  that  river  are  refreshed  by  abundant 
and  frequent  rains.  In  Buenos  Ayres,  where 
a  luxuriant  vegetation  shows  great  humidity, 
the  climate  is  chiefly  governed  by  the  wind,  a 
change  of  which  not  infrequently  brings  an 
alteration  of  from  20°  to  30°  in  the  thermom 
eter,  which  rarely  rises  above  90°  in  the  shade. 
The  prevailing  winds  are  northerly,  and  these, 
passing  over  extensive  marshy  and  saline  dis 
tricts,  produce  on  reaching  Buenos  Ayres  a 
universal  dampness,  and  upon  the  bodily  sys 
tem  an  extreme  lassitude,  inducing  a  liability 
to  all  the  maladies  consequent  upon  checked 
perspiration.  Although  the  northers  are  not 
generally  regarded  as  unfavorable  to  health  if 
the  necessary  precautions  are  taken,  while  they 
prevail  the  most  trifling  wound  or  hurt  may 
terminate  in  lockjaw.  The  S.  W.  wind,  or 
pampero,  usually  follows  the  norther,  and  blows 
at  times  with  great  violence,  driving  back  the 
waters  of  the  Plata  miles  from  the  shore,  an.d 
bearing  clouds  of  dust  so  dense  as  to  produce 
total  darkness.  The  pamperos  very  frequently 
end  in  a  heavy  shower  of  rain,  or  rather  mud, 
formed  by  the  mingling  of  the  water  ;:nd  the 
dust.  The  thunder  and  lightning  during  one 
of  these  storms  are  perhaps  unequalled  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  A  disease  called 
el  mal  dc  siete  dias  (the  seven  days'  sickness), 
mainly  prevalent  among  the  lower  classes, 
carries  off  an  immense  number  of  infants  in 
the  first  week  after  birth.  The  following 
table  shows  the  range  of  Fahrenheit's  th.er- 


690 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


mometer  in  the  shade  at  Rosario  during  the  ! 
month  of  March,  and  at  Buenos  Ayrcs  from  j 
April  to  September : 


Monthly  range 
Greatest  diurnal  range. 
Average      do. 
Highest  maximum. . 
Lowest          do. 
Average        do. 
Highest  minimum 
Lowest         do. 
Average       do. 
Mean  averages 


j 
1 

^ 

g 

£> 

1 

t 

S 
51° 

26° 

25° 

23° 

26° 

25° 

•% 
18° 

range.  .  . 
do.  .  .  . 

43 

20 

24 
]() 

IS 
9 

21 

7 

14 
9 

14 

7 

9 

5 

ni.  .  . 

93 

1  7 

71 

72 

65 

66 

63 



6S 

57 

55 

49 

43 

49 

52 

80 

63 

68 

59 

54 

53 

58 

n  

77 

67 

61 

62 

50 

61 

59 

47 

51 

46 

44 

39 

41 

45 

64 

58 

54 

51 

44 

51 

53 



72 

63 

59 

55 

49 

54 

56 

—The  soil  of  the  Argentine  Republic  is  extreme 
ly  varied  and  productive,  save  in  the  S.  plains, 
the  coarse  shingle  of  which  is  unfavorable  to 
vegetation.     As  has   already   been  seen,   the 
pampas,   and  principally  to  the  S.  W.  of  the 
Parana,  afford  rich  and  abundant  pasturage. 
The  E.  flank  of  the  Andes  and  the  banks  of  the 
W.  affluents  of  the  Paraguay  are  clothed  with 
dense  forests,  the  timber  of  which  is,  however, 
unavailable  owing  to  its  distance  from  the  sea. 
The  trees  are  mostly  of  the  mimosa  family ; 
and  with  the  fruit  of  the    algarroba,   mixed 
with  maize,  the  Indians  make  a  sort  of  bread,  j 
while  by  fermentation  they  produce  the  chica,  j 
an  intoxicating  liquor.     In  Salta  the  cinchona,  j 
various  palms,  and  the  mate  or  Paraguay  tea  ! 
are  indigenous ;  and  in  Salta  and  Santiago  the  j 


cactus  foliosus,  on  which  a  cochineal  insect 
feeds,  grows  to  an  enormous  size.  Aloes  are 
very  abundant,  and  from  their  fibrous  materials 
the  Indians  manufacture  nets,  ropes,  bags,  &c., 
which  they  dye  with  indelible  colors  of  their 
own  preparation  from  native  plants.  The  coca 
plant  grows  plentifully  in  Salta.  Mixed  with 
lime,  the  Peruvians  chew  it  as  a  stimulant. 
Indigo  is  found  in  Corrientes,  and  also  the 
shrub  which  nourishes  the  claviilo,  an  insect 
famed  for  the  rich  green  dye  it  affords.  The 
apple  tree  was  introduced  from  Chili  by  the 
Indians,  and  forms  veritable  forests  in  the  S. 
W.  districts  near  the  Andes.  Figs,  oranges, 
walnuts,  and  other  fruits  are  common ;  and 
the  peach  tree  is  so  abundant  as  to  afford  the 
principal  firewood  for  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
Good  wine  is  made  in  Mendoza.  The  sugar 
cane  prospers  in  the  northwest,  and  tobacco  is 
extensively  cultivated.  The  cotton  tree  nour 
ishes  in  Catamarca,  and  red  pepper  is  sent  in 
large  quantities  to  Buenos  Ayres.  Maize,  po 
tatoes,  and  the  different  European  cereals  are 
raised  in  almost  all  the  provinces,  and  of  wheat 
prodigious  crops  are  produced,  principally  fur 
export.  But  the  exportation  of  productions  of 
the  soil  has  hitherto  been  inconsiderable  com 
pared  to  that  of  animal  produce  derived  from  the 
herds  of  cattle  and  horses  in  the  pampas.  An 
idea  of  the  cattle-raising  in  eight  of  the  prov 
inces  (there  being  no  returns  from  the  others^ 
may  be  formed  from  the  following  statistics  of 
the  farming  stock  in  1806  : 


PROVINCES. 

Honied 

Cattle. 

Horses. 

Males. 

Sheep. 

: 

Swine. 

Buenos  Ayres  
Kntre-Ilios  

6  000,000 
2.500,000 
2  000  000 

1.800,000 
600,000 
375  000 

30.000 
7,500 
60  O'lO 

60,000,000 
6,OOOiOOO 
1  000  000 

5,000 
1  0  000 

115,000 

4  500 

185  000 

40  000 

40  0  00 

80  000 

121  000 

2500 

Mendoza.  
Salta                                           

21  o.O;  to 
255  HOO 

71,000 
50000 

7.500 
50  000 

230,000 
150000 

70.00;) 

95  (HlO 

8.500 
2500 

300  000 

96  000 

14  00') 

1  60  000 

285000 

Tucuman        

275  000 

85  000 

22  000 

95000 

25000 

— In  the  forests  of  the  republic  there  are  ja 
guars,  cougars  or  pumas  (American  lions),  ant- 
eaters,  and  chinchillas  as  large  as  squirrels 
and  much  prized  for  the  beauty  of  their  furs. 
The  tapir  is  common  in  the  north.  Deer 
abound  in  the  pampas,  as  do  wild  dogs  and  ar 
madillos  ;  and  there  are  three  species  of  par 
tridge.  On  the  banks  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 
is  found  the  carigueibaju,  known  in  commerce 
by  its  fur  under  the  name  of  nutria ;  it  is  a  car 
nivorous  animal,  of  the  size  of  a  cat,  web-foot 
ed,  and  its  flesh  is  considered  exceedingly  deli 
cate.  The  capybara,  the  giant  of  the  rodentia, 
and  the  carpincho  frequent  the  rivers.  The 
Andine  provinces  abound  in  guanacos,  llamas, 
and  vicunas;  and  the  Gran  Chaco  is  infested 
by  the  various  feline  animnls  already  men 
tioned,  besides  wild  cats,  boars,  myriads  of 
noxious  insects,  spiders  of  monstrous  propor 
tions,  enormous  mosquitoes,  and  innumerable 
swarms  of  bees.  Several  varieties  of  venomous 


I  snakes  are  met  with,  especially  a  trigonoce- 
I  phalus,  the  fiercest  and  most  hideous  of  its 
I  kind,  and  a  species  of  boa  similar  to  the  trarja- 
venado  or  deer-swallower  of  Venezuela.  The 
tocutuco  and  bizcacha,  rodent  quadrupeds,  are 
found  in  all  directions  throughout  the  pam 
pas,  rendering  travelling  dangerous  from  their 
burrowings.  Condors,  gallinazos,  vultures,  and 
other  predacious  birds  abound  in  various  dis 
tricts  ;  and  the  woods  are  peopled  by  numer 
ous  smaller  birds  of  endlessly  varied  plumage. 
The  rivers,  and  especially  the  Rio  Negro, 
abound  in  fish  of  all  kinds,  the  lamprey,  trout, 
pejerey,  sole,  and  ray  or  skate  being  those  most 
prized.  Seals  are  taken  on  the  N.  coast,  as 
also  sea  lions  and  sea  elephants;  the  latter 
often  attain  a  length  of  20  to  23  feet,  and  one 
will  yield  two  hogsheads  of  oil.  The  breeding1 
of  mules  has  of  late  years  declined,  though  con 
siderable  droves  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  the 
i  estancias.  The  sheep,  although  extremely  nu- 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


691 


merous,  are,  like  the  goats  and  hogs,  of  an  infe 
rior  breed.  A  species  of  ostrich,  smaller  than 
that  of  Africa,  is  common  on  the  plains,  arid 
hunted  for  its  feathers,  an  article  of  export  of 
some  importance. — Almost  the  only  manufac 
tures  of  the  Plata  provinces  are  ponchos,  sad 
dle-cloths,  ropes,  &c.,  made  by  the  Indians,  and 
morocco  leather,  wooden  bowls,  and  dishes 
from  Cordoba,  the  principal  manufacturing 
town. — In  spite  of  wars,  epidemics,  droughts, 
and  other  obstacles  to  the  material  develop 
ment  of  the  country,  the  following  tabular 
statement  by  Sr.  Don  Manuel  R.  Garcia,  Ar 
gentine  minister  to  the  United  States,  shows 
that  the  exports  have  quadrupled  in  quantity 
and  quintupled  in  amount  in  the  17  years  from 
1853  to  1870: 


AUT[  "LES. 

1S53. 

i 

1S70. 

Salted  ox  hides  

43,831 

774,806 

Dried  OK  hides 

604  868 

1  824  s95 

Horse  hides  

129005 

10^  259 

Hogsheads  of  tallow  ...    . 

1766S 

108384 

Packages  of  wool 

20  51  4 

160869 

Sheepskins  

1  398 

67  214 

Quintals  of  jerked  beef  

275,000 

647,532 

Total  (tons)  

97,453 

397  7^2 

Value  

$6,990,770 

$39,294,690 

This  increase,  large  as  it  may  appear,  belongs 
to  a  small  proportion  only  of  the  products  of 
the  country,  the  mineral  and  agricultural  re 
sources  of  which  have  not  yet  been  devel 
oped,  for  want  of  hands,  capital,  and  suitable 
roads.  Official  reports  show  the  exports  of 
the  products  of  cattle  to  have  been  in  the  pro 
portion  of  $22  50  for  each  inhabitant  in  the 
province  of  Buenos  Ayres  alone  in  1853,  $60 
in  1860,  and  $80  in  1870.  The  wool  clip  for 
1866  was  estimated  at  100,000,000  Ibs.  The 
export  duties  on  wool,  bones,  hides,  and  tallow 
amount  to  about  3,000,000  silver  dollars  per  an 
num.  The  total  of  the  exports  from  the  port 
of  Buenos  Ayres  to  the  United  States  during 
the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1870,  was  $6,473,- 
1)27  61  ;  while  that  of  the  imports  from  the 
United  States  in  the  same  period  was  but 
$2,087,909,  according  to  custom  hous3  returns. 
The  balance  of  trade  from  Great  Britain  was  in 
favor  of  the  latter  by  over  $6,000,000,  and  that 
with  France  by  about  $1,500,000.  The  im 
ports  mainly  comprise  cotton,  woollen,  and 
linen  fabrics,  machinery,  coal,  and  iron.  In 
1869  there  entered  the  principal  ports  1,337 
sailing  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  401,070 
tons,  and  1,158  steamers;  and  there  cleared 
970  sailing  vessels,  with  a  total  of  308,325  tons, 
and  1,158  steamers.— The  highways  of  the  re 
public  are,  with  few  exceptions,  as  nature  made 
them,  consisting  merely  of  a  beaten  track  across 
the  pampas.  There  are  four  lines  of  railway  in 
the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres.  In  Entre-Rios 
there  is  also  easy  communication  by  river 
steamboats ;  but  in  the  interior  of  Corrientes 
travelling  is  done  exclusively  on  horseback. 
There  are  now  (1872)  six  railway  lines  opened 


for  traffic,  four  of  which  diverge  from  the  capi 
tal  of  the  republic  in  different  directions ;  the 
remaining  two  are  from  Rosario  to  Cordoba, 
and  from  Gualeguay  to  Puerto  Ruiz.  Besides 
these,  there  are  two  railways  in  course  of  con 
struction,  and  five  others  projected.  Along 
the  lines  already  opened,  new  farms  have  been 
established,  immense  quantities  of  wheat  sown 
tor  exportation,  and  the  shipment  of  wool  has 
so  increased  as  at  times  to  task  the  carrying 
power  of  the  railways.  In  September,  1871, 
there  were  1,230  in.  of  telegraph  open,  and 
over  2,630  m.  in  process  of  construction.  A 
submarine  cable  has  been  laid  between  Bue 
nos  Ayres  and  Montevideo,  and  an  impor 
tant  line  is  projected  to  unite  the  capitals  of 
Chili  and  of  the  Plate  provinces. — The  Maua 
bank  was  the  first  private  bank  established  in 
Buenos  Ayres  (1858) ;  the  London  and  River 
Plate  bank,  established  in  1863,  does  a  largo 
and  remunerative  business.  The  Argentine 
bank  is  of  more  recent  date. — The  business  of 
the  post  office  department  has  greatly  in 
creased  in  a  few  years ;  the  number  of  let 
ters  passing  through  the  Buenos  Ayres  post 
office  in  1859  was  but  400,000;  in  1865  it 
amounted  to  2,000,000.— The  constitution  of 
the  Argentine  Republic  bears  date  May  15, 
1853.  The  executive  power  resides  in  a 
president  elected  for  six  years  by  the  repre 
sentatives  of  the  14  provinces,  133  in  num 
ber.  The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a 
national  congress,  consisting  of  a  senate  num 
bering  28,  two  from  each  province,  and  a 
house  of  deputies,  of  54  members.  The  vice 
president,  elected  in  the  same  manner  and  at 
the  same  time  as  the  president,  is  chairman  of 
the  senate,  but  has  otherwise  no  political 
power.  The  president  is  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army,  and  appoints  to  all  civil,  military, 
and  judicial  offices;  but  he  and  his  ministers 
are  responsible  for  their  acts,  and  liable  to  im 
peachment.  There  are  five  ministerial  depart 
ments:  interior,  foreign  affairs,  finance,  war 
and  marine,  and  education  and  public  worship. 
The  governors  of  the  provinces  are  elected  by 
the  people  for  a  term  of  three  years.  The  army 
of  the  republic  consists,  exclusive  of  the  militia 
and  national  guard  of  Buenos  Ayres  (number 
ing  19.867  men),  of  6,482  men— 2,909  infantry, 
2,861  horse,  and  712  artillery;  there  are  29 
generals,  273  commandants,  and  632  subaltern 
officers.  The  militia  and  national  guard  may 
be  called  out  in  time  of  war.  The  navy  com 
prises  seven  vessels  of  war,  one  of  which 
mounts  12  guns.  The  public  revenue  is  mainly 
derived  from  customs  duties,  which  average  25 
per  cent,  on  imports  and  10  per  cent,  on  ex 
ports.  The  national  expenditure  is  made  up 
chiefly  of  the  cost  of  the  army  and  navy,  and 
the  interest  of  the  public  debt.  The  expendi 
ture  was  considerably  increased  from  1807  to 
1870,  owing  to  the  war  with  Paraguay.  The 
official  estimates  of  revenue  and  expenditure 
for  the  financial  year  1869-'70,  presented  to 
the  national  congress,  were  as  follows : 


692 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


REVENUE. 

Import  duties $8.400.000 

Additional  5  per  cent,  (war) '2,100.000 

Export  duties 1,500,000 

Additional  2  per  cent,  (war) r, 00,000 

Storage 200.  OHO 

fctamp  duty 155.000 

Post  office. 105,UOJ 

Interest  on  17.000  shares  of  Argentine  Central 

railway,  at  7  per  cent 11  G.920 

Sundries 50,000 

Total $13,186,920 

EXPEXDITUEE. 


Ministry  of  the  Interior 

"•          Foreign  Affairs 

"          Finance 

"          Public  Instruction. .. 
War. . . 


Total 


$1,297,9?5 
111.400 

8,452.725 
768.270 

3,7->7,215 


$14,387,595 


.The  budget  for  1870-'71,  voted  by  the  nation 
al  congress,  showed  an  estimated  revenue  of 
$15,800,000,  and  an  estimated  expenditure  of 
$10,000,000,  leaving  a  deficit  of  $200,000.  The 
public  debt,  divided  into  an  external  and  an 
internal  debt,  was  as  follows  at  the  end  of  Oc 
tober,  1871  : 

EXTERNAL. 

Old  Buenos  Ayres  debt,  G  per  cent,  stock.  .  .        .  $4529,000 

"      8      "            "       ........  5.551,500 

Loan  authorized  by  act  of  congress  May  27,  1865,  12,50;U)Oi) 

October,  1870,  30,612,000 

Total  external  debt  ......................  $53,195,500 


INTERNAL. 

Consolidated  G  per  cent.  Argentine  stock 
Buenos  Ayres  public  stock  in  paper  currency 
Parana  debt,  1&58.  including  interest 
Obligations  to  foreign  creditors 
Loan  from  Brazilian  government,  1  ?51. 


u    authorized  by  congress  October,  18tW. 
Total  internal  debt... 


$12,839.500 
2.984  940 
2,166.545 
94,260 
1,142.705 
2.000,000 
3,003.000 

..   $24,227,950 


Total  debt $77,423,450 

The  greater  part  of  the  foreign  loan  of  1865 
was  issued  in  1868,  to  the  amount  of  £1,950,- 
000,  at  the  price  of  72 1-  for  100,  by  Messrs.  Ba 
ring  Brothers  of  London.  It  is  at  6  per  cent, 
interest,  and  payable  in  21  years.  The  loan 
of  1870,  amounting  to  £0,122,400,  granted  by 
congress  for  the  construction  of  railways  and 
other  public  works,  was  issued  at  the  London 
exchange  in  April,  1871,  at  the  price  of  88£,  to 
be  redeemed  by  an  accumulated  sinking  fund 
of  24-  per  cent.  Besides  the  liabilities  above 
mentioned,  there  is  a  floating  debt  in  treasury 
bills  to  an  unknown  amount.  Each  of  the  14 
provinces  has  a  revenue  of  its  own,  derived 
from  local  taxes.  The  liabilities  of  all  the 
provinces,  except  Buenos  Ayres,  the  annual 
expenditure  of  which  is  about  $2,000,000,  are 
internal.  That  province  contracted  in  June, 
1870,  a  loan  in  England  of  £1,034,700,  issued 
at  88,  with  6  per  cent,  interest,  to  be  redeemed 
at  par  in  33  years.  In  1866  treasury  notes 
were  issuedt  bearing  interest,  for  payment  of 
government  dues,  and  to  be  received  in  pay 
ment  of  customs  duties.  They  represent  sil 
ver  dollars,  and  are  of  the  denominations  of  $5, 
$10,  $20,  $50,  and  $100.— Much  has  been  done 


of  late  years  for  the  advancement  of  education, 
and  in  the  chief  towns  it  is  better  than  in  most 
parts  of  South  America.  There  are  at  present 
142  municipal  and  state  schools  in  the  province 
and  city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  besides  a  large  num 
ber  of  denominational  and  other  private  and 
Sunday  schools  in  that,  and  a  proportionate 
number  in  the  other  provinces.  The  capital 
and  Cordoba  have  each  a  university,  and  Bue 
nos  Ayres  and  Corrientes  have  each  a  colegio 
national,  the  studies  in  which  embrace  the 
|  usual  classic  and  scientific  courses,  besides  mod 
ern  languages,  and  degrees  are  conferred  in 
theology,  law,  and  medicine.  New  colleges 
are  being  founded  in  Entre-Rios;  and  normal 
schools  will  shortly  be  established  in  all  the 
provinces.  About  90,000  children  attended 
school  in  the  whole  republic  in  1871,  and  there 
were  1,884  students  in  the  national  colleges. 
There  are  extensive  libraries,  chief  among  which 
!  is  the  liiblioteca  national,  founded  in  1870  un- 
|  der  the  auspices  of  President  Sarmiento. — The 
i  predominant  religion  is  Roman  Catholic;  but 
all  others  are  tolerated,  and  the  ministers  of 
some  other  denominations  are  paid  by  the  gov 
ernment.  In  1869  it  was  estimated  that  there 
j  were  10,000  Protestants  among  the  English, 
j  Scotch,  American,  and  German  settlers. — The""" 
i  mouth'  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  was  discovered  in 
1512  by  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis ;  and  as  early  as  1535 
Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza  began  the  settlement 
at  Buenos  Ayres,  while  the  country  as  far  N. 
as  the  site  of  Asuncion,  the  present  capital  of 
Paraguay,  was  explored  by  parties  under  his 
orders.  Many  colonies  were  founded  in  that 
century,  and  much  progress  was  made  in  the 
civilization  of  the  Indians  under  Don  Juan  de 
Garay,  who  was  in  1580  appointed  lieutenant 
governor  of  those  provinces,  which  were  then 
regarded  as  forming  a  part  of  the  viceroyalty  of 
Peru.  In  1620  a  new  government  was  formed, 
having  for  its  capital  Buenos  Ayres,  hitherto 
dependent  upon  the  government  of  Paraguay, 
and  both  continued  under  the  viceroyalty  of 
Peru  till  1776,  when  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos 
Ayres  was  created,  comprising  the  territories 
now  known  as  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  Uruguay, 
and  the  Argentine  Republic.  In  1806  Buenos 
Ayres  and  Montevideo  were  captured  by  a 
small  British  force,  which,  however,  was  soon 
compelled  by  the  bravery  of  the  inhabitants 
to  relinquish  the  conquest.  An  attempt  was 
made  in  August,  1807,  by  a  British  army 
10,000  strong,  to  reconquer  the  city  of  Buenos 
Ayres;  but  the  invaders  were  defeated.  Gen. 
Whitelock,  who  commanded  the  attack,  was 
on  his  return  to  England  cashiered  for  in 
capacity.  The  struggle  for  independence  was 
begun  about  three  years  later,  and  was  waged 
on  both  banks  of  the  Plata,  until  the  only  re 
maining  Spanish  forces  surrendered  in  Monte 
video  in  1812.  During  this  period  the  war  of 
independence  was  also  going  on  in  Upper  Peru 
(Bolivia)  with  varied  results,  and  in  the  adja 
cent  provinces,  the  Spaniards  suffering  con 
siderable  reverses  in  Salta  and  Tucuman.  In 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


693 


January,  1813,  the  chief  power  was  vested  in 
the  '"Sovereign  Assembly"  formed  in  Tucu- 
inan,  then  the  seat  of  government.  About  the 
same  time  Gen.  Jos6  de  San  Martin,  the  gov 
ernor  of  the  province  of  Mendoza,  conceived 
the  project  of  crossing  the  Andes  for  the  pur 
pose  of  driving  the  Spaniards  out  of  Chili. 
The  enterprise  proved  successful,  and  Chili 
was  freed  after  the  memorable  battles  of  Cha- 
cabnco  and  Maipu  (1817-18).  Immediately 
afterward  the  Chilians  and  Argentines  carried 
their  united  arms  into  Peru,  and  entered  Li 
ma  in  1821.  The  Portuguese  in  1816,  under 
pretext  of  putting  down  anarchical  movements 
set  on  foot  in  Uruguay  by  Artigas,  descended 
into  that  territory  and  took  possession  of  Monte 
video,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Argentine 
government,  then  too  busily  engaged  in  pre 
serving  order  at  home  and  in  carrying  on  the 
war  of  independence,  to  enter  openly  into  hos 
tilities  against  the  invaders.  The  same  year 
the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
La  Plata  was  declared  in  Tucuman  (July  9),  in 
which  city,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  sov 
ereign  assembly,  a  congress  had  assembled 
March  26,  1817,  and  promulgated  a  provisional 
constitution,  Gen.  Puyerredon  being  named 
supreme  dictator.  The  seat  of  congress  was 
afterward  removed  to  Buenos  Ayres,  in  the 
hope  of  securing  greater  liberty  of  action ; 
but  in  1820  the  directory  fell,  and  in  the  fol 
lowing  year  a  democratic  form  of  govern 
ment  was  established.  The  administration  was 
composed  of  Gen.  Rodriguez  and  two  secre 
taries,  Don  Bernardino  Rivadavia  and  Don  Ma 
nuel  Garcia.  The  riverine  provinces  soon  uni 
ted  themselves  with  Buenos  Ayres,  and  this  al 
liance  led  in  1824  to  the  organization  of  the  re 
public,  under  the  administration  of  Las  Heras. 
Brazil  forced  the  United  Provinces  into  a  dec 
laration  of  war,  and  blockaded  the  city  of  Bue 
nos  Ayres,  January,  1826;  and,  though  the  Ar 
gentine  arms  were  for  a  time  victorious  by  sea 
and  land,  the  event  served  to  prove  the  weak 
ness  of  the  union.  It  is  important  to  remem 
ber  that  the  size  of  the  different  provinces  was 
extremely  various,  and  that  the  character  and 
interests  of  the  population  were  no  less  varied. 
It  may  also  be  added  that  the  difficulty  of 
establishing  communication  between  the  prov 
inces  rendered  useless  at  times  prudent  meas 
ures  taken  by  the  central  government.  There 
was  almost  a  feudal  aristocracy  in  the  north ; 
in  the  wide  ranges  of  the  pastures  the  herds 
men  felt  and  exercised  a  rude  power ;  but  there 
was  a  greater  degree  of  moderation  in  tne 
agricultural  states.  Buenos  Ayres,  as  the  only 
seaboard  state,  and  as  much  the  richest,  nat 
urally  took  the  lead,  both  in  preparing  the 
way  for  independence  and  in  forming  the  con 
federacy.  The  higher  classes  possessed  im 
mense  landed  and  other  property.  Many  of 
them  had  been  educated  in  Europe,  and 'had 
introduced  into  South  America  the  refinements 
of  a  high  civilization,  and  hoped  to  extend 
those  refinements  over  the  whole  country  by 


'  means  of  a  form  of  government.     But  under 
their  ideas  this  government  was  to  be  wielded 
by  the  rich  and  educated  classes.     Their  party, 
the  Unitarios,  succeeded  in  framing  the  consti 
tution  of  1825,  under  which  the  nation  was 
represented  by  a  small  aristocracy.     Rivadavia 
I  was  the  first  and  only  president  of  the  confed 
eration  under  this  constitution.     The  greater 
part  of  the  large  province  of  Buenos   Ayres 
took   its  political  bias  from    the   independent 
and  republican  tone  of  the  cattle  drivers  and 
herdsmen,  who  knew  their  power,  and  were 
not  averse  to   asserting  it.     They  soon  found 
a  leader  in  Juan  Manuel  de  Rosas,  who  was 
descended  from  a  noble  family  of  Spain.     Un 
tutored  in  the  arts  of  refinement,  and  at  once 
daring  in  the   highest  degree,  ambitious,  and 
cunning,  he  soon  found  numerous  supporters 
among  the  masses  of  the  people,  and  especially 
after  he  had  succeeded  in  extending  the  limits 
of  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  by  subduing 
the  savages  of  the  pampas  and  other  indigenous 
tribes,  who  were  implacable  enemies   of  the 
ganchos  or  herdsmen.     No  sooner  had  he  es 
poused  the  cause  of  the  federalists  than  his  pop 
ularity  spread  to  the  provinces,  and  he  gained 
the  sympathies  of  many  prominent  personages 
who  regarded  with  a  jealous  eye  the  recent 
excesses  of  military  power.     He  had  opposed 
the  Unitarios  at  the  time  of  the  union,  although 
unsuccessfully;  but  by  1827  he  had   acquired 
sufficient  influence,  and  found  himself  certain 
of  the  aid  of  other  popular  chieftains,  such  as 
Bustos,  governor  of  Cordoba,  Ibarra,  comman 
dant  of  Santiago,  Quiroga,  of  La  Rioja,  and 
Lopez,  of  Santa  Fe.     They  protested  against 
the  constitution  and  government  of  1825,  and 
took  up  arms  in  force  in  support  of  their  pro 
test.    Rivadavia,  successor  to  Las  Heras,  seeing 
himself  powerless  to  establish  a  Unitarian  con 
stitution,    and   aware  that  he   could  neither 
carry  on  the  war  against  the  Brazilians  nor 
obtain  a  peace,  resigned  power,  and  Rosas  and 
his  colleagues  chose  Dorrego  governor  of  Bue- 
j  nos  Ayres.     Dorrego  made  a  treaty  of  peace 
!  with  Brazil,  through  the  mediation  of  England, 
in  1828,  from  which  year  dates  the  recognition 
of  the  Banda  Oriental  of  Uruguay  as  an  inde- 
I  pendent  state,  under  the  triple  guaranty  of 
Great  Britain,  the   Argentine   Republic,  and 
Brazil.    A  confederation,  based  upon  voluntary 
alliance  was  formed  in  January,  1831,  between 
the   provinces   of   Buenos  Ayres,   Corrientes, 
!  Entre-Rios,  and  Santa  Fe,  which  were   soon 
!  joined  by  the  other  provinces.      But  some  of 
|  the  officers  who  had  commanded  in  the  late 
1  war  now  began  to  regard  with  distrust  the  tri- 
|  umph  of  federal  principles  under  Dorrego  and 
I  the  other  governors ;  and  the  established  army 
!  of  the  republic  set  on  foot  a  counter-revolution, 
;  headed  by  one  Lavalle,  an  officer  of  some  dis- 
;  tinction.    Lavalle  defeated  Dorrego  and  Rosas, 
I  and  shot  the  former  without  a  trial.     Rosas, 
i  however,  with  Quiroga  of  La  Rioja  and  Lopez 
i  of  Santa  Fe,  formed  a  new  league  and  over 
threw  Lavalle,  who  resigned  his  post,  Rosas  be- 


694 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


ing  chosen  in  his  place,  which  he  held  till  1832.  j 
Two  governments,  the  first  under  Balcarce,  and 
the  second  under  Viamont,  now  followed  each 
other  in  the  space  of  a  few  months,  neither  he-  i 
ing  able  to  maintain  itself,  as  Rosas  held  the  ar 
my  under  his  control.    After  the  fall  of  Viamont,  j 
Rosas  was  reflected  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres,  j 
a  position  which  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  : 
foreign  relations  of  the  country,  and  gave  him  ! 
a  very  general  control  of  its  internal  affairs. 
His  term  expired  in  1835,  when  he  refused  to  I 
be  again  a  candidate.     Five  times  tiie  honor  « 
was   tendered   to  him,  and  as  often   refused.  | 
He  was  then  offered  the  dictatorship  for  five 
years,  which  he  accepted,  and  the  appointment 
was   twice   renewed.     He  held   the  office  till 
1852,  and  was  the  sole  and  uncontrolled  ruler 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  practically  of  the  Argen 
tine  Republic,  during  the  whole  of  that  time. 
From  1827  to  1852  there  was  no  meeting  of  the 
national  congress  or  constituent  assembly.     It 
is  difficult  to   characterize    precisely  the   use 
which  he  made  of  these  unlimited  powers,    lie 
has  been  represented  as  an  arbitrary  and  bloody 
tyrant,  and  accused  of  the  treacherous  mar-  j 
der  of  all  the  friends  who  placed  him  in  power.  ; 
He  certainly  ruled  with  a  strong  hand,  and 
was  neither  slo\v  nor  scrupulous  in  his  means  of  j 
defending  or  of  advancing  himself;  but  he  main 
tained  a  government  under  which  his  country 
increased  in  population  and  material  prosperity, 
notwithstanding  continual  internal  dissensions 
and  foreign  wars,  and  retained  a  strong  and  gen 
erally  triumphant  party  of  friends  till  the  last. 
With  the  idea  that   all  the  provinces  of  the 
former  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  belonged 
to  the  Argentine  Republic,  a  contest  was  long 
kept  up  to  attempt  to  bring  into  it  the  states  j 
of  Paraguay  and  Uruguay.     The  former,  pro-  | 
tected    in   part    by  its   natural    position,    and  | 
more  by  the  policy  of  isolation  and  the  strong 
executive  power  of  its  singular  dictator,  Fran- 
cia,  almost  entirely  escaped   foreign   conflict. 
But  Brazil  had  ever  in  view  the  conquest  of 
the   latter,   while   the  Argentine   government 
saw  the  importance  of  that  territory,  arid  espe 
cially  the  necessity  of  checking  the  ambition 
of  the  neighboring  monarchy.     The  civil  dis 
sensions   in   the   Banda  Oriental  exercised   a 
marked  influence  on   Argentine  politics,  and 
the  movements  headed  by  Oribe  and  Rivera  ; 
served  Rosas  as  a  pretext  for  his  intervention  I 
in  Uruguayan  affairs  and  for  the  aid  given  by  ! 
Brazil  to  the  enemies  of  the  Argentine  dicta-  I 
tor.     Oribe  was  a  partisan  if  not  a  creature 
and  tool  of  Rosas.     To  him  there  was  opposed 
a  strong   faction   led   by  Rivera,  a  man  who 
had  raised  himself  to  influence  much  in  the  ; 
manner  employed  by  Rosas  in  Buenos  Ayres.  I 
The  matter  came  to  a  war,  first  of  blockades  | 
and  then  of  armies,  between  Oribe  supported  | 
by  Rosas  on  the  one  hand,  and  Rivera  sustained 
by  the  Argentine  exiles  in  Montevideo,  and  also 
by  a  French  fleet,  on  the  other.     The  inter 
vention  of  the  French  was  induced  by  a  quar 
rel  which  had  arisen  between  a  French  vice 


consul  and  the  dictator.  The  French  difficulty 
was  settled  by  the  appointment  of  a  new  con 
sul,  and  in  1840  peace  was  concluded  between 
the  confederation  and  Montevideo.  This  peace 
was  not  of  long  duration,  and  in  1845  Great 
Britain  and  France,  at  the  special  request  of 
the  emperor  of  Brazil,  interfered,  on  the  plea 
of  enforcing  the  treaties  of  1828  and  1840. 
The  allies  blockaded  Buenos  Ayres;  seized  the 
Argentine  fleet,  then  engaged  in  blockading 
Montevideo,  and  the  island  of  Martin  Garcia, 
which  commands  the  entrances  of  the  Parana 
and  Uruguay ;  opened  the  Parana,  which  Ro 
sas  had  closed  to  vessels  bound  to  Paraguay, 
and  offered  convoys  as  far  as  Corrientes, 
where  in  repeated  attempts  by  the  dictator  to 
oppose  the  passage  of  the  combined  fleets  the 
Argentines  sustained  heavy  losses.  This  state 
of  things  lasted  three  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  period  England  withdrew  (July,  1848), 
but  France  continued  hostilities  six  months 
longer.  The  rival  factions  in  Uruguay,  one  of 
which  was  supported  by  Brazil  and  the  other  by 
Rosas,  occupied  the  latter  many  years,  while  the 
opposition  party  in  his  own  state  Avas  gradually 
becoming  too  powerful  for  him.  This  party, 
headed  by  Urquiza,  governor  of  Entre-Rios, 
was  now  armed  and  acting  in  conjunction  with 
the  natural  enemy,  and  at  the  battle  of  Monte 
Caseros,  Feb.  3, 1852,  Rosas  was  defeated;  but, 
more  fortunate  than  Dorrego  had  been,  lie 
was  enabled  to  escape  to  England.  Vicente 
Lopez  now  became  provisional  governor  of  the 
province  of  Buenos  Ayres.  But,  by  a  sudden 
coup  d'etat,  Urquiza,  having  the  army  at  his 
disposal,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  govern 
ment  as  dictator,  not  live  months  after  the 
deposition  of  Rosas.  The  first  use  of  his  power 
was  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  Para 
guay.  He  also  secured  the  future  free  navi 
gation  of  all  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Plata,  a 
wise  measure  which  still  remains  in  force.  But 
this  new  assumption  of  dictatorial  power  pro 
duced  immediate  irritation.  Having  to  attend 
congress  at  Santa  Fe,  he  had  hardly  left  the 
capital  when  (Sept.  11,  1852)  a  revolution 
broke  out,  and  Valentine  Alsina  was  chosen 
governor  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  province  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  with  this  government,  deter 
mined  to  maintain  itself  as  a  state  independent 
of  the  confederation,  and  another  revolution 
in  December,  which  temporarily  changed  the 
governor,  did  not  alter  this  purpose.  The  con 
gress  of  the  confederation  did  not  assemble  till 
Nov.  20,  all  the  states  being  then  represented 
except  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Urquiza  was  instruct 
ed  to  suppress  the  rebellion  in  that  state.  It 
again  met  Jan.  22, 1853,  and  went  on  with  the 
work  of  forming  a  constitution.  It  also  recom 
mended  the  president  to  take  all  means  to  stop 
the  civil  war  and  bring  Buenos  Ayres  back  to 
the  confederacy.  The  new  constitution  of  the 
confederation,  which  is  still  in  force,  was  pro 
mulgated  May  1,  1853.  It  was  framed  in  the 
apparent  expectation  that  Buenos  Ayres,  the 
richest  and  most  important,  as  the  only  niari- 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


695 


time  state  of  the  confederacy,  might  be  induced 
to  return  to  it,  and  accordingly  fixed  that  city  as 
the  capital.  The  constitution,  with  some  slight 
modification,  was  copied  from  that  of  the  United 
States  of  Xortli  America,  as  being  a  federal 
government  of  independent  states.  It  guar 
antees  the  free  navigation  of  the  rivers,  and 
provides  that  there  shall  be  no  duties  on  goods 
carried  from  province  to  province ;  grants  to 
foreigners  all  civil  rights;  provides  for  their 
naturalization  after  ten  years'  residence,  which 
term  may  be  abridged  at  the  discretion  of  con 
gress  ;  and  makes  other  provisions  for  the 
encouragement  of  immigration.  It  went  into 
effect  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Urquiza  was 
chosen  president  for  six  years  from  March  5, 
1854.  The  seat  of  government  was  established 
at  Bajada  del  Parana,  in  the  province  of  Entre- 
Rios.  Meantime,  in  Buenos  Ayres  a  new  con 
stitution  had  also  been  formed  in  January  of 
the  same  year,  but  not  without  a  hope  ex 
pressed  and  provision  made  for  a  future  return 
to  the  confederation,  which  soon  after  seemed 
probable.  That  province  was  invaded  by  a 
party  of  filibusters  under  one  Costa,  and  Ur 
quiza  was  suspected,  or  at  least  accused,  of  hav 
ing  fostered  the  movement.  This  he  promptly 
denied,  and  sent  his  forces  to  help  to  repel 
them;  which  friendly  act  failed  to  bring  about 
an  entire  reconciliation,  but  resulted  in  good 
will  between  the  parties,  and  two  treaties  of 
peace  signed  at  Buenos  Ayres,  Dec.  20,  1854, 
and  Parana,  Jan.  8,  1855.  They  provided  for 
independent  governments,  but  contained  stipu 
lations  for  much  mutual  assistance.  Urquiza 
continued  president  of  the  Argentine  Confeder 
ation,  and  Pastor  Obligado  was  reflected  gov 
ernor  of  Buenos  Ayres  for  a  term  of  years. 
Upon  the  unanimous  request  of  the  congress  of 
the  confederation,  negotiations  were  reopened 
on  the  subject  of  reunion,  Oct.  10,  1855,  and 
Juan  Bautista  Pena  was  sent  t<)  Parana  for  the 
purpose.  But  the  discovery  that  his  authority 
did  not  extend  to  merging  the  two  sovereign 
ties,  produced  much  irritation  in  the  confedera 
tion,  at  the  same  time  that  another  event  occa 
sioned  discontent  at  Buenos  Ayres.  On  Dec. 
24,  1855,  some  Argentine  refugees  from  Monte 
video,  under  Gen.  Flores,  disembarked  at  Santa 
Fe  to  invade  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
Gen.  Bartolome  Mitre  repulsed  them,  and  in  his 
turn  invaded  the  province  of  Santa  Fe,  in  which 
step  he  was  sustained  by  his  government. 
Upon  this,  not  only  was  the  mission  of  Pena 
closed,  but  the  Argentine  government  signified 
to  him  (March  18^  1856)  that  the  treaties  of 
Dec.  20,  1854,  and  Jan.  8,  1855,  were  annulled. 
Differential  duties  levied  by  Urquiza  upon  all 
vessels  from  Buenos  Ayres  bound  up  the  Plata 
and  its  tributaries  gave  rise  to  serious  hos 
tilities,  which  were  renewed  at  intervals  dur 
ing  four  years,  until  Nov.  11,  1859,  when  Bue 
nos  Ayres  was  reunited  to  the  republic.  In 
1800  Urquiza  was  succeeded  in  the  presi 
dency  by  Dr.  Santiago  Derqui ;  and  in  the  fol 
lowing  year  the  exclusion  of  the  deputies  of 


!  Buenos  Ayres  from  congress,  on  the  ground 
of  unconstitutional  election,  led  to  the  renewal 
of  hostilities.  Gen.  Bartolome  Mitre  of  Bue 
nos  Ayres  defeated  the  Argentine  troops  at 
Pa  von  (Sept.  17,  1801),  and  was  provisionally 
intrusted  with  the  government,  Derqui  having 
i  abdicated.  A  convention  appointed  to  revise 
the  old  constitution  adopted  a  new  one,  ap- 
!  pointing  Buenos  Ayres  provisional  capital  of 
,  the  republic,  being  at  the  same  time  the  state 
|  capital.  In  October,  1802,  Mitre  was  elected 
|  president  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  Urquiza 
in  the  mean  time  remained  on  the  defensive  in 
Entre-Rios,  but  was  soon  induced  to  accept  the 
government  of  that  province,  which  had  enter 
ed  into  the  newly  constituted  republic.  An 
insurrection  headed  by  Gen.  Penalosa,  who  for 
nearly  two  years  held  the  provinces  of  Ca- 
tamarca,  San  Juan,  and  Cordoba,  terminated 
in  his  capture  and  execution  (1803).  In  1804 
N.  Aguirre  was  elected  president  of  the  Banda 
Oriental  del  Uruguay,  from  the  ranks  of  the 
llancos  (whites)  or  reactionary  party;  and  Ve- 
naricio  Flores,  the  chief  of  the  colorados  (reds) 
or  liberal  party  and  the  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  presidency,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
an  insurrection  and  readily  obtained  the  aid  of 
Brazil,  in  spite  of  the  repeated  protest  of  Lopez, 
president  of  Paraguay,  to  the  government  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  Lopez  now  ordered  the  capture 
of  a  Brazilian  steamer  on  its  passage  up  the 
river  to  the  province  of  Matto  Grosso,  and  the 
detention  of  the  crew  and  passengers  as  pris 
oners  of  war,  Nov.  11,  1804.  In  the  follow-' 
ing  month  a  Paraguayan  army  invaded  Matto 
Grosso,  sacked  Cuyaba,  the  capital,  and  five 
other  towns,  and  took  possession  of  the  dia 
mond  mines.  Aguirre  had  applied  to  Lopez 
for  aid,  which  was  at  once  promised ;  but  the 
Paraguayan  troops  could  only  reach  Uruguay 
by  passing  through  the  Argentine  province  of 
Corrientes,  and  Mitre  refused  them  permission 
of  transit.  In  1864  Flores  was  elected  and 
in  1805  assumed  the  functions  of  president, 
the  city  of  Montevideo  being  occupied  by 
Brazilian  troops.  Fearing  now  from  the  atti 
tude  of  the  Argentine  Republic  that  it  would 
join  the  alliance  against  him,  Lopez  seized  two 
Argentine  war  vessels  in  the  bay  of  Corrientes, 
April  13,  1805,  and  the  next  day  that  city  was 
occupied  by  Paraguayan  forces,  who  formed  a 
provisional  government  composed  of  three  Ar 
gentine  citizens,  and  declared  the  provinces  of 
Corrientes  and  Entre-Rios  to  be  annexed  to 
Paraguay.  War  was  de< -hired  by  the  Argen 
tine  Republic  against  Paraguay  April  10,  a 
like  declaration  having  been  issued  by  the  na 
tional  congress  of  Paraguay  against  the  Ar 
gentine  Republic  on  the  18th  of  March.  On 
May  1  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  was 
secretly  entered  into  between  the  Argentine 
Republic,  Uruguay,  and  Brazil,  against  Para 
guay,  the  allies  "solemnly  binding  themselves 
not  to  lay  down  arms  until  the  existing  gov 
ernment  of  Paraguay  should  be  overthrown." 
In  June  the  city  of  Corrientes  was  recaptured 


696 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


ARGONAUTS 


by  the  Argentines,  but  was  soon  after  again 
invested  by  the  invaders.  During  the  first  two 
months  the  war  was  chiefly  carried  on  in  Cor- 
rientes,  generally  with  heavy  losses  to  the  Pa 
raguayans,  who,  however,  had  by  August  suc 
ceeded  in  taking  one  or  two  towns  in  the 
adjacent  Brazilian  province  of  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul.  But  their  advancing  army  on  the  river 
Uruguay,  numbering  7,000,  was  defeated  at 
Yatay,  and  finally  surrendered  in  Uruguayana 
to  10,000  Uruguayans  and  Argentines.  In 
November  following  the  Paraguayan  army  had 
evacuated  the  Argentine  territory,  and  the 
close  of  December  found  the  allies,  35,000 
strong,  at  Corrales  on  the  N.  shore  of  Corrien- 
tes,  ready  to  cross  the  Parana  and  carry  the 
war  into  the  heart  of  Paraguay.  Lopez,  com 
manding  in  person,  was  unable  to  defend  his 
frontiers,  and  retired  northward  before  supe 
rior  forces,  fighting  for  every  inch  of  ground. 
This  obstinate  defence  terminated  with  the 
battle  of  Lomas  Valentinas,  Dec.  25-27,  1868, 
having  lasted  upward  of  three  years.  The 
war  continued,  however,  until  March  1,  1870, 
when  Lopez  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Aqui- 
daban.  (See  PARAGUAY.)  In  1806,  in  some 
provinces,  especially  those  bordering  upon  Pa 
raguay  and  Bolivia,  great  dissatisfaction  with 
the  continuance  of  the  triple  alliance  and 
the  war  had  been  expressed,  and  repeated 
attempts  made  to  induce  the  separation  of 
some  of  the  northern  provinces  from  the  Ar 
gentine  Republic ;  but  these  disturbances  were 
easily  put  down.  Bolivia,  in  the  same  year, 
protested  against  the  treaty  of  alliance,  assert 
ing  her  right  to  a  part  of  the  Gran  Chaco 
claimed  in  the  treaty  by  the  Argentine  states. 
On  Dec.  10  a  convention  to  reform  the  consti 
tution  of  the  republic  met  at  Santa  Fe ;  the 
only  important  measure  adopted  was  the  re 
newal  of  the  permission  to  congress  to  levy  du 
ties  on  exports.  An  insurrection  headed  by 
one  Videla  broke  out  in  Mendoza,  San  Juan, 
and  La  Rioja,  for  the  purpose  of  separating  the 
interior  provinces  from  the  republic ;  it  was 
put  down  in  April,  but  the  leaders  escaped. 
The  opposition  to  the  war  had  been  increasing 
in  strength,  and  was  vehemently  expressed  in 
1868  by  Alsina,  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres,  who 
denounced  the  contest  as  barbarous,  murderous, 
and  fatal.  A  bill  which  passed  congress  in  the 
same  year  to  make  Rosariothe  national  capital 
was  vetoed  by  President  Mitre.  In  April, 

1870,  a  formidable  rebellion  broke  out  in  Entre- 
Rios,  headed  by  Gen.  Lopez  Jordan,  the  first 
act  of  which    was    to  murder    Gen.  Urquiza, 
Jordan's  father-in-law,  sack    his   palace,   and 
confiscate  his  property.    Two  of  Urquiza's  sons 
were  murdered  in  Concordia  ;  and  Jordan,  hav 
ing  forced  the  state  assembly  to  appoint  him 
governor,  issued  a  proclamation  of  liberty,  and 
appealed  to  the  national  government  for  immu 
nity  from  punishment.     It  was  not  until  April, 

1871,  that  the  national  troops,  after  immense 
losses,  succeeded  in  quelling  this  rebellion.     In 
March,   1871,    the  city  and  neighborhood  of 


Buenos  Ayrcs  were  visited  by  yellow  fever ; 
all  business  was  interrupted  for  several  weeks, 
and  the  estimated  mortality  during  the  100 
days  preceding  the  80th  of  April  was  26,000. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  year  a  controversy 
arose  between  the  Argentine  Republic  and 
Brazil,  the  former  having  protested  against 
alleged  breaches  by  the  Brazilians  of  certain 
articles  of  the  treaty  of  alliance  of  May  1,  1865. 
But  Gen.  Mitre  brought  his  negotiations  to  a 
successful  termination  in  October,  1872;  and 
the  Argentine  government  was  to  commence 
negotiations  with  Paraguay  concerning  boun 
daries  before  the  end  of  the  year. 

ARGIVES  (Gr.  Apyeloi},  the  inhabitants  of 
Argos  or  Argolis,  in  ancient  Greece.  During 
the  Trojan  war  they  were  the  most  prominent 
among  the  Greek  tribes,  as  Agamemnon,  the 
Greek  commander-in-chief,  was  an  Argive. 
For  this  reason  Homer,  and  following  him  some 
of  the  Roman  poets,  often  use  the  name  Argives 
as  a  generic  appellation  for  all  Greeks. 

ARGOL,     See  TAETAE. 

AUGOLIS.     See  AEGOS. 

ARGONAUT.     See  NAUTILUS. 

ARGONAUTS,  a  name  given  from  that  of  their 
ship,  the  Argo,  to  a  band  of  heroes  of  Greek 
antiquity,  who,  according  to  the  legend,  first 
navigated  unknown  and  dangerous  seas.  The 
poets  have  given  different  versions  of  the  tra 
dition,  but  the  story  generally  accepted  is 
briefly  as  follows.  Jason,  the  son  of  ^Eson, 
was  ordered  by  his  uncle  Pelias,  king  of  lolcus 
in  Thessaly  (who  had  been  warned  by  the  or 
acle  to  dread  his  nephew),  to  capture  and  bring 
to  him  the  golden  fleece  of  the  rain  Avhich  had 
carried  Phrixus  and  Helle  when  they  fled 
from  their  stepmother  Ino.  Phrixus  had  nailed 
the  fleece  to  an  oak  in  the  grove  of  Mars  in 
Colchis,  where  it  was  watched  by  a  sleepless 
dragon.  Joined  by  the  principal  heroes  of 
Greece,  whom  he  had  invited  to  take  part  in 
the  adventure,  Jason  set  sail  from  lolcus  in  the 
fifty-oared  ship  Argo,  named  from  Argos,  son 
of  Phrixus,  who  had  built  it  for  the  expedition. 
The  heroes  landed  first  in  Lemnos,  where  the 
Lemnian  women,  who  on  account  of  the  anger 
of  Venus  had  slain  their  husbands,  detained 
them  two  years.  The  Doliones,  whom  they 
next  visited,  at  first  received  them  hospitably, 
but  afterward,  mistaking  them  for  Pelasgians, 
attacked  them;  and  Jason  in  the  battle  killed 
their  prince.  In  Mysi'a,  their  next  landing 
place,  Hylas,  led  away  by  a  nymph,  and  Her 
cules  and  Polyphemus,  who  were  searching 
for  him,  were  left  behind.  In  the  land  of  the 
Bebryces  King  Amycus,  who  had  challenged 
the  heroes  to  a  boxing  match,  was  slain  by 
Pollux.  Continuing  their  voyage,  they  reached 
the  Symplegades,  two  floating  islands  which 
crushed,  in  dashing  against  one  another,  what 
ever  came  in  their  way.  Availing  themselves 
of  an  artifice  taught  them  by  the  seer  Phineus 
and  Juno,  who  acted  as  their  pilot,  they  let 
j  looee  a  dove,  only  the  tail  of  which  was  crush- 
I  ed  by  the  colliding  rocks,  and  the  Argonauts 


ARGONXE 


ARGUELLES 


697 


passed  safely  between  as  the  islands  rebounded. 
The  islands  from  this  time  ceased  their  danger 
ous  movements.     Reaching  Colchis  at  last,  the 
heroes  sought  the  king,  ^Eetes,  who  promised 
the  tleece  to  Jason  on  condition  that  he  should 
yoke  to  the  plough  two  tire-breathing  bulls, 
and  sow  the  dragon's  teeth  left  by  Cadmus  in 
Thebes.      Aided   by  the   daughter   of  .Ectes, 
Medea,  a  powerful  enchantress,  who  had  fallen 
deeply  in  love  with  him,  Jason  accomplished 
these  tasks ;  but  finding  yEOtcs  plotting  treach 
ery,  the  hero,  again  assisted  by  Medea's  en-  j 
chantments,   seized   the   fleece,   carried   it   on  I 
board  his  ship,  and  set  sail,  accompanied  by 
Medea  and  her  brother  Absyrtus.     Pursued  by 
JEetes,  Medea  killed  Absyrtus,  and,  throwing 
his  body  piece  by  piece  into  the  sea,  delayed 
the  king,  who  stopped  to  gather  the  remains 
of  his  son,  while  the  Argonauts  escaped.     But 
the  mast  of  the  Argo,  which  was  made  of  Do- 
donian  oak  having  the  gift  of  prophecy,  told 
the  heroes  that  for  the  crime  against  Absyrtus  | 
they  were  condemned  to  undergo  innumerable  j 
difficulties  on  their  homeward  voyage.    Having  j 
been  absolved  by  the  enchantress  Circe,  they  i 
escaped  Scylla  and  Charybdis  with  the  help  ! 
of  Thetis,    eluded   with    the   aid   of  Orpheus  j 
the  enticements  of  the  sirens,  and  after  four 
months  of  continued   danger  reached  lolcus.  | 
The  Argo  was  consecrated  by  Jason  on  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth  to  Neptune. 

ARGOME,  a  mountainous  and  wooded  re 
gion  of  X.  E.  France,  forming  a  part  of  French 
Lorraine  and  Champagne,  extending  along  the 
rivers  Meuso  and  Aisne  nearly  47  m.  from 
Sedan  (Ardennes)  to  beyond  Ste.  Menehould 
(Marne).  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Ardennes 
and  S.  by  the  Meuse  mountains,  and  contains 
many  forests  and  ranges  with  several  almost 
inaccessible  passes.  W.  Argonne,  or  the  Ar- 
gonne  forest  proper,  a  wooded  elevation  800 
to  900  ft.  high,  extends  over  30  m.,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from  1  to  8  m.,  from  the 
sources  of  the  Aisne,  along  that  river  and 
the  Meuse  northward  as  far  as  Chene-Popu- 
leux,  separating  the  fertile  plains  from  the 
barren  steppes  between  Vitry  and  Sezanne, 
familiarly  called  Champagne  Pouilleuse.  The 
forest  of  E.  Argonne,  600  to  900  ft.  high,  in 
cluding  in  the  N.  the  forest  of  Apremont, 
1,225  ft.  high,  runs  parallel  with  W.  Argonne 
along  the  E.  bank  of  the  Meuse.  The  forest 
of  Argonne  contains  several  defiles  renowned 
in  history,  among  them  the  battlefield  of  Valmy, 
and  has  therefore  been  called  the  French  Ther 
mopylae.  Several  important  military  move 
ments  and  actions  took  place  within  its  limits 
during  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870,  pre 
ceding  the  battle  of  Sedan. 

A&GOOX,  or  Argnn,  one  of  the  two  chief 
branches  of  the  Amoor  river.  Under  the  name 
of  Kerulun  or  Kerlon,  it  rises  about  30  m.  S.  E. 
of  the  sources  of  the  Onon,  S.  of  the  Kentei 
mountains  in  Mongolia,  and  runs  N.  N.  E. 
through  tho  N.  part  of  the  desert  of  Gobi,  ( 
about  500  m.,  to  Lake  Kulon  or  Dalai  Noor 


(holy  lake).  Thence,  taking  the  name  of  Ar- 
goon,  it  flows  generally  N.,  with  large  bends, 
about  400  m.,  between  the  Russian  and  Chinese 
territories,  to  its  junction  with  the  Shilka, 
forming  the  Amoor.  Its  chief  aiHuents  are  the 
Khailar,  Khalkha,  and  Gasimoor,  the  latter 
running  almost  parallel  with  the  Shilka. 

ARGOS,  or  Argolis  (anciently  also  Argia  and 
Argolice),  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
between  the  bays  of  ^Egina  and  Nauplia,  the 
Saronic  and  Argolic  gulfs  of  the  ancients.  The 
eastern  continuation  of  the  northern  mountain 
range  of  the  peninsula  surrounds  a  part  of  the 
inhabited  shores,  which  bear  marks  of  volcanic 
convulsions,  and  the  plain  of  Argos,  which  is 
fertile,  but  rendered  unhealthy  by  marshes. 
The  chief  mountain  group  is  the  Malcvo,  called 
by  the  ancients  Artcmision,  on  the  Arcadian 
boundary,  which  rises  above  5,000  feet.  The 
largest  plain  is  situated  near  the  town  of  Argos, 
behind  the  bay  of  Nauplia,  watered  by  the 
river  Planitza,  the  classical  Inachus.  Only  a 
few  other  spots  are  fit  for  agriculture,  on  ac 
count  of  the  want  of  water,  as  all  the  streams 
except  the  Planitza  and  the  Kephalari  (anc. 
Erasmus)  dry  up.  But  the  many  bays  render 
Argolis  favorable  for  navigation.  In  the  ear 
lier  times  of  antiquity  Argolis  was  strictly  the 
plain  surrounded  on  the  west  by  the  Arcadian 
mountains,  and  on  the  north  by  those  of  Phlius, 
Cleonas,  and  Corinth.  In  the  Roman  epoch  Ar 
golis  represented  the  eastern  part  of  the  Pelo 
ponnesus,  bounded,  on  the  land  side,  N.  by  the 
territories  of  Sicyon  and  Corinth,  W.  by  Arca 
dia,  and  S.  by  Laconia.  Argolis  belongs  to  the 
earliest  cultivated  regions  in  ancient  Greece. 
From  the  remotest  times  it  was  divided  into 
the  kingdoms  of  Argos,  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  Trce- 
zene,  Ilermione,  and  Epidaurus,  which  all  af 
terward  formed  republics.  About  750  B.  C. 
the  city  of  Argos,  under  Phidon,  was  the  lead 
ing  state  of  the  Peloponnesus.  Its  power  sank 
in  its  wars  with  Sparta,  waged  for  the  posses 
sion  of  the  district  of  Cynuria,  on  their  con 
fines.  Cynuria  was  lost  about  550,  and  a  de 
feat  near  Tiryns  in  524  completed  the  decay 
of  Argos.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  it  sided 
with  Athens.  It  early  joined  the  Achaean 
league,  and,  on  its  fall,  was  included  in  the 
Roman  province  of  Achaia. — In  the  present 
kingdom  of  Greece,  Argolis  is  the  main  por 
tion  of  a  nomarchy  called  Argolis  and  Corinth, 
and  embracing  besides  these  territories  a  part 
of  ancient  Achaia  and  the  islands  of  Spezzia 
and  Hydra;  area,  about  1,900  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
128,000.  Nauplia  is  the  capital.— The  town 
of  Argos  is  situated  near  the  head  of  the  gulf 
of  Nauplia,  20  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Corinth ;  pop. 
about  8.000.  It  suffered  much  in  its  capture 
by  the  Venetians  in  1680,  and  its  recapture  by 
the  Turks  in  1706.  Remains  of  its  cyclopean 
walls,  as  well  as  of  a  grand  amphitheatre  hewn 
in  the  rock,  are  still  to  be  seen. 

AUGOT.     See  SLANG. 

ARGUELLES,  An2;ustin,  a  Spanish  statesman, 
born  at  Ribade  Sella,  in  Asturias,  in  1775,  died 


COS 


ARGUS 


ARGYLL 


in  Madrid.  March  23,  1844.  He  was  one  of 
the  committee  of  the  cortes  of  Cadiz  which 
drew  up  the  constitution  of  1812,  limiting  the 
royal  po\ver.  On  the  reestablishment  of  abso- 
lutisin  under  Ferdinand  YIL  he  was  exiled  to 
Ceuta,  and  thence  transferred  to  a  prison  in  the 
Balearic  islands.  The  revolution  of  182U  re 
stored  him  to  political  life.  On  the  restoration 
of  Ferdinand  he  lied  to  England,  where  he  re 
mained  until  lie  was  recalled  in  1833  by  the 
recent  Christina.  In  the  cortes  he  opposed  the 
government  party  until  the  accession  of  Men- 
dizahal  to  power,  when  lie  joined  him  with 
the  expectation  of  restoring  the  constitution 
of  1812.  In  1830  he  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  council  of  regency,  and  in  1837  a  mem 
ber  of  the  senate.  He  was  tutor  to  Queen 
Isabella  and  her  sister. 

Alldli'8,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  wondrous  per 
son  with  a  hundred  eyes,  or,  as  others  have  it, 
eyes  all  over  his  body,  of  which  only  two  slept 
at  a  time.  Set  by  Juno  to  watch  the  priestess 
lo,  transformed  into  a  white  cow,  he  was  lulled 
to  sleep  by  Mercury,  who  played  soothing 
tunes  on  the  pipe  of  Pan,  and  then  slew  him 
with  his  sword. 

ARGVLESIHilE,  or  Argyllshire,  a  western  coun 
ty  of  Scotland,  including  several  islands  near 
the  coast,  and  bounded  on  the  land  side  by 
the  counties  of  Inverness,  Perth,  and  Dum 
barton;  area,  3,255  s  \.  m. ;  'pop.  in  1871, 
75,635.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  picturesque 
character  rather  than  for  cultivation.  The 
population  is  perhaps  the  lowest  in  the  Brit 
ish  isles,  about  24  to  the  square  mile,  and 
still  on  the  decrease,  owing  to  the  policy  of 
the  great  land  owners,  which  has  been  to  re 
move  the  tenantry,  and  to  create  extensive 
sheep  walks.  In  40  years  the  loss  of  popula 
tion  has  been  25  per  cent.  The  mountain  dis 
trict  of  Argyleshire  contains  Oruachan  Ben, 
rising  to  the  height  of  3,000  feet,  with  many 
other  lofty  hills,  celebrated  in  Scottish  poetry. 
The  largest  of  the  inland  lakes  is  Loch  Awe. 
The  mountains  are  chiefly  of  granitic  formation. 
Of  the  islands,  M\;ll,  Islay,  Coll,  Tiree,  Jura, 
lona  or  Icolmkill,  and  Staifa  are  chiefly  note 
worthy.  Argyleshire  is  not  rich  in  mineral 
resources.  Lead,  copper,  and  coal  are  worked, 
but  not  in  very  great  quantities.  The  raising  of 
cattle  and  sheep  is  carried  on  with  great  suc 
cess.  The  moors  yield  abundance  of  game, 
grouse,  ptarmigan,  and  blackcock;  the  red 
deer  is  also  found.  The  proprietorship  of  this 
large  county,  which  comprises  more  than  one 
tenth  of  the  area  of  Scotland,  is  in  few  hands. 
The  duke  of  Argyll,  the  marquis  of  Tweeddale, 
and  the  marquis  of  Breadalbane  are  the  chief 
land  owners.  There  are  various  natural  curi 
osities,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  the 
columns  and  cave  of  Statfa.  Gaelic  is  still 
generally  spoken,  although  of  late  years  the 
English  language  has  begun  to  supersede  it. 
The  county  is  popularly  divided  into  the  dis 
tricts  of  Argyle,  Cowal,  Kintyre,  Lorn,  Appin, 
Islay,  and  Mull.  Capital,  Inverary. 


ARGYLL,  or  Argyle,  Earl  and  Dnko  of,  titles  in 
the  Scottish  peerage  held  respectively  since  1457 
and  17<U  by  the  heads  of  the  family  of  Campbell 
(called  by  their  Gaelic  dependants  Mac  Callum 
More,  "Campbell  the  Great''),  who  had  been 
Lords  Campbell  since  1445,  and  who  are  also 
!  English  peers.    It  €oliu,  2d  Lord  Campbell,  in 
l  1457  made  earl  of  ArgylJ,  died  May  10, 1493.  lie 
!  was  appointed  master  of  the  king's  household 
j  in  1404  by  James  III.,  subsequently  served  as 
i  ambassador  to  England  and  later  to  France, 
I  was  justiciar  or  lord  justiciary,  and  finally  lord 
j  high  chancellor  of  Scotland.     He  acquired  by 
i  marriage  the  estates  and  titles  of  Lome,  which 
j  still  remain  in  the  family.      If.    Archibald,  2d 
carl,    commanded   the    vanguard    at    Flodden 
I  Field,  Sept.  !),  1513,  and  was  killed  in  the  bat- 
!  tie.     III.  Archibald,  5th  earl,  died  in  1575.     He 
was  one  of  the  most  important  adherents  of 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  and  commander  of  her 
forces  at  the  battle  of  Langside  in  1568.     He 
i  was  one  of  a  council  of  nobles  who  virtually 
I  ruled  Scotland  after  the  assassination  of  Murray. 
After  the  murder  of  Lennox  he  was  an  unsuc- 
j  cessful    candidate  for  the  regency.      He  was 
!  appointed,  however,  a  privy  councillor,  and  in 
j  1572  lord  high  chancellor.     IV.  Archibald,  8th 
I  earl,   born   in   1598,  beheaded  at  Edinburgh, 
May  27,  1001.     In  1033  his  father,  the  seventh 
I  earl,  announced  his  conversion  to  the  Roman 
|  Catholic  faith,  and  was  compelled  live  years 
j  before  his   death  to  surrender  to  Archibald, 
then  Lord  Lome,  nearly  all  his  estates.     Im 
mediately  on  his  succession  Argyll  joined  the 
|  side  of  the  Scottish  church  against  the  innova- 
I  tions  of  Charles  I.     In  spite  of  this  opposition, 
the  king,  knowing  his  power  in  Scotland,  made 
j  him  a  marquis  in  1041.     On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  civil  war  he  at  once  joined  the  estates 
against  the  king.     He  was  made  commander 
of  the  army  sent  against  Montrose,  but  was  so 
signally  defeated  by  that  general  in  two  en 
gagements  that  he  almost  immediately  resigned. 
He  afterward  went  to  meet  the  king  at  New 
castle,  and,  rejoining  the  royal  side,  took  part 
later  in  the  coronation  of  Charles  II.  at  Scone, 
Jan.  1,  1051,  placing  the  crown  Avith  his  own 
hands  upon  the  king's  head.   Not  long  after, 
however,  he  submitted  to  Cromwell  after  the 
battle  of  Worcester,  and  subsequently  sat  for 
Aberdeen  in  parliament  under  the  protector's 
son   Richard.      At    the    restoration    in    1000, 
he  endeavored  to  make  still  another  change, 
and  hurried  to  London  to  conciliate  the  king ; 
but  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  tower,  and  soon 
after  sent  to  Scotland,  where  he  was  tried  for 
|  high  treason,  found  guilty,  and  beheaded.     V. 
|  Archibald,  9th  earl,  beheaded  at  Edinburgh,  June 
|  30,  1685.    He  had  remained  faithful  to  the  king 
!  during  the  revolution,  and  therefore  at  the  res 
toration  his  father's  estate  and  earldom  (the 
marquisate  having  expired)  were  restored  to 
him.     But  he  refused  to  take  the  test  oath,  nn- 
i  less  with  the  qualiiication  a  as  far  as  is  consis- 
j  tent  with  the  Protestant  faith."     For  this  he 
;  was  convicted  of  hi<j;h  treason  and  sentenced 


ARGYLL 


APJALDUS 


690 


to  death,  but  escaped  for  a  time  by  disguising  ! 
himself  as  a  page,  and  going,  in  the  suite  of  his  I 
stepdaughter,   Lady  Sophia  Lindsay,  to   Hol 
land.     Returning  at  the  head  of  an  army,  he  . 
was  defeated,  captured,  and  immediately  exe-  ' 
cuted.     VI.  Archibald,  10th  earl  and  1st"  duke 
of  Argyll,  son  of  the  preceding,  died  in  Sep-  i 
tember,  1703.     lie  was  acknowledged  earl  in 
1689    by  the  convention   of  estates  of  Scot 
land,   though   his    father's    attainder   was  not 
formally    reversed   until    several   years    later.  j 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of  j 
1688-'9,  which  placed  William  and  Mary  on  the  | 
throne,  and  at  the  wish  of  the  convention  ten-  ; 
dered  the  coronation  oath  to  the  king.     The 
latter  rewarded  his  services  by  several  impor-  | 
tant  appointments,  and  on  June  23,  1701,  con 
ferred  upon  him  the  title  of  duke.     YII.  John,  j 
2d  duke,  born  Oct.  10,  1678,  died  Sept.  3,  1743.  j 
Immediately   on   his   succession,  although    he 
was  but  25  years  old,  he  was  appointed  to  near 
ly  all  the  offices  before  held  by  his  father,  as 
an  extraordinary  lord  of  session,  privy  council-  j 
lor,  Are.     In  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  he  was  j 
prominent  in  bringing  about  the  union  of  Scot 
land  and  England,  and  for  his  services  in  this  , 
matter  was  made  Baron  Chatham  and  earl  of  ! 
Greenwich  in  the  peerage   of  England.      lie  j 
served  with  great  distinction  in  four  campaigns  i 
in  Flanders,  and  was  made  a  lieutenant  gene-  j 
ral.     He   several    times  changed  his  political 
views  to  suit  the  dominant  party ;  in  reward  j 
of  the  first  of  these  changes,  in  1710,  he  was  , 
appointed  ambassador  to  Spain.    On  the  acces-  j 
sion  of  the  family  of  Hanover,  which  he  aided  | 
efficiently,  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  ; 
of  the   army  in  Scotland,  and  took  a  promi-  j 
nent  part  in  repressing  the  rebellion  of  1715.  i 
His   influence   at    court    at    this    period   was  ! 
also  very  great.     On  April  13,   1710,  he  was  i 
made  duke  of  Greenwich,  a  title  which  be-  j 
came   extinct   at   his  death.      VIII.   Archibald,  j 
3d    duke,    brother    of    the    preceding,    born  i 
in  June,  1682,  died  April   15,  1761.     He  was  i 
appointed,  soon  after  he  became  of  ase,  lord  j 
high  treasurer  of  Scotland,  and  in  1710  was 
made  lord  justice  general  for  life.     After  he 
succeeded  to  his  brother's  title  in  1743,  he  had 
almost  entire  control  of  the  Scottish  govern-  | 
ment.     lie  left  no  issue,  and  the  title  devolved  ! 
upon  his  cousin.     IX.  George  John  Douglas,  8th  ! 
duke,  Baron  Sundridge   and  Lord   Hamilton  i 
(titles  first  held  by  the  5th  and  6th  dukes)  in 
the  peerage  of  England,  2d  son  of  John  Doug 
las  Edward  Henry,  7th  duke,  born  April  30,  | 
1823.     His  elder  brother  died  young,  and  he 
succeeded  his  father  April  26,  1847.     Even  be-  j 
fore  his  succession  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  ! 
Scotch  politics,  especially  in  the  discussion  re 
garding  the  Presbyterian  church.     On  subjects 
connected  with  this  he  published  in  18-12  "A 
Letter  to  the  Poers  from  a  Peer's  Son,"  and 
later  several  other  pamphlets.     In  the  contro 
versy  he  was  an  adherent  of  Dr.  Thomas  Chal 
mers,  but  did  not  agree  with  that  clergyman  j 
in  liia  separation  from  the  church.     After  his  i 


succession  to  the  title  and  hi^  seat  in  the  house 
of  lords,  he  became  prominent  as  a  debater. 
lie  has  generally  sided  with  the  liberals.  In 
1852  he  was  appointed  lord  privy  seal,  under 
the  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen.  This  office  he 
retained  under  Lord  Palmerston  till  1855,  when 
he  was  made  postmaster  general.  He  retired 
in  1858,  but  in  1851)  he  was  again  made  lord 
privy  seal,  and  retired  in  I860.  In  1868  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  India  in 
the  Gladstone  cabinet.  The  duke  has  also  be 
come  distinguished  in  science  and  literature. 
In  1854  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the  uni 
versity  of  Glasgow.  His  principal  \vork,  "The 
Reign  of  Law.'"  was  published  in  1866.  On 
March  21,  1871,  the  marquis  of  Lome,  his 
eldest  son,  was  married  at  St.  George's  chapel, 
Windsor,  to  the  princess  Louise,  fourth  daugh 
ter  of  Queen  Victoria.  This  was  the  first  in 
stance  of  the  marriage  of  the  daughter  of  a 
reigning  sovereign  of  England  to  a  subject. 

ARGIRO-KASTRO,  a  town  of  Turkey,  in  Al 
bania,  on  the  river  Deropuli,  an  affluent  of 
the  Voyutza,  46  m.  X.  VV.  of  Janina;  pop. 
about  7,000.  It  is  built  on  the  side  of  a  moun 
tain,  and  the  streets  are  so  steep  that  persons 
on  horseback  are  obliged  to  dismount.  The 
streets  are  separated  by  ravines,  planted  with 
gardens.  There  is  a  strong  castle,  which  was 
enlarged  by  Ali  Pasha,  and  has  accommodations 
for  5,000  men. 

ARG1ROPIL6S,  Johannes,  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  revivers  of  Greek  learning  in  the  15th 
century,  born  in  Constantinople  about  1415, 
died  in  Rome,  where  he  held  a  professorship 
of  philosophy,  about  1486.  He  was  instruc 
tor  in  Greek  to  the  son  and  grandson  of  Cosmo 
de'  Medici  at  Florence,  whence  he  removed  to 
Rome.  His  principal  works  are  some  Latin 
translations  of  Aristotle.  He  was  strongly  pre 
judiced  against  the  Roman  writers,  and  declar 
ed  Cicero  to  have  been  alike  ignorant  of  Greek 
and  of  philosophy. 

ARIAME,  according  to  Homer,  daughter  of 
Minos,  king  of  Crete,  and  of  Pasiphae.  When 
Theseus  landed  at  Crete,  with  the  tribute  of  the 
Athenians  for  the  Minotaur,  Ariadne  fell  in 
love  with  him  and  gave  him  a  clew  of  thread 
by  means  of  which  he  found  his  way  out  of  the 
labyrinth.  Theseus  offered  her  his  hand  in 
token  of  his  gratitude.  Ariadne  eloped  with 
him,  but  as  they  arrived  upon  the  island  of 
Naxos  she  was  killed  by  the  arrows  of  Diana. 
According  to  the  common  tradition,  Theseus 
abandoned  her  upon  the  island  of  Xaxos,  when 
Bacchus  married  her,  and  after  her  death  trans 
ferred  the  crown  which  he  had  given  her  at 
their  wedding  to  the  stars. 

ARIALDl'S,  a  deacon  and  martyr  of  the  church 
of  Milan,  born  near  Milan  in  the  first  half  of  t!:e 
llth  century,  died  in  that  city,  June  28,  1066. 
He  began  to  preach  against  the  corruptions  of 
the  clergy  at  Milan  about  1056.  Aided  by 
Landulphus,  a  young  noble  even  more  eloquent 
than  himself,  lie  aroused  the  popular  fooling 
to  such  a  degree  that  Pope  Nicholas  TI.  sent 


TOO 


ARIANISM 


two  legates  to  Milan  to  investigate  the  matter. 
They  sustained  Arialdus,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
putting  an  end  to  the  prevailing  corruption. 
After  the  election  of  Pope  Alexander  II.  the 
excitement  again  broke  out  at  Milan,  foment 
ed  by  Arialdus  and  Erlembaldus,  the  brother 
of  Landulphus.  Pope  Alexander  excommuni 
cated  the  archbishop  of  Milan,  and  reproved 
the  other  ecclesiastics.  But  even  this  did  not 
conquer  the  abuses;  and  although  Arialdus 
continued  to  preach  against  them,  the  fickle 
Milanese  became  jealous  of  the  attacks  from 
Rome  on  their  clergy.  Taking  advantage  of 
this  divided  state  of  public  opinion,  his  ene 
mies  had  Arialdus  assassinated  on  a  desert  island 
in  Lake  Maggiore.  His  name  was  enrolled  in 
the  list  of  martyrs  by  Alexander  II. 

AIUA'VISM,  a  theological  system  in  the  early 
Christian  Church,  named  after  Arius,  a  presby 
ter  at  Alexandria.  In  opposition  to  his  bishop 
Alexander,  Arius  asserted  that  there  was  a  time 
when  the  Son  was  not  coequal,  since  the  Father 
who  begot  must  be  before  the  Son  who  was 
begotten,  and  the  latter  therefore  could  not  be 
eternal.  As  many  prominent  bishops  sided  with 
Arius,  synods  were  called  on  both  sides,  and 
the  most  acute  intellects  of  the  church  dissussed 
the  question.  The  general  council  of  Nice  (325), 
attended  by  300  bishops,  condemned  Arius  and 
declared  the  Son  to  be  consubstantial  with  the 
Father ;  but  Arius  nevertheless  gained  the  favor 
of  Constantino  and  won  many  new  adherents. 
After  his  death  (33(>)  the  movement  spread  more 
rapidly  than  before.  When  Constantino  died  in 
337,  tiie  empire  was  divided  among  his  three 
sons,  two  of  whom,  Constantino  and  Constans 
in  the  West,  accepted  the  Xicene  creed,  while 
Constantius  in  the  East  was  a  decided  favorer 
of  Arianism.  An  anti-Nicene  council  at  Anti- 
och  (311),  consisting  of  90  bishops,  issued  de 
crees  on  the  ground  of  which  Athanasius, 
who  in  338  had  returned  from  exile  to  his  dio 
cese,  was  again  deposed.  In  the  West,  on  the 
contrary,  a  synod  at  Home  in  343  declared 
Athanasius  innocent  of  the  charges  preferred 
against  him  and  the  authors  of  his  exile  here 
tics.  In  order  to  put  an  end  to  this  conflict, 
Constantius  and  Constans  (Constantino  had 
died  in  310)  convoked  the  general  synod  of 
Sardica  in  Lower  Moesia  in  343  or  344  (not,  as 
has  heretofore  been  generally  assumed,  in  347). 
The  Arians,  having  a  minority  of  the  176  bish 
ops  present,  held  a  council  of  their  own,  at 
first  in  the  imperial  palace  in  Sardica,  and  sub 
sequently  at  Philippopolis.  Each  party  anath 
ematized  the  other ;  but  the  Niercans  tri 
umphed.  Constantius  so  far  yielded  to  the 
remonstrances  of  Constans  as  to  allow  the  re 
turn  of  Athanasius  (349) ;  but  when  he  became 
soon  after  sole  ruler  of  the  empire,  his  influence 
at  the  synods  of  Aries  (353)  and  Milan  (355) 
secured  the  condemnation  of  Athanasius  and 
the  adoption  of  Arian  decrees.  Pope  Liberius 
and  several  bishops,  among  thorn  Athanasius, 
were  banished,  and  Arianism  was  completely 
successful.  The  sect  now  became  divided  into 


strict  and  moderate  Arians.  Eusebius  of  Cae- 
sarea  declared  the  Son  to  be  homoiousios  or 
similar  in  substance  to  the  Father,  and  his  fol 
lowers  were  called  Homoiousians  or  Semi- Ari 
ans.  In  opposition  to  him,  Eusebius  of  Nico- 
modia  showed  himself  an  uncompromising 
Arian.  When  the  emperor  attempted  to  en 
force  the  Arian  resolutions  of  Milan  in  the 
place  of  those  of  Nice,  the  strict  Arians,  under 
the  leadership  of  Ae'tius,  deacon  at  Antioch, 
and  Eunomius,  bishop  of  Cyzicus  in  Mysia, 
attacked  the  Semi-Arians  as  well  as  the  Niccne 
doctrine  as  illogical,  and  developed  in  opposi 
tion  to  it  a  strict  subordinationism.  The  repu 
tation  of  Eunomius  in  his  party  was  so  great, 
that  their  original  name  of  Aetians  gradually 
I  gave  way  to  that  of  Eunomians.  They  were 
j  also  called  Anomo3ans,  Ileterousiasts,  and  Ex- 
ucontians,  as  they  maintained  that  the  Son 
was  dissimilar  to  God  (avouoiof),  of  different 
essence  (t-rtyjof  ovaiac;),  and  created  out  of 
nothing  (et-  ova  bvruv).  Several  synods  were 
held  for  the  purpose  of  healing  these  divisions. 
At  the  second  great  synod  of  Sirmium  (357) 
a  confession  of  faith  was  adopted,  to  which 
not  only  the  strict  Arians,  but  even  the  Nicene 
bishops,  including  their  leader  Osius  of  Cor- 
duba,  subscribed.  But  the  confusion  became 
greater  than  ever.  An  Arian  synod  at  Antioch 
(358)  condemned,  while  a  Semi- Arian  synod 
at  Ancyra  (358)  approved  the  expression 
homoiousios.  At  the  third  synod  of  Sirmium 
(35!))  Pope  Liberius  subscribed  to  a  Semi- 
Arian  declaration  in  order  to  obtain  permis 
sion  to  return  from  Constantinople  to  Home. 
The  Semi-Arians  seemed  to  be  in  the  ascen 
dancy  ;  the  emperor  is  said  to  have  exiled  no 
fewer  than  70  strict  Arians,  and  Bishop  Marcus 
of  Arethusa  was  instructed  to  draw  up  a  new 
confession  of  faith,  the  fourth  Sirmian  formula, 
which  avoided  the  word  ousias  and  affirmed 
that  the  Son  was  similar  in  everything  to  the 
Father.  In  order  to  reunite  the  whole  church 
on  this  platform,  Constantius  wished  to  call 
an  oecumenical  council ;  but  the  influence  of 
the  Arians  caused  the  convocation  of  two 
synods,  an  eastern  one  at  Seleucia,  and  a 
western  at  Rimini.  At  the  former  there  were 
present  105  Semi- Arians,  40  strict  Arians,  and 
10  Nicseans ;  at  Rimini  the  Nicaeans  had  a  ma 
jority.  Both  synods  condemned  the  strict  Ari 
ans,  who  however  succeeded  in  regaining  the 
favor  of  the  emperor.  Threats  induced  nearly 
all  the  bishops  of  both  synods  to  subscribe  to  a 
strict  Arian  creed,  although  the  most  offensive 
party  expressions  were  studiously  avoided,  and 
even  a  few  of  the  uncompromising  leaders  of  the 
party,  as  Aetius,  sent  into  exile.  Thus  Arianism 
was  looked  upon  as  the  official  creed  of  the 
majority  of  Christian  bishops.  But  its  ascen 
dancy  was  of  short  duration.  On  the  death 
of  Constantius  (301)  and  the  accession  of  Ju 
lian  the  Apostate,  the  bishops  of  all  parties 
were  allowed  to  return  to  their  sees,  and  soon 
the  Nicene  party  reestablished  themselves  in 
Egypt  under  Athanasius,  and  in  Gaul,  Spain, 


ARIANISM 


ARICA 


701 


and  Greece.  Pope  Liberius  ratified  the  anti- 
Arian  resolutions  passed  in  362  by  the  synod 
held  in  Alexandria,  and  soon  the  Nicene  creed 
was  predominant  throughout  the  western  coun 
tries.  In  the  East,  Arianism  found  a  zealous 
supporter  in  the  emperor  Valens  (364—378), 
and  the  violent  measures  which  were  adopted 
against  both  the  Nicseans  and  the  Semi-Arians 
induced  a  portion  of  the  latter  (36(5)  to  submit 
to  the  Nicene  creed.  With  the  death  of  Va 
lens  (378)  Arianism  began  to  decline.  The 
emperor  Gratian  issued  an  edict  of  toleration 
(378),  which  allowed  the  exiled  bishops  to 
return  and  greatly  strengthened  the  Xicene 
party.  In  370  Gratian  shared  the  empire  with 
Tneodosius,  who  the  next  year  issued  an 
edict  threatening  all  heretics  with  the  heaviest 
penalties,  and  as  soon  as  he  arrived  in  Con 
stantinople  took  from  the  Arians  all  their 
churches.  In  381  he  convened  the  second 
oecumenical  council  at  Constantinople,  which 
anathematized  the  Arians.  In  another  synod 
held  at  Constantinople  in  383,  Eunomius  pre 
sented  his  confession  of  faith,  which  is  still 
extant.  As  the  Arian  leaders  refused  to  sub 
mit,  still  more  rigorous  decrees  were  issued, 
to  which  they  appear  to  have  soon  succumbed, 
for  the  last  trace  of  them  in  the  eastern  em 
pire  ceased  under  the  reign  of  Arcadius,  the 
son  of  Theodosius.  In  Italy  the  empress  Jus- 
tina,  while  regent  for  her  minor  son  Valentinian 
II.,  favored  the  Arians ;  but  Ambrose,  the 
great  bishop  of  Milan,  successfully  thwarted 
her  plans,  and  at  the  synod  of  Aquileia  (Sep 
tember,  381)  caused  the  Arians  to  be  anathe 
matized  and  deposed.  Moreover,  the  reign  of 
Justina  was  too  short  to  be  of  real  service  to 
the  dying  sect. — Crushed  out  in  the  Roman 
empire,  Arianism  for  several  centuries  remained 
the  religion  of  the  Germanic  tribes.  The  Os 
trogoths  professed  Arianism,  but  without  per 
secuting  the  Catholic  church,  until  their  power 
was  lost  in  553.  The  Visigoths  were  more  in 
tolerant,  but  in  589,  by  order  of  their  king 
Reccared,  they  joined  the  Catholic  church  at 
the  council  of  Toledo.  The  Arian  Vandals, 
after  conquering  Africa  under  Genseric  (429), 
began  a  most  cruel  persecution  of  the  Catholics, 
which  did  not  cease  until  the  destruction  of 
their  empire  by  Belisarius  (534).  The  Suevi 
in  Spain  adopted  the  Arian  form  of  Christian 
ity  toward  the  middle  of  the  5th  century ; 
about  558  they  joined  the  Roman  communion. 
The  Burgundians,  who  had  come  to  Gaul  as 
pagans  (407),  appear  in  450  as  Arians.  The 
Catholic  church  became  predominant  among 
them  under  King  Sigisrnund  (517),  whom  Bish 
op  Avitus  of  Vienne  had  won  over  to  the  or 
thodox  creed.  The  last  refuge  of  Arianism 
was  with  the  Lombards,  who  entered  Italy  as 
Arians  in  568.  The  Catholic  church  gained  a 
footing  among  them  through  the  wife  of  King 
Autharis,  the  Bavarian  princess  Theodelinda; 
and  under  her  second  husband  Agilulph  and 
her  son  Adelwald  the  Catholics  obtained  pos 
session  of  most  of  the  churches.  A  reaction 


followed  when  an  Arian  ascended  the  throne ; 
but  he  was  unable  to  suppress  Catholicism,  and 
for  a  time  every  important  town  had  a  Catholic 
and  an  Arian  bishop.  Under  Liutprand  (dud 
744)  Arianism  as  a  sect  became  extinct.  As  a 
theological  opinion,  however,  it  often  reap 
peared,  and  after  the  reformation  of  the  16th 
century  was  regarded  by  more  than  one  reli 
gious  denomination  as  the  true  doctrine  of  the 
person  of  Christ.  In  the  church  of  England 
Arian  views  found  learned  champions  in  Pro 
fessor  \Vhiston  and  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke. — 
The  works  of  the  Arian  writers  are  mostly 
lost;  we  still  possess,  however,  the  writings 
of  Eusebius  of  Ccesarea,  who  ranks  among  the 
ablest  defenders  of  the  ancient  system,  and 
fragments  of  the  church  history  of  Philostor- 
gius.  Histories  of  Arianism  have  been  written 
by  Maimbourg  (Histoire  de  V  Ariannme,  Paris, 
1682)  and  J.  A.  Stark  (Versuch  dncr  Ge- 
scliichte  des  Arianismus,  Berlin,  1783);  but 
the  best  source  of  information  on  the  contro 
versial  aspect  of  the  question  is  Baur's  Ge- 
schichte  der  christlielien  Dreieiniglceit  (Tubin 
gen,  1841-'3);  while  the  history  of  the  sect  is 
nowhere  treated  of  so  fully  as  in  Ilefele's  Con- 
cilicngcscJiicMe  (vols.  i.  and  ii.,  Tubingen,  1855). 
See  also  Revillout,  De  VArianisme  des  peuples 
germaniqucs  (Paris,  1850). 

ARIAM),  a  town  of  southern  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Principato  Ultra,  15  in.  E.  N".  E. 
of  Benevento;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  is  built 
upon  a  steep  hill,  in  one  of  the  most  frequented 
passes  of  the  Apennines,  and  many  of  the  poor 
er  dwellings  are  dug  into  the  rock  and  earth. 
It  contains  a  fine  cathedral,  numerous  churches 
and  convents,  several  monts  de  piete,  and  an 
academy.  This  town  has  frequently  been  vis 
ited  by  terrible  earthquakes,  the  last  of  which 
happened  in  1732. 

ARIAS  MOXTAMS,  Benedittns  (BEXITO  ARIAS 
MONTANO),  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic  and  oriental 
scholar,  born  in  a  village  of  Estremadura  in 
1527,  died  in  Seville  in  1598.  Philip  II.  sent 
him  to  Antwerp  in  1568,  to  superintend  the 
publication  of  the  magnificent  edition  of  the 
"Polyglot  Bible,"  to  be  prepared  in  that  city. 
The  task  employed  him  for  four  years,  and  he 
was  rewarded  with  a  pension  of  2,000  ducats 
and  a  royal  chaplaincy,  refusing  a  bishopric. 
His  works,  which  are  numerous,  are  principally 
on  Hebrew  antiquities.  lie  was  an  unyielding 
enemy  of  the  Jesuits. 

ARICA,  a  seaport  town  of  Peru,  in  a  province 
of  the  same  name,  department  of  Moquegua,  in 
Int.  18°  26'  S.,  Ion.  70°  24'  W.,  640  in.  S.  E.  of 
Lima,  and  30  m.  S.  of  Tacna,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  railroad.  It  has  been  the  theatre 
of  many  destructive  earthquakes,  one  of  the 
worst  of  which  occurred  Aug.  13  and  14,  1868, 
involving  the  loss  of  500  lives  and  $12,000,000 
worth  of  property.  Not  a  building  was  left 
uninjured.  The  shocks  were  followed  by  a  tidal 
wave  in  which  the  United  States  storeship  Ere- 
donia  was  wrecked  with  the  loss  of  all  hands, 
and  the  United  States  steamer  Wateree  and 


APJF.GE 


APJOSTO 


oilier  vessels  were  carried  ashore  and  stranded. 
The  fortified  island  of  Alacnm,  which  defends 
;he  port  of  Arica,  was  submerged  three  times, 
all  the  garrison  perishing.  The  first  wave, 
which  rose  to  about  40  feet,  was  succeeded  by 
three  or  four  others  of  less  height.  The  shocks 
occurred  on  the  first  day  every  quarter  of  an 
hour,  and  on  the  second  day  every  hour. 
Among  the  curious  effects  of  the  earthquake  in 
the  vicinity  of  Arica  was  the  opening  of  the 
earth,  and  the  disclosure  of  a  large  number  of 
mummies,  which  had  been  buried  in  the  sand 
in  a  sitting  posture,  facing  the  sea,  in  a  ceme- 
etery  covering  a  large  area. 

ARIEGE,  a  southern  department  of  France, 
formed  chiefly  of  the  old  territory  of  Foix,  and 
named  after  the  Ariege  river,  which,  rising  in 
the  eastern  Pyrenees,  flows  1ST.  N.  W.,  and 
empties  into  the  Garonne,  after  a  course  of  00 
miles.  It  is  bounded  by  the  departments  of 
Haute-Garonne,  Aude,  and  Pyrenees-Oricn- 
tales,  and  the  Pyrenees  mountains;  area,  1,889 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  2-4(5,21)8.  The  department 
lies  principally  on  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Pyrenees,  and  some  of  the  mountains  on  the 
southern  border  rise  to  an  altitude  of  9,000  and 
10,000  feet.  It  contains  valuable  iron  mines, 
the  ore  being  in  some  places  auriferous,  arid 
large  quarries  of  marble,  freestone,  plaster,  and 
slate.  The  Ariege  carries  gold  sand,  whence 
its  ancient  name,  Aurigera.  On  the  highlands 
are  meadows,  where  cattle  and  merino  sheep 
are  raised  in  large  numbers.  The  forests  fur 
nish  good  timber.  Bears,  wild  boars,  wolves, 
foxes,  chamois,  and  deer  are  abundant.  The 
lowlands  are  tolerably  fertile  and  well  culti 
vated,  producing  wheat,  rye,  oats,  maize,  mil 
let,  hemp,  flax,  and  fruits  of  various  kinds. 
Vineyards,  to  the  extent  of  5,000  acres,  yield  a 
wine  of  inferior  quality,  all  of  which  is  con 
sumed  at  home.  The  working  of  metals  is  the 
principal  branch  of  manufacturing  industry ; 
but  there  are  saw  mills  and  paper  mills,  and 
manufactories  of  cloth,  hosiery,  linen,  and  soap. 
It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Foix, 
St.  G irons,  and  Pamiers.  Capital,  Foix. 

ARIEL,  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying  "  lion  of 
God,"  occurs  as  a  personal  name  in  the  Old 
Testament,  as  well  as  a  poetical  designation  of 
the  altar  of  -burnt  offerings  (Ezek.  xliii.),  and, 
according  to  general  interpretation,  of  the  city 
of  Jerusalem  (Isa.  xxix.).  Among  the  Jews 
of  a  later  period,  the  name  was,  in  cabalistic 
parlance,  given  to  a  water  demon. 

ARION,  a  musician  of  Lesbos,  the  reputed  in 
ventor  of  dithyrambic  poetry,  was  a  friend 
of  Periander,  the  ruler  of  Corinth  (about  000 
B.  0.).  Having  spent  some  time  in  Sicily  and 
Italy,  he  amassed  great  wealth  by  his  playing 
on  the  cithara,  in  which  he  excelled  all 
his  contemporaries.  On  a  voyage  from  Ta- 
rentum  to  Corinth  the  sailors  determined  to 
throw  him  overboard  and  seize  his  treasures. 
Discovering  the  plot,  he  begged  permis 
sion  to  play  one  melodious  tune  before  it 
was  put  in  execution,  and,  having  done  so, 


threw  himself  into  the  sea.  The  dolphins, 
charmed  by  his  music,  carried  him  on  their 
backs  to  Tumarus,  whence  he  passed  over  to 
Corinth,  and  on  the  arrival  of  the  ship  Peri 
ander  had  the  sailors  put  to  death. 

ARIOSTO,  Lndovico,  an  Italian  poet,  born  in 
Reggio,  near  Modena,  Sept.  8,  1474,  died  inFer- 
rara,  June  6,  1533.  His  father  was  a  member 
of  the  highest  tribunal  of  Ferrara,  and  a  friend 
of  the  duke.  Ludovico  was  the  eldest  of  ten 
children.  He  manifested  even  when  a  boy 
great  ability  in  composition,  and  wrote  several 
little  comedies  of  some  merit.  At  his  father's 
wish  lie  undertook  the  study  of  the  law,  though 
the  profession  was  most  irksome  to  him.  After 
five  years  of  study  he  abandoned  the  trial  and 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature.  He 
read  the  best  Latin  authors,  under  the  tuition 
of  Gregorio  da  Spoleto,  with  such  assiduity 
that  he  soon  became  an  accomplished  Latinist. 
From  ideas  suggested  by  Plautus  and  Terence 
he  wrote  two  dramas,  La  cassaria  and  /  sup- 
positi.  His  lyric  poems  were  much  admired 
by  Cardinal  Ippolito  d'Este,  son  of  Duke  Er- 
cole  I.  of  Ferrara ;  and  in  1503  the  cardinal 
took  him  permanently  into  his  service,  and  in 
trusted  him  with  many  important  affairs,  al 
lowing  him  a  small  pension.  A  few  years 
after  this  Ariosto  began-  his  poem  of  Orlando 
furioso,  the  composition  of  which  occupied 
him,  for  ten  years  or  more.  At  the  age  of  24 
he  had  become  by  his  father's  death  the  sole 
guardian  and  support  of  his  nine  brothers  and 
sisters.  He  was  obliged  to  fulfil  the  duties  of 
a  courtier  and  to  obey  the  constant  and  petty 
exactions  of  his  patron,  to  undertake  now  and 
then  an  embassy  or  a  journey,  and  to  take 
charge  of  much  of  the  business  correspondence 
of  the  cardinal.  But  while  discharging  all  his 
duties  faithfully,  he  worked  constantly  at  his 
poem,  and  was  rewarded,  on  its  publication  in 
1516,  by  almost  immediate  fame.  Only  his 
patron,  whom  he  had  extravagantly  praised  in 
it,  treated  the  work  with  contempt ;  and  soon 
after  its  publication  he  dismissed  Ariosto  from 
his  service  because  the  poet  refused  on  account 
of  his  health  to  go  with  him  to  Hungary.  He 
soon  afterward  entered  the  service  of  the  car 
dinal's  brother  Alfonso,  then  reigning  duke, 
who  treated  him  with  generosity,  but  conferred 
upon  him  afterward  what  seemed  a  most  inap 
propriate  honor,  in  appointing  him  governor  of 
the  district  of  Carfagnana,  which  was  every 
where  infested  by  banditti.  With  unlooked-for 
ability  in  this  new  sphere,  Ariosto  soon  re 
stored  order,  and  after  three  years  returned 
to  Ferrara  and  established  himself  in  a  pleas 
ant  home.  He  repeatedly  revised  the  Or 
lando,  making  of  it  46  cantos  instead  of  the 
original  40,  and  greatly  changing  the  whole. 
During  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  also  wrote 
comedies  and  satires.  The  large  theatre  built 
by  the  duke  for  the  performance  of  Ariosto's 
comedies  was  burned  in  1532.  The  poem  of 
Orlando  fur iow  is  in  part  of  its  plot  almost  a 
sequel  to  the  Orlando  innamorata  of  Boiardo, 


ARIOVISTUS 


ARISTIDES 


but  the  lesser  poem  did  little  more  than  suggest 
the  greater.  The  Orlando  is  a  fantastic  story, 
involving  a  thousand  interwoven  episodes  he- 
sides  the  plot  from  which  it  takes  its  name — a 
plot  which  follows  the  fortunes  of  Orlando 
made  mad  by  love  of  Angelica  ;  but  so  rich 
was  its  author's  fancy  and  so  bright  his  nar 
rative,  that  even  now  the  poem  stands  in  Italy 
at  the  head  of  all  poems  of  chivalry.  It  has 
been  translated  into  almost  every  language. 
The  principal  ancient  editions  of  the  Orlando 
f arioso  are  those  of  Ferrara,  1516,  1524,  and 
1532,  published  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  author,  and  the  Aldine  edition  of  1545. 
The  best  modern  edition  is  that  of  Morali  (4to, 
Milan,  1818),  which  follows  the  original  text 
of  1532.  Of  the  English  translations  by  Har 
rington,  Iloole,  and  Rose,  the  last  is  by  far  the 
best. 

ARIOVISTUS,  a  chief  of  the  Marcomanni,  a 
German  tribe,  crossed  the  Rhine  with  15,000 
•warriors  at  the  call  of  the  Sequani,  who  were 
oppressed  by  the  ^rEdui,  defeated  the  JEdui  in 
72  13.  C.,  but  took  one  third  of  the  land  of  his 
allies,  invited  his  countrymen  over  the  Rhine, 
and  made  a  settlement  there  of  120,000  Ger 
mans,  belonging  to  several  tribes.  The  ./Ediii 
and  Sequani  called  in  Julius  Caesar  and  the 
Romans  to  their  aid.  Caasar  ordered  Ariovis- 
tus  to  make  no  more  conquests,  to  call  no  more 
Germans  over,  and  to  give  up  the  hostages  he 
held  of  the  Gauls.  Ariovistus  returned  an  in 
solent  reply.  Cresar  marched  against  him  and 
compelled  him  to  give  battle  near  Vesontium 
(now  Besancon)  in  58.  He  was  defeated,  and 
few  of  his  warriors  escaped.  He  himself 
crossed  the  Rhine  in  a  small  boat,  and  ended 
his  days  in  obscurity. 

ARISTA,  Mariano,  a  Mexican  general,  born  in 
the  state  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  July  16, 
1802,  died  in  Spain,  Aug.  9, 1855.  Having  dis 
tinguished  himself  in  the  successive  wars  which 
established  first  the  independence  of  Mexico 
and  afterward  the  republican  form  of  gov 
ernment,  he  attained  a  high  position  in  the 
Mexican  army,  and  in  1836  was  second  in  com 
mand  to  Santa  Anna,  then  general  in  chief. 
By  the  revolutions  which  continually  agitated 
Mexico  he  was  twice  deprived  of  his  command ; 
but  his  military  knowledge  was  indispensable 
to  every  dominant  party,  and  he  was  quickly 
restored  and  promoted.  In  the  war  with  the 
United  States  he  commanded  at  Palo  Alto  and 
Resaca  de  la  Palma ;  and  after  its  close  was  ap 
pointed  in  June,  1848,  minister  of  war  under 
President  Herrera.  In  1850  he  was  elected 
president  of  Mexico,  but  resigned  Jan.  6,  1853, 
and  retired  to  his  farm,  and  was  banished  soon 
afterward. 

ARIST;EITS,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of 
Apollo  and  Cyrene,  and  father  of  Action. 
He  fell  in  love  with  Eurydice,  the  wife  of  Or 
pheus,  whom  he  pursued  into  the  fields,  where 
she  was  bitten  by  a  serpent.  For  this  he  in 
curred  the  anger  of  the  gods.  He  taught  men 
the  culture  of  the  olive  and  the  management 


of  bees,  and  was  extensively  worshipped  in 
Greece  and  the  Grecian  islands  as  protector  of 
pastoral  life  and  husbandry. 

ARISTARCHl'S.  I.  An  ancient  grammarian  and 
critic,  born  in  Samothrace,  flourished  in  the  2d 
century  B.  C.  He  was  educated  at  Alexandria 
in  the  school  of  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium, 
and  founded  a  critical  school,  which  long  flour 
ished  at  Alexandria,  Rome,  and  elsewhere.  Al 
exandria  and  Rome  alone  contained  at  one  time 
no  fewer  than  40  celebrated  grammarians  who 
had  been  brought  up  in  his  academy.  He  was 
the  preceptor  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  and  Ptol 
emy  Physcon.  In  his  old  age  he  went  to  Cy 
prus,  and  being  afflicted  with  dropsy,  he  put  an 
end  to  his  life  by  voluntary  starvation,  in  his 
72d  year.  Aristarchus  is  said  to  have  written 
800  commentaries  on  the  text  of  the  great 
Greek  poets ;  but  he  devoted  his  chief  labor  to 
Homer,  whose  present  text  is  based  upon  that 
adopted  by  him.  Nothing  remains  of  all 
his  writings  save  scattered  fragments.  II.  Of 
Samos,  a  Greek  astronomer,  flourished  about 
270  B.  C.  He  was  one  of  the  first  who  held 
that  the  earth  revolves  around  the  sun,  for 
which  opinion  some  thought  him  guilty  of 
impiety.  The  only  work  of  his  extant  is  a 
treatise  on  the  distance  and  magnitude  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  of  which  the  original  was  pub 
lished  by  Wallis  in  1688,  and  a  French  trans 
lation  in  1810. 

ARISTIDES.  I.  An  Athenian  statesman,  called 
the  Just,  died  probably  in  468  B.  C.  Of  his 
early  life  little  is  positively  known.  He  was 
one  of  the  ten  leaders  of  the  Athenians  at  the 
time  of  the  Persian  invasion  under  Darius,  and 
before  the  battle  of  Marathon  persuaded  the 
other  generals  to  follow  his  example  in  giving 
up  the  chief  command  to  Miltiades,  instead  of 
each  claiming  it  for  one  day,  as  was  allowed 
by  law.  This  united  action  insured  the  suc 
cess  of  the  battle.  The  year  after  Marathon 
(489)  he  was  appointed  archon,  but  a  few  years 
later,  by  the  intrigues  of  his  rival  Themistocles, 
he  was  ostracized  on  the  pretext  that  he  was 
acquiring  an  influence  dangerous  in  a  democ 
racy.  He  employed  the  period  of  his  exile  in 
endeavoring  to  stir  up  the  Grecian  cities  to  re 
sist  the  Persians,  at  that  time  preparing  for  a 
second  invasion.  He  sought  an  interview  with 
Themistocles  before  the  battle  of  Salamis  (480), 
concerted  with  him  the  plan  of  that  engage 
ment,  and  gave  him  his  hearty  support.  The 
success  of  the  Greeks  at  Plataea  (479),  where^ie 
commanded  under  Pausanias,  was  chiefly  owing 
to  his  courage  and  watchfulness.  The  Persian 
war  continuing,  he,  with  Cimon,  the  son  of 
Miltiades,  was  sent  at  the  head  of  the  Athenian 
forces  to  join  the  confederate  army.  When 
the  Ionian  states,  disgusted  with  the  arro 
gance  of  Pausanias,  decided  to  form  a  confed 
eration  under  the  hegemony  of  Athens,  Aris- 
tides  was  appointed  to  adjust  the  relations  of 
the  various  parties  to  the  arrangement,  and  to 
assess  the  expenses  of  the  war  on  the  several 
states — a  commission  which  he  executed  to  the 


704 


APJSTIPPUS 


ARISTOMENES 


satisfaction  of  all.  When  Themistocles  fell 
under  suspicion  he  did  not  join  in  the  prosecu 
tion;  and  after  the  hanishment  of  his  rival  he 
always  spoke  of  him  with  admiration  and  re 
spect,  lie  died  so  poor  that  he  was  buried  at 
the  public  cost;  his  daughters  received  dowries 
out  of  the  public  treasury,  and  a  landed  estate 
was  bestowed  on  his  son.  II.  /Elius,  a  Greek 
rhetorician,  born  at  lladriani  in  Bithynia,  A.  I). 
117  or  129,  died  about  180.  He  was  the  son  of 
Eudiemon,  a  priest  of  Jupiter.  After  travelling 
through  the  countries  which  border  the  Mod-  I 
iterranean,  and  as  far  as  Ethiopia,  he  took  up  j 
his  abode  at  Smyrna;  and  when  that  city  was  | 
almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  178,  he  j 
persuaded  his  friend  the  emperor  Marcus  Aure-  j 
lius  to  assist  in  rebuilding  it.  For  this  Aristides 
was  named  the  founder  of  the  city,  and  a  bronze  | 
statue  was  raised  to  him  in  the  agora.  Fifty-  | 
five  of  his  orations  and  declamations  have  been  j 
preserved,  consisting  of  eulogies  on  various  di 
vinities,  panegyrics  on  towns,  and  treatises  on 
rhetorical  topics.  In  his  "  Sacred  Discourses," 
where  Aristides  describes  a  singular  malady, 
not  unlike  somnambulism,  the  disciples  of  mes 
merism  tind  something  similar  to  the  mes 
meric  phenomena.  A  statue  discovered  in 
the  16th  century,  representing  Aristides  in 
a  sitting  posture,  is  now  in  the  museum  of 
the  Vatican.  The  best  complete  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Dindorf  (3  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1829).  III.  Of  Thebes,  a  Greek  painter,  nour 
ished  from  about  360  to  330  B.  C.  He  is  said 
by  Pliny  to  have  been  a  little  older  than  his 
contemporary  Apelles,  and  to  have  been  the 
first  who  expressed  upon  the  countenance  the 
passions  of  the  soul.  At  the  time  of  the  Ro 
man  conquest  (146  B.  C.),  the  consul  Mummius, 
discovering  the  high  price  set  upon  a  battle 
picture  by  Aristides,  seized  it  and  sent  it  to 
Rome.  It  was  placed  in  the  temple  of  Ceres, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  foreign  paint 
ing  exposed  to  the  view  of  the  Romans. 

ARISTIPPH3,  a  Greek  philosopher,  disciple  of 
Socrates,  born  in  Gyrene,  flourished  about  380 
B.  C.  He  was  luxurious,  sensual,  and  avari 
cious,  and  prided  himself  on  extracting  pleasure 
from  both  prosperity  and  adversity,  and  con 
trolling  them  alike.  His  conversation  was 
witty  and  agreeable.  He  is  said  to  have  incur 
red  the  dislike  of  Plato  and  Xenophon,  who 
accordingly  speak  of  him  slightingly.  He 
spent  a  part  of  his  life  at  the  court  of  liionysius 
the  Elder  of  Syracuse.  His  doctrine,  called 
from  his  birthplace  the  Cyrenaic  philosophy, 
was  reduced  to  a  system  by  his  grandson,  Aris- 
tippus  the  younger.  It  pronounces  pleasure 
the  chief  good,  and  pain  the  chief  evil — the 
former  a  moderate,  the  latter  a  violent  motion 
of  the  soul.  Pleasures  differ  only  in  their 
degree  of  purity.  Actions  are  to  be  judged 
good  or  bad  by  their  results;  and  in  forming  a 
judgment  the  only  authorities  are  law  and  cus 
tom.  Whatever  conduces  to  pleasure  is  ac 
counted  virtue ;  but  virtue  is  regarded  as  a 
quality  of  mind  rather  than  of  the  body,  since 


bodily  pleasure  is  valued  for  the  sake  of  the 
mental  state  it  produces.  A  subject  becomes 
cognizant  of  objects  only  through  the  medium 
of  impressions ;  the  only  existences  are  states 
of  mind  ;  and  man  is  the  measure  of  all  things. 

AKISTOBILIS.  I.  A  Jewish  writer  of  Alexan 
dria,  who  flourished  under  Ptolemy  Philome- 
tor,  about  160  B.  C.  lie  wrote  philosophical 
commentaries  upon  the  Pentateuch,  composed 
in  the  purest  Greek,  in  which  he  undertook  to 
prove  that  the  most  ancient  Grecian  poets,  his 
torians,  and  philosophers  were  acquainted  with 
the  sacred  writings,  and  in  the  habit  of  borrow 
ing  largely  from  them.  In  support  of  this 
theory,  he  forged  numerous  passages,  ostensibly 
from  Musa3us,  Linus,  Homer,  and  others,  with 
such  art  as  to  deceive  Greek  writers,  and  also 
some  of  the  fathers  of  the  church,  who  speak  of 
him  as  a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  the  founder  of 
Jewish  philosophy  in  Egypt.  Of  his  writings 
only  scanty  fragments  have  been  preserved. 
II.  The  eldest  son  and  successor  of  John  Hyr- 
canus,  the  Asmonean  ruler  of  Judea,  and  the 
first  of  that  house  who  assumed  the  royal 
title.  His  reign  lasted  only  one  year  (106-105 
B.  C.).  According  to  his  father's  will  he  was 
to  act  only  as  high  priest,  with  the  title  of  nasi 
(prince),  and  his  mother  to  carry  on  the  affairs 
of  state.  Impatient  to  rule,  he  threw  his 
mother  into  a  dungeon,  where  she  perished  of 
hunger,  imprisoned  three  of  his  four  brothers, 
and  proclaimed  himself  king.  The  queen,  Sa 
lome  or  Alexandra,  persuaded  Aristobulus  that 
his  remaining  brother  Antigonus  meditated 
treason  and  usurpation,  and  he  was  cut  down 
by  the  royal  guards.  Aristobulus,  who  was 
sick,  grew  worse  from  remorse  and  vomited 
blood,  which,  being  carried  off  by  a  domestic, 
was  spilled  on  the  very  spot  on  which  the  blood 
of  Antigonus  had  been  shed.  The  parricide 
saw  in  the  accident  a  sign  of  the  vengeance 
of  Heaven,  and  soon  after  expired  in  terrible 
agony.  III.  Son  of  Alexander  Jannasus,  the 
brother  and  successor  of  the  preceding.  His  his 
tory  can  be  properly  treated  only  in  connection 
with  that  of  other  persons.  (See  HEBEEWS.) 

ARISTOGITON.  See  HAEMODIUS  AND  AEISTO- 
GITOX. 

ARISTOMENES,  a  Messenian  general  and 
statesman,  the  hero  of  the  second  Messenian 
war,  of  the  royal  line  of  ./Epytus.  The  Mes- 
senians,  having  determined  to  free  themselves 
from  the  tyranny  of  their  Spartan  conquer 
ors,  selected  him  as  their  chief.  He  formed 
an  alliance  with  Argos,  Elis,  Sicyon,  Arcadia, 
and  Pisa ;  but  before  the  troops  they  promised 
him  could  arrive,  he  began  the  war  by  the  in 
decisive  battle  of  Dera?,  685  B.  C.  His  ex 
ploits  in  this  conflict  induced  his  countrymen 
to  offer  him  the  throne  of  Messenia,  but  he  re 
fused  ifc.  In  the  same  year  he  entered  Sparta 
alone,  by  night,  and  fastened  a  shield  with  a 
taunting  inscription  to  the  temple  of  Minerva. 
During  the  next  year  he  won  great  victories  at 
the  Boar's  Pillar  (na-pov  ofj/ua)  in  the  plain  of 
Stenyclerus,  end  at  Phara3,  which  latter  place 


ARISTOPHANES 


ARISTOTLE 


he  sacked.  But  in  082,  betrayed  by  his  ally 
Aristoerates  of  Arcadia,  who  deserted  him  in 
the  midst  of  the  fight,  he  was  utterly  defeated, 
his  army  almost  destroyed,  and  he  himself 
compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  mountains 
with  his  few  remaining  troops.  Here  he  con 
tinued  the  war  with  great  pertinacity  for  11 
years.  Having  been  captured  by  the  Spartans 
in  one  of  his  incursions,  he  was  thrown  into  a 
cavern  into  which  malefactors  were  cast ;  but 
he  was  uninjured  by  the  fall,  and  escaped  by 
following  a  fox  through  a  passage  leading  from 
the  cave.  Again  captured,  he  escaped  by  the 
aid  of  a  young  girl,  lie  twice  offered  to  Zeus 
the  hefcatomphonia,  or  sacrifice  prescribed  for 
one  who  had  slain  with  his  own  hands  100 
enemies  in  battle.  At  last  the  Spartans  sur 
prised  at  night  his  fortress  of  Ira,  in  the 
mountains ;  but  even  then  they  encountered 
such  a  resistance  that  they  were  obliged  to 
consent  to  his  terms,  which  permitted  him  and 
his  followers  to  retire  unmolested.  Soon  after 
this  he  formed  a  new  plan  of  attack  on  Sparta ; 
but  for  the  second  time  he  was  betrayed  by 
Aristoerates,  who  was  killed  for  his  treachery. 
The  countrymen  of  Aristomenes  were  now 
exhausted,  and  their  army  was  too  small  to 
continue  the  war.  Many  of  them,  under  the 
hero's  two  sons,  went  to  Rhegium  and  formed 
a  colony  there.  Aristomenes  went  to  Rhodes, 
where  one  of  the  reigning  princes  had  married 
his  daughter,  and  there  ended  his  life  peacefully. 
ARISTOPHANES,  the  only  writer  of  comedy 
in  ancient  Greece  any  of  whose  entire  works 
are  still  extant,  probably  born  between  450 
and  444  B.  C.,  died  not  later  than  380.  Very 
little  is  known  of  his  life  outside  of  his  literary 
work,  the  only  sources  of  information  being 
allusions  of  contemporaries,  passages  in  his 
plays,  and  a  very  unsatisfactory  biography  by 
an  unknown  ancient  author.  He  was  an 
Athenian  of  the  tribe  Pandionis,  the  son  of  a 
certain  Philippus  or  Philippides ;  though  tra 
ditions,  probably  having  their  origin  in  the 
attempts  of  his  enemies  to  deprive  him  of  the 
privileges  of  a  native  Athenian  citizen,  speak 
of  him  as  born  in  Rhodes,  others  in  Egypt, 
Camirus,  or  Naucratis.  He  seems  to  have  ap 
peared  as  a  comic  poet  in  the  fourth  year 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war  (427).  A  clue  to 
the  time  of  his  birth  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
at  this  time  he  was  too  young  to  compete  for  a 
prize,  and  that  his  first  comedy,  "The  Ban 
queters,"  was  therefore  produced  under  the 
name  of  another.  In  426  he  produced  "  The 
Babylonians;"  in  425  "The  Acharnians," 
still  extant,  which,  put  in  competition  in  the 
name  of  Callistratus,  won  the  first  prize.  In 
some  passages  of  these  earliest  works  he  had 
satirized  Cleon,  the  Athenian  demagogue,  and 
the  latter  avenged  himself  by  making  the  first 
of  those  attempts  noticed  above  to  prove  that 
Aristophanes  was  of  foreign  birth.  This  at 
tempt  was  afterward  twice  repeated,  but  each 
time  the  poet  successfully  repelled  the  charge. 
In  424  he  attacked  Cleon  with  unsparing  sat- 

VOL.  T. 45 


'  ire  in  the  famous  comedy  of  "  The  Knights;  " 
and  finding  no  actor  brave  enough  to  take  the 
part  of  the  demagogue,  then  at  the  height  of 
his  popularity,   Aristophanes  played  the   role 
himself,   with  his  face   smeared  with  lees  of 
wine ;  for  no  one  dared  even  to  make  a  mask 
representing  Cleon.     His  plays  now  appeared 
in  rapid  succession.     Of  the  54  which  we  are 
told  he  wrote,  we  possess  11,  which,  besides 
" The  Acharnians "    and   '"Knights"    already 
'••  mentioned,    are    as   follows:     "The    Clouds," 
I  produced  in  423    B.  C.,    directed    against  the 
Sophists   and    their    leader   Socrates;     "The 
I  Wasps,"  422,  an  attack  on  the  corruption  of 
I  the   courts;    "The   Peace,"    419,    written   to 
i  point  out  the  evils  wrought  by  the  Pelopon 
nesian  war;   "The  Birds,"  414,  to  ridicule  the 
Sicilian  expedition;  "Lysistrata,"  411,  a  fur- 
I  ther  picture  of  the  evils   brought   about   by 
the  Peloponnesian  war;  "Thesmophoriazusae," 
I  probably  in  the  same  year,  an  attack  on  Eurip- 
|  ides ;   "  Plutus,"  408,  ridiculing  the  imitation 
of  Dorian  fashions  which  prevailed  at  the  time 
!  of  its  production  ;   "  The  Frogs,"  405,  a  second 
satirical  attack  on  Euripides ;   "  Ecclesiazusoe," 
;  392,  a  play  with  the  same  aim  as   "  Plutus." 
i  Of  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes  it  is  exces 
sively  difficult  for  a  modern  reader  to  form 
:  anything  approaching  to  an  accurate  judgment. 
His  wit  is  expended  on  topics  so  purely  local, 
I  that  it  requires  the  closest  acquaintance  with 
!  the  occurrences  and  characters  of  the  day,  the 
I  temper  of  the  people,  and  the  every-day  cir- 
j  cumstances  of  Athenian  life,  to  enable  a  person 
I  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  his  humor.     His  style 
!  and  versification  are  among  the  best  examples 
I  left  us  of  a   complete  mastery  of  the   Attic 
'  dialect.     In   general,   the   persons   and  things 
I  which  Aristophanes  attacked  were  worthy  of 
condemnation.     Where  a  prominent  exception 
1  to  this  statement  is  found  in  the  case  of  Socra- 
!  tes,  he  probably  only  seized  upon  the  natural 
temptations  offered  to  a  satirist  by  the  philoso- 
'  pher's  notoriety  and  eccentricities  ;  and  it  seems 
most  improbable  that  he  acted,  as  many  have 
thought,  in  collusion  with  the  future  accusers. 
,  of  the  great  Sophist. — Among  the  best  edi 
tions  of  Aristophanes  are  those  of  Ktister  and 
Brunck,  and  that  of  Invernizzi,  completed  by 
Beck  and  Dindorf;  besides   some  editions  of 
I  separate  plays  of  rare  excellence  by  Mitchell,. 
'  who  has  also  ably  translated  some  of  the  num 
ber,  and  by  Prof."  Felton  of  Harvard  university. 
An   admirable    translation  of  five   plays   waa 
made  by  John  Hookham  Frere  while  in  Malta, 
:  which  were  first  printed  for  private  circula- 
i  tion,  but  are  now  contained  in  the  collective 
:  edition  of  his  "Works"  (London,  1872). 

ARISTOTLE    (Gr.  'A^aTor^f),    perhaps   the 

greatest   ancient   philosopher,   founder,  of  the 

j  school  of  Peripatetics,  born  in  Stagira,  .a.  Greek 

colony  of  Macedonia,  near  the  mouth  of  the 

;  Strymon,  in  384  B.  C.,  died  at  Chalcis,  on.  the 

island  of  Eubcea,  in  322.     From  his  birthplace 

:  he  was  called  "the  Stagirite."     He  studied  for 

!  a  short  time  at  Atarneus  in.  Asia  Minor,,  and.  ut 


706 


ARISTOTLE 


17  years  of  age  went  to  pursue  his  studies  in 
Athens,  where  he  resided  for  20  years.  He  was 
fi  pupil  of  Plato,  whom  he  sincerely  admired, 
though  opposed  to  him  in  philosophy.  Plato 
was  accustomed  to  call  him,  on  account  of  his 
enthusiasm  for  knowledge  and  his  restless  in 
dustry,  the  "  intellect  of  his  school.11  About 
343  B.  C.  Philip  of  Macedon  made  him  the 
teacher  of  his  son  Alexander,  at  that  time  13 
y^ars  old.  His  influence  on  Alexander  and 
Philip  was  for  many  years  very  great  and 
salutary,  and  Philip  rebuilt  at  his  request  the 
city  of  Stagira,  which  had  been  destroyed,  and 
erected  there,  in  a  pleasant  grove,  a  school 
called  Nymphamm,  where  Aristotle  was  to 
teach.  Alexander  after  the  conquest  of  the 
Persian  kingdom  presented  him  with  800 
talents,  or  nearly  a  million  of  dollars.  He  also 
sent  to  him  whatever  he  discovered  on  his 
marches  that  was  unknown  in  Greece,  such  as 
plants  and  animals  for  scientific  examination, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  accompanied  by  him 
in  several  of  his  expeditions.  Aristotle  re 
turned  to  Athens  in  335,  or,  according  to  Am- 
monius,  in  331,  bringing  with  him  his  scientific 
collections,  and  established  a  new  school  of 
philosophy  in  the  Lyceum,  a  gymnasium  near 
the  city.  In  the  forenoon  he  instructed  his 
intimate  pupils  in  a  philosophical  way,  which 
lectures  were  called  esoteric ;  and  in  the  even 
ing  he  taught  a  large  popular  circle  about 
plainer  matters,  in  what  were  called  exoteric 
or  public  lectures.  His  philosophical  school  is 
called  the  Peripatetic,  because  he  taught  while 
walking  up  and  down  (-epi-aTuv},  or  from  the 
shady  walks  (TrepiiraToi)  around  the  Lyceum  in 
which  he  delivered  his  lectures,  and  which  in 
the  time  of  Plutarch  were  still  pointed  out 
to  the  traveller.  His  friendly  relations  with 
Alexander  were  at  length  interrupted,  perhaps 
on  account  of  admonitions  which  he  sent  to 
that  conqueror  when,  in  his  later  years,  he 
precipitated  himself  into  a  dissolute  life.  Yet 
the  Athenians  suspected  him  of  partisanship 
for  Macedonia,  accused  him  of  impiety,  and 
forced  him  to  flee  to  Chalcis,  where  he  died. — 
Only  a  part  of  his  numerous  writings  on  almost 
every  branch  of  science  and  art  were  then 
published ;  of  the  remainder  many  were  lost, 
and  many  published  only  in  the  first  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era.  The  most  important  of 
them  bear  the  following  titles  :  "  Qrganon  "  or 
"Logic,"  "Rhetoric,"  "Poetics,"  "Ethics," 
"Politics,"  "History  of  Animals,"  "Physics," 
"Metaphysics,"  "Psychology,"  and  "Meteor 
ology."  His  writings  on  mathematics,  economy, 
and  history  are  lost,  as  well  as  his  letters,  and 
a  work  called  Politiai,  'which  contained  158 
ancient  state  constitutions  and  legislations. 
Many  books  bearing  his  name  are  spurious, 
and  it  is  only  in  the  present  century  that  the 
Spurious  begin  to  be  sifted  from  the  genuine. 
His  style  is  difficult  to  understand,  not  only 
because  of  the  intricacy  of  the  subjects,  but 
also  -on  account  of  the  technical  terms  entirely 
his  .own.  No  other  philosopher  has  exerted 


so  large  an  influence  on  so  many  centuries, 
and  on  the  ideas  of  so  many  nations,  as 
Aristotle.  His  merits  as  a  metaphysical  think 
er  may  perhaps  be  variously  estimated,  but 
his  performances  in  natural  science,  which  he 
first  created,  and  his  method  of  philosophy, 
constitute  his  greatness.  He  was  the  first  care 
ful  observer,  dissector,  and  describer  of  ani 
mals.  He  first  divided  the  animal  kingdom 
into  classes ;  described  a  great  many  animals 
before  unknown  to  the  scientific  world ;  came 
near  discovering  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  ;  discriminated  between  the  several 
faculties,  the  nourishing,  feeling,  concupiscent, 
moving,  and  reasoning  powers  of  animal 
organism,  and  attempted  to  explain  the 
origin  of  these  powers  within  the  body;  and 
built  his  moral  and  political  philosophy  on 
the  peculiarities  of  human  organization.  His 
philosophical  method  consists  in  the  principle 
that  all  our  thinking  must  be  founded  on  the 
observation  of  facts.  Logic  is  the  fundamental 
science,  and  the  principles  which  he  laid  down 
for  it  have  never  been  superseded.  It  is  ac 
knowledged  by  Kant  and  Hegel,  the  two  most 
profound  thinkers  of  Germany,  that  from  the 
time  of  Aristotle  to  their  own  age  logic  had 
made  no  progress.  He  invented  the  categories, 
or  fundamental  forms  of  thought,  universal  ex 
pressions  for  the  ever-changing  relations  of 
things,  and  limited  their  number  to  ten;  and  he 
devised  the  so-called  "  syllogistics, "  or  science 
of  forming  correct  conclusions.  He  likewise 
became  the  father  of  modern  psychology,  show 
ing  how  the  mind  creates  its  speculative  meth 
ods  and  general  notions ;  and  that  though  we 
cannot  prove  their  correspondence  with  the 
reality,  because  there  is  no  direct  proof  for 
things  which  transcend  our  senses  and  obser 
vation,  yet  we  are  always  compelled  to  recur 
to  these  general  notions  and  take  them  for  in 
dispensable  forms  of  thinking,  if  we  will  think 
at  all.  Every  science  must,  according  to  Aris 
totle,  have  a  fundamental  principle,  which  need 
not  and  cannot  be  logically  proved,  because  it 
is  in  itself  certain,  and  accepted  as  manifest 
truth.  Aristotle  first  discriminated  between 
the  substance  of  things  and  their  accidental 
peculiarities,  and  created  the  philosophical  no 
tions  of  "matter"  and  of  "form."  He  also 
established  the  philosophical  notions  of"  space  " 
and  "time,"  and  showed  their  connection  with 
matter,  while  he  first  furnished  the  world  with 
what  is  commonly  called  the  cosmological  ar 
gument  for  the  existence  of  God.  He  states  it 
thus :  Although  every  single  movement  and  ex 
istence  in  the  world  has  a  finite  cause,  and  every 
such  finite  cause  another  finite  cause  back  of 
it,  yet  back  of  this  infinite  series  of  finite  causes 
there  must  be  an  infinite  immaterial  being,  a 
first  something,  unmoved,  all-moving,  pure 
energy,  absolute  reason,  God.  In  psychology 
and  anthropology,  Aristotle  is  the  author  of  the 
theory  of  different  powers  of  the  soul,  of  dis 
tinct  feeling,  willing,  reasoning,  and  moving 
powers  or  faculties.  The  reasoning  power  is 


ARISTOTLE 


ARITHMETIC 


707 


regarded  by  Aristotle  not  as  a  product  of  the  ! 
body,  but  as  bestowed  on  it  from  outside,  and  j 
as  perfect  only  after  its  separation   from  the  j 
body  by  death.     Proceeding  from  the  principle  : 
that  whatever  is  to  be  the  goal  and  highest  ' 
good  of  humanity  must  not  depend  on  casual-  | 
ties   and  ever-changing  minor  circumstances, 
but  must  be  certain  in  itself,  and  impart  to 
every  other  good  its  value,  he  maintains  that  the 
eudaimonia,  or  highest  possible  pleasure  which  j 
is  conceivable  for  man,  is  derived  only  from  j 
the  perfect  satisfaction  of  those  faculties  which 
distinguish  him  from  the  beasts,  that  is,  of  the 
reasoning  powers. — Of  his  earliest  pupils  and 
followers,  none  but  Theophrastus,  and  he  not 
strictly  a   philosopher    is  worth   mentioning. 
The  age  after  Aristotle's  death  was  not  favor 
able   to   purely   speculative    philosophy.     For 
three    centuries    Stoicism    and    Epicureanism 
took  the   place  of  his   philosophy   in  the  fa 
vor   of  the  educated  world ;  and  these  were 
succeeded  by  Neo-Platouism.     Later  the  phi 
losophy  of  Aristotle  was  rendered  obnoxious 
to  the    fathers  of  the  church    by   the   pagan 
tendencies  of  its  expounders   at  Alexandria, 
but  a  few,  like  Boethius,  ventured  to  defend 
his  views.     Up  to  the  llth  century  Aristotle 
was  almost  unknown  to  the  Christian  world, 
but  he  was  a  favorite  with  the  Arabians  of  the 
8th,  9th,  10th,  and  llth  centuries.     Through  I 
the  Arabians,  the  scholastic  writers  of  the  llth  \ 
century  made  acquaintance  with  his  "Physics" 
and  "Metaphysics,"  though  by  means  of  very  f 
imperfect  translations;  his  "Logic"  they  had, 
though  not  extensively,  known  before.     From 
that  time  Aristotle,  though  sometimes  dispar 
aged  as  a  heretic,  remained  for  four  centuries 
the  authority  of  the  Christian  world  in  all  mat-  | 
ters  not  strictly  pertaining  to  dogmas.     In  the  | 
llth  century  the  dispute  between  the  nominal-  i 
ists  and  realists  began  to  divide  theologians; 
the  realists  asserting  with  Plato  that  our  gen 
eral  notions,  called  universalia,  are  the  sub 
stance  of  things,  that  our  ideas  answer  not 
only  to  the  reality  of  objects,  but  contain  their 
soul  and  life;  the  nominalists,  in  the  name  of 
Aristotle,  maintaining  that  these  general  no 
tions  are  mere  abstractions,  inventions  of  the 
brain,  not  expressing  the  real   substance  of 
things.     From  the   exposition   that  we  have 
given,  it  appears  that  this  pretended  Aristote- 
lianism  was  a  misunderstanding  of  Aristotle's 
philosophy,   which,  though   it  admits  on  the 
one  hand  that  our  general  notions  cannot  be 
demonstrated  to  express  the  full  substance  of 
things,  yet  at  the  same  time  asserts  that  they 
are  indispensable  for  every  purpose  of  think 
ing.     After  the  restoration  of  classical  litera 
ture  in  the  15th  century,  his  writings  were  ex 
tensively  published,  and  his  philosophy  began 
to  be  better  understood ;  and  it  has  been  fur 
ther  developed  by  Bacon,  Descartes,  Spinoza, 
and  Kant.    Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel  opposed 
it,  though  the  latter  adopted  many  of  its  ideas. 
It  is,  however,  not  so  much  by  his  philosophi 
cal  system  that  Aristotle  has  wielded  his  enor 


mous  influence,  especially  as  this  is  only  now 
beginning  to  be  fully  understood  and  justly  ap 
preciated,  as  by  his  logical  inventions,  and  his 
method  of  philosophy  in  general. — The  best 
works  on  the  contents,  spirit,  and  bearings  of 
the  writings  of  Aristotle  are  Stahr's  Aristotc- 
lia  (2  vols.,  Halle,  1830);  Franz  Biese's  Phi- 
lowpliw  dcs  Arixtoteles  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1835- 
'42);  and  "Aristotle,"  a  posthumous  work,  by 
George  Grote  (London,  1872).  The  best  com 
plete  edition  of  Aristotle  is  that  of  the  academy 
of  sciences  at  Berlin,  by  limnanuel  Bekker 
(4  vols.,  Berlin,  1831-'6),  with  Latin  transla 
tions  and  extracts  from  the  old  commentaries. 

ARISTOXEMS,  a  Greek  writer  on  philosophy 
and  music,  a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  born  at  Taren- 
tum,  Italy,  flourished  about  320  B.  C.  Ac 
cording  to  Suidas,  he  published  450  works  on 
all  imaginable  subjects.  All  these  are  lost  ex 
cepting  his  ' ApuoviKa  2ro^eZa  ("Principles  of 
Harmony  "),  published  in  Latin  at  Leyden  in 
1562  by  Gogarinus,  and  in  1616  in  Greek  by 
Meursius,  and  subsequently  inserted  by  Meibom 
in  the  Antique  Musicce  Auctorcs  (2  vols.  4to, 
Amsterdam,  1652).  Aristoxenus's  theories  of 
music  were  opposed  to  those  of  Pythagoras, 
who  made  music  dependent  upon  mathematics, 
while  the  former  admitted  only  the  test  of 
the  ear. 

ARITHMETIC  (Gr.  apiO^n^  from  api6/uelv,  to 
count),  the  science  of  the  properties  and  rela 
tions  of  numbers  when  expressed  with  figures 
or  relations  of  figures.  The  accepted  opinion 
is  that  we  have  derived  this  science  from  the 
Greeks,  who  obtained  it  from  the  Phoenicians  ; 
but  if  we  consider  that  the  Chaldeans,  one  of  the 
oldest  nations,  have  given  us  the  knowledge  of 
certain  astronomical  cycles  or  periods,  of  which 
the  determination  required  an  advanced  knowl 
edge  of  arithmetic,  it  is  evident  that  its  origin  is 
of  much  earlier  date.  The  Hebrews  and  Greeks 
used  the  first  nine  letters  of  their  alphabet  for 
the  numbers  1  to  9 ;  the  next  nine  letters  for 
10,  20,  &c.,  to  90 ;  and  the  others  for  hundreds ; 
while  for  thousands  they  recommenced  the 
alphabet  and  added  to  each  letter  a  mark  or 
iota.  The  Romans  followed  a  similar  system, 
of  which  our  Roman  numerals  are  a  specimen. 
But  arithmetic  did  not  reach  its  more  modern 
state  of  progress  until  the  introduction  of  the 
Arabic  figures  now  used  by  all  civilized  nations. 
The  Arabs  admit  that  they  obtained  these  fig 
ures  from  Hindostan  in  the  1  Oth  century.  They 
call  them  Indian  figures,  and.  arithmetic  the  In 
dian  science.  Boethius,  in  his  work  De  Geome- 
tria,  informs  us  that  the  disciples  of  Pythagoras 
used  in  their  calculations  nine  peculiar  figures, 
while  others  used  the  letters  of  the  alphabet ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  this  philosopher,  who 
had  travelled  considerably,  had  obtained  this 
knowledge  in  Hindostan,  and  communicating  it 
as  a  secret  to  his  disciples,  caused  it  to  remain 
sterile  in  their  hands.  The  Greeks  in  the  ordi 
nary  way  of  writing  expressed  the  fractions  thus : 
while  /3,  7,  8,  &c.,  stood  for  2,  3,  4,  &c.,  /3',  7'.  6', 
represented  £,  £,  £,  &c.  The  oldest  text  book 


708 


ARITHMETIC 


on  arithmetic  employing  the  Arabian  or  Indian  ' 
figures  and  the  decimal  system,  is  undoubtedly 
that  of  Avicenna.  the  Arabian  physician,  who 
lived  in  Bokhara  about  A.  I).  1000;    it  was  j 
found  in  manuscript  in  the  library  at  Cairo,  | 
Egypt,  and  contains,  besides  the  rules  for  addi 
tion,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division, 
many  peculiar  properties  of  numbers.     (For  a  j 
translation   of  a  portion  of   this   remarkable 
manuscript  by  Marcel,  see  I)e  Montfevrier,  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  sciences  mathematiques,  vol.  i.,  p. 
141  et  seq.}     It  \vas  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  j 
13th  century  that  the  science  of  arithmetic  be-  j 
gan  to  be  diffused  in  Europe.    One  of  the  earli 
est  writers  on  the  subject  was  John  Halifax, 
better   known    as   Sacro-Bosco,    who  ^  in   the 
18th  century  composed  an  arithmetic  in  Latin 
rhymes,  in  which  the  shapes  of  the  figures  are 
nearly  identical  with  those  of  the  present  day. 
The   monk   Planudes,  who  flourished   in   the 
early  part  of  the  14th  century,  wrote  a  book 
entitled  "  Indian  Arithmetic,  or  the  Manner  of 
Reckoning  after  the  Indian  Style,"  of  which 
several  manuscripts  still  exist.     Contemporary 
with  him  was  Jordanus  of  Namur,  author  of 
the  Algorithmus  Demonstrate,  and  also  of  a 
treatise   on  arithmetic  which   Jacques  Faber 
published  with  commentaries  immediately  after 
the  invention  of  printing.     A  great  develop 
ment  of  the  science  now  took  place.     In  the 
16th  century  Clavius  and  Stifelius  (Stiefel)  in 
Germany  and  Digges  in  England  were  conspic 
uous  for  their  services   to   this   science,   and 
the    Arabian    or    Indian    figures    came    into 
uso  among  the  learned  ;    but  it  was  not  till 
the    17th    century   that   arithmetic   began   to 
be  a  regular    branch    of  common   education. 
—The   value   of    our   system    of   arithmetical 
notation,   as  is  well   known,   consists  in   the 
adoption  of  a  scale  and  of  a  system  by  which 
the  place  of  the  figure  in  the  order  in  which  it 
appears  causes  its  value  to  increase  in  multiples 
of  that  scale.     The  universally  adopted  scale  is 
the  decimal,  probably  derived  from  the  number 
of  fingers  of  the  human  hand,  but  other  scales 
might   have  been   adopted  as  well;    and   the 
advantages  which  some  persons  suppose  might 
have  been  derived  from  the  adoption  of  a  dif 
ferent  scale,  as  the  duodecimal  or  twelve,  the 
tonal  or  sixteen,  &c.,  are  more  apparent  than 
real.  A  smaller  scale  would,  however,  have  sim 
plified  arithmetical  operations,  as  was  forcibly 
demonstrated  by  Leibnitz,  who  showed  how 
with  the  smallest  possible  scale,  the    binary, 
and  the  consequent  use  of  only  two  figures,  1 
and  0,  operations  were  so  much  simplified  that 
there  might  be  even  a  saving  of  time  in  redu 
cing  a  decimal  expression  into  a  binary  one, 
performing  the  operation,  and  restoring  it  back 
again  into  the  decimal  system.     The  regular 
series  of  numbers,  one,  two,  three,  four,  five, 
six,  seven,  eight,  nine,  &c.,  is  expressed  in  the 
binary  system  thus:     1,  10,  11,  100,  101,  110, 
111,  1000,  1001,  &c. ;  in  the  ternary  system,  in 
which  three  is  adopted  as  the  basis,  it  is  1,  2, 
10,  11,  12,  20,  21,  22,  100,  &c. — When  arith- 


ARIUS 

mctic  goes  beyond  the  practical  calculations  by 
numbers,  and  treats  of  the  properties  of  num 
bers  in  general,  it  enters  the  field  of  algebra. 
The  properties  of  numbers,  are  of  two  kinds: 
some  are  general  and  inherent  in  the  numbers 
themselves,  while  others  depend  on  the  deci 
mal  system  adopted.     Thus  the  law  that  the 
sum  of  two  numbers  multiplied  by  their  dif 
ference  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  their  squares 
is  a  general  property ;    while  the  fact  that  if 
the  sum  of  the  figures  is  divisible  by  9,  the 
whole  number  is  divisible  by  9,  is  a  property 
depending  on  the  adoption  of  the  decimal  sys 
tem  ;  if  we  had  adopted  the  duodecimal  systemr 
11    would  have  that  property. — Besides  ordi 
nary  arithmetic,  we  may  distinguish  a  palpable 
arithmetic  performed  by  the  sense  of  feeling 
by  the  blind ;  an  instrumental  arithmetic,  where 
the  solutions  are  obtained  by  peculiarly  con 
trived  instruments ;  a  tabular  arithmetic,  where 
problems  are  solved  by  means  of  tables  com 
puted  for  the  purpose,   &c.  —  Pestalozzi,   the 
great  German  pedagogue,  applied  his  method 
to  instruction    in   arithmetic   with    the   most 
eminent  success.     It  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  by  Warren  Colburn  of  Massa 
chusetts,    by  the    publication   of  treatises   on 
this  subject  which  have  largely  influenced  the 
authors  of  arithmetical  text  books,  a  great  vari 
ety  of  excellent  practical  works  having  since 
been  published,  to  which  we  refer  for  further 
information  in  regard  to  the  practical  details  of 
this  science. — For  many  curious  facts  on  the 
properties  of  numbers,  see  Gans,  Disqvisitionet 
Arithmetical,  or  Legendre,  Ttieorie  des  nombres. 
ARIUS,  the  founder  of  Arianism,  according 
to  some  a  Libyan,  according  to  others  a  native 
of  Alexandria,  died  in  336.     He  joined  the  Me- 
letians  in  Alexandria,  but  left  them,  and  in 
306  was  ordained  a  deacon  by  Bishop  Peter  of 
Alexandria.      He   afterward  returned  to  the 
Meletians  and  was  excommunicated,  but  was 
readmitted  to  the  church  by  Achillas,  successor 
of  Peter,  and  ordained  priest.     After  the  death 
of  Achillas,   Arius  came  near  being  elected 
bishop  of  Alexandria ;  but  Alexander  was  pre 
ferred  to  him.     According  to  the  Arian  histo 
rian  Philostorgius,  Arius  himself  brought  about 
the  election  of  Alexander.     It  is  reported  that 
I  for  several  years  Alexander  held  Arius  in  high 
esteem,  and  that  the  most  perfect  agreement 
existed  between  them.     The  great  controversy 
with  which  their  names  are  connected  began 
|  when  Alexander  made  an  address  to  his  clergy 
in  which  he  spoke  of  the  Trinity  as  consisting  of  a 
single  essence.    Arius  exclaimed  against  this,  af- 
i  firmed  the  distinct  personality  of  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  and  accused  Alexander  of  Sabellianism. 
Alexander  demanded  from  Arius  a  recantation ; 
but  the  latter  not  only  refused  this,  but  sent  a 
j  written  confession  of  faith  to  several  bishops, 
1  requesting,  in  case  they  agreed  with  him,  their 
intercession  with  Alexander  in  his  behalf.     A 
number  of  prominent  bishops  responded  favor 
ably  ;  among  them  were  Eusebius  of  Cfesarea, 
the  church  historian,   and  Eusebius  of  Nico- 


ARIZONA 


709 


media,  who  as  bishop  of  the  imperial  residence 
had  a  great  influence  over  Constantine  and  his 
sister  Constantia.  Alexander  therefore  con 
vened  a  synod  at  Alexandria  in  320  (or  accord-  • 
ing  to  some  authorities  in  321),  which  was 
attended  by  about  100  bishops  from  Egypt  and 
Libya,  at  which  Arius  and  his  adherents  were 
*' expelled  from  the  church  which  adores  the  , 
divinity  of  Christ."  As  Arius  nevertheless 
continued  to  teach  and  to  hold  divine  service,  : 
Alexander  addressed  circular  letters  to  the  ; 
bishops,  in  which  he  asked  them  not  to  admit  j 
the.  Arians  to  the  communion  of  the  church,  j 
and  not  to  believe  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and  | 
'•people  of  that  class."  Expelled  from  Alex-  j 
andria,  Arius  went  to  Palestine,  whence  he  ' 
addressed  a  defence  of  his  doctrine  to  Eusebius 
of  Nicomedia.  Invited  to  Nicomedia,  he  wrote 
thence  a  letter  to  Alexander,  endeavoring  in 
language  as  conciliatory  as  possible  to  prove 
his  views  to  be  those  of  the  fathers  of  the 
church.  Here  he  also  wrote  his  most  important 
work,  the  Thalia  ("Banquet"),  fragments  of 
which  are  extant  in  the  writings  of  Athanasius, 
and  composed  several  songs  designed  to  make 
known  his  principles  among  the  people.  A 
synod  held  in  Bithynia  about  323  allowed  Arius 
to  hold  divine  service,  and  interceded  in  his 
behalf  with  the  bishop  of  Alexandria.  The 
division  in  the  church  had  now  become  so 
great  that  Constantine  was  induced  to  convoke 
the  oecumenical  council  of  Nice  in  325,  to  put 
an  end  to  the  controversy.  Arius  was  present 
at  the  council,  in  which  the  young  deacon 
Athanasius  of  Alexandria  distinguished  him 
self  as  the  foremost  opponent  of  the  Arian 
views.  The  council  decreed  the  Son  to  be 
consubstantial  (ouoovmos)  with  the  Father,  de 
posed  and  condemned  Arius,  ordered  his  writ 
ings  to  be  burned,  and  made  it  a  capital  offence 
to  own  them.  The  emperor  banished  Arius  to 
Illyria,  and  soon  the  bishops  Eusebius  of  Nico 
media  and  Theognis  of  Nice  shared  the  same 
fate  for  refusing  submission  to  the  decrees  of 
the  council.  After  a  time,  however,  Constan 
tine  was  induced  by  his  sister  and  many  in  his 
court,  who  were  in  sympathy  with  Arius,  to 
recall  and  hear  him.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  new  and  violent  conflicts.  In  Alexandria 
the  Arians  entered  into  negotiations  concerning 
a  union  with  the  Meletians.  A  synod  at  Tyre 
in  335  deposed  Athanasius,  who  was  then  ban 
ished  by  the  emperor  to  Treves.  In  336  Con 
stantine  undertook  to  enforce  the  recognition 
of  Arius  in  Constantinople ;  but  on  the  day 
fixed  for  the  recognition  Arius  fell  dead  in  the 
street.  Some  of  his  friends  ascribed  his  death 
to  poison,  some  of  his  opponents  to  the  effica 
cious  prayer  of  the  orthodox  bishop  of  Con 
stantinople.  (See  ARIANISM.) 

ARIZONA,  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
situated  between  lat.  31°  and  37°  N.  and  Ion. 
101)°  and  114°  40'  W.,  bounded  N.  by  Utah,  E. 
by  New  Mexico,  S.  by  Mexico,  and  \V.  by  Cali 
fornia  and  Nevada;  area  estimated  at  113,000 
sq.  m.  No  complete  survey  of  the  territory 


has  been  made.    It  is  divided  into  five  counties : 
Maricopa,  Mohave,  Pirna,  Yavapai,  and  Yuma. 
Tucson,   in  Pima  county  (pop.  3,224),   is  the 
capital  and  largest  town  in  the  territory.     Ari 
zona  City,  in  Yuma  county  (pop.  1,144),  is  a 
prosperous  business  place,  situated  at  the  junc 
tion  of  the  Gila  and  Colorado  rivers.     Prescott, 
the  former  capital  (pop.  668),   is  situated   in 
central  Arizona,  and  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
military  department  of  Arizona.     In  1870  the 
population  of  the  territory,  exclusive  of  Indians, 
was  9,658,  of  whom   3,849  were   native   and 
5,809  foreign  born;    1,240   \vere  born  in  the 
territory.     The  total  number  of  Indians  was 
32,083;    of  these  4,352  were  on  reservations 
!  and   at   agencies,  and   27,700   were  nomadic. 
Many   of    these    Indians   are   friendly  to    the 
;  whites,  but  the  greater  number  are  'intensely 
'  hostile.      Of  the  friendly  Indians,   the  Pimas 
and  the  Maricopas  rank  first  in  numbers  and 
!  civilization.     They  occupy  a  reservation  on  the 
I  Gila  river,  about  200  m.  E.  of  Arizona  City. 
i  The  Papagos  live   S.  of  the  Gila,  along  the 
;  line  of  Sonora.     The  Mohaves  and  the  Yumas 
|  live  along  the  Colorado,  the  Utes  on  the  upper 
|  Colorado,  and  the  Moquis  and  Navajos  in  N.  E. 
Arizona.     These  tribes  are  engaged  in  agricul 
ture  and  stock-raising.     Of  the  hostile  Indians 
the  Apaches  are  the  most  powerful  and  war 
like.     They  comprise  several  tribes  distributed 
over  the  greater  portion  of  middle  and  eastern 
i  Arizona ;  their  raids  extend  all  over  the  terri- 
i  tory,  with  the  exception  of  a  narrow  strip  along 
!  the  Colorado  river  and  a  portion  of  the  lower 
I  Gila.      Besides  the  Apaches,  the  Hualpais  cr 
Wallapis,  living  in  the  Cerhat  range  near  the 
1  Diamond  river,  and  in  part  of  the  Aquarius 
j  range,  are   the  only  dangerous  Indians. — The 
middle  and  N.  E.  portions  of  the  territory  con- 
j  sist  of  elevated  plateaus  from  3,000  to  8,000  ft. 
i  above  the  sea  level,  with  occasional  bluffs  and 
|  volcanic  cones  rising  from  500  to  2, 500  ft.  above 
!  the  plateau.     The  numerous  parallel  ranges  of 
|  mountains  have  a  general  N.  W.  and  S.  E.  course, 
and  form  long  valleys  in  the  same  direction.  The 
most  marked  exceptions  to  this  general  direction 
i  are  the  Mogollon  range  in  the  east,  which  extends 
nearly  E>  and  W.  and  joins  the  Sierra  Blanca, 
i  and   an   E.   and  W.  range   stretching   beyond 
Arizona  into  New  Mexico.     The  axis  of  the 
Black  mountains  and  the  Cerbat  range,  in  the 
N.  W.  part   of  the  territory,  lies  very  nearly 
N.  and  S.     The  S.  portion  of  the  territory  is  a 
!  plain  with  a  slight  elevation   above  the  sea, 
!  amounting  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gila  to  only 
200  ft.     From    this   plain   isolated  mountains 
and  mountain  ranges  rise  abruptly.     In  central 
Arizona  the  Sierra  Prieta  and  the  Aztec  range 
.  send  foot  hills  out  in  every  direction,  and  their 
flanks  sink  very  gradually  to  the  level  of  the 
high   plateau  surrounding   the   San  Francisco 
mountain  toward  the  N.  E.,  and  to  the  mesas  or 
table  lands   sloping   toward  the    Colorado  on 
!  the  S.  W.     The  elevation  of  the  town  of  Pres 
cott  is  over  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  while  the 
Ton  to  and  San  Francisco  plateaus,  E.  and  N.  E. 


no 


ARIZONA 


of  Preset,  roach  an  altitude  of  from  8,000  to 
U,000  ft.  The  San  Francisco,  a  grand  volcanic 
cone,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Arizona,  its 
summit  being  over  11,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 
X.  and  X.  E.  of  the  San  Francisco  mountains, 
an  immense  mesa,  increasing  in  altitude  toward 
the  Utah  line,  extends  for  hundreds  of  miles. 
— The  largest  river  of  the  territory  is  the  Col 
orado,  which  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
(ireen  and  Grand  rivers  in  the  S.  part  of  Utah, 
and  has  a  southerly  course  along  the  W.  boun 
dary  of  Arizona.  It  has  a  very  rapid  current, 
and  is  navigable  as  far  as  Callville,  (512  m.  above 
its  mouth.  The  cailons  formed  by  the  pas 
sage  of  the  river  through  the  lofty  table  lands 
are  unequalled  in  grandeur.  In  the  Grand 
canon  of  the  Colorado  the  deep  and  narrow 
current  flows  between  massive  walls  that  rise 
to  a  perpendicular  height  of  nearly  7,000  ft. 
above  the  water.  The  principal  tributaries  of 
the  Colorado  are  the  Colorado  Chiquito,  which 
flows  X.  W.  through  the  X.  part  of  the  territory, 
the  Diamond  river,  and  Bill  Williams' s  Fork, 
into  which  flows  the  Santa  Maria.  The  Gila 
rises  in  Xew  Mexico,  flows  W.  through  the  S. 
part  of  Arizona,  and  joins  the  Colorado  about 
180  m.  above  the  gulf  of  California.  It  is  a 
very  narrow  stream  with  a  swift  current,  shal 
low  during  most  of  the  year,  but  in  the  rainy 
season  vastly  increasing  its  volume.  Its  prin 
cipal  tributaries  in  Arizona  are  the  Salado  or 
Salt  river,  Verde,  San  Carlos,  Bonito,  and 
Prieto  from  the  north,  and  Santa  Cruz  and 
San  Pedro  from  the  south. — Granite,  red  and 
white  sandstone,  limestone,  slate,  quartz,  and 
metamorphio  rocks  abound  in  the  mountains. 
The  plains  along  the  lower  Gila  are  entirely 
made  up  of  quaternary  and  tertiary  deposits, 
which  also  form  the  great  Sonora  desert  S.  of 
that  stream.  In  the  Colorado  valley,  the  sed 
imentary  strata  consist  of  quaternary  and  ter 
tiary  gravels  and  conglomerates,  varied  in  a 
few  localities  by  a  layer  of  white  infusorial 
earth.  The  bottom  lands  consist  of  calcareous 
sands  and  clays,  the  former  predominating. 
The  mountain  chains  are  composed  of  granites, 
syenites,  porphyries,  trachytes,  greenstone,  ba 
salt,  and  metamorphic  slates.  A  section  of  the 
Grand  canon  of  the  Colorado,  6,800  ft.  above 
the  sea  level  and  5,500  ft.  above  the  river,  ex 
hibits  the  following  sedimentary  strata  down 
to  the  underlying  granite  :  upper  carboniferous 
limestone ;  cross-stratified  sandstone  ;  red  cal 
careous  sandstone,  with  gypsum  ;  lower  car 
boniferous  limestone ;  limestones,  shales,  and 
grits — Devonian;  limestones,  mud,  rocks,  and 
sandstones  —  Silurian  ;  Potsdam  sandstone  ; 
granite.  Xo  one  of  the  mineral-bearing  terri 
tories  of  the  Pacific  slope  is  richer  than  Ari 
zona,  though  the  mines  have  not  been  generally 
worked.  The  inaccessibility  of  the  territory 
(it  being  off  from  the  great  overland  lines  of 
travel  and  without  seaports),  and  the  fierceness 
of  the  Apaches,  have  prevente'3  the  full  devel 
opment  of  its  mineral  wealth.  The  mountains 
of  southern  and  central  Arizona  are  nearly  all 


\  mineral-bearing,  and  contain  lodes  of  gold,  sil- 
i  ver,  copper,  and  lead.     The  ores  of  silver  found 
I  in  this  region  are  argentiferous  galena,  native 
i  silver,  auriferous  sulphuret  of  silver,  black  sul- 
!  phuret  of  silver,  sulphate  of  silver,  sulphate  of 
iron,  combined.    The  ores  of  copper  are  usually 
the   sulphurets,  principally  gray.      Xearly  all 
I  the  silver  and  copper  lodes  show  traces  of  gold; 
and  placers  have  been  found  at  many  points, 
but  have  not  proved  sufficiently  extensive  to 
|  attract  much  attention.     Gold  is  found  in  cen 
tral  Arizona,  the  ore  yielding  from  $25  to  $100 
per  ton.      Iron   in   carbonates   and   oxides   is 
abundant,  and  traces  of  tin  and  nickel  exist. 
|  Platinum  (metallic)  is  shown  in  the  placers  of 
|  the  Black  cafion.     Copper,  silver,  and  quick- 
|  silver  are  found  together  in  a  rare  combination, 
I  but  the  lode  is  not  large.     Lime  of  a  superior 
:  quality  exists  in  large  quantities  near  Prescott 
and  Tucson,  and  is  found  at  other  points.    Beds 
!  of  gypsum  exist  in  the  San  Pedro  valley.     The 
I  salt  mountains  near  Callville  and  a  few  miles 
|  E.  of  the  Colorado  are  among  the  most  remark - 
I  able  formations  in  Arizona.     The  deposits  of 
I  pure,  transparent,  and  beautifully  crystallized 
:  salt  are  very  extensive,  and  no  salt  is  superior 
|  for  table  and  general  use.     Traces  of  coal  have 
been  discovered  in  this  locality.     The  bullion 
product  of  Arizona  for  1868  was  estimated  at 
$250,000;  1869,  $1,000,000;  1870,  $800,000.— 
The  climate  is  mild  and  generally  healthful.     In 
I  southern  Arizona  the  temperature  ranges  from 
I  34°  to  118°  F.     The  atmosphere  is  dry,   and 
!  this   region  is   singularly  free  from  malarious 
I  diseases.     Snow  falls  in  central  Arizona,  but, 
!  excepting  in  the  higher  mountains,  disappears 
!  in  a  few  hours.     The  temperature  in  summer 
I  rarely  exceeds  90°,  and  seldom  falls  below  zero 
|  in  winter.     Rain  falls  mainly  in  the  months  of 
July  and  August,  but  there  are  frequent  showers 
I  in  April  and  May,   as  well  as  in  the  winter 
months.     The  average  fall  of  rain  in  southern 
Arizona  for  1867  was  2'94  inches;  1866,  4'20; 
|  1858,  8-57;    1857,  0-33.     The  climate  of  Ari- 
j  zona  is  said  to  be  highly  beneficial  to  those 
j  afflicted  with  bronchial  or  lung  diseases.     Ac- 
!  cording  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  total  deaths 
I  in  the  territory  for  that  year  were  252,  of 
j  which  116  resulted  from  general  diseases,  71 
I  from  local  diseases,  60  from  accidents  and  in- 
|  juries,  and  5  from  poisons.     Of  the  local  dis- 
i  eases,  44  were  diseases  of  the  respiratory  sys- 
i  tern    and    15    of    the   digestive    system. — The 
j  vegetation  of  southern  and  western  Arizona  is 
scanty  and  limited  to  a  few  genera,  such  as  cac 
tus,  aloe,  artemisia,  palo  verde,  iron  wood,  and 
|  mesquite,  the  last  a  remarkably  hard  wood. 
•  In  the  middle  and  X.  E.  portions  of  the  terri- 
!  tory  a  more  varied  vegetation  prevails.      On 
j  the  hills  and  mountain  sides  a  rich  and  abun- 
I  dant  pasturage  is  found.    Pine  and  cedar  forests 
:  abound ;  while  along  the  course  of  the  streams 
|  ash,  walnut,  cherry,  willow,  cotton  wood,  and 
many  other  forest  trees  grow,  and  large  oak 
j  trees  are  seen  on  the  summits  of  some  of  the 
I  highest  mountains  in  the  Sierra  Prieta.     The 


ARIZONA 


ARJISII 


711 


aridity  of  the  table  lands  prevents  their  culti 
vation;  the  soil  of  the  valleys  is  rich,  but  in 
places  very  arid.  Where  artificial  irrigation 
is  practicable,  o.r  where  there  is  sufficient  mois 
ture,  the  crops  are  good,  and  the  cereals  yield 
abundantly.  The  greater  portion  of  the  terri 
tory  S.  of  the  Gila  river  is  a  sterile  waste ;  but 
the  river  valleys  of  this  section  contain  many 
thousand  acres  of  the  most  fertile  bottom  lands, 
which  need  only  irrigation  to  make  them  yield 
abundant  harvests.  Indian  corn,  wheat,  bar 
ley,  oats,  grapes,  figs,  oranges,  lemons,  sweet 
potatoes,  tomatoes,  tobacco,  the  castor  bean, 
<fec.,  thrive  here  wherever  the  land  can  be  irri 
gated  ;  there  is  also  much  valuable  grass  land 
in  this  section.  The  valleys  of  middle  and 
eastern  Arizona  contain  much  arable  land. 
Here  all  the  cereals  and  roots  of  the  northern 
Atlantic  states  are  grown,  while  as  a  grazing 
country  this  region  cannot  be  surpassed.  A 
thick  growth  of  gramma  and  bunch  grass  covers 
the  whole  country,  and  gives  to  the  pine  woods 
of  this  region  the  aspect  of  beautiful  natural 
parks.  Wheat  and  barley  are  usually  sown 
from  November  to  February,  and  harvested  in 
May;  the  average  yield  of  wheat  is  from  20  to 
40  bushels  per  acre,  and  of  barley  from  30  to 
60.  After  the  wheat  and  barley  are  harvested, 
corn  can  be  planted  on  the  same  soil  with  am 
ple  time  for  it  to  mature.  Much  of  the  land 
of  Arizona  is  cultivated  in  this  way,  and  pro 
duces  two  crops  each  year.  The  average  yield 
of  corn  is  from  30  to  60  bushels  per  acre.  In 
1870  there  were  14,585  acres  of  improved  land 
in  the  territory,  producing  27,052  bushels  of 
wheat,  32,041  of  corn,  and  55,077  of  barley; 
and  the  estimated  value  of  all  farm  productions, 
including  betterments  and  additions  to  stock, 
was  $277,998.  Cash  value  of  farms,  $161,340 ; 
of  all  live  stock,  $143,996;  of  slaughtered  an 
imals,  $9,400. — There  are  no  railroads  in  Ari 
zona.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad  com 
pany  have  obtained  a  charter  writh  land  grants 
to  build  a  road  along  and  near  the  35th  paral 
lel  to  the  Pacific  ocean ;  this  road  has  been 
completed  from  St.  Louis  into  the  Indian  terri 
tory.  A  charter  and  lands  have  also  been 
granted  to  the  Texas  Pacific  railroad  company 
to  build  a  road  on  or  near  the  32d  parallel, 
from  Marshall  in  Texas  to  San  Diego,  California. 
There  is  a  good  wagon  road  from  San  Diego, 
crossing  the  Colorado  river  at  Arizona  City, 
thence  to  Tucson  and  Santa  Fe.  The  last 
named  town  is  connected  with  Prescott  by  a 
wagon  road  via  Albuquerque.  From  Pres 
cott  to  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  there  is  a  wagon 
road  by  way  of  Wickenburg,  Ehrenberg,  La 
Paz,  and  San  Bernardino,  and  also  by  way  of 
Ilardyville  and  Mohave. — The  government  is 
administered  by  a  governor,  secretary,  treas 
urer,  and  auditor,  who  are  appointed  by  the 
president  of  the  United  States.  The  legislature 
and  a  delegate  to  congress  are  elected  by  the 
people.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a 
supreme  court,  consisting  of  three  judges  ap 
pointed  by  the  president,  and  probate  courts. 


The  supreme  court  holds  one  session  annually 
at  Tucson.  The  salary  of  the  governor  and  of 
the  jt.dges  of  the  supreme  court  is  $2,500.  In 
1870  the  assessed  value  of  real  estate  was 
$538,355;  personal  property,  $871,940;  total, 
$1,410,295 ;  true  value  of  real  and  personal 
property,  $3,440,791;  total  taxation  not  na 
tional,  $31,323.  The  internal  revenue  collec 
tions  for  1871  amounted  to  $16,889. — Accord 
ing  to  the  census  of  1870,  there  were  in  the 
territory  1,923  persons  between  the  ages  of  6 
and  21  years;  the  number  attending  school 
wras  149.  There  were  2,690  persons  over  10 
years  of  age  unable  to  read,  and  1,934  over  21 
years  of  age  unable  to  write.  The  legislature 
has  passed  a  school  law  levying  a  tax  for  school 
purposes  of  10  cents  on  each  $100  of  the  taxa 
ble  property  of  the  territory,  and  giving  au 
thority  to  the  several  boards  of  supervisors  of 
the  counties  and  the  boards  of  trustees  of  the 
school  districts  to  levy  additional  taxes  suffi 
cient  to  maintain  a  free  school  in  each  of  the 
school  districts.  Four  wreekly  newspapers  are 
published  in  the  territory. — As  early  as  1526 
Don  Jose  de  Vasconcellos  crossed  the  cen 
tre  of  Arizona  toward  the  Great  canon,  and 
the  country  was  subsequently  visited  by  other 
Spanish  explorers.  Numerous  ruins  of  Spanish 
towns  and  buildings  indicate  that  here  was  the 
seat  of  an  early  Spanish  colonization,  and  that 
the  land  was  highly  cultivated.  In  the  N.  W. 
part  of  the  territory,  on  the  Colorado  plateau, 
is  a  group  of  pueblos  in  ruins,  containing  estvfas, 
reservoirs,  terraces,  aqueducts,  and  walls  of  at 
least  four'  stories  high.  The  most  extensive 
ruins  are  found  in  the  Gila  valley,  which  is 
studded  throughout  with  deserted  pueblos  and 
remains  of  irrigating  canals,  acequias,  pottery, 
&c.  The  river  banks  are  covered  with  ruins  of 
stone  houses  and  regular  fortifications,  which 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  inhabited  for  cen 
turies.  The  Avails  are  of  solid  masonry,  rec 
tangular  in  form,  and  usually  two  stories  high. 
It  is  estimated  that  at  least  100,000  people 
must  have  occupied  the  Gila  valley  at  one  time. 
— The  territory  of  Arizona  was  separated  from 
that  of  New  Mexico  and  organized  by  act  of 
congress  passed  Feb.  24,  1863.  The  portion 
N.  of  the  Gila  river  was  obtained  by  the 
treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Feb.  2,  1848, 
while  that  S.  of  the  Gila  was  acquired  un 
der  the  treaty  made  by  James  Gadsden  at 
Mexico,  Dec.  30,  1853.  The  act  of  Feb.  24, 
1863,  creating  the  territory,  describes  it  as 
comprising  all  the  United  States  lands  Wr.  of  Ion. 
109°  to  the  California  line,  which  before  that 
time  had  belonged  to  the  territory  of  New 
Mexico.  Since  then  the  N.  W.  corner  has 
been  ceded  to  Nevada.  No  thorough  explora 
tion  of  central  Arizona  was  attempted  until 
1862  and  1863,  while  much  of  the  northern 
portion  has  never  been  explored. 

ARJISII  or  Krjish  Dagh  (anc.  Argceus),  the 
loftiest  mountain  of  Asia  Minor,  lying  13  rn.  S. 
of  Kaisariyeh  (anc.  Mazaca  Ccesarea  in  Cappa- 
docia),  and  117  m.  N.  by  "W.  from  the  head  of 


12 


ARK 


ARKANSAS 


the  bay  of  Iskanderun.     It  ascends  in  an  insu 
lated  peak  to  the  height  of  1:5,100  ft.     Jt  is  dis 
tinctly  visible  at  a  distance  of  1(50  m.,  and  it 
Avas  believed    by  the  ancients  that  both   the 
Euxine  and  the  Mediterranean  could  be  seen 
from  its  summit.     It  is  an  extinct  volcano,  and  j 
its   sloping   sides    are   covered   with    volcanic  ! 
cones  and  craters.     Its  summit  is  covered  with  ' 
perpetual  snow,  and  the  natives  of  the  country 
affirm  that  it  has  never  been  ascended. 

ARR.     I.  The  vessel  (Ileb.  tebali)  construct-  \ 
ed   by  Noah,  according   to  Gen.  vi.,   for   the 
preservation  of  his  family  and  of  the  different 
species  of  animals  during  the  deluge.    The  form 
of  the  ark  was  that  of  an  oblong  chest,  while 
its  dimensions  were  300  cubits  in  length,  50  in  , 
breadth,  and  30  in  height.     Two  questions  have  | 
been  raised,  with  a  design  to  throw  discredit  j 
on  the  Biblical  account :  the  first  as  to  the  form 
of  the  ark,  that  it  was  not  adapted  for  floating ; 
the  second  as  to  its  dimensions,  that  it  was  not 
large  enough  to  answer  the  purposes  for  which 
it  was  designed.     Both  to  strengthen  and  to 
obviate   the   objections   raised,   many    curious 
speculations  have  been  resorted  to,  to  prove 
the  basis  of  calculations,  but  no  valuable  re 
sults  have  been  attained  on  either  side.     II. 
The  ark  (Heb.  aron}  of  the  covenant,  or  testi 
mony,  among  the  appointments  of  the  Jewish 
tabernacle  and  temple.     This  was  built  of  shit- 
tim  (acacia  wood),  inlaid   and   overlaid  with 
pure  gold.    Its  dimensions  were  two  cubits  and 
a  half  in  length,  and  one  and  a  half  in  width 
and  height.     Its  location  was  in  the  holy  of  I 
holies.     The  cover  of  this  ark  was  the  mercy  ! 
seat,  over  which  stood  the  t\vo  cherubim.    The  j 
contents  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  were,  ac 
cording  to  1  Kings  viii.  9,  exclusively  the  tables 
of  the  law  received  by  Moses  (from  which  the 
ark  had  its  name) ;  but,  according  to  Ileb.  ix.  4, 
it  also  contained  the  pot  of  manna  and  Aaron's 
rod,  and  at  a  later  period  probably  also  a  copy 
of  the  book  of  the  law.     The  Jews  esteemed  j 
this  ark  peculiarly  sacred.     It  was  made  to  be 
carried  in  procession  before  them  in  the  jour 
ney  to  the  promised  land,  and  for  this  purpose  j 
was  committed  to  the  care  of  the  Kohathites,  j 
and  none  were  permitted  to  touch  it  but  the  j 
tribe  of  Levi.     In  war  times,  after  the  con-  ! 
quest  of  Palestine,  it  sometimes  accompanied  j 
the  army.    At  the  close  of  the  judgeship  of  Eli 
it  was  captured  by  the  Philistines,  but  subse 
quently  restored.     It  seems  to  have  perished  , 
in  the  destruction  of  the  temple  by  Nebuchad-  ! 
nezzar. 

ARKANSAS,  the  name  given  by  the  Algonquins 
to  the  Ouquapas,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  the  Da 
kota  family.  According  to  Gravier,  a  Jesuit 
missionary  in  Illinois  about  the  year  1700,  the 
Arkansas  had  previously  resided  on  the  Ohio 
river,  whence  after  a  long  struggle  they  were 
driven  down  the  Mississippi  by  the  Illinois  and 
their  allies.  This  corresponds  with  the  tradi 
tion  of  the  Lenni,  another  Algonquin  tribe,  as 
to  the  Allegewi  or  Alleghans;  and  as  early 
French  writers  use  indifferently  the  term  Ar 


kansas  or  Akansas,  the  suspicion  increases  as 
to  their  identity.  They  comprised  several  divi 
sions  known  as  the  Quappas  or  Kappas,  Dogin- 
ga,  Toriinan,  and  Osotteouez  or  Sothouis.  One 
division,  called  by  the  Algonquins  Mitchiga- 
mias,  removed  to  the  country  of  the  Illinois, 
but  subsequently  returned.  The  Arkansas  were 
first  visited  by  Marquette,  and  from  his  time 
were  always  friendly  to  the  French,  welcoming 
La  Salle  and  Tonti,  as  well  as  the  survivors  of 
La  SahVs  last  expedition.  They  refused  to  join 
the  Natchez  against  the  French,  and  nearly 
exterminated  the  Yazoos,  who  had  massacred 
the  French  among  them.  They  were  at  this 
time  a  powerful  tribe,  able  in  1740  to  send  out 
400  warriors,  but  they  soon  lost  by  smallpox 
and  other  diseases.  The  remnant,  now  called 
Quapaws,  are  in  the  Indian  territory  west  of 
their  former  country,  and  number  only  200. 

ARKANSAS,  a  S.  W.  river  of  the  United 
States,  the  largest  tributary  of  the  Mississippi 
except  the  Missouri.  Its  extreme  sources, 
which  were  first  explored  in  180G  by  Lieut. 
Pike,  U.  S.  A.,  lie  in  the  Rocky  mountains  W. 
of  the  South  Park,  in'lat.  39°  N.,  Ion.  106°  W., 
at  an  elevation  of  10,000  ft.  above  the  sea  level, 
which  is  reduced  one  half  in  the  first  150 
m.  It  flows  E.  through  Colorado  to  near  the 
centre  of  Kansas,  and  thence  generally  S.  E. 
through  the  Indian  territory  and  Arkansas  to  its 
junction  with  the  Mississippi  at  Napoleon,  275  m. 
(direct)  above  New  Orleans;  length,  over  2,000 
m.  Near  its  source  the  river  pours  with  great 
violence  through  a  deep  and  narrow  fissure  in 
the  gneiss  rock  ;  after  leaving  the  mountains  it 
traverses  a  sterile  hilly  region,  sustaining  con 
siderable  timber.  The  width  of  the  Arkansas 
undergoes  great  variations.  From  150  ft.  near 
the  mountains,  it  gradually  increases  to  about 
a  mile  as  it  traverses  the  sandy  desert;  and 
after  entering  the  hilly  region  it  varies  from 
1,000  to  2,000  ft.  Through  the  prairie  region 
the  ordinary  depth  is  about  2  or  3  ft.,  but 
there  are  seasons  when  the  water  entirely  dis 
appears,  being  absorbed  by  the  immense  beds 
of  sand  through  which  it  flows.  The  range  of 
the  river  between  low  and  high  water  is  about 
45  ft.  at  Napoleon,  40  at  South  Bend,  35  at 
Little  Rock,  25  at  Fort  Smith,  and  10  at  Fort 
Gibson,  642  m.  from  the  mouth.  It  is  navi 
gable  for  steamboats  of  3  to  4  ft.  draught  to  a 
point  40  m.  above  Little  Rock,  and  during  the 
floods  as  far  as  Fort  Smith  and  Fort  Gib 
son.  Below  Pine  Bluff  it  has  been  neces 
sary  to  construct  levees  to  restrain  the  flood. 
For  a  distance  of  400  m.  from  its  mouth  the 
Arkansas  has  many  lakes  arid  bayous.  Its 
principal  tributary  is  the  Canadian  in  the  In 
dian  territory.  The  White  and  Arkansas  are 
connected  by  a  large  bayou  G  m.  above  the 
junction  of  the  former  with  the  Mississippi, 
through  which  the  current  moves  sometimes 
in  one  direction  and  sometimes  in  another,  ac 
cording  to  the  relative  stand  of  the  rivers. 
The  principal  points  on  the  Arkansas  are  Na 
poleon,  Arkansas  Post,  Pine  Bluff,  Little  Rock, 


ARKANSAS 


713 


Van  Buren,  and  Fort  Smith  in  Arkansas,  and 
Fort  Gil  son  in  the  Indian  territory. 

ARKANSAS,  one  of  the  states  of  the  American 
Union,  situated  between  lat.  33°  and  36°  30' 
X..  and  Ion.  89°  45'  and  94°  40'  W.,  having  an 
extent  of  240  m.  from  X.  to  S.,  and  varying 
from  170  to  250  m.  from  E.  to  W.,  the  narrow 
est  part  being  on  the  S.  line  and  the  broadest 
on  the  parallel  of  lat.  30°  X. ;  area,  52,198  sq. 
in.  The  state  is  bounded  X.  by  Missouri,  E. 
by  the  St.  Francis  river,  separating  it  from 
Missouri,  and  the  Mississippi,  separating  it  from 
Tennessee  and  Mississippi,  S.  by  Louisiana, 
8.  W.  by  Texas,  and  W.  by  the  Indian  terri 
tory.  The  state  is  divided  into  64  counties,  as 
follows :  Arkansas,  Ashley,  Benton,  Boone, 
Bradley,  Calhoun,  Carroll,  Chicot,  Clarke,  Co 
lumbia,  Conway,  Craighead,  Crawford,  Crit- 
tenden,  Cross,  Dallas,  Desha,  Drew,  Frank 
lin,  Fulton,  Grant,  Greene,  Ilempstead,  Hot 
Springs,  Independence,  Izard,  Jackson,  Jeffer 
son,  Johnson,  Lafayette,  Lawrence,  Lincoln, 
Little  River,  Madison,  Marion,  Mississippi, 
Monroe,  Montgomerv,  Xevada,  Xewton,  Oua- 
chita,  Terry,  Phillips,  Pike,  Poinsett,  Polk, 


White. 
12579 
...       25  671 

1840 77.174 

1850 162189 

1860 324.191 

1870 362,115     122,161) 


State  Seal  of  Arkansas. 

Pope,  Prairie,  Pulaski.  Randolph,  St.  Francis, 
Saline,  Sarber,  Scott,  Searcy,  Sebastian,  Sevier, 
Sharpe,  L'nion,  VanBuren,  Washington,  White, 
Woodruff,  Yell.  There  are  no  large  cities.  The 
oldest  settlement  is  Arkansas  Post  (pop.  in  1870, 
G83),  the  chief  town  of  Arkansas  county,  on  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  about  50  m.  above  its 
junction  with  the  Mississippi.  It  was  settled 
by  the  French  in  1685.  Little  Rock,  Pulaski 
county,  the  state  capital  (pop.  12,380),  is  also 
situated  on  the  Arkansas  river,  about  300  m. 
above  its  mouth,  in  lat.  34°  40'  X.,  Ion.  92°  12' 
W.  It  was  founded  in  1820,  is  built  on  a  com 
manding  bluff,  and  is  a  place  of  considerable 
traffic.  The  other  chief  towns  are  Fort  Smith 
(pop.  2,227),  Helena  (2,249),  Pine  Bluff  (2,081), 
Camden  (1,021),  Hot  Springs  (1,276),  and 
Princeton  (1,142).  The  population  of  Arkan 
sas  in  1870  was  484,471,  of  whom  362,115 
were  whites,  122,169  colored,  98  Chinese  and 
Japanese,  and  89  Indians.  Of  the  total  pop 
ulation,  479,445  were  native  born,  and  5,026 
foreign  born.  The  native  population  not  born 
in  the  state  were  principally  from  Tennes 
see,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Xorth 


Carolina,  while  the  foreigners  were  chiefly  na 
tives  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Germany*  In 
population  Arkansas  ranks  26th  among  the 
states.  The  following  table  will  show  the  in 
crease  in  population  since  1820,  the  year  after 
Arkansas  was  organized  as  a  territory : 

Censuses.  Whito.          Free  Col'd.          Slaves.  Total. 

1820 12579      77      1.617  14.273 

1S30 25671     141      4.576  30  3S8 

465     19.935  97.574 
60S     47.100  2<'9S97 
1.4    111,115  435.450 
4>4,471 

In  1870  there  were  111,799  persons  in  the 
state  10  years  old  and  upward  unable  to  read, 
and  133.339  unable  to  write.  Of  those  21 
years  old  and  upward  unable  to  write,  13,610 
were  white  males,  21,770  white  females,  23,681 
colored  males,  and  22.689  colored  females. — 
The  Ozark  mountains,  "which  seldom  rise  to  an 
elevation  beyond  1,500  or  2,000  ft.,  cross  the 
X.  WT.  corner  of  the  state.  They  are  composed 
chiefly  of  limestone,  clay  slate,  sandstone, 
greenstone,  and  granite.  Extending  E.  from 
this  range  X.  of  the  Arkansas  are  the  Boston 
mountains,  or  Black  hills.  S.  of  that  river  is 
the  Masserne  or  Washita  range,  which  is  so 
barren  that  the  gray  sandstone  of  which  it  is 
mainly  composed  is  the  prevailing  color  of 
the  landscape.  The  eastern  portion  of  the 
state,  bordering  on  the  Mississippi,  including  a 
strip  ranging  from  30  to  100  m.  wide,  is  low 
and  flat,  covered  by  dense  forests  interspersed 
with  swamps  and  small  lakes  or  ponds,  fre 
quently  of  stagnant  and  unhealthy  water.  This 
portion  is  annually  overflowed  by  the  floods 
of  the  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  and  other  rivers. 
Passing  west,  the  surface  gradually  rises,  and 
near  the  centre  of  the  state  the  country  be 
comes  hilly,  and  the  forests  are  interspersed 
with  rolling  prairies.  „  Still  further  west  these 
hills  terminate  in  the  Ozark  mountains,  and  be 
yond  these  is  an  extensive  elevated  plain  contin 
ually  increasing  in  height  in  its  course  toward 
the  Rocky  mountains,  in  which  it  finally  termi 
nates.  The  valley  of  the  St.  Francis  river,  in  the 
X.  E.  part  of  the  state,  is  a  continuous  swamp, 
filled  with  shallow  lakes  and  bayous,  and  cov 
ered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  cypress,  gum, 
and  sycamore,  the  cypress  growing  in  the 
water,  and  the  other  trees  in  the  marshes  or 
swamps.  Rising  into  the  higher  land,  where 
the  soil  is  comparatively  dry,  the  surface  is 
covered  with  a  growth  of  white  oak  and  hick 
ory,  with  occasional  thickly  set  canebrakes. — 
Arkansas  has  no  seacoast,  but  is  remarkably 
favored  with  navigable  streams.  The  Missis 
sippi  river  washes  its  eastern  border  for  a  dis 
tance  of  three  degrees,  though  by  its  tortuous 
course  the  actual  distance  is  probably  between 
300  and  400  m.,  separating  it  from  Tennessee  and 
Mississippi.  The  Arkansas  river,  one  of  the 
largest  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  having  its 
source  by  numerous  branches  high  up  in  the 
Rocky  mountains,  traverses  the  state  by  a  tor 
tuous  route  through  its  centre,  the  general  di 
rection  being  from  X".  W.  to  S.  E.,  for  a  dis- 


714: 


ARKANSAS 


tance  ov  the  course  of  the  stream  of  about 
500  m.,  and  is  navigable  far  above  the  limits 
of  the  state  into  the  Indian  territory.  The  Red 
river,  a  large  navigable  stream  which  rises  in 
New  Mexico,  flows  through  the  S.  W.  corner 
of  the  state.  The  St.  Francis  river  rises  at  the 
foot  of  Iron  mountain  in  Missouri,  forms  the 
boundary  between  Missouri  and  Arkansas  for  a 
short  distance,  runs  through  the  N.  E.  corner 
of  the  state,  and  joins  the  Mississippi  about  13 
m.  above  Helena.  Although  a  large  river,  its 
navigation  is  rendered  difficult  by  numerous 
rafts  or  snags.  For  about  50  m.  the  river 
spreads  out  into  a  lake  from  5  to  20  m.  wide, 
supposed  to  have  been  produced  by  a  sinking 
of  the  earth  caused  by  the  great  earthquake 
of  1811.  The  St.  Francis  is  450  m.  long, 
and  navigable  for  150  m.  at  favorable  sea 
sons  of  the  year.  White  river  rises  in  the 
N.  W.  corner  of  Arkansas,  and,  after  run 
ning  N.  into  Missouri,  returns  into  Arkansas, 
takes  a  S.  E.  zigzag  course,  and  flows  into  the 
Mississippi.  White  river  is  about  600  m.  long, 
and  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  to  Bates- 
ville,  260  m.  from  its  mouth,  and,  when  cleared 
of  snags  an:l  driftwood,  may  be  ascended  at 
favorable  seasons  at  least  400  m.  It  has  nu 
merous  tributaries  rising  in  Missouri,  the  chief 
of  which  are  the  Black  or  Big  Black,  Spring, 
and  Cache  rivers.  The  first  flows  S.  and  joins 
White  river  30  or  40  m.  below  Batesville,  and  j 
is  navigable  for  steamers  during  the  greater  j 
part  of  the  year  a  distance  of  100  m.  The 
Washita  or  Ouachita  rises  in  the  W.  part  of 
the  state,  S.  of  the  Arkansas,  runs  S.  and  S.  E. 
parallel  with  that  stream,  passing  through  a 
beautiful  and  fertile  portion  of  southern  Ar 
kansas,  thence  S.  through  a  portion  of  Louisiana, 
and  joins  the  Red  river  near  its  junction  with 
the  Mississippi.  It  is  navigable  for  about  350 
m.  from  its  mouth.  Its  chief  tributaries  are 
the  Little  Missouri,  Saline,  Bayou  Boeuf,  &c. — 
The  mineral  wealth  of  Arkansas  is  as  yet  com 
paratively  undeveloped.  It  is  known  that  the 
state  abounds  in  cannel,  anthracite,  and  bitu 
minous  coal,  which  is  found  in  greatest  pro-  j 
fusion  along  the  banks  of  the  Arkansas  river  i 
on  either  side,  from  a  point  a  short  distance 
above  Little  Rock  to  the  western  boundary  of 
the  state.  Iron  ore  of  a  good  quality  has  been  I 
found  in  the  Ozark  mountains.  Zinc  ore  exists 
mure  extensively  in  Arkansas  than  in  any  other  j 
state  of  the  Union  except  New  Jersey,  Galena  \ 
or  lead  ore,  frequently  bearing  silver,  abounds  i 
in  various  parts  of  the  state.  Gold  has  been 
discovered  in  White  county,  but  has  never 
been  profitably  worked.  Manganese  is  abun 
dant,  and,  according  to  De  Bow,  Arkansas  con 
tains  more  gypsum  than  all  the  other  states 
in  the  Union.  Near  the  hot  springs  in  the 
Washita  valley  is  an  immense  bed  of  superior 
oil  stone,  or  novaculite,  said  to  be  equal  to  the 
celebrated  Turkish  oil  stone.  Salt  of  very  '< 
good  quality  is  produced  from  the  saline  springs 
in  the  vicinity  of  Washita  and  elsewhere. — The 
climate  is  temperate,  but  subject  to  sudden 


i  changes  in  consequence  of  the  north  winds. 
;  The  temperature  at  Little  Rock  usually  ranges 
I  from  15°  to  99°  F.,  and  averages  62-66°, 
though  the  mercury  has  been  known  to  fall  as 
low  as  8°.  The  mean  temperature  for  the 
winter  months  is  45\82° ;  for  the  summer, 
i  79 '66°,  the  mercury  reaching  90°  or  above  for 
!  from  40  to  50  days  during  the  summer.  Ter- 
|  rific  thunderstorms  prevail  during  the  spring 
and  summer.  The  precipitation  of  rain  during 
j  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September, 
i  1871,  amounted  to  9'23  inches  at  Mineral 
Springs,  and  3 '75  inches  at  Clarksville. — The 
total  number  of  deaths  in  1870  was  6,119,  of 
which  2,096  were  from  general  diseases  ;  with 
respect  to  local  diseases,  the  most  numerous 
deaths  were  639  from  atfections  of  the  nervous 
system,  1,476  of  the  respiratory  system,  and 
602  of  the  digestive  system. — The  soil  of  Ar 
kansas  varies  from  the  richest  and  most  pro 
ductive  to  the  most  sterile;  and  the  climate 
and  productions  are  equally  varied.  The  river 
bottoms,  composed  of  a  black  alluvium,  are 
wonderfully  fertile,  producing  bountiful  crops 
of  cotton,  corn,  tobacco,  sweet  potatoes,  mel 
ons,  peaches,  grapes,  and  various  other  fruits. 
There  are  immense  tracts  of  submerged  bot 
toms  equally  rich,  which  might  be  brought 
under  cultivation  by  a  judicious  system  of 
drainage.  Rising  from  the  valley,  the  soil  be 
comes  less  productive,  and  in  many  places  will 
not  repay  cultivation ;  while  large  portions  of 
the  uplands,  particularly  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  state,  produce  good  crops  of  wheat  and 
other  grain,  as  well  as  the  best  of  apples,  and 
are  well  adapted  to  grazing.  The  uplands 
are  largely  interspersed  with  rolling  prairies, 
which  are  generally  well  watered,  though 
Grand  prairie,  90  m.  long  and  30  broad,  situ 
ated  between  Arkansas  and  White  rivers,  is 
an  exception,  being  almost  entirely  without 
water.  The  low  valleys  are  destitute  of  good 
water,  the  inhabitants  resorting  to  rain  water, 
which  is  collected  and  kept  in  large  tanks 
sunk  into  the  ground,  and  filtered  river  water. 
These  valleys  are  very  unhealthy,  particularly 
to  the  unacclimated.  The  more  elevated  por 
tions  of  the  state  are  salubrious. — The  pro 
ductions  of  Arkansas  are  mainly  agricultural. 
The  area  of  the  state  is  33,406,720  acres,  and 
in  1870  there  were  1,714,466  acres  of  improved 
and  3,791,873  of  wood  land.  The  cash  value  of 
farms  was  $36,457,476  ;  of  farming  implements 
and  machinery,  $2,112,020;  total  amount  of 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  including  value 
of  board,  $3,907,188.  There  were  83,952 
horses,  33,381  mules  and  asses,  119,607  milch 
cows,  31,673  working  oxen,  179,431  other 
cattle,  149,592  sheep,  772,662  swine  ;  value  of 
all  live  stock  $15,795,971.  The  productions 
were  683,691  bushels  of  wheat,  23,422  of  rye, 
12,208,044  of  corn,  486,425  of  oats,  46,477  of 
peas  and  beans,  399,927  of  Irish  potatoes, 
859,842  of  sweet  potatoes,  73,021  Ibs.  of  rice, 
529,110  of  tobacco,  203,275  of  wool,  2,531,011 
of  butter,  12,047  of  wax,  261,824  of  honey, 


ARKANSAS 


715 


221,546   bales   of  cotton,    0,800   tons  of  hay, 
00,27V2  gallons  of  cane  and  138,859  of  sorghum 
molasses  ;  value  of  home  manufactures,  $723,- 
07(,»;  of  slaughtered  animals,  $3,460,152;  esti 
mated    value    of  all  farm  products,    including 
betterments  and  additions  to  stock,  $30,524,-  , 
COS.     The  number  of  manufacturing  establish 
ments    was   1,304;    capital,    $2,137,738.      Of  ! 
these  the  most  important  were  272  Hour  and  j 
meal  mills,  283  establishments  for  ginning  cot-  i 
ton,  35  for  the  manufacture   of  leather,    212 
saw  mills,  and  13  wool-carding  establishments,  j 
—The  state  is  remarkably  well  stocked  with  j 
wild  animals,  valuable  for  their  meat,  hides,  | 
and  furs,  among  which  are  the  deer,  elk,  bea-  | 
ver,  otter,  rabbit,  raccoon,  wildcat,  catamount,  , 
wolf,   and  bear.     Wild  turkeys,  geese,  quails,  | 
and  various  other  birds,  are  also  found  in  great  | 
abundance. — The    chief    exports    are    cotton,  i 
maize,  wool,  hides,  and  lumber,  which  find  a  I 
market  in  New  Orleans,  through  which  port  j 
Arkansas  receives   her   foreign    merchandise. 
A  thriving  domestic  Commerce   is  carried  on 
along  the  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  and  other  nav 
igable  streams  of  the  state ;    and  the  traffic 
with  the  Indians  on  the  western  border  is  of 
considerable    importance. — Among    the    most 
striking  natural  curiosities  in  the  state  are  the 
famous  hot  springs,  beneficial  to  those  suffer 
ing  from  the  effects  of  mercury  in  the  system, 
rheumatism,  stiffness  of  the  joints,  &c.     These 
springs  are  situated  on  a  small  tributary  of  the 
Washita,  about  6  m.  from  that  river,  and  00 
in.    S.  W.    of   Little    Rock,   in  Hot    Springs 
county.    From  75  to  100  of  these  springs,  vary 
ing  in   temperature    from    105°    to    100°    F., 
issue   from  a  lofty  ridge  of   sandstone  over 
looking  tlie  town,  while  a  number  rise   from 
the   bed   of   Hot    Spring  creek,    which   flows 
at  the  foot  of  the  ridge,  and,   by  reason  of 


the  springs,  is  rendered  sufficiently  warm  for 
bathing  in  midwinter.     In  Pike  county,  on  the 
Little  Missouri  river,  is  a  natural  bridge,  and 
near  by  is  a  mountain  of  very  fine  alabaster. 
— Up  to  Jan.  1,  1870,  only  128  miles  of  railroad 
had  been  completed  in  Arkansas ;    but  many 
important  lines  are  now  in  process  of  construc 
tion.     The  Cairo  and  Fulton  road  extends  from 
Cairo,  111.,  S.  W.  across  Arkansas  past  Little 
Rock   to    Fulton    in   Hempstead    county,  and 
thence  to  the  Texas  line  ;  301  m.  of  this  road 
will  lie  in  Arkansas.     The  Little  Rock,  Pine 
Bluff,  and  New  Orleans  road  extends  from  the 
former  city  to  Napoleon  on  the  Mississippi,  a 
distance  of  125  m.     The  Little  Rock  and  Fort 
Smith  road  connects  these  two  points,  which 
|  are  distant  150  m.     The  Memphis  and  Little 
[  Rock  extends  from  a  point  opposite  Memphis, 
j  Tenn.,  on  the  Mississippi,  to  Little  Rock,  and  is 
I  130  m.  long.     The  Mississippi,  Ouaehita,  and 
j  Red  River  road   extends  from  Eunice  on  the 
I  Mississippi  westerly  to  Fulton  on  the  Red  river, 
;  155  m.     The  St.  James  and  Little  Rock  is  pro- 
\  jected  from  St.  James,  Mo.,  on  the  Southern 
!  Pacific  railroad,  104  m.  W.  of  St.  Louis,  to  Lit 
tle  Rock,  a  distance  of  240  m.     The  Missouri, 
|  Kansas,  and  Texas  extends  from  Junction  City, 
'  Kansas,  on  the  Kansas  Pacific  railroad,  to  Fort 
Smith,  Ark.,   325  m.      The  Memphis  and  St. 
;  Louis  extends  from  "Wakefiekl,  opposite  Mem 
phis,  northerly  to  Morley,  Mo.,  142  m.,  with  a 
branch  extending  southerly  to  Helena,  00  m. 
Under  the  act  of  1808  the  number  of  miles  of 
railroad  for  which  state  aid  could  be  granted 
was  limited  to  850.     The  bonds,  of  the  denom 
ination  of  $1,000,  are  payable  in  30  years,  with 
7  per  cent,  interest  payable  semi-annually  in 
New  York  city.    The  amount  of  aid  awarded  to 
the  various  companies  up  to  Jan.  1,  1871,  is  as 
,  follows : 


5 

•0            i 

|. 

£ 

^ 

5  2 

f« 

~3 

to  -3 

3 

-^    ^*    ** 

01    ^      3; 

NAMES  OF  ROADS. 

£ 

So 

°e    | 

0 

III 

-  "S  1 

'•5  ° 

J 

3  £ 

.2 

J*8 

-=  2  x 

2      _     n2 

1 

§ 

I'3 

K 

•5  " 

Memphis  and  Little  Rock  
Little  Rock  and  Fort  Smith 

180 
156 

118     | 
95     i 

120 
150 

$10.000 
10,000 

$1.200,000 
1.500,000 

$40,000 
38.125 

Little  Rock.  Pine  Bluff,  and  Ne%v  Orleans  

125 

45     ! 

120 

15,000 

1,800,000 

none. 

Missouri  and  Ohio  Railroad  
Cairo  and  Fulton  

160 
301 

45     j 
20 

130 
800 

15,000 
10,000 

1,950.000 
3.000,000 

210,500 

Little  Rock  and  Helena  

98 

..     1 

30 

15,000 

450,000 

Total  

970 

323     j 

850 

$9,900,000 

$288,625 

The  amount  of  state  bonds  actually  issued  to 
railroad  companies  to  Sept.  30,  1870,  was 
$2,750,000.  Pursuant  to  an  act  of  the  legisla 
ture  of  1809,  53  m.  of  levee  work  have  been 
completed  upon  the  rivers  of  the  state,  at  a  to 
tal  cost  of  $505,917,  and  107  m.  are  in  course 
of  construction,  comprising  levees,  railroad 
beds  answering  the  same  purpose,  cut-offs,  and 
other  works  securing  land  from  overflow.  I>v 
these  improvements  many  acres  of  valuable 
land  will  be  reclaimed.  In  1870  there  were 
two  national  banks  in  Arkansas,  with  a  total 
capital  of  $200,000  and  a  circulation  of  $179,- 


500. — The  present  constitution  of  Arkansas 
was  adopted  Feb.  11,  1808,  and  ratified  by  the 
people  March  13,  1808.  The  equality  of  all 
persons  before  the  law  is  recognized.  The  or 
dinance  of  secession  of  1801  and  the  state  debt 
contracted  in  waging  war  against  the  federal 
government  are  declared  null  and  void.  The 
legislature,  which  assembles  biennially  on  the 
first  Monday  of  January  (odd  years),  consists 
of  a  house  of  representatives  of  82  members 
chosen  for  two  years,  and  a  senate  of  20  mem 
bers  elected  for  four  years.  One  half  of  the 
senators  are  chosen  every  two  years.  Kepre- 


716 


ARKANSAS 


G:ntatives  must  be  ma^e  citizens  of  the  United 
States  not  less  than  21  years  old,  must  have 
resided  in  the  state  for  one  year,  and  be  qual 
ified  electors  and  residents  of  the  districts  from 
which  they  are  elected.  In  addition  to  these 
qualifications  senators  must  have  attained  the 
age  of  25  years.  No  person  holding  a  federal, 
state,  or  county  office,  with  certain  exceptions, 
is  eligible  as  a  member  of  the  legislature.  A 
majority  of  the  members  elected  to  each  house 
is  sufficient  to  pass  a  bill  over  the  governor's 
veto.  Provision  is  made  for  taking  the  census 
in  18T5,  and  every  ten  years  thereafter ;  and 
immediately  afrer  every  census,  state  or  fed 
eral,  the  legislative  districts  may  be  rearranged. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
lieutenant  governor,  secretary  of  state,  auditor, 
treasurer,  attorney  general,  and  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  who  are  chosen  by  the 
people  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  governor 
must  be  not  less  than  25  years  of  age,  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  for  five  years,  an  elector 
and  a  resident  of  the  state  for  one  year.  His 
salary  is  $5,000.  No  member  of  congress  or 
person  holding  a  federal  or  state  office  is  eligi 
ble  as  governor.  The  executive  appoints  a 
commissioner  of  public  works  and  internal  im 
provements,  who  is  also  ex  officio  commissioner 
of  immigration  and  state  lands.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  10  circuit 
courts,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the  legisla 
ture  may  establish.  There  is  a  separate  chan 
cery  court  at  Little  Rock  for  Pulaski  county. 
The  supreme  court  consists  of  a  chief  justice 
appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of 
the  senate  for  eight  years,  and  four  justices 
elected  by  the  people  for  eight  years,  two  being 
chosen  every  four  years.  -The  judges  of  the 
circuit  and  inferior  courts  are  appointed  by  the 
governor  with  the  consent  of  the  senate  for  six 
years.  Two  justices  of  the  peace  are  elected 
in  each  township  for  two  years.  General  elec 
tions  are  held  by  ballot  biennially  on  the  Tues 
day  next  following  the  first  Monday  in  Novem 
ber.  Every  male  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
or  person  who  has  declared  his  intention  to 
become  a  citizen,  who  has  attained  the  age  of 
21  years  and  resided  in  the  state  six  months 
next  preceding  the  election,  and  who  is  an 
actual  resident  of  the  county  in  which  he  offers 
to  vote,  is  qualified  as  an  elector,  except  sol 
diers,  sailors,  and  marines  in  the  United  States 
service  stationed  in  Arkansas,  criminals,  idiots, 
the  insane,  and  the  following  classes  :  1,  those 
who  during  the  civil  war  took  the  oath  of  alle 
giance  or  gave  bonds  for  loyalty  and  good  be 
havior  to  the  United  States  government,  and 
afterward  gave  aid,  comfort,  or  countenance  to 
those  engaged  in  armed  hostility  to  the  federal 
government;  2,  those  disqualified  as  electors 
or  from  holding  office  in  the  state  from  which 
they  came ;  3,  those  persons  who  during  the 
civil  war  violated  the  rules  of  civilized  warfare ; 
4,  those  who  may  be  disqualified  by  the  14th 
amendment  to  the  federal  constitution,  or  by 
the  reconstruction  acts  of  congress.  All  per 


sons  included  in  the  above  classes  who  have 
openly  advocated  or  have  voted  for  the  recon 
struction  measures  of  congress,  and  accept  the 
|  equality  of  all  men  before  the  law,  are  deemed 
qualified  electors  under  the  constitution.     The 
:  general  assembly  is  empowered  to  remove  by 
a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  house,  approved  by 
!  the  governor,  the  political  disabilities  from  any 
!  person  who  has  in  good  faith  returned  to  his 
i  allegiance  to  the  federal  government,  except  in 
;  the  case  of  those  who  after  the  adoption  of  this 
!  constitution  continued  their  opposition  to  the 
'  reconstruction  measures  of  congress.     A  regis- 
j  tration  of  voters  is  to  be  made  before  every 
I  general  election.     All  persons  before  register- 
I  ing  or  voting  must  take  an  ontli  never  to  coun- 
I  tenance  secession,  to  accept  the  civil  equality 
of  all  men,  and  never  to  injure  or  countenance 
others  in  injuring  any  person  on  account  of  past 
or  present  support  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  or  the  principle  of  equal  rights, 
or  affiliation  with    any  political  party.      The 
constitution  requires  the  general  assembly  to 
maintain  a  system  of  free  schools,  and  enforce 
the  attendance  of  every  child  between  5  and  18 
years  of  age  for  a  term  equivalent  to  three  years, 
!  unless  educated  by  other  means.     A  free  school 
i  must  be  kept  in  each  school  district  for  not  less 
|  than  three  months  during  the  year.     The  legis- 
|  lature  is  also  required  to  establish  and  maintain 
;  a  state  university,   with  departments   for  in- 
[  struction  in  teaching,  agriculture,  and  natural 
sciences,  as  soon  as  the  public  school  fund  will 
permit.     Liberal  provisions  are  made  for  the 
protection  of  homesteads,  and  of  the  separate 
|  property  of  married   women;    and  taxes  are 
limited  to   2   per  cent,   of   assessed  value. — 
'  The  funded  and  unfunded  debt  of  the  state, 
i  principal  and  accrued  interest,   amounted  on 
Jan.  1,  1870,  after  deducting  estimated  assets, 
to  $4,522,297  77,  the  annual  interest  on  which 
is  about  $300,000.     The  receipts  and  expendi- 
I  tures  of  the  principal  funds  from  July  3,  1808, 
j  to  Sept.  30,  1870,  were:  General  revenue — re- 
:  ceipts,  $1,110,483  43,  including  $280,703  57  on 
hand  at  former  date;  disbursements,  $327,777 
00 ;    school   fund— receipts,   $429,449    90,    in 
cluding  $04,875  32   on  hand;    disbursements, 
|  $370,454  95  ;  permanent  school  fund — receipts, 
;  $35,591   74;  disbursements,  $399  25;  military 
fund — receipts,    $70,302    20;    disbursements, 
!  $970  84;  sinking  fund— receipts,  $142,382  20; 
disbursements,   $43,779   91;    excess  fund— re 
ceipts,    $108,932;    disbursements.    $2,308  23. 
I  According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  assessed 
|  value  of  real  estate  was  $53,102,304;  personal 
1  property,  $31,420,539;  true  value  of  real  and 
personal    estate,   $150,394,091 ;    total  taxation 
not  national,  $2,800,890.     At  present  the  state 
tax  amounts  to  9£  mills  on  the  dollar,  of  which  5 
!  mills  are  for  general  purposes,  2  mills  for  school 
|  purposes,  and  2^  mills  for  the  payment  of  in- 
j  terest  on  the  public  debt. — The  present  system 
|  of  free  public  schools  was  established  in  1808. 
!  The  number  of  children  of  school  age  in  1870 
was  180. -2  74;  attending  school,  107,908 ;  teach- 


ARKANSAS 


ARKWRIGIIT 


17 


ers  employed,  2,302  ;  number  of  teachers'  in 
stitutes,  41 ;  teachers  attending  institutes,  944; 
whole  amount  paid  teachers  in  1870,  $405,748; 
number  of  school  houses  built  in  1869  and  1870, 
657;  persons  subject  to  per  capita  tax  of  $1  in 
18(59,  79,544;  per  capita  tax  collected  in  18(59, 
$01,4(55;  number  of  schools  taught  in  1870, 
2,537.  The  second  apportionment  of  the  school 
fund,  based  on  the  school  tax  for  18(59,  was 
made  in  1870,  and  amounted  to  $187,427  08. 
The  common  .school  fund  on  Oct.  1,  1870, 
amounted  to  $58,954  95,  and  the  permanent 
school  fund  to  $35,192  49.  In  1868  the  legis 
lature  accepted  the  grant  of  land,  amounting 
to  about  150,000  acres,  made  by  congress  in 
1862  toward  the  support  of  a  college  of  agri 
culture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  and  provided 
for  the  creation  of  the  Arkansas  industrial  uni 
versity,  not  yet  established.— Among  the  state 
institutions,  all  at  Little  Rock,  are  the  institute 
for  the  blind,  having  38  pupils  in  1868;  the 
deaf  mute  institute,  with  43  pupils  in  1870; 
and  the  penitentiary,  with  199  prisoners  in  1870. 
There  are  published  in  the  state  4  daily,  2  tri 
weekly,  and  41  weekly  papers,  and  4  monthly 
periodicals.  The  average  circulation  of  each 
issue  is  650,  and  the  aggregate  annual  circula 
tion  2,438,716.— Arkansas  was  originally  a  por 
tion  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana,  purchased 
from  the  French  in  1803.  It  remained  a  part 
of  Louisiana  territory  till  1812,  when  the  pres 
ent  state  of  Louisiana  was  admitted  to  the 
Union,  and  the  remaining  portion  was  organ 
ized  as  Missouri  territory,  which  name  it  held 
till  1819,  when  Missouri  formed  a  state  constitu 
tion  and  Arkansas  was  erected  into  a  territory 
bearing  its  present  name.  It  remained  under 
a  territorial  government  till  June.  1836,  when 
a  constitution  was  formed  at  Little  Rock,  and 
Arkansas  became  a  state.  In  January,  1861, 
the  people  decided  by  a  vote  of  27,412  to  15,- 
826  in  favor  of  a  convention  to  consider  the 
question  of  secession.  That  body  assembled 
in  March,  and  deferred  the  decision  to  a  popu 
lar  election  to  be  held  in  August.  Meanwhile 
the  state  authorities  seized  the  arsenals  at  Lit 
tle  Rock  (Feb.  8)  and  Napoleon  (April  24),  and 
upon  Fort  Smith  on  the  western  border  (April 
23).  The  convention  reassembled  May  6,  in 
consequence  of  President  Lincoln's  call  for 
troops,  and  passed  the  ordinance  of  secession 
by  a  vote  of  69  to  1,  withdrawing  the  submis 
sion  of  the  question  to  the  people.  The  battle 
of  Pea  Ridge,  or  Elk  Horn,  in  N.  TV.  Arkansas, 
was  fought  March  6  and  7,  1862,  between  the 
confederates  under  Van  Dorn  and  the  Union 
forces  under  Curtis,  and  resulted  in  a  victory 
of  the  latter,  who  then  advanced  to  the  Mis 
sissippi  and  occupied  Helena.  On  Dec.  7, 1862, 
the  confederate  general  Ilindman,  attempting 
to  prevent  the  junction  of  Gens.  Blunt  and 
Heron,  was  defeated  by  Blunt  at  Prairie  Grove 
near  Fayetteville,  with  a  loss  of  about  1,200. 
Arkansas  Post,  on  the  Arkansas  river,  was 
captured  by  Gen.  McClernand  and  Admiral 
Porter,  Jan.  11  1863.  The  confederates  under 


1  Holmes  attempted  to  retake  Helena  July  4.  br;t 
'  were  defeated  by  Gen.  Prentiss.     Little  Rock 
I  was  taken  by  an  expedition  commanded  by 
;  Gen.  Steele,  Sept.  10,  without  serious  resistance, 
Avhile  the  W.  and  S.  parts  of  the  state  were 
1  occupied   by  Blunt   and    Stephenson,   Holmes 
being  driven  into  Texas;  but  the  confederates 
recovered  possession  of  most  of  the  southern 
I  counties  after  the  reverse  of  Gen.  Banks  in 
Louisiana  (April,  1864).     On  Oct.  30,  1863,  a 
meeting  of  loyal  citizens  representing  about  20 
counties  was  held  at  Fort  Smith  to  institute 
measures  for  reorganizing    the    state   govern 
ment.     A  convention  assembled  at  Little  Rock 
Jan.   8,    1864,   when   representatives  from  42 
'  counties  were  present,  and  framed  a  loyal  con 
stitution.     At  an  election  held  on  March  14, 
|  15,  and  16,  12,177  votes  were  cast  for  the  con 
stitution  and  226  against  it.     State  and  county 
officers,  representatives  in  congress,  and  mem 
bers  of  the  legislature  from  40  counties  were 
elected ;  and  in  April  a  state  government  was 
organized.     During  1865  much  suffering  and 
destitution  prevailed   among  the  people,   and 
in  May  the  federal  government  issued  75,097 
rations   to  refugees  and  46,845  to  freedmen. 
Under  the  reconstruction  act  of  March  2,  1867, 
declaring  that   u  no   legal   state  governments 
i  or  adequate  protection  for  life  or  property  now 
;  exists"  in  the  states  lately  in  rebellion,  Ar 
kansas   and  Mississippi  were   constituted   the 
fourth   military    district.      A   registration   of 
I  voters  was  made  under  instructions  from  Gen. 
Ord,  and  delegates  were  elected  in  November 
!  to  a  constitutional  convention  which  assembled 
|  at  Little  Rock  Jan.  7,  1868.     The  new  consti- 
j  tution  was  ratified  by  a  small  majority  of  the 
1  people  in  March.     On  June  22  congress  passed 
over  the  president's  veto  a  resolution  admitting 
Arkansas  to  representation,  and  the  adminis- 
I  tration  was  thereupon  transferred  to  the  civil 
;  authorities.     On  ^Nov.  9,   1868,  Gov.   Clayton 
declared  10  counties  in  a  state  of  insurrection. 
On  March  22, 1869,  martial  law  ceased  through  - 
|  out  the  state.     The  14th   amendment  to  the 
!  federal  constitution  was  ratified  in  April,  1868, 
!  and  the  15th  in  March,  1869. 

ARKANSAS,    a    S.    E.    county   of  Arkansas, 

I  bounded  E.  by  White  river  and  intersected  by 

|  the  Arkansas;  area,  about  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop. 

|  in  1870,  8,268,  of  whom  4,212  were  colored. 

!  The  surface  is  level,  and  about  one  third  of  it 

is  occupied  by  the  Grand  prairie,  the  largest  in 

I  the    state,   and   very  fertile.      The   county   in 

i  1870  produced  217,450  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 

j  17,327  of  Irish  and  28,598  of  sweet  potatoes, 

and  12,315  bales  of  cotton.     Capital,  Arkansas 

Post. 

ARRWRIGHT,  Sir  Richard,  an  English  invent- 

i  or,  born  at  Preston,  Lancashire,  Dec.  23,  1732, 

i  died  at    Cromford,   Derbyshire,  Aug.  3,  1792. 

'  He  was  the  youngest  child  of  a  family  of  13, 

i  and  his  parents  were  too  poor  to  give  him  any 

education.     He  earned  his  living  as  a  barber, 

shaving  in  a  cellar  for  a  penny,  till  he  was  28, 

when  he  became  a  dealer  in  hair,  and  invented 


'18 


APvKWKIGHT 


AKL1NOOUKT 


a  dye  l\y  the  stile  of  which  lie  accumulated  a  ! 
little  property.     His  first  experiments  in  me-  ! 
chanics  were  attempts  to  solve  the  problem  of  ! 
perpetual  motion ;    but   he  soon  directed  his 
attention  to  improvements  in  the  cotton  manu-  i 
facture.     At  that  time  English   cottons  were 
made  with  only  the  weft  of  cotton,  the  warp  '. 
being  of  linen,  and  it  was  considered  impossi 
ble  to  spin  cotton  fine  and  strong  enough  for 
the  warp.     Moreover,  the  supply  of  weft  was 
short  of  the  demand,  though   Hargreaves  of  ; 
Lancashire    had    shortly  before    invented    his  | 
jenny,  and  had   several  machines  at  work  in  j 
Nottingham.      In   1708   Arkwright    produced  1 
the  model  of  his  famous  cotton-spinning  frame,  j 
by  which  the  thread   could   be  spun  of  any  j 
required  fineness  and  strength  and  with  im-  I 
mense  velocity.      Fearing   the   same   hostility 
that  had  driven  Hargreaves  out  of  Lancashire, 
he  proceeded  at  once  to  Nottingham.     There 
he  met  with  Messrs.  Wright,  bankers,  who  en 
gaged  to  furnish  the  capital  necessary  to  per 
fect  the  invention,  but  soon  became  frightened 
and  retired.    Arkwright  then  applied  to  Messrs,  j 
•Need  and  Strutt,  and  the  latter  (the  celebrated 
inventor  of  the  stocking  frame)  saw  at  once  the 
value  of  the  invention,  and  the  firm  took  an  in 
terest  in  it.     Arkwright  was  profoundly  igno 
rant  of  mechanics,  but  a  few  suggestions  of  Mr. 
Strutt  about  the  wheel  work  overcame  the  last 
difficulty,  and  a  machine  driven   by  a   horss 
was  soon  in  operation.     In  1771  another  mill, 
driven   by   water   power,   was   established   at 
Oromford,    in    Derbyshire.     The   first   patent 
was  granted  in  1769,  and  unsuccessfully  con 
tested  in  1772.     In  1775  Arkwright   obtained 
anew  patent  for  improvements,  but  it  seems  he 
had  included  in  it  things  discovered  before,  and 
six   years   later  it  was  declared  void   by  the 
courts;  but  in  1785  he  obtained  a  decision  in 
his  favor,  and  was  reinstated  in  the  monopoly. 
The  object  of  Arkwright's  invention  was  to 
spin  cotton  fine,  with  a  hard  twist,  and  fit  for 
warp.  This  was  done  by  the  use  of  drawing-roll 
ers,  by  sets  of  two,  the  second  set  moving  faster 
than  the  first,  and  by  a  fast-revolving  spindle 
giving  a   twist  to  the  cotton  as  it  came  out 
from  between  the  second  pair.     The  introduc 
tion  of  this  machine,  which  was  far  superior  to 
that  of  Hargreaves,  caused  the  latter  to  die  of 
grief.      Arkwright   encountered   the   bitterest 
hostility,  not  so  much  from  the  working  class  as 
from  the  manufacturers,  who  at  one  time  even 
refused  to  buy  his  yarns,  and  tried  to  ruin  him 
by  mischievous  legislation  in  parliament.     His 
energy  and  perseverance,  however,  triumphed 
over  all  obstacles.     In  the  management  of  his 
mill  he  showed  a  remarkable  capacity  for  or 
ganization,  and  his  labors  were  rewarded  with  , 
a  fortune  of  £500,000.     lie  acquired  the  rudi 
ments  of  learning  after  he  was  50  years  old, 
was    knighted  in    1786  on    occasion   of    pre 
senting  an  address  to  the  king,  and  in  1787 
served  as  high  sheriff  of  Derbyshire.     His  in 
vention  enables  one  man  to  do  as  much  work 
&3  13C  could  do  before,  and  it  is  calculated  that 


40,000,000  hands  would  scarcely  be  sufficient 
to  accomplish  the  spinning  now  done  by  ma 
chinery  in  England  alone. 

ARLES  (Celtic  Ar-lait,  near  the  waters; 
Lat.  Arelate),  a  town  of  France,  in  Provence, 
department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  lower  Rhone,  at  the  point  where  the 
river  divides  and  forms  the  island  of  Camargue, 
46  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Marseilles;  pop.  in  1866, 
26,367.  It  is  an  ill-built  and  somewhat  un 
healthy  place,  though  situated  amid  beautiful 
environs.  Its  ancient  amphitheatre,  although, 
not  as  well  preserved  as  that  of  Nimes,  is  su 
perior  in  size  and  magnificence.  An  obelisk, 
consisting  of  a  single  block  of  granite  about  50 
feet  high,  is  yet  standing  on  one  of  the  public 
thoroughfares,  while  the  ruins  of  an  aqueduct, 
of  two  temples,  of  a  triumphal  arch,  an  exten 
sive  cemetery,  and  numerous  fragments  of 
granite  and  marble  columns,  are  to  be  seen  in 
different  parts  of  the  city.  The  statue  known 
as  the  Venus  of  Aries,  a  rival  to  the  Venus 
de'  Medici,  now  in  the  national  museum  of 
Paris,  was  discovered  here  in  1651.  The  Ro 
land  tower  and  the  Byzantine  church  of  St. 
Trophimus  deserve  mention,  as  also  the  town 
hall,  designed  by  Mansard.  Aries  contains  a 
school  of  navigation,  a  college,  a  collection  of 
natural  history,  a  museum  of  antiquities,  a 
public  library,  and  a  theatre.  Silk,  soap,  and 
glass  bottles  are  manufactured,  and  the  sau 
sages  of  Aries  are  held  in  high  esteem. — The 
ancient  Arelate  was  an  important  toAvn  at  the 
time  of  Caesar's  invasion,  became  a  prosperous 
Roman  colony,  was  for  a  time  the  residence  of 
Constantine,  became  the  capital  of  the  Gothic 
king  Euric,  was  plundered  by  the  Saracens  in 
730,  and  150  years  later  became  the  capital  of 
Cisjurane  Burgundy,  and  in  930  of  both  Cisju- 
rane  and  Transjurane  Burgundy,  united  as  the 
kingdom  of  Arelate  or  Aries.  (See  BURGUN 
DY.)  In  1251  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
Charles  of  Anjou,  count  of  Provence.  It  was 
united  to  the  crown  of  France  under  Louis  XL 
Several  important  ecclesiastical  synods  were 
held  here  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries. 

ARLINCOIIRT,  Victor,  viscount  d',  a  French 
poet  and. novelist,  born  in  1789,  died  Jan.  22, 
1856.  His  fiither,  a  farmer  of  the  public  reve 
nue,  died  by  the  guillotine  in  the  revolution. 
Victor  commended  himself  to  Napoleon's  no 
tice  by  publishing  in  1810  an  allegorical  poem 
in  his  honor,  entitled  Une  matinee  de  Charle 
magne,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with  two 
court  offices.  He  afterward  undertook  an  epic, 
the  hero  of  which  was  still  Charlemagne,  or 
rather  Napoleon,  but  it  was  unfinished  on  the 
fall  of  the  empire.  D'Arlincourt  easily  trans 
ferred  his  political  allegiance  to  the  Bourbons, 
but  did  not  meet.with  favor  from  Louis  XVIII. 
The  publication  of  his  Caroleide  was  soon  fol 
lowed  by  several  novels,  Le  Solitaire,  L'jfitran- 
aere,  Le  li'cnegat,  Ipsiboe,  and  Ismalie,  the 
last  being  in  rhyme.  These  eccentric  works 
acquired  an  equivocal  sort  of  celebrity,  Le  Soli 
taire,  of  which  Charles  the  Bold  was  the  hero, 


ARLOX 


ARMADA 


719 


having  been  translated  into  several  languages 
and  widely  circulated.  His  tragedy,  Le  Siege 
de  Paris,  played  at  the  Theatre-Francois,  was 
received  with  such  bursts  of  laughter  that  the 
actors  did  not  attempt  a  second  performance. 
In  the  hitter  part  of  his  lite  he  fell  into  obscurity. 

ARLON  (anc.  Orolmmum),  a  town  of  Belgium, 
capital  of  the  province  and  1  6  in.  W.  N".  W.  of 
the  city  of  Luxemburg ;  pop.  in  1867,  5,779.  It 
is  situated  in  the  midst  of  forests  on  a  ridge  of 
the  Ardennes,  and  is  rapidly  increasing  in  pros 
perity  owing  to  its  ironware,  leather,  and  other 
manufactures.  It  was  known  to  the  Romans. 
At  the  end  of  the  18th  century  it  was  the  scene 
of  various  engagements  between  the  Austrian 
and  French  armies. 

ARMADA,  Spanish,  the  great  naval  armament 
sent  by  King  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  in  1588,  for 
the  conquest  of  England.  The  fullest  account 
of  this  armament  is  given  in  a  book  published 
about  the  time  it  set  sail  by  order  of  Philip, 
under  the  title  La  felicisima  Armada  que  el 
rey  Don  Felipe  nuestro  Senor  mando  juntar 
en  el  puerto  de  Lisbon,  1588,  hecka  por  Pedro 
de  Pax  Sal  as.  A  copy  of  this  work  was  pro 
cured  for  Lord  Burleigh,  so  that  the  English 
government  was  beforehand  acquainted  with 
every  detail  of  the  expedition.  (This  copy,  con 
taining  notes  up  to  March,  1588,  is  now  in  the 
British  museum.)  The  fleet  is  therein  stated  to 
have  consisted  of  65  galleons  and  large  ships, 
25  ureas  of  300  to  700  tons,  1 9  tenders  of  70  to 
100  tons,  18  small  frigates,  4  galeasses,  and  4 
galleys;  in  all,  130  vessels,  with  a  total  ton 
nage  of  75,868  tons.  They  were  armed  with 
2,431  guns,  of  which  1,497  were  of  bronze, 
mostly  full  cannon  (48  pdrs.),  culverines  (long 
30  and  20  pdrs.),  &c. ;  the  ammunition  consist 
ed  of  123,790  round  shot  and  5,175  cwt.  of 
powder,  giving  about  50  rounds  per  gun,  at  an 
average  charge  of  4^  Ibs.  The  ships  were 
manned  with  8,456  sailors,  and  carried  19,295 
soldiers  and  180  priests  and  monks.  Mules, 
carts,  &c.,  were  on  board  to  move  the  field  ar 
tillery  when  landed.  The  whole  was  provision 
ed,  according  to  the  above  authority,  for  six 
months.  This  fleet,  unequalled  in  its  time,  was 
to  proceed  to  the  Flemish  coast,  where  another 
army  of  30,000  foot  and  4,000  horse,  under  the 
duke  of  Parma,  was  to  embark,  under  its  pro 
tection,  in  flat-bottomed  vessels  constructed  for 
the  purpose,  and  manned  by  sailors  brought 
from  the  Baltic.  The  whole  were  then  to  pro 
ceed  to  England.  In  that  country  Queen  Eliza 
beth  had,  by  vigorous  exertions,  increased  her 
fleet  of  originally  30  ships  to  about  180  vessels 
of  various  sizes,  but  generally  inferior  in  that 
respect  to  those  of  the  Spaniards.  They  in 
cluded  a  large  number  of  privateers,  armed 
merchantmen,  and  vessels  furnished  by  the 
nobility,  and  were  manned  by  17,500  sailors. 
They  were  wretchedhr  provisioned,  and  so  ill 
supplied  with  ammunition  that  they  could 
hardly  have  made  a  serious  fight  but  for  the 
powder  which  they  captured  from  the  enemy. 
The  English  military  force  was  divided  into 


two  armies:  one,  of  18,500  men,  under  the  earl 
of  Leicester,  for  immediately  opposing  the  en 
emy  ;  the  other,  of  45,000,  for  the  defence  of 
the  queen's  person.  According  to  a  MS.  in  the 
British  museum,  entitled  "  Details  of  the  Eng 
lish  Force  assembled  to  Oppose  the  Spanish 
Armada"  (MS.  Reg.  18th,  c.  xxi.),  2,000 infant 
ry  were  also  expected  from  the  Low  Countries. 
The  armada  was  to  leave  Lisbon  in  the  begin 
ning  of  May,  but,  owing  to  the  death  of  the 
admiral  Santa  Cruz  and  his  vice  admiral,  the 
departure  was  delayed.  The  duke  of  Medina 
Sidonia,  a  man  totally  unacquainted  with  naval 
matters,  was  now  made  captain  general  of  the 
fleet;  his  vice  admiral,  Martinez  de  Ricalde, 
however,  was  an  expert  seaman.  Having  left 
Lisbon  for  Corunna  for  stores,  May  29,  1588, 
the  fleet  was  dispersed  by  a  violent  storm,  and, 
though  all  the  ships  joined  at  Corunna  with  the 
exception  of  four,  they  were  considerably  shat 
tered,  and  had  to  be  repaired.  Reports  having 
reached  England  that  the  armament  was  com 
pletely  disabled,  the  government  ordered  its 
own  ships  to  be  laid  up ;  but  Lord  Howard,  the 
admiral,  opposed  this  order,  set  sail  for  Corunna, 
learned  the  truth,  and  on  his  return  continued 
warlike  preparations.  Soon  after,  being  inform 
ed  that  the  armada  had  hove  in  sight,  he  weigh 
ed  anchor,  and  as  it  passed  Plymouth,  July 
31,  stood  out  in  its  rear  and  opened  a  destruc 
tive  fire.  Having  the  windward  position,  and 
being  greatly  superior  in  speed,  he  was  able  to 
inflict  serious  damage  without  loss  to  himself. 
All  the  way  along  the  channel  the  English  fol 
lowed  the  armada  with  the  same  tactics,  taking 
skilful  advantage  of  the  changing  winds,  harass 
ing  the  Spaniards,  capturing  two  or  three  of 
their  best  vessels,  and  yet  keeping  all  the  while 
virtually  out  of  reach.  The  Spaniards  pro 
ceeded  toward  the  coast  of  Flanders,  keeping 
as  close  together  as  possible.  In  the  various 
minor  engagements  which  took  place,  the  Eng 
lish  always  w^on  the  victory  over  the  clumsy 
and  undermanned  Spanish  galleons,  crowded 
with  soldiers.  The  Spanish  artillery,  too,  was 
very  badly  served,  and  almost  always  planted 
too"high.  Off  Calais  the  armada  cast  anchor, 
waiting  for  the  duke  of  Parma's  fleet  to  come 
out  of  the  Flemish  harbors;  but  Parma  had 
nothing  but  unarmed  barges,  and  could  not 
come  out  until  the  armada  had  1, eaten  off  the 
Anglo-Dutch  blockading  squadron.  Driving 
the  Spaniards  out  of  Calais  roads  by  means 
of  fire  ships,  Aug.  8,  Howard  and  Drake  now 
forced  them  toward  the  Flemish  coast,  with 
the  purpose  of  getting  them  into  the  North 
sea  and  cutting  off  their  communications  with 
Dunkirk.  The  battle  began  at  daybreak  off 
Gravelines,  and  lasted  till  dark.  The  Span 
iards  were  completely  defeated.  Several  of 
their  largest  ships  were  lost,  and  4,000  men 
were  killed,  and  probably  at  least  as  many 
more  wounded.  It  was  impossible  either  to 
return  to  Calais  or  to  reach  the  duke  of  Parma. 
The  provisions  were  nearly  exhausted,  and 
the  English  ilect,  apparently  little  injured,  st'Il 


ARMADILLO 


hovered  on  their  weather  beam.  It  was  im 
perative  that  they  should  return  to  Spain  for 
fresh  stores.  The  passage  through  the  chan 
nel  heing  closed  by  the  English  fleet,  the  Span 
iards,  now  counting  120  vessels,  undertook  to 
round  Scotland  and  Ireland.  But  in  the  neigh 
borhood  of  the  Orkneys  they  were  dispersed 
by  a  storm.  Some  of  them  foundered.  About 
30  were  afterward  wrecked  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Ireland.  Those  of  the  crews  who  escaped 
to  shore  were  killed  generally,  and  it  was  cal 
culated  that  about  14,000  thus  perished.  The 
remnant  which  reached  Spain  in  September 
and  October,  with  Sidonia  and  Recalde,  num 
bered  only  54  vessels  and  9,000  or  10,000 
starving  men. 

ARMADILLO  ((lasypus,  Linn.),  a  genus  of  the 
class  mammalia  and  order  edentata,  forming  a 
small  family,  intermediate  between  the  sloths 
and  ant-eaters,  and  having  an  affinity  to  the 
families  chlamypJwrus  and  oricteropm.  They 
are  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  molar 
teeth  only.  The  armadillos  have  a  singular 
coat  armor  covering  their  whole  body  and 
head.  It  consists  of  three  bony  bucklers,  com 
posed  of  small  polygonal  plates  set  in  juxta 
position  to  one  another,  but  neither  connected 
by  joints  nor  separately  movable.  The  buck 
lers  which  cover  the  rump  and  shoulders  of 
the  animal,  each  forming  as  it  were  a  single 
solid  piece,  are  capable  of  little  pliancy  or  mo 
tion  save  what  is  allowed  during  the  life  of  the 
animal  by  the  partial  elasticity  of  the  thin  shell 


Armadillo  (Dasypns   sexcinctus  or  D.    encoubert). 

or  crust  lubricated  by  the  animal  oils  which 
penetrate  it.  These  bucklers,  however,  are 
connected  by  a  number  of  transverse  movable 
bands,  composed  of  similar  plates  with  the 
principal  bucklers,  which  are  themselves  con 
nected  by  the  soft  and  pliant  inner  skin  of  the 
animal,  and  thus  admit  of  the  most  rapid 
motions,  being  situated  immediately  above  the 
loins.  The  buckler  or  helmet  which  defends 
the  head  has  no  connection  of  any  sort  with 
the  armor  of  the  shoulders,  so  that" the  neck  is 
left  perfectly  free,  while  it  is  at  the  same  time 
completely  protected  by  the  projection  of  the 
skull-piece.  The  legs  of  the  armadillos  are  ex 
tremely  short  and  stout,  covered  with  scaly 
plates,  furnished  with  powerful  claws  for  bur 


rowing  in  the  ground,  and  guarded  r.a  far  as 
the  knees  by  the  defending  bucklers;  these 
descend  so  low  as  to  make  a  complete  defence 
to  the  belly  of  the  animal,  which  is  covered 
only  with  a  rough  skin,  from  which  originata 
a  few  long  coarse  hairs,  and  a  partial  one  to 
the  thighs  and  knees.  Except  in  one  species, 
the  armadillos  are  devoid  of  hair,  save  that 
above  mentioned,  and  a  few  straggling  bristles, 
which  proceed  from  the  inner  skin,  between 
the  jointed  plates  of  the  lumbar  region.  The 
tails  of  all  the  species  but  one  are  armed  with 
annular  bands  similar  to  those  connecting  the 
bucklers,  and  in  all  are  adapted  to  a  notch  cut 
out  of  the  posterior  buckler  in  order  to  receive 
them.  The  teeth  of  the  armadillos  are  of 
simple  cylindrical  form,  varying  from  7  or  8  to 
17  or  18. in  number,  on  each  side  of  each  jaw, 
and  when  the  inouth  is  closed  shut  one  into 
another.  The  different  species  have  4  or  5  toes 
on  their  fore  feet,  and  invariably  5  on  their 
hind  feet.  Their  eyes  are  small,  their  ears 
erect  and  pointed,  and  they  have  elongated 
snouts.  They  are  mostly  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  though  a  few  of  the  species  go  abroad 
by  day;  perfectly  inoffensive;  are  never  known 
to  bite,  or  attempt  any  defence ;  but  when  pur 
sued  immediately  commence  burrowing,  Avhich 
they  do  with  such  power  and  rapidity  that 
they  easily  evade  their  pursuers.  The  ordina 
ry  food  of  armadillos  consists  of  fallen  fruits, 
roots,  worms,  ants,  and  carrion.  Their  grind 
ing  teeth  enable  them  to  feed  only  on  soft  sub 
stances,  and  therefore  they  can  devour  flesh 
only  when  putrid.  Abundance  of  this  food 
they  find  at  all  seasons  on  the  pampas  of  South 
America,  where  cattle  are  slaughtered  for  the 
sake  of  their  hides  alone.  On  this  food  the 
armadillos  become  immensely  fat,  when  they 
are  esteemed  a  great  delicacy  and  are  served 
up  roasted  whole  in  their  shells. — The  armadil 
los  are  arranged  by  Cuvier  in  five  small  groups, 
according  to  the  arrangement  of  their  teeth, 
toes,  and  other  structural  differences:  1.  The 
cachicames,  with  4  anterior  toes,  7  teeth  on 
a  side,  above  and  below,  a  pointed  muzzle,  and 
a  long,  annulated  tail.  2.  The  aparas,  with 
toes  and  tail  as  the  last  species,  but  with 
0  or  10  teeth  on  each  side,  above  and  be 
low.  This  animal  has  also  the  power  of  roll 
ing  itself  into  a  ball  like  a  hedgehog.  3.  The 
encouberts,  with  5  anterior  toes-  and  9  or  10 
teeth,  throughout.  In  addition,  however,  they 
have  2  teeth  on  the  intermaxillary  bones  of 
the  upper  jaw  resembling  incisors,  in  which 
they  differ  not  only  from  all  armadillos,  but 
from  all  the  order  edentata.  4.  The  kabas- 
sous,  which  have  5  toes  both  before  and  be 
hind,  but  the  claws  obliquely  arranged,  so  as 
to  give  them  unusual  power  in  burrowing  and 
clinging  to  the  soil  when  seized.  They  have 
9  or  10  teeth,  throughout;  and  their  tails  are 
undefended  by  armor,  as  in  the  other  species. 
5.  The  priodontes,  or  last  subdivision  of  the 
armadillos,  in  addition  to  the  unequal  toes 
and  enormous  claws  of  the  kabassous,  have 


ARMAGEDDON 


ARMAGNAC 


721 


from  22  to  24  small  teeth,  throughout,  on  each 
side  of  both  jaws.  Of  the  cachicames,  or  first 
division,  there  are  three  species,  of  which  the 
commonest  is  the  dasypus  peba,  or  black  tatu 
of  Paraguay.  It  is  aboiit  1C  inches  long,  and 
was  originally  known  under  the  appellations 
of  the  7,  8,  and  9-banded  armadillo,  three 
species  being  made  out  of  one.  The  other 
species  of  this  group  are  the  mule  tatu,  so  called 
from  the  length  of  its  ears,  and  the  tatu  verda- 
duro,  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  last,  ex 
cept  by  the  breadth  of  the  movable  bands  and 
the  size  of  the  croup  buckler.  Of  the  aparas, 
there  is  but  one  species,  the  inataco,  which  has 
in  general  but  3  bands  and  a  short,  blunt  tail, 
covered  by  a  single  horny  crust.  The  en- 
couberts  have  three  species:  the  poyou,  or 
yellow-footed  armadillo,  which  has  usually  but 
7  or  8  movable  bands,  and  is  easily  known  by 
its  triangular  snout,  tlat  body,  and  short  legs; 
the  hairy  armadillo,  remarkable  for  its  more 
copious  growth  of  bristles  from  between  the 
movable  bands,  and  for  its  practice  of  burrow 
ing  into  the  bodies  of  dead  horses,  and  remain 
ing  within  them  until  all  the  llesh  is  consumed, 
and  nothing  left  but  the  skeleton  and  hide ; 
and  lastly  the  pichiy,  which  is  the  smallest  of 
all  the  armadillos.  The  kabassous  have  but 
one  species,  the  tatouay,  or  wounded  arma 
dillo,  so  called  by  the  Indians  from  an  idea  that 
the  scaly  covering  of  its  tail,  which  is  naked 
and  looks  raw,  has  been  torn  off  by  violence. 
The  last  subdivision  of  armadillos,  the  prio- 
dontes,  has  likewise  but  one  species,  the  dasy- 
pus  gigas,  or  great  armadillo  of  Cuvier.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  size,  being  3  feet  3  inches 
long;  for  its  movable  bands,  12  or  13  in  num 
ber,  composed  of  rectangular  plates ;  for  the 
thickness  of  its  tail  at  the  base;  and  for  the 
spiral  lines  of  the  scales  by  which  it  is  defend 
ed.  All  the  armadillos  are  inhabitants  of  Cen 
tral  and  South  America,  being  found  dispersed 
from  Mexico,  over  the  pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  south  as  far  as  Paraguay.  The  armadillo 
runs  with  remarkable  speed,  easily  outstrip 
ping  a  man.  Although  the  females  in  no  spe- 
des  have  more  than  4  mammas,  and  in  some 
but  2,  they  invariably  produce  0,  8,  or  10  young 
at  a  birth,  bearing  hut  once  in  a  season. 

ARMAGEDDON  (Ileb.  Jwr,  hill,  and  Megiddo), 
the  name  probably  given  to  the  whole  table 
land  of  Esdraelon  in  Galilee  and  Samaria,  from 
the  town  of  Megiddo,  which  stood  near  the 
centre  of  it,  upon  the  site,  according  to  Dr. 
Robinson,  of  the  modern  Lejjun  (the  Roman 
Legio).  Armageddon  was  the  great  battle 
field  of  Palestine.  On  this  elevated  plain  were 
fought  the  battles  of  the  Kishon,  Jezreel,  Gilboa, 
and  Megiddo.  The  fame  of  this  field  of  many 
battles  explains  the  passage  (Rev.  xvi.  14-1 G) 
in  which  the  seer  of  the  Apocalyptic  vision  de 
scribes  God  as. summoning  his  foes  to  "a  place 
called  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  Armageddon,"  to 
the  battle  of  the  "  great  day  of  God  Almighty." 

ARMAGH.  I.  A  county  of  northern  Ireland,  in 
the  province  of  Ulster,"  bet  ween  Lough  Neagh 
VOL.  i.— 43 


on  the  north  and  the  county  of  Louth  on  the 
south;  area,  512  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  171,355. 
In  the  S.  W.  part  are  several  groups  of 'incon 
siderable  mountains  ;  the  rest  of  the  surface  is 
level  or  undulating,  "and  the  soil  is  generally 
fertile.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Black- 
water  and  the  Bann.  The  northern  and  central 
portions  of  the  county  are  divided  into  small 
farms;  grain,  vegetables,  and  flax  are  their 
products.  Linen  weaving  is  the  chief  manu 
facturing  industry.  The  principal  towns  are 
Armagh  and  Xewry  ;  part  of  the  latter  lies 
also  in  the  county  of  Down.  Portadown  and 
Lurgan  are  noted  for  their  linen  manufactures. 
II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  preceding  county,  situ 
ated  on  the  Callam,  an  affluent  of  the  Black- 
water,  36  m.  by  railway  W.  S.  W.  of  Belfast; 
pop.  in  1871,  8,952.  It  is  well  built  round  a  hill, 
from  the  centre  of  which  rises  the  famous  old 
cathedral,  recently  repaired  and  occupying  the 
site  of  the  original  building  erected  by  St. 
Patrick.  The  town  is  supplied  with  water 
from  an  adjoining  reservoir  and  is  lighted  with 
gas.  The  Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  arch 
bishops  of  Armagh  both  bear  the  title  of  pri 
mate  of  all  Ireland.  The  trade  chiefly  consists 
in  grain,  flax  yarn,  and  linen.  It  has  severnl 
branch  banks,  and  lively  weekly  corn  and 
general  markets,  and  the  prosperity  of  the 
town  is  rapidly  increasing.  Between  the  5th 
and  9th  centuries  Armagh  was  a  renowned 
ecclesiastical  and  intellectual  centre,  and  sub 
sequently  it  was  often  devastated  by  the 
Danes.  After  the  English  invasion  it  was  al 
most  uninterruptedly  under  Irish  rulers  up  to 
the  reformation,  after  which  period  it  became 
the  scene  of  many  conflicts  between  the  English 
and  Irish  forces  till  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century.  The  military  headquarters,  formerly 
in  Armagh,  have  been  removed  to  Belfast. 

ARMAGNAC,  an  ancient  territory  of  France, 
in  the  province  of  Gascony,  now  forming  the 
department  of  Gers,  and  a  part  of  Lot-et-Ga- 
ronne,  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and  Ilaute-Garonne. 
It  was  successively  included  in  Aquitaine,  in 
the  duchy  of  Gascony,  and  in  the  county  of 
Fesenzac,  and  was  erected  into  a  separate 
county  in  960.  Its  rulers  during  the  14th  and 
loth  centuries  became  very  powerful.  Louis 
XL  united  it  to  the  crown  in  1481.  but  it  was 
restored  by  Charles  VI II..  reunited  to  the 
crown  on  the  death  of  the  last  count  in  1497, 
and,  after  new  changes,  descended  to  Henry 
of  Xavarre,  who  incorporated  it  with  the 
kingdom  of  France  on  his  accession  in  1589. 
Louis  XIV.  gave  the  title  to  Henry  of  Lor 
raine  in  1645,  and  it  was  borne  by  his  descen 
dants  until  the  revolution.  Of  the  ancient 
counts  of  Armagnac,  the  most  distinguished 
were  the  following:  I.  Bernard  VII.,  killed 
June  12,  1418.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  with  the  English  in  Guienne.  When 
the  murder  of  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans,  broth 
er  of  Charles  VI.,  by  the  emissaries  of  John 
the  Fearless,  duke  of  Burgundy,  left  the  Or- 
leanists  without  a  chief  (1407),  he  married 


722 


ARMAND 


his  daughter  to  young  Charles  of  Orleans,  be 
came  the  leader  of  the  faction  which  hence 
forth  assumed  the  name  of  Armagnac,  and  was 
appointed  by  the  queen  constable  of  France. 
lie  succeeded  in  seizing  on  Paris,  which  he 
governed  with  an  iron  rule.  At  last  the  Pa 
risians  became  tired  of  his  tyranny,  and  by 
treason  delivered  the  city  into  the  hands  of 
L'Isle-Adam,  one  of  the  Burgundian  chiefs. 
Bernard  hid  himself,  but  was  betrayed  by  a 
mason  in  whom  he  had  confided,  and  was  im 
prisoned.  A  few  days  later  the  jails  were 
mobbed  by  the  populace,  when  all  the  Arma- 
gnacs  were  murdered,  Bernard  among  the  rest. 
II.  Jean  V.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  1420,  assassinated  in  1473.  He  made 
himself  notorious  by  his  uncontrollable  ^  pas 
sions,  and  publicly  married  his  own  sister, 
Jeanne  Isabelle,  who  had  been  engaged  to  King 
Henry  VI.  of  England.  This  crime  was  made 
a  pretext  by  Charles  VII.  for  depriving  him  of 
his  possessions,  which  were  afterward  restored 
to  him  by  Louis  XI.  Notwithstanding  this, 
Jean  entered  the  league  of  the  public  weal 
against  Louis,  and  was  driven  into  Aragon ; 
but  by  the  aid  of  Louis's  brother,  the  duke  of 
Guienne,  he  recovered  his  estates,  and  with 
stood  a  siege  in  the  castle  of  Lectoure.  The 
royalists  obtained  an  entrance  by  stratagem, 
put  the  count  to  death,  and  forced  his  wife  to 
drink  of  a  poison  which  killed  both  herself  and 
her  unborn  child. 

ARMAND,  Charles.  See  ROUAEIE,  Marquis  de  la. 

ARMANSPERG,  Joseph  Louis,  count,  a  Bavarian 
statesman,  regent  of  Greece,  born  in  Lower 
Bavaria,  Feb.  28,  1787,  died  April  3,  1853.  In 
the  war  of  1813-'14  he  was  commissioner  of 
Bavaria  in  the  allied  army,  and  belonged  to  the 
board  which  governed  the  conquered  regions 
on  the  Rhine.  He  participated  in  the  congress 
of  Vienna  in  1815,  was  one  of  the  plenipo 
tentiaries  with  the  allied  army  during  the  oc 
cupation  of  France,  and  administered  a  large 
district  of  that  country.  In  1825  he  was  cho 
sen  president  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and 
became  leader  of  the  moderate  opposition. 
King  Louis  I.  made  him  secretary  of  the  treas 
ury  and  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  German  Zollverein.  By  his 
opposition  to  the  ultramontanes  he  forfeited 
the  confidence  of  the  king,  and  retired  into 
private  life,  but  in  1832  was  recalled  to  take 
the  regency  of  Greece  during  the  minority  of 
King  Otho.  He  entered  Greece  in  February, 
1833,  and  ruled  until  1837  with  almost  limitless 
power.  His  administration  was  in  many  re 
spects  beneficial,  but  he  finally  became  unpop 
ular  with  the  nation,  the  sovereign,  and  all  the 
foreign  diplomatists  except  the  English  minis 
ter,  and  was  dismissed. 

ARMATOLES,  Christian  captains  commanding 
bands  of  klephts  or  brigands,  who,  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Ottoman  empire  in  Eu 
rope,  succeeded  in  maintaining  themselves 
independent  in  the  possession  of  inaccessible 
mountain  defiles.  These  warlike  chiefs,  con- 


ARMENIA 

stantly  striving  for  the  independence  of  Greece, 

became  more  and  more  formidable,  especially  in 

j  Epirus  and  other  parts  of  northern  Greece ;  and 

j  about  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  the 

I  pashas  were  obliged  "to  treat  with  them,  and 

admit   their   right   to  govern   their  mountain 

country.     They  took   a    leading   part  in  the 

Greek  revolution;    and  among  the  armatolic 

chieftains  most  distinguished  in  this  war  were 

Eustrates,  Gogo,  Makry,  Saphacas  and  Karai's- 

i  kakis  (both  of  whom  perished  under  the  walls 

of  Athens  in  1827),  Kaltzodemos  (killed  before 

Missolonghi),  Odysseus,  Panuryas,  and  Marco 

Bozzaris,  the  commander  of  the  Suliotes. 

ARMEJVGAUD,  Jean  Germain  Desire,  a  French  art 
historian,  born  at  Castres,  department  of  Tawi, 
in  1797,  died  at  Passy,  near  Paris,  in  March, 
1869.  He  is  the  author  of  Histoire  des  pein- 
tres  de  toutes  les  ecoles  depuis  la  renaissance 
jiisqu'd  nos  jours  (1849,  completed  by  Charles 
|  Blanc),  Les  galeries  publiques  de  V Europe 
(1856),  Les  chefs  d'wuvres  de  T'art  cJiretien 
(1858),  Les  tresors  de  Tart  (1859),  Le  Parthe 
non  de  VUstoire  (1863-'4),  and  other  illustrated 
works. 

ARMENTIERES,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de 
partment  of  Le  Nord,  situated  on  the  Lys,  oppo 
site  the  Belgian  frontier,  10  m.  1ST.  E.  of  Lille; 
pop.  in  1866, 15,579.  It  has  a  college,  an  insane 
asylum,  and  important  manufactures  of  linen 
and  cotton  goods.  Formerly  the  town  was 
fortified,  but  after  its  conquest  by  Louis  XIV. 
the  works  were  razed. 

ARMENIA,  an  inland  region  of  western  Asia, 
|  mostly  '  within   the   present   limits  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  but  extending  into  the   adjacent  do 
minions  of  Russia  and  Persia.     Its  boundaries 
have  varied  greatly  at  different  periods,  and 
are  not  now  authoritatively  fixed,  estimates  of 
its  area  varying  from  50,000  up  to  150,000  sq. 
m.     In  its  largest  sense,  it  formerly  reached 
toward  or  to  the  Caucasus  mountains  on  the 
!  N".,  nearly  or  quite  to  the  Caspian  sea  on  the 
E.,  included  (according  to  some)  the  modern 
lake  of  Urumiah  on  the  S.  E.,  and  embraced 
a    part    of    Cappadocia    on    the    S.    W.    and 
i  W. ;    thus   extending  from   about  Ion.  36°  to 
I  49°  E.  and  from  about  lat.  37°  to  42°  N.     Ar- 
|  menia  Minor  or  Lesser  Armenia  lay  W.  of  the 
I  Euphrates,  and  was  the  eastern  part  of  Asia 
Minor ;  Armenia  Major  or  Greater  Armenia, 
usually  called  simply  Armenia,  sometimes  Ar- 
'<  menia  Proper,  lies  entirely  E.  of  the  Euphra- 
1  tes.     In  its  most  flourishing  period  Armenia 
I  was  divided  into  15  provinces  and  187  cantons 
!  or   subdivisions,    the    central    province   being 
i  Ararad  or  Ararat.     Armenia  Major  is  an  ele 
vated  and  mountainous  region,  watered  with 
|  abundant  rains,  and  covered  for  some  months 
I  in  the  year  with  deep  snows.     Its  climate  is 
j  severe  for  its  latitude,  which  is  that  of  New 
!  Jersey  and  Delaware,  but  is  generally  healthy. 
Its  winter  lasts  from  October  to  May ;  its  sum 
mer  is  short  and  warm.     It  has  five  principal 
rivers :  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  which  unite 
,  and  flow  into  the  Persian  gulf;  the  Kur  (an- 


ARMENIA 


723 


ciently  Cyrus)  and  Aras  (Araxes),  which  unite 
and  fall  into  the  Caspian  sea;  and  the  Tcho- 
ruk  (anciently  Acampsis),  which  falls  into  the 
Black  sea.  A  high  table  land,  4,000  to  8,000 
ft.  above  the  sea,  constitutes  a  considerable 
part  of  the  country,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  once  a  large  inland  sea,  from  which  the 
Taurus,  Antitaurus,  and  other  mountains  were 
upheaved  by  volcanic  action.  Its  highest 
mountain  is  the  Great  Ararat,  which  rises 
more  than  3  m.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
is  covered  with  perpetual  ice  and  snow.  An 
eruption  of  Ararat  and  disastrous  earthquakes 
occurred  in  1840.  Traces  of  volcanic  action 
abound  through  a  large  part  of  this  whole  re 
gion.  Among  its  rocks  are  trap,  porphyry, 
basalt,  granite,  syenite,  limestone,  sandstone, 
tfcc.  It  has  mines  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  cop 
per,  and  rock  salt.  Its  largest  lake,  Van,  is  salt, 
nearly  5,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  with  an  area  of 
about  1,400  sq.  m.  The  lake  of  Urumiah  is 
also  salt,  but  is  not  generally  included  in  Ar 
menia.  The  lake  of  Sevan  in  Russian  Armenia 
is  sometimes  called  "sweet  sea,"  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  salt  lakes.  The  agricultural  re 
sources  of  Armenia  are  good,  but,  in  conse 
quence  of  misgovernment,  much  of  the  land  is 
unimproved.  There  are  rich  pastures ;  some 
parts  yield  abundantly  grain,  tobacco,  manna, 
hemp,  cotton,  melons,  cucumbers,  grapes,  figs, 
pomegranates,  apples,  peaches,  mulberries,  and 
walnuts.  Among  its  forest  trees  are  chestnut, 
beech,  walnut,  ash,  maple,  pine,  fir,  and  oak. 
Horses,  cows,  oxen,  buffaloes,  sheep,  and  goats 
are  common  domestic  animals.  Erzerum,  gen 
erally  considered  the  chief  city  of  Turkish  Ar 
menia,  is  the  abode  of  a  high  pasha,  who  bears 
the  title  of  seraskier.  Van,  Bayazid,  Kars, 
Bitlis.  and  Mush,  to  which  some  add  Diarbekir 
and  Batum,  are  other  important  places  in  Tur 
kish  Armenia.  Erivan,  Xakhtchevan,  Shusha, 
and  Akhaltzikh  are  leading  cities  of  Russian 
Armenia,  which  also  contains  Etchmiadzin,  the 
abode  of  the  catholicos  or  head  of  the  Arme 
nian  church.  Urumiah,  Khoi,  and  even  Ta 
briz,  in  Persia,  have  been  reckoned  as  cities  of 
Armenia. — The  Armenians  proper,  who  how 
ever  form  but  a  small  portion  of  the  inhabi 
tants  of  Armenia,  call  themselves  Haiks, 
from  a  traditional  ancestor  Haig  or  Haicus, 
whom  they  represent  as  the  son  of  Togar- 
mah,  who  was  a  great-grandson  of  Noah 
through  the  line  of  Japheth  and  Gomer  (Gen. 
x.).  ^  Haig,  they  say,  was  one  of  the  prefects 
or  directors  in  building  the  tower  of  Babel,  but, 
refusing  to  pay  divine  homage  to  the  image  of 
Belus,  who  reigned  in  Babylonia,  went  north 
ward  with  his  family  and  others  into  the  region 
of  Ararat.  Belus  or  Bel  pursued  them,  and 
was  slain  in  battle  by  llaig,  who  then  went  on 
to  found  cities,  introduce  wise  laws  and  regu 
lations,  and  promote  the  prosperity  of  his 
people,  till  his  death,  at  the  age  of  nearly 
400  years.  His  eldest  son,  Armenag,  suc 
ceeded  him  as  king,  and  was  himself  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son  Aramais,  who  gave  name  to 


r  Armavir,   a  large  and  beautiful  city,  built  of 
|  hewn  stone,  and  situated  probably  at  a  place 
called  Kusagh,  near  the  Araxes.     Armavir  was 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom  for  about  1,800  years, 
1  while  the  llaig  dynasty,  including  59  kings, 
i  were  on  the  throne.     Aram,  the  seventh  of 
1  this  dynasty,  and  contemporary  with  the  pa- 
•  triarchs  Isaac  and  Jacob,  is  said  to  have  de 
feated  the  Babylonian  and  Median  invaders, 
I  conquered  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  built 
i  the  old  city  of  Mazaca,  afterward  called  Ceesa- 
j  rea  and  Kaisariyeh,  in  Cappadocia ;  and  accord - 
i  ing  to  some  traditions  it  was  he  (according  to 
j  others  Armenag)  who  left  his  name  to  Arme 
nia.     His  son  Arab,  renowned  for  his  beauty, 
was  sought  in  marriage  by  Semiramis,  and  lost 
his  life  in  the  disastrous  battle  which  followed 
his  refusal.     Semiramis  grieved  much  over  his 
death,  placed  on  his  throne  his  young  son  Gar- 
tos,  also  called  Arab,  and  founded  a  magnificent 
city,   long   known   among   the  Armenians  as 
I  Shamiramagerd  (city  of  Semiramis),  now  Van, 
I  which  she  made  her  royal  summer  residence. 
j  The  Armenians  were  now  for  some  time  trib- 
I  utary  to  the  Assyrians;  but  their  ruler  Parsm's 
I  is  said  to  have  joined  the  Median  prince  Arba- 
I  ces  and  the  Babylonian  Belesis  in  destroying 
j  the  empire  of  Sardanapalus,  and  to  have  after- 
j  ward,  as  king  of  Armenia,  hospitably  received 
|  Sennacherib's  sons  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer, 
I  whose  posterity  subsequently  established  the 
I  kingdom  of  Vashbtiragan.     Ilaikak  II, ,  king  of 
I  Armenia  607-569  B.  C.,  joined  Nebuchadnez- 
'  zar  in  his  expedition  against  the  Jews,   and 
j  brought  into  Armenia  a  Jewish  noble  named 
:  Shambat  with  his  family.     From  this  Sham- 
j  bat  descended  the  Armenian  royal  family  of 
the  Bagratides  or  Bagradites,  some  of  whom, 
under   the    name    Bagration,    still   hold   high 
offices  in  Russia.      The  Armenians   celebrate 
I  Tigranes  I.  or  Dikran  as  their  most  powerful 
and    excellent    king,    who     put    the    Greeks 
I  under   tribute ;    aided   Cyrus    the   Persian   in 
|  conquering  the  Medes,  Lydians,  and  Babylo- 
j  nians ;    built  Tigranocerta ;   reigned  45  years, 
I  and  died  five  years  after  Cyrus.     His  son  and 
successor  Vahakn  gained  by  his  great  courage 
and  strength  the  title  of  Hercules  the  second, 
and  was  worshipped  as  a  god.     Van,  king  371- 
351  B.  C.,  enlarged  and  embellished  the  city 
I  of  Semiramis  and  called  it  by  his  own  name. 
!  Alexander  the  Great  having  defeated  Vahey 
I  and  brought  the  Haig  dynasty  to  an  end,  the 
i  Armenians  were  for  1G4  years  (323-159)  ruled 
|  by  governors  really  or  nominally  subject  to  the 
\  Macedonians  or  Syrian  Greeks.     The  Romans 
i  make  Artaces  or  Artaxias,  one  of  these  gover- 
|  nors,  and  an  Armenian,  the  founder  of  an  inde- 
!  pendent  kingdom   and  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Arsacidae,  as  well  as  of  the  city  and  capital 
|  Artaxata,  on  the  Araxes,  about  189  B.  C.    The 
\  Armenians  make  the  founder  of  this  dynasty 
!  to  be  Vagharshag  or  Valarsaces,  brother  of  the 
I  Parthian  king  Arshag  or  Arsaces  the  Great, 
j  who  gave  Xisibis  to  Valarsaces  for  his  capital 
about  149.     According  to  the  Romans,   also, 


724. 


ARMENIA 


Zadriates,  another  prefect  or  governor,  became 
king  of  Armenia  Minor  about  189  ;  but  his 
kingdom  lasted  only  a  short  time.  Great  ob 
scurity  rests  on  the  history  of  Armenia  under 
the  Arsacidse.  Tigranes  II.,  sometimes  called 
Tigranes  the  Great,  and  also  Tigranes  I.,  was, 
according  to  the  Armenians,  a  great  conqueror, 
and  brother-in-law  of  the  Georgian  chief  Mith- 
ridates,  whom  he  appointed  king  of  Pontus. 
This  Tigranes  is  said  to  have  made  Nisibis  his 
capital,  rebuilt  the  old  Tigranocerta,  and  found 
ed  another  city  of  the  same  name  on  the 
Nymphius,  a  branch  of  the  Tigris.  Ilis  son 
and  successor  Ardavast  was  treacherously 
seized  by  Mark  Antony,  carried  in  chains  to 
Egypt,  and  put  to  death  in  34  B.  C.  Alex 
ander,  son  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  ruled  in 
Armenia  a  little  while ;  but,  after  various 
changes,  we  rind  Abgar  or  Abgarus,  grandson  of 
Tigranes  the  Great,  on  the  throne  of  Armenia 
at  Edessa.  The  Armenians  universally  believe 
that  this  Abgar  wrote  the  famous  letter  to 
Jesus  which  is  quoted  as  genuine  by  Eusebius 
and  others.  In  his  reign  all  parts  of  Armenia 
became  tributary  to  the  Romans.  About  A.  D. 
78  Erovant  transferred  the  capital  to  Armavir, 
and  then  built  a  new  capital,  Erovantashad,  a 
little  W.  of  Armavir.  The  Armenians  speak 
of  another  Artaces,  who  ruled  A.  D.  88-129, 
built  bridges,  roads,  and  ships,  encouraged  lit 
erature,  science,  commerce,  and  every  branch 
of  industry,  and  died  universally  lamented ; 
but  Armenia  afterward  suffered  much  from 
struggles  with  and  between  the  Romans  and 
Parthians,  and  from  persecutions,  especially 
after  the  Parthian  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidne 
gave  place  to  the  Sassanida?,  22 f>.  The  Arme 
nian  Arsacida3  continued  to  reign  till  428. 
Then  for  about  200  years  Armenia  was  subject 
to  the  Sassanidre  of  Persia.  In  037  the  xVra- 
bian  caliphs  first  invaded  Armenia,  and  10 
years  afterward  imposed  the  capitation  tax 
upon  the  nation.  The  rivalries  between  the 
courts  of  Damascus  and  Constantinople  were 
long  a  source  of  great  suffering  in  Armenia.; 
but  in  859  the  Mohammedan  court  set  up  .a 
tributary  dynasty  in  that  country,  the  Bagra- 
tides,  of  Jewish  origin,  as  already  noticed, 
who  reigned  there  till  1079.  Their  capital 
was  Ani,  011  the  Akhurian,  a  few  miles  S. 
E.  of  Ears.  A  branch  of  the  Bagratides 
reigned  at  Aars  from  9G1.  There  was  also  a 
third  Armenian  kingdom  about  this  time,  that 
of  Vashburagan,  with  Van  for  its  capital. 
These  little  kingdoms,  though  inferior  to  the 
Byzantine  empire  in  population,  are  said  to 
have  surpassed  it  commercially,  industrially, 
and  financially.  But  after  various  changes  and 
disasters  there  came  in  1049  the  bloody  and 
complete  destruction  of  Ardzen,  near  the  mod 
ern  Erzerum,  by  the  Seljukian  Turks  under 
Toghrul,  which  was  followed  by  the  similar  de 
struction  of  Ani  under  his  successor.  One  by  one 
the  Armenian  kings  migrated  with  their  people, 
and  their  kingdoms  soon  ceased  to  exist,  though 
another,  established  in  the  Cilician  Taurus  in 


ARMENIAN   CHURCH 

1080  by  Rupen,  lasted  till  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Egyptian  Mamelukes  in  1375.     The  Arme- 
i  nian  nationality  was  now  extinguished ;  Arme- 
|  nia  itself,  devastated  by  Genghis  Khan  and  about 
1390  by  Tamerlane,  afterward  received  as  con 
querors  first  the  Turcomans  and  then  the  Os- 
manli  Turks,  while  the  Kurds,  the  Persians,  and 
the  Russians  have  at  different  times  taken  pos 
session  of  certain  portions. — The  Armenians  are 
!  now   widely  scattered,  yet  they   everywhere 
!  retain  their  own  language,  customs,  and  habits, 
|  with  a  special  love  of  their  country,  are  exten 
sively  engaged  in  commercial   and   industrial 
|  pursuits,  and  possess  great  influence,  partic- 
'  ularly  in  Russia  and  Turkey.      Their  present 
'<  number  is  variously  estimated  at  from  21  to  10 
|  or  even  12  millions.    Probably  there  are  2|  mil- 
'  lion  Armenians  in  the  Turkish  empire  alone. 

ARMENIAN  CHURCH.     According  to  the_  Ar- 
1  menians,  the  early  patriarchal  religion  existed 
;  in  Armenia  till  about  1700  B.  C.  ;Vthen  Assyrian 
influence  brought  in  Sabaism,  wliich  about  725 
B.  C.  became  Magism;  and-  this  after  Alexan- 
!  der's  conquest  was  confusedly  united  with  Gre- 
|  cian  idolatry,  to  which  were  added  Scythian 
:  superstitions   and   the  worship  of    gods  from 
1  India.     They  relate  that  King  Abgar,  afflicted 
with  a  disease  resembling   leprosy,  besought 
I  Jesus  by  letter  to  come  and  cure  him,  and  prof- 
I  fered   him  a  refuge  in  Edessa  from  the  Jews 
I  who  sought  to  destroy  him ;    that  Jesus  an- 
I  swered  this  letter  with  a  written  promise  to 
!  send,    after    his    departure,    a    disciple    who 
j  should  cure  the  king's  malady  and  give  life 
I  to  him  and  his ;  that  after  the  Saviour's  as- 
|  cension  the  disciple  Thomas  sent  Thaddeus, 
|  one  of  the   seventy,  to  Edessa ;    that  Abgar, 
i  with    many    others,    believed    and  was   bap- 
|  tized ;  that  Sanatrug,  one  of  Abgar's  succes- 
!  sors,  put  to  death  Thaddeus,  and  also  flayed 
I  alive   and    crucified    St.    Bartholomew;    that 
!  Jude,  Eustathius,  and  other  preachers  suffered 
'  martyrdom  in  Armenia;  that  about  this  time 
a  large  part  of  the  nation  was  converted,  but 
I  very  soon  persecutions  produced  a  general  re- 
|  lapse  into  idolatry  till  about  A.  D.  300 ;  that 
I  then   Gregory  the   Illuminator  preached  the 
!  gospel  with  wonderful  success  in  Armenia,  bap- 
1  tized  as  converts  King  Tiridates  and  thousands 
;  of  his   subjects,  and  was  ordained  first  bishop 
I  of  the  Armenians  by  Leontius,  bishop  of  Cass- 
:  area,  about  302;    that  Gregory  and  Tiridates 
everywhere  established  schools,  in  which  the 
children,    especially    of    the    heathen   priests, 
were  taught  the   Christian  religion  with   the 
Greek  and  Syriac  languages ;   and  that  Chris 
tian  churches  took  the  places  of  heathen  altars, 
and  the  kingdom  received  a  new  life.      The 
Armenians  profess  to  have  been  the  first  na 
tion  that  unitedly  embraced  Christianity ;  but 
a  long  and  bloody  conflict  with  Persian  Magism 
followed  before  the  nation  fully  secured  reli 
gious  liberty,  A.  D.  485.     The  Armenians  re 
ceived  without  question  the  decrees  of  the  coun 
cils  of  Nice  (325)  and  Ephesus  (431) ;  but  those 
of  Chalcedon  (451)  were  formally  rejected  by 


ARMENIAN   CHURCH 


725 


the  Armenian  bishops,  though  they  also  anath 
ematized  Eutyches,  while  they  strenuously 
maintained  the  formula  of  one  nature  in  Christ. 
The  Armenian  church  has  been  therefore  anath 
ematized  as  heretical  by  both  the  Greek  and 
Roman  churches. — The  Armenians  agree  with 
the  Greeks  in  maintaining  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father  only,  and  in  most 
other  doctrines  ;  but  they  make  the  sign  of  the 
cross  with  two  fingers  (in  reference  to  the  two 
natures  made  one  in  Christ's  person),  while  the 
Greeks  make  this  sign  with  three  fingers  (in 
reference  to  the  Trinity).  They  baptize  in 
fants  (or  adults  converted  from  Judaism  or  other 
religion),  like  the  Greeks,  by  partially  immers 
ing  them  in  the  font  and  then  thrice  pouring 
water  on  their  heads;  but,  unlike  the  Greeks, 
they  admit  to  their  communion  Roman  Catho 
lics  or  Protestants  who  have  been  baptized  by 
sprinkling.  Like  the  Roman  Catholics,  they 
believe  in  transubstantiation,  adore  the  host  in 
the  mass,  and  profess  belief  in  seven  sacra 
ments;  but  their  prayers  of  extreme  unction 
are  mingled  with  those  of  confirmation,  which  is 
performed  by  the  priest  at  baptism,  and  they 
reject  the  Roman  purgatory,  though  they  pray 
for  the  dead.  The  people  have  the  commu 
nion  in  both  kinds,  the  broken  bread  or  wafer 
(unleavened)  being  dipped  in  undiluted  wine 
and  laid  on  the  tongue  of  the  fasting  commu 
nicant.  They  worship  saints  and  their  pictures 
as  well  as  the  cross ;  insist  on  the  perpetual 
virginity  of  Mary ;  maintain  baptismal  regen 
eration  and  the  spiritual  efficacy  of  penances 
and  sacraments ;  and  regard  confession  to  the 
priest  and  absolution  as  essential  to  salvation  ; 
but  absolution  is  not  purchased,  nor  are  in 
dulgences  given.  They  have  165  fast  days, 
when  no  animal  food  can  be  eaten ;  14  great 
feast  days,  observed  more  strictly  than  the 
Lord's  day ;  and  more  minor  feasts  than  days  of 
the  year.  Their  church  services  are  performed 
in  the  ancient  Armenian  language.  They  have 
nine  grades  or  orders  of  clergy,  viz. :  the  catho 
licos,  bishop,  priest,  deacon,  subdeacon,  porter, 
reader,  exorcist,  and  candle  lighter.  The  monks 
live  according  to  the  rule  of  St.  Basil.  There  are 
no  regular  lay  monks  among  them.  The  prin 
cipal  Basilian  convent  is  at  Etchmiadzin.  There 
are  two  grades  among  the  priests:  the  varta- 
beds  (doctors  or  teachers),  who  must  remain 
unmarried,  and  are  again  subdivided  into  two 
classes;  and  the  parish  priests,  who  must  be 
married  before  attaining  the  rank  of  subdeacon. 
The  bishops  are  generally  elected  from  the  var- 
tabeds,  and  only  in  rare  instances,  by  special 
dispensation  of  the  catholicos  or  patriarch,  from 
the  monks.  The  metropolitans  or  archbishops 
are  distinguished  from  the  bishops  only  by  a 
higher  rank  and  certain  honorary  rights,  but 
not  by  superior  jurisdiction.  At  the  head  of 
the  entire  hierarchy  is  the  catholicos;  he  re 
sides  in  the  convent  of  Etchmiadzin,  in  the 
province  of  Erivan,  which  since  1828  has  been 
under  the  rule  of  Russia.  His  authority  as  head 
of  the  entire  church  is  recognized  by  all  Arme 


nians  except  the  adherents  of  the  patriarch 
>  of  Aghtamar  on  Lake  Van,  who  since  the  12th 
!  century  has  claimed  the  title  of  catholicos,  but 
|  is  recognized  only  by  two  towns  and  30  vil- 
|  lages,  and  had  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
|  century  eight  or  nine  bishops  under  his  juris- 
:  diction.     Besides  the  patriarch  of  Aghtamar, 
'  the  Armenian  church   has  patriarchs  at  Sis, 
|  Constantinople,  and  Jerusalem,  all  of  whom  ac- 
|  knowledge  the  higher  ecclesiastical  rank  of  the 
|  catholicos  of  Etchmiadzin.     The  'patriarchate 
;  of  Sis  embraces  the  churches  of  Armenia  Minor, 
!  Cappadocia,  and  Cilicia,  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  about  23  bishops.     The  patriarchate  of  Je- 
I  rusalem  embraces  the  pashalics  of  Damascus, 
Acra,  and  Tripolis,  and  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
and  has  14  suffragan  bishops.    The  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  has  been  since  1461  the  civil 
I  head  of  all  the  Armenians  in  Turkey,  and  under 
I  his  direct  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  are  all  the 
|  dioceses  of  Turkey,  except  those  belonging  to 
j  the  patriarchates  of  Sis  and  Jerusalem.     Ac- 
i  cording  to  the  reorganization  agreed  upon  by 
|  the  provincial  council  of  Constantinople  in  1830, 
the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople  embraces  18 
archiepiscopal  dioceses,  with  35  suffragan  bish 
ops.     One  of  the  archbishops  resides  in  Egypt. 
The  patriarch  of  Constantinople,   who   takes 
rank  with  the  great  pashas  of  the  empire,  is 
elected  by  the  ecclesiastical  heads  and  the  no 
tables  of  the  Armenian  community  in  Constan 
tinople.     The  notables  were  till  1839  chiefly 
wealthy  bankers ;  but  since  then  high  officials 
of  the  Turkish  government  have  obtained  the 
ascendancy.     Though  of  an  inferior  rank  to  the 
catholicos,  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  is 
in  all  other  respects  entirely  independent,  and 
even  the  name  of  the  catholicos  is  no  longer 
mentioned  in  the  liturgical  books  used  in  Con 
stantinople.     Under  the  direct  jurisdiction  of 
|  the  catholicos  are  the  Armenians   of  Russia 
!  and  Persia.     In   the  former  country  the  Ar 
menian   churches    are   by   a    ukase    of    1836 
|  divided  inte  six  dioceses  (archbishoprics),  with 
eight  suffragan  bishoprics  or  vicariates.     Per 
sia  has  an  archbishop  at  Ispahan,  with  a  suffra 
gan  bishop  at  Calcutta  in  India  ;  and  an  arch 
bishop  at  Tabreez  with  two  suffragan  bishops. 
I  The   catholicos  is  at   present   elected  by  his 
'  synod,   all   the   members   of  which  reside   at 
I  Etchmiadzin,   and  the  election  must  be   con- 
|  firmed  by  the  Russian  government.     The  entire 
population  connected  with  the  Armenian  church 
is  estimated  at  about  3,000,000.— The  United 
Armenians,  also  called  Armeno-Catholics,  are 
those  who  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the 
pope  of  Rome.     As  early  as  1318  Pope  John 
XXI I.  appointed  a  Dominican  monk  to  be  their 
archbishop  at    Soldania    in  Persian   Armenia 
(afterward  at  Nakhtchevan).     At  the  council 
of  Florence  (1439)  a  nominal  union  between 
the  Roman  and  Armenian  churches  was  ef- 
j  fected,  but  it  was  not  ratified.     For  'centuries, 
however,  there  have  been  Armenians  in  Per 
sia,    Poland,    Transylvania,    Turkey,    &c.,    ac 
knowledging  the  pope  and  agreeing  doctrinally 


726 


ARMENIAN   CHURCH 


with  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  but  retaining  !  them  directed  their  efforts  especially  to  the  en- 


their  own  usages,  such  as  the  communion  in 
both  kinds  and  the  marriage  of  the  priests. 
They  have  had  a  patriarch  in  Cilicia  since  1742. 
The  monks  of  St.  Anthony,  who  have  an  abbot 
on  Mount  Lebanon,  and  the  Mekhitarists,  whose 
labors  have  been  conspicuous  in  Armenian  lit 
erature,  are  the  principal  monks  among  them. 
They  are  estimated  to  number  15,000  in  Con 
stantinople  and  100,000  in  the  Turkish  empire. 
According  to  the  "Papal  Almanac"  for  1872, 
the  Armeno-Catholic  church  has  one  patriarch 
(of  Cilicia),  five  archbishoprics  in  Turkey  and 
one  (Lemberg)  in  Austria,  eleven  bishoprics  in 
Turkey  and  one  (Ispahan)  in  Persia.  The  papal 
bull  JKeversurv^  dated  July  12,  1867,  which 
without  consulting  the  Armenian  bishops  made 
important  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Armeno-Catholic  church  and  in  its  relations 
to  Rome,  called  forth  a  violent  opposition. 
At  a  national  synod  held  in  1869  the  major 
ity  of  the  bishops  protested  against  the  bull ; 
and  when  the  patriarch  of  Cilicia,  Ilassun, 
the  head  of  the  church,  attempted  to  carry 
out  the  provisions  of  this  bull,  the  bishops  de 
clared  (Feb.  14,  1871)  the  election  of  Ilassun, 


lightenment  and  reformation  of  the  Armenian 
nation,  and,  though  bitterly  opposed  by  the  pa 
triarch  and  other  Old  Armenians  whose  coope 
ration  they  sought,  gradually  extended  their 
operations  and  intiuence  through  the  empire, 
giving  religious  instruction,  translating  the 
Scriptures,  preparing  and  distributing  religious 
and  educational  works,  establishing  schools, 
promoting  religious  liberty,  &c.  In  1843  Ova- 
gim,  a  young  Armenian  who  had  in  a  fit  of 
passion  professed  Mohammedanism  and  after 
ward  returned  to  his  former  faith,  was  be 
headed  publicly  at  Constantinople  by  the 
Turkish  authorities ;  but  this  led  to  the  British 
minister's  demanding  and  with  the  help  of  other 
foreign  ministers  obtaining  from  the  sultan 
a  written  pledge  that  the  death  penalty  should 
not  be  applied  to  such  cases.  But  the  opposi 
tion  to  the  evangelical  movement  among  the 
Armenians  became  still  more  violent.  June 
21,  1846,  the  Armenian  patriarch  finally  ex 
communicated  and  anathematized  all  who  re 
mained  firm  to  their  evangelical  principles,  and 
decreed  that  the  anathema  should  be  annually 
read  in  all  Armenian  churches  in  the  em- 


which  had  taken  place  in  1866,  to  have  been  |  pire.     July  1,  1846,  the  first  evangelical  Arme- 


illegal,  and  elected  Archbishop  Bahdiarian  of 
Diarbekir  as  patriarch  of  Cilicia.  The  new 
patriarch,  with  all  the  bishops  and  priests  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  election,  was  excommu 
nicated  by  the  pope  on  Nov.  2,  1871.  This  fate 
was  toward  the  close  of  1872  shared  by  all  the 
members  of  the  church  who  refused  to  recog 
nize  the  authority  of  the  patriarch  Ilassun  and 
the  decrees  of  the  Vatican  council.  The  ex 
communicated  portion  of  the  church  has  put  it 
self  in  communication  with  the  Old  Catholics 
of  Germany. — The  Protestant  Armenians  have 
arisen  within  the  last  50  years.  An  Armenian 
priest,  Debajy  Oghlu,  living  at  Constantinople, 
about  1760  wrote  a  book,  which  was  circulated 
in  manuscript,  on  the  errors  of  the  church, 
praising  Luther,  severely  chastising  both  priests 
and  people  for  their  superstition  and  vice,  and 
testing  every  principle  and  ceremony  by  the 
Bible.  The  British  and  Russian  Bible  societies 
published  and  circulated  (1813-'23)  thousands 
of  Bibles  and  Testaments  in  the  ancient  Ar 
menian  language,  with  the  approval  of  the  ca- 
tholicos  of  Etchmiadzin.  They  also  published 
(1822-'3)  the  New  Testament  in  Armeno-Turk- 
ish  (Turkish  in  Armenian  characters)  and  mod 
ern  Armenian;  but  the  Armenian  patriarch  and 
other  clergy  refused  to  sanction  these  transla- 


man  church  of  Constantinople  was  formed, 
with  40  members,  including  females,  and  one 
week  later  Mr.  Apisoghom  Khatchaduryan  was 
ordained  its  pastor.  Similar  churches  were 
formed  the  same  summer  at  Ismid  (Nicornedia), 
Adabazar,  and  Trebizond.  Nov.  15,  1847,  the 
native  Protestants  were  officially  recognized 
as  constituting  a  separate  and  independent 
community,  and  in  November,  1850,  the  sultan 
gave  to  the  native  Protestants  of  Turkey  a 
charter  placing  them  on  an  equality  with  the 
older  Christian  organizations,  and  providing 
for  a  head  or  agent  (a  layman)  nominated  by 
their  regular  ballot,  and  appointed  by  the 
Porte,  and  also  for  national,  provincial,  and 
local  councils  chosen  by  themselves,  to  regu 
late  their  own  affairs.  The  Hatti-Humayum 
or  Hatti-Sherif,  issued  by  the  sultan  in  Feb 
ruary,  1856,  placed  them  on  a  legal  equality 
with  Moslems.  In  1859  the  appointment  of  a 
Protestant  Armenian  censor  by  the  Turkish 
government  relieved  the  Protestants  from  an 
noyances  proceeding  from  the  Old  Armenian 
censor.  The  mission  of  the  American  board 
to  the  Armenians  of  Turkey  has  now  grown  into 
four  distinct  missions,  to  European,  western, 
central,  and  eastern  Turkey,  the  first  having 
special  reference  to  the  Bulgarians,  the  other 


tions.  In  1830-'31  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Eli  Smith  L  three  to  the  Armenians.  In  the  three  Arme- 
I)  wight,  sent  by  the  American  board  [  nian  missions  there  were  reported,  in  January, 
of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions,  explored  I  1872,  37  ordained  and  63  unordained  (mostly 
Armenia  itself.  The  same  board  had  had  for  j  female)  American  missionaries,  16  stations  and 
several  years  admission  in  Syria,  where  several  184  out  stations,  75  churches  with  about  3,800 

church  members,  19,411  registered  Protestants, 
nearly  50  native  pastors  and  as  many  licensed 
preachers,  several  theological  and  training 


Armenian  ecclesiastics  were  converted.  In 
1831  the  Rev.  William  Goodell,  who  went  to 
Syria  in  1823,  established  a  mission  of  the  board 


at  Pera,  a  suburb  of  Constantinople,  and  was 
joined  in  1832  by  Mr.  I)  wight.  These  and  other 
American  missionaries  who  subsequently  joined 


schools  and  classes  with  over  130  pupils,  115 
pupils  in  girls'  boarding  schools,  and  5,657  pu 
pils  in  197  common  schools. 


ARMENIAN   LANGUAGE   AND    LITERATURE  727 

ARMENIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  The  !  khitarists  published  at  Venice  an  improved 
ancient  Armenian  language,  which  is  still  the  ••  edition  of  this  Bible  from  manuscript  authori- 
literary  and  church  idiom  of  the  Armenians,  I  ties,  Zohrab's  improved  text  of  the  New  Tes- 
belongs  to  the  Indo-European  family,  is  en-  i  tament  having  appeared  there  in  1789.  The 
riched  very  considerably  from  the  Sanskrit,  j  influence  of  Mezrob's  Bible  was  so  great  that 
abounds  in  gutturals,  arid  has  strength,  flexi-  |  the  Armenian  language  suddenly  attained  a 
bility,  compass,  and  capability  of  expressing  :  high  state  of  perfection  and  regularity,  and 
thought  by  evolving  new  terms  from  itself.  |  the  5th  century  became  the  golden  age  of  its 
The  conversion  of  the  nation  to  Christianity  literature.  Moses  of  Chorene  or  Klioren — 
led  to  the  introduction  of  certain  words  from  j  who  studied  Greek  at  Alexandria,  and  after 
the  Greek,  and  impressed  on  the  language  a  j  returning  to  Armenia  became  an  archbishop, 
new  character  in  several  respects ;  the  Persian  |  and  died  about  488  at  the  reputed  age  of 
and  Turkish  conquests  produced  other  changes.  I  120  years — is  considered  by  the  Armenians 

*  ~\  •        1  I'lT'  ^1  •  J"»  A  1  1  'A  TT  •  1      •        . 


The  modern  or  spoken  Armenian  dialects  differ 
very  considerably  from  the  ancient — the  Ara 
rat  or  eastern  dialect  less,  however,  than  the 
Constant inopolitan  or  western  dialect — chiefly 
in  the  disuse  of  certain  words,  the  introduc- 


their  first  classical  writer.  His  history  or 
chronicle  of  Armenia  from  the  time  of  Ilaig  to 
the  death  of  Mezrob  and  Isaac  (printed  in  Lon 
don  in  1736,  with  a  Latin  translation)  is  his 
most  famous  work,  and  next  to  Mezrob's  Bible 


tion  of  new  words  and  phrases,  and  a  change  ,  the  most  ancient  authentic  Armenian  book, 
in  grammatical  forms,  collocations  of  words,  ,  He  also  wrote  on  rhetoric  and  geography,  and 
and  idiomatic  expressions.  The  alphabet  con-  perhaps  translated  into  Armenian  the  Chroni- 
sists  of  38  letters,  36  of  which  were  invented  con  of  Eusebius  (Venice,  1818;  Latin,  Milan, 
by  the  monk  Mezrob  about  409,  and  the  other  1818).  Contemporary  with  Moses  of  Chorene 
two  added  in  the  12th  century.  In  the  form  were  Elisha  or  Eghishe,  an  Armenian  bishop, 
of  the  substantives  generally  no  distinction  is  who  wrote  a  history  of  the  religious  wars  of 
made  to  indicate  gender ;  but  besides  the  ordi-  i  Vartan  (a  prince  to  whom  he  was  secretary) 
nary  cases,  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accu-  I  with  the  Persians  (Neumann's  English  transla- 
sative,  ablative,  and  instrumental,  there  are  j  tion,  London,  1830),  David  the  philosopher,  &c. 
two  others  called  the  narrative  and  circum-  Armenian  historical  literature  throws  much 
locutory,  formed  by  prefixes.  The  adjective,  ( light  on  the  history  not  only  of  Armenia,  but 
when  not  closely  connected  with  the  substan-  j  of  all  the  neighboring  nations  (Persians,  Par- 
tive,  is  similarly  declined,  and  changes  its  form  thians,  Tartars,  Arabs,  &c.),  and  deserves  much 
to  denote  the  comparative  degree;  but  the  su-  :  more  attention  than  it  has  received.  The  recent 
perlative  is  generally  shown  by  writing  the  ad-  i  history  of  Armenia  by  the  vartabed  Michael 
jective  twice,  or  by  prefixing  an  adverb  like  the  !  Tchamtchean  (3  vols.  4to,  Venice,  1786  ;  after- 
English  most.  The  verbs,  divided  according  to  ward  abridged  in  Armenian,  Armeno- Turkish, 
their  vowels  into  three  conjugations,  and  hav-  j  and  English)  is  probably  their  most  valuable 
ing  a  passive  voice,  vary  their  forms  to  denote  '  historical  work  in  the  past  500  years.  The 
the  present  and  imperfect,  have  two  future  and  j  catholicos  Nerses  Klayetsi,  who  died  at  an 
two  aorist  tenses,  of  peculiar  form,  and  the  j  advanced  age  in  1173,  was  distinguished  as 
usual  compound  tenses  formed  with  an  aux-  j  a  theologian,  sacred  orator,  and  poet.  His 
iliary  verb.  The  other  parts  of  speech  pre-  nephew,  Nerses  Lampronetsi,  was  a  homilet- 
sent  no  noteworthy  peculiarities.  —  Ancient  ical  and  liturgical  writer.  The  Mekhitarists 
Armenian  literature,  older  than  the  introduc-  j  of  San  Lazaro,  near  Venice,  have  done  much 
tion  of  Christianity,  is  now  limited  to  a  few  |  since  1717  for  Armenian  literature,  preparing 
fragments  of  ancient  songs  preserved  by  Moses  !  and  publishing  editions  of  the  Bible  and  of 
of  Chorene.  With  Christianity  there  came  into  j  many  other  works,  in  addition  to  those  named 
Armenia  a  taste  for  Greek  literature.  Pre-  |  above ;  as  a  history  of  Armenian  literature  by 
vious  to  the  invention  of  the  Armenian  alpha-  their  abbot  Somal  (1829),  works  on  grammar, 
bet  the  language  had  been  written  in  Greek,  '  arithmetic,  geography,  &c.,  in  ancient  Armeni- 
Persian,  or  Semitic  characters;  but  Mezrob  |  an,  a  semi-monthly  Armenian  newspaper,  trans- 
now  instituted  schools  in  which  the  new  alpha-  \  lations  of  French,  Italian,  German,  English,  and 
bet  was  taught,  and  with  Isaac  the  catholicos  j  American  books,  &c.  There  are  other  Arme- 
gent  learned  men  to  Edessa,  Constantinople,  |  nian  printing  offices  and  newspapers  at  Con- 
and  elsewhere,  to  translate  foreign  works  into  j  stantinople  and  elsewhere.  Peshtimaljean  pre- 
Armenian.  The  most  important  result  of  this  '  pared  about  half  a  century  ago  a  good  gram- 
was  the  Armenian  translation  of  the  Bible  by  j  mar  and  dictionary  of  the  ancient  Armenian 
Isaac  and  Mezrob,  begun  from  the  Syriac,  but  '.  language.  Another  learned  Armenian  corn- 
finally  made  from  the  Greek,  usually  assigned  to  posed  a  Persian  dictionary  (in  Persian,  Arme- 
A.  D.  411,  but  apparently  completed  after  the  ;  nian,  and  Turkish),  which  was  published  at 
council  of  Ephesus  (431).  This  translation,  still  j  Constantinople  about  the  same  time.  But  be- 
in  use,  is  of  much  critical  and  more  religious  ,  fore  the  mission  of  the  American  board  was 
value,  and  the  oldest  Armenian  book  extant,  i  commenced  (1831),  comparatively  little  was 
It  was  first  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1666,  un-  i  done  for  the  languages  actually  spoken  or 
der  the  care  of  Bishop  Uscan,  and  has  been  i  read  by  the  Armenians.  Even  Peshtimaljean's 
often  reprinted.  In  1805  Zohrab  and  the  Me-  i  school  had  only  a  spelling  book  and  one  or  two 


728 


ARMIN 


ARMINIANS 


other  first  books  in  the  modern  Armenian. 
But  in  1861  the  missionaries  had  translated  the 
whole  Bible  into  both  the  Armeno-Turkish 
and  modern  Armenian  languages,  and  had  pub 
lished  many  religious,  educational,  and  other 
works.  Much  literary  progress  has  since  been 
made  among  all  the  Armenians.  At  the  close 
of  1871  13  newspapers — 3  of  them  dailies,  3  tri 
weeklies,  and  7  weeklies  (one  of  which  issues 
a  daily  bulletin) — were  published  in  Constan 
tinople  for  Armenians. 

AKMI\,  Robert,  an  English  player,  author, 
and  associate  of  Shakespeare.  His  name  ap 
pears  in  the  original  list  of  the  performers  of 
Shakespeare's  plays,  given  in  the  first  folio 
edition  of  his  works,  lie  translated  a  small 
Italian  novel,  "  The  Italian  Taylor  and  his 
Boy,"  and  wrote  a  dramatic  piece  entitled  uThe 
History  of  the  T\vo  Maids  of  More  Clacke  ; " 
and  he  is  alluded  to  by  Nash  in  1592  as  a 
writer  of  stories  and  ballads.  His  only  work 
which  at  present  has  interest  is  entitled  UA 
Nest  of  Ninnies,  simply  of  themselves,  with 
out  Compounds.  Stiiltorum  plena  sunt, omnia. 
By  Robert  Armin,  1008."  Only  a  single  copy 
of  the  original  edition  remains,  which  is  in 
the  Bodleian  library.  It  was  reprinted  by  the 
Shakespeare  society  in  1842. 

ARMINIANS,  a  religious  sect  deriving  their 
name  from  James  Armmius  (see  AEMINIUS), 
before  whose  death  (1600)  the  Reformed  in 
Holland  were  divided  into  Arminians  and  Go- 
marists,  the  doctrine  of  predestination  being 
the  prominent  point  raised  between  them.  The 
Gomarists  were  supralapsarians,  and  demanded 
strict  Calvinism  in  doctrine  and  the  indepen 
dence  of  the  church  in  regard  to  the  state ;  the 
Arminians  held  that  the  decree  to  save  re 
garded  the  elect  as  believers,  but  they  advo 
cated  Biblical  simplicity  in  doctrine,  a  peace 
ful  spirit  in  the  church,  and  a  subjection  of  the 
church  to  the  state.  After  the  death  of  Armin- 
ius,  Jan  Uytenbogaert,  preacher  at  the  Hague, 
and  Simon  Episcopius,  Gomar's  successor  as 
professor  at  Leyden  in  1612,  became  the  Armin- 
ian  leaders.  But  the  strife  now  assumed  a  po 
litical  aspect.  Jan  van  Olden  Barneveldt  and 
Hugo  Grotius,  who  favored  the  Arminians,  in 
fluenced  the  states  general  to  declare  a  12 
years'  truce  with  Spain  (1G09),  in  opposition  to 
the  wishes  of  Prince  Maurice  of  Orange,  who 
was  stadtholder,  and  were  thereupon  charged 
with  being  traitors  and  in  the  pay  of  Spain; 
while  they,  in  turn,  regarded  Maurice  as  seek 
ing  supreme  dominion  with  the  subversion  of 
liberty.  The  Arminians  in  1610  set  forth  their 
doctrinal  views  in  a  remonstrance  addressed 
to  the  states  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland, 
and  were  hence  called  Remonstrants ;  and 
their  opponents,  who  presented  a  counter- 
remonstrance,  were  called  Contra -Remon 
strants.  The  states  general  made  fruitless  at 
tempts  at  conciliation  by  recommendations  of 
mutual  forbearance,  and  by  the  conferences 
at  the  Hague  (1611)  between  six  Remonstrant 
pastors  and  six  Contra-Remonstrants,  and  at 


Delft  (1613),  where  three   appeared   on  each 
i  side;  but  finally,  urged  on  by  Maurice  and  the 
!  Contra-Remonstrants,  who  were  now  in  the 
j  majority,  they  convoked  a  national  synod  at 
j  Do'rt  in   1618,   before   which   Episcopius  and 
i  other   Remonstrants    were    summoned.      The 
Arminian  views  presented  in  the  remonstrance, 
and  afterward  at  Dort,  were    comprehended 
in  these  five  points :  1.  God,  by  an  eternal  and 
|  immutable  decree  in  Jesus  Christ  his  Son,  be- 
i  fore  the  foundation  of  the  world,  determined 
j  to  save  in  Christ,  for  Christ's  sake,  and  through 
!  Christ,  those  out  of  the  fallen  human  race  who 
i  by  the  Holy  Spirit's  grace  believe  in  this  same 
I  Son  of  his;  but,  on  the    other  hand,  to  leave 
!  those  who  are  not  converted  in  sin  and  subject 
to  wrath,  and  to  condemn  them.    2.  Therefore 
|  Jesus  Christ  died  for  each  and  all,  yet  with 
this  condition,  that  no  one  may  in  fact  enjoy 
|  that  remission  of  sins  except  the  faithful  man. 
I  3.  Man  indeed  has  not  from   himself  saving 
!  faith,  but  must  necessarily  be  born  again  and 
I  renewed  in  Christ  by  his  Holy  Spirit,  that  he 
may  be  able  to  understand,  think,  wish,  or  per 
form  anything  good.      4.    This  grace  of  God 
is  the  beginning,  increase,  and  perfection  of 
everything    good ;    so    indeed    that    all   good 
I  works  which  we  can  think  out  are  to  be  as- 
I  cribed  to  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ,  which 
!  is  not  irresistible  in  the  mode  of  its  opcra- 
I  tion ;  for  it  is  said  of  many  that  they  resist 
ed.     5.    Those  who  are  engrafted  into  Jesus 
Christ  by  true  faith,  and  are  therefore  partak 
ers  of  his  life-giving  Spirit,  have  abundantly 
of  the  means  by  which  to  fight  against  Satan 
and  their  own  flesh  and  obtain  the  victory, 
but  yet  through  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit's 
grace  ;  but  Jesus  Christ  by  his  Spirit  stands  by 
them  in  all  temptations,  reaches  out  his  hand, 
and,  provided  they  are  ready  for  the  contest 
and   seek  his  aid,  and  fail  not  of  their  own 
duty,  confirms  them ;  but  whether  they  them 
selves  cannot  by  their  own  negligence  desert 
the  beginning  of  their  being  in  Christ,  make 
shipwreck  of  conscience,  and  fall  from  grace, 
must  be   deeply  pondered   out  of    the   Holy 
j  Scripture  before  they  could  teach  it  with  full 
j  tranquillity  of  mind  and  full  assurance.     This 
fifth  point  was  afterward   modified,  and   the 
j  Arminians  maintained  explicitly  the  possibility 
I  of  falling  from  grace.      Before  the  synod  of 
i  Dort  was   convened,  the   republican  leaders, 
j  Barneveldt,    Grotius,    and    Hogerbeets,    were 
1  imprisoned ;   and  the  first  of  these  was  subse- 
I  quently  beheaded.     The  synod  began  its  ses- 
!  sions  Nov.  13,  1618,  and  closed  them  May  29, 
|  1619.     Disputes  early  arose  as  to  the  mode  in 
I  which  the  Remonstrants  should  defend  them- 
I  selves ;  criminations  were  answered  with  re- 
j  criminations ;  the  Remonstrants  were  ejected 
i  from  the  synod  (Jan.  14,  1619),  condemned  as 
|  corruptors  of  the  true  religion,  and  suspended 
|  from  office  till  they  should  make  satisfaction  ; 
|  and  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination 
was  formally  confirmed,  but  in  such  language 
!  as  to  be  accepted  by  infralapsarians.    The  states 


ARMINIUS 


'29 


general  soon  confirmed  the  decree  of  the  synod. 
The  Remonstrants  were  deprived  of  their  sa 
cred  and  civil  offices;  their  preachers  were 
banished  if  they  did  not  renounce  all  exercise 
of  their  ecclesiastical  functions;  many  went 
with  Episcopius  to  Antwerp,  others  to  Ilolstein, 
others  to  France,  &c.  After  Prince  Maurice's 
death  (1625)  their  banished  clergy  began  to 
return.  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam  became 
their  chief  seats  in  Holland;  the  former  city 
allowed  them  to  build  a  church  in  1630,  and 
since  that  time  they  have  not  been  molested. 
Episcopius  published  at  Antwerp  in  1622  the 
Remonstrants'  Confession  of  Faith,  which  was 
widely  circulated  and  held  in  high  repute; 
but  he  expressly  guarded  against  its  being 
taken  as  of  binding  authority.  He  became 
in  1634  the  first  professor  of  theology  in  their 
gymnasium  at  Amsterdam,  where  Gurcellceus, 
Pollenburg,  Limborch,  Le  Clerc,  Cattenburgh, 
Wetstein,  &c.,  have  also  been  professors.  These 
and  others  set  aside  human  confessions  and  took 
the  Bible  alone  as  their  guide,  ascribing  special 
importance  to  its  practical  directions.  They 
denied  the  ordinary  doctrine  of  original  sin, 
modified  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  some 
of  them  were  regarded  as  closely  allied  with 
the  Socinians. — Arminianism  has  been  widely 
prevalent  in  the  established  church  of  England 
from  the  time  of  Laud  to  the  present ;  but  under 
this  common  name  have  been  ranged  many 
shades  of  doctrine,  Trinitarian.  Pelagian,  Socin- 
ian,  &c.,  agreeing  in  little  except  their  oppo 
sition  to  Calvinism.  After  the  rise  of  Method 
ism,  Whitefield  and  others  avowed  themselves 
distinctively  Calvinistic,  while  Wesley  and  his 
followers  embraced  the  views  of  Arminius. 
The  most  complete  work  of  Arminian  theol 
ogy  in  English,  and  the  text  book  prescribed 
for  Methodist  Episcopal  preachers  in  the  Uni 
ted  States,  is  the  u  Theological  Institutes  •' 
of  the  Rev.  Richard  Watson.  The  Lutherans, 
Unitarians,  General  Baptists,  and  Free-will 
Baptists,  many  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  churches,  are  all  classed  as  Armin- 
ians,  in  the  sense  of  being  opposed  to  the  Cal 
vinistic  doctrine  of  predestination. 

ARMIMl'S  (in  German  improperly  called 
Hermann),  prince  of  the  Cherusci,  a  German 
tribe,  and  the  liberator  of  Germany,  born  about 
16  B.  C.  In  his  youth  he  became  a  Roman 
citizen  of  the  equestrian  order,  and  served  on 
the  Danube  as  leader  of  an  auxiliary  body  of  the 
Cherusci.  On  his  return,  finding  his  country 
smarting  under  the  oppressions  of  the  Roman 
commander  Yarns,  he  organized  an  extensive 
conspiracy.  Professing  great  friendship  for  Va 
rus,  and  admiration  for  Roman  civilization,  he 
induced  the  general  to  distribute  a  large  part  of 
his  force  in  small  detachments  among  different 
tribes,  under  the  plea  of  maintaining  better  order 
among  the  Germans.  The  news,  true  or  false, 
of  an  insurrection  having  readied  the  Romans, 
Varus  marched  in  October,  A.  D.  9,  from  the 
Weser  toward  the  Teutoburg  forest  (now  partly 


in  the  principality  of  Lippe  and  partly  in  Prus 
sia).     Arminius,  against  whom  Varus  had  in 
,  vain  been  warned,  now  gave  the  signal  for  in- 
!  surrection.     The  Romans  scattered  in  the  in- 
j  terior   were   murdered,  and   the   main   body, 
I  which  was   encumbered  with  vast   trains  of 
I  baggage  and  camp  followers,  found  itself  sur 
rounded   on   all   sides.      The   Romans  fought 
I  their  way  for  three  days,  until  almost  all  were 
exterminated,  A7arus  taking  his  own  life.    From 
among  the  prisoners,  the  chiefs,  civil  and  mili 
tary,  were  sacrificed  to  the  gods,  the  rest  en 
slaved.     This  destruction  of  three  Roman  le 
gions  filled  Rome  with  grief  and  shame.     For 
several  days  Augustus  would  only  utter  the 
words,  "Varus,  give  me  back  my  legions !r 
More  than  four  years  elapsed  before  Germani- 
cus  marched  from  Gaul  to  avenge  the  fallen ; 
he  advanced  into  Germany,  but  returned,  after 
a  short  campaign,  the  same  year.     Among  the 
Germans  dissensions  soon  prevailed.    Arminius 
carried  off  Thusnelda  (celebrated  afterward  in 
German  minstrelsy),   daughter  of  Segestes,  11 
Germanic  chief  friendly  to  the  Romans,  and 
married  her,  but  she  soon  fell  again  into  the 
hands  of  her  father.     Next  year  (15)  Germani- 
cus  entered  with  fresh  troops,  relieved  Seges 
tes,  who  was  besieged  by  Arminius,  and  liber 
ated  him,  but  Thusnelda  was  made  a  Roman 
slave.     Arminius  now  called  the  Cherusci  and 
other  tribes  to  arms.     Germanicus  led  against 
him    80,000   men    in    three    divisions,    and   a 
large  tieet  on  the  Weser  and  the  Ems.     Ar 
minius  retreated  until  he  had  drawn  the  Ro 
mans  into  narrow  passes,  and  then  attacked 
them  with  such  fury  that  Germanicus,  having 
lost  his  cavalry,  was  obliged  to  retreat,  and 
reached  his  vessels  with  difficulty ;  four  legions 
under  Ceecina  scarcely  escaped  total  destruc- 
j  tion  previous  to  crossing  the  Rhine.     The  next 
i  spring  Germanicus  returned  with   an  army  of 
|  100,000  men  and  about  1,000  vessels  on  the 
I  rivers.     Beyond  the  Weser,  between  the  pres- 
j  ent  towns  of  Hameln  and  Rinteln,  on  a  plain 
|  called  Woman's  Meadow,  was  fought  the  great- 
|  est  battle  between  the  Germans  and  Romans. 
The  Germans  were  beaten,   but  nevertheless 
renewed  the  struggle  the  next  day,  and  obliged 
|  the  victorious  Romans  to  retreat.    This  was  the 
I  last  time  that  Roman  armies  invaded  Germany 
:  beyond  the  Rhine,  and  Arminius  is  therefore 
I  justly  called  the  liberator.     According  to  a  le- 
I  gend,  he  disappeared  in  a  mysterious  manner 
;  during  an  interview  on  a  half-built  bridge  with 
!  his  brother  Flavus,  who  remained  attached  to 
!  the  Romans  and  tried  to  persuade  Arminius  to 
I  return  to  them.   But  history  says  that  Arminius, 
being  proclaimed  chief  by  the  Cherusci  and  nu 
merous  other  tribes,  attacked  Marbod  (Marobo- 
j  duns),  chief  of  the  Marcomanni,  his  rival  in  pre- 
i  tensions  to  supreme  power,  who  was  supported 
i  by  Inguiomer,  the  uncle  of  Arminius.     After 
a   terrible   struggle   in    Saxony,    and    a   great 
undecided  battle,  Marbod  was  abandoned  by 
many  of  his  partisans,  returned  to  Bohemia, 
!  and  finally  tied  to  the  Romans,  leaving  Armin- 


730 


ARMINIUS 


ins  in  undisputed  possession.  Arminius  finally 
excited  discontent  by  the  strictness  of  his  rule, 
and  perished  by  the  treachery  of  one  of  his 
relations.  His  wife  Thusnelda,  their  son  Thu- 
melicus,  born  in  captivity,  and  Segmund,  broth 
er  of  Thusnelda,  appeared  as  prisoners  in  the 
triumphal  cortege  of  Germanicus  in  Rome,  A. 
D.  16.  The  lineage  of  the  Cheruscan  princes 
was  extinct,  with  the  exception  of  Italicus,  son 
of  Flavus,  who  in  47  was  given  up  by  the  Ro 
mans  to  the  Cherusci  at  their  request.  Tacitus 
says  that  the  name  of  Arminius  was  alive  in 
the  songs  of  the  "barbarians  of  his  time,"  and 
it  still  lives  in  Germany.  It  was  the  theme 
of  many  patriotic  songs  during  the  rising  in 
1813  against  the  domination  of  Napoleon. 

ARMIMUS,  James  (in  Dutch,  JACOB  HAKMZEX 
or  HEEMANSZOOX),  a  Dutch  theologian,  born  at 
Oude water,  South  Holland,  in  1560,  died  at  Ley- 
den,  Oct.  19,  1609.  In  his  infancy  his  father 
died,  leaving  him  with  his  brother  and  sister  to 
•his  mother's  care.  Theodore  ^Emilius,  an  ex- 
priest,  undertook  to  educate  him,  but  died 
when  Arminius  in  his  loth  year  was  studying 
at  Utrecht.  The  boy  found  another  patron  in 
his  countryman  Rudolph  Snellius,  who  took 
him  to  Marburg  in  Hesse;  but  he  soon  re 
turned  to  the  ruins  of  Oudewater,  where  the 
Spaniards  had  massacred  his  mother,  brother, 
sister,  and  other  relatives,  with  nearly  all  the 
inhabitants.  Then  he  went  back  on  foot  to 
Marburg ;  but  as  the  new  university  at  Leyden 
was  now  opened,  he  returned  to  Holland  the 
same  year,  and  the  Reformed  pastor  at  Rotter 
dam,  Peter  Bertius,  sent  him  with  his  own  son 
to  Leyden,  where  he  remained  six  years.  The 
magistrates  of  Amsterdam  engaging  (1582)  to 
bear  his  expenses  in  studying  for  the  ministry, 
he  gave  a  written  bond  to  devote  himself  after 
ordination  to  the  ministry  in  their  city,  and  to 
no  other  work  or  place  without  the  burgomas 
ter's  sanction,  lie  went  at  once  to  Geneva, 
where  Beza  was  lecturing ;  soon  gave  offence 
there  by  advocating  the  system  of  Ramus  in  op 
position  to  the  reigning  philosophy  of  Aristotle; 
went  then  to  Basel,  where  he  lectured  pub 
licly,  and  the  theological  faculty  offered  him  a 
doctorate,  which  he  declined  on  account  of  his 
youth ;  returned  to  Geneva  in  1583,  and  con 
tinued  his  study  of  divinity;  went  in  1586  to 
Padua,  and  heard  Zabarella's  lectures  in  phi 
losophy  ;  visited  Rome  and  some  other  places 
in  Italy ;  and  stopped  again  at  Geneva,  where 
Beza  gave  him  a  commendatory  letter.  Sum 
moned  to  Amsterdam,  he  found  himself,  in  the 
autumn  of  1587,  in  disfavor  with  his  patrons 
for  having  visited  Italy  without  their  consent, 
and,  as  was  reported,  kissed  the  pope's  foot, 
become  intimate  with  Bellarmine  and  the  Jes 
uits,  and  abjured  the  reformed  religion;  but 
he  exculpated  himself,  was  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  Amsterdam  classis,  received  a  unani 
mous  call,  and  was  ordained  pastor  in  Amster 
dam,  Aug.  11,  1588.  Here  he  passed  15  years 
in  a  very  popular  and  successful  ministry.  He 
married  in  1590,  and  had  seven  sons  and  two 


daughters,  only  two  of  whom — Lawrence,  a 
merchant,  and  Daniel,  a  distinguished  physician 
— reached  full  maturity.  Soon  after  his  settle 
ment  in  the  ministry,  Arminius  was  led  toward 
the  theological  system  which  bears  his  name 
(see  AKMINIAXS),  through  a  controversy  which 
arose  at  Delft  in  1588  respecting  Calvin's  and 
I  Beza's  views  on  predestination.  He  was  urged 
and  consented  to  undertake  the  defence  of 
Beza,  but  suspended  his  purpose  on  account 
of  difficulties  respecting  some  of  Beza's  and 
Calvin's  positions.  He  gave  public  expositions 
of  Rom.  vii.  and  ix.  (1591-'3),  presenting  the 
views  afterward  published  in  his  treatises  on 
those  chapters,  and  producing  in  each  case 
considerable  excitement.  In  1597  he  conferred 
with  Francis  Junius,  professor  of  divinity  at 
Leyden,  and  had  a  long  and  friendly  epistolary 
discussion  with  him  respecting  predestination, 
which  is  published  in  the  works  of  Armin 
ius.  He  opposed  in  1600  the  annual  subscrip 
tion  of  the  Dutch  creed  and  catechism  by  all 
the  ministers.  During  the  plague  of  1602  he 
assiduously  cared  for  the  sick  and  bereaved. 
Junius  died  of  this  plague  about  the  end  of 
1602,  and  the  curators  of  the  university  soon 
chose  Arminius  to  be  professor  in  his  place ; 
but  only  after  repeated  applications  of  the  cu 
rators,  aided  by  leading  men  in  the  states, 
would  the  authorities  of  Amsterdam  permit 
him  to  leave,  April  15,  1603.  The  charge 
of  his  being  a  Pelagian  led  to  a  conference 
at  the  Hague,  May  6,  1603,  with  Francis  Go- 
mar,  primary  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden, 
who  declared  the  charge  unsupported.  He 
was  the  first  to  receive  (July  11,  1603)  the  de 
gree  of  D.  D.  from,  the  university  of  Leyden, 
and  delivered  on  the  occasion  his  oration  on 
the  priesthood  of  Christ.  He  introduced  his 
course  the  same  year  with  three  finished  ora 
tions  on  the  object  of  theology,  on  its  author 
and  end,  and  on  its  certainty.  A  fifth  ora 
tion,  on  reconciling  religious  dissensions  among 
Christians,  he  delivered  Feb.  8,  1606,  on  re 
signing  the  annual  office  of  rector  of  the  uni 
versity.  A  conflict  had  already  begun  between 
the  two  colleague  professors,  Arminius  and 
Gomar.  Arminius  publicly  maintained,  Feb. 
7,  1604,  that  "predestination,  as  it  regards  the 
thing  itself,  is  the  decree  of  the  good  pleasure 
of  God  in  Christ,  by  which  he  resolved  within 
himself  from  all  eternity  to  justify,  adopt,  and 
endow  with  everlasting  life,  to  the  praise  of 
his  own  glorious  grace,  believers  on  whom  he 
had  decreed  to  bestow  faith ;"  and  defined 
"  reprobation  to  be  a  decree  of  the  wrath  or 
severe  will  of  God,  by  which  he  resolved 
from  all  eternity  to  condemn  to  eternal  death 
unbelievers,  who,  by  their  own  fault  and  the 
just  judgment  of  God,  would  not  believe,  for 
the  declaration  of  his  wrath  and  power."  At 
the  end  of  October  Gomar,  who  was  a  supra- 
lapsarian,  publicly  attacked  these  positions, 
and  was  sustained  by  the  principal  teach 
ers  in  the  universities.  Arminius  replied. 
Not  only  the  students  and  ministers,  but  the 


ARMITAGE 


ARMOR 


731 


whole  republic,  now  became  involved  in  a  re 
ligious  war.  Another  trouble  arose  in  respect 
to  the  word  avrddeo^  as  applied  to  the  Son  of 
God,  Arminius  admitting  its  applicability  in 
the  sense  of  "one  who  is  truly  God,"  but  not 
in  the  sense,  which  some  maintained,  of  "one 
who  is  God  of  himself."  Arminius  was  also 
charged  with  favoring  the  brief  catechism  pub 
lished  by  the  ministers  of  Gouda  in  1607,  which, 
it  was  alleged,  would  open  the  floodgates  to 
all  sorts  of  error.  Arminius  and  his  friend 
Jan  tlytenbogaert,  preacher  at  the  Hague, 
called  upon  the  states  general  in  1608  to  con 
vene  a  general  synod,  before  which  Arminius 
might  defend  himself.  After  a  conference  be 
tween  Arminius  and  Gomar  before  the  supreme 
court  the  same  year,  the  states  general,  advised  I 
by  this  tribunal,  enjoined  the  parties  to  drop 
their  dispute,  and  teach  nothing  against  the  j 
creed  or  catechism.  But  the  disputes  went  I 
on.  Oct.  30,  1608,  Arminius  made  before  the  I 
states  at  the  Hague  his  famous  declaration  j 
(Declaratio)  of  sentiments  on  10  different  j 
points,  viz. :  predestination,  the  providence  of  j 
God,  the  free  will  of  men,  the  grace  of  God,  | 
the  perseverance  of  the  saints,  the  assurance 
of  salvation,  the  perfection  of  believers  in  this 
life,  the  divinity  of  the  Son  of  God,  the  justifi 
cation  of  man  before  God,  and  the  revision  of 
the  Dutch  confession  and  the  Heidelberg  cate 
chism.  The  states  general  as  a  body  were 
now  inclined  to  favor  Arminius.  Another 
conference  in  1609  between  Arminius  and 
Gomar,  aided  by  four  other  ministers  on  each 
side,  was  soon  interrupted  by  the  sickness  of 
Arminius,  who,  exhausted  in  body  and  mind, 
and  deeply  wounded  by  evil  reports,  sank  un 
der  a  complication  of  fever  and  other  diseases. 
He  was  an  energetic  and  eloquent  preacher, 
and  personally  attractive.  Mosheim  styles  him 
"a  man  whom  even  Ms  enemies  commend 
for  his  ingenuity,  acuteness,  and  piety/'  Many 
have  been  called  Arminians  whose  views  dif 
fered  widely  from  his,  and  many  have  been 
called  Calvinists  whose  views  agreed  mainly 
with  his.  His  works  have  been  published  in 
Latin  (Jacobi  Arminii  Opera  Theologica,  4to, 
Leyden,  1629),  and  translated  into  English  by 
Nichols  and  Bagnall  (3  vols.  8vo,  Auburn,  1853). 
ARMITAGE,  Edward,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London  in  1817.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Paul 
Delaroche,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  decoration 
of  the  aHemicycle"  in  the  school  of  fine  arts 
at  Paris.  He  first  brought  himself  into  notice 
in  England  as  a  competitor  for  prizes  at  the 
several  exhibitions  of  cartoons  and  specimens 
of  fresco  painting  at  Westminster  hall,  Lon 
don,  in  IS-iS-'S  ;  and  he  subsequently  executed 
several  frescoes  in  the  new  houses  of  parlia 
ment.  He  has  produced  many  large  and  elab-  | 
orate  historical  works,  and  is  one  of  the  most  j 
prolific  painters  of  the  modern  English  school. 
His  range  of  subjects  embraces  sacred  and  pro 
fane  history,  allegory,  and  battle  scenes.  Some 
of  his  Scriptural  pieces  are  conceived  with 
originality,  but  he  is  deficient  as  a  colorist. 


ARMOR,  a  defensive  covering  for  the  head, 
body,  and  limbs,  used  as  a  protection  in  battle. 
Armor  of  some  kind  seems  to  have  been  used 
by  almost  every  civilized  and  savage  people, 
from  the  earliest  historic  times  till  the  gradual 
improvement  in  firearms  rendered  it  useless  as  a 
means  of  defence  wherever  these  were  employed. 
Even  of  late  years  body  armor  has  been  worn 
by  cuirassiers  in  the  armies  of  several  nations 
of  continental  Europe,  but  it  has  proved  worth 
less  as  a  protection  against  bullets  from  the 
present  perfected  small  arms. — In  the  most 
ancient  times  defensive  armor  was  undoubtedly 
made  of  skins ;  but  history  gives  little  account 
of  this,  and  the  oldest  complete  and  authentic 
records  we  possess  speak  of  metal  armor. 
From  the  earliest  times  of  the  Old  Testament 
(a  complete  panoply  being  described  in  1  Sam. 
xvii.)  to  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  bronze 
or  brass  seems  to  have  been  the  material  used 
for  helmets  and  body  armor  by  all  the  princi 
pal  nations  of  antiquity,  while  their  shields 
and  bucklers  were  sometimes  made  of  wood 
covered  with  leather  or  studded  with  brass, 
of  bull's  hide  or  of  wickerwork  covered  with 
hide,  as  well  as  of  solid  bronze  like  their  ar 
mor  and  weapons ;  for  the  ancients  were  long 
ignorant  of  the  art  of  tempering  steel,  though 
they  tempered  bronze  to  a  wonderful  hard 
ness.  Even  when  the  Romans,  at  an  early 
date,  introduced  steel  for  weapons,  their  de 
fensive  armor  remained  of  bronze ;  and  the  same 
wras  the  case  with  that  of  other  nations. — The 
armor  of  the  Hellenic  chiefs,  as  described  by 
Homer,  and,  with  slight  modifications,  that  of 
the  Greek  warriors  during  all  the  period  of  their 
country's  greatness,  consisted  of  a  crested  hel 
met  which  could  be  drawn  down  so  as  to  partly 


Greek  Armor.    (From  the  Ornaments  of  an  Etruscan  Mirror.) 

cover  the  face ;  a  small  breastplate,  worn  so 
low  as  to  leave  the  whole  clavicular  region  bare ; 
a  plated  waistband,  from  which  hung  a  short 
kilt  or  petticoat  of  cloth  or  leather  covered 
with  narrow  metallic  plates;  and  greaves  or 


732 


ARMOR 


sheaths  of  solid  metal  for  the  legs  from  knee 
to  ankle;  the  greaves  were  moulded  to  the 
form  of  the  legs,  and  sometimes  covered  the 
knee.  The  Greeks  carried  at  first  large  circu 
lar  shields,  covering  almost  the  whole  man; 
afterward  smaller  ones  of  the  same  shape. — 
The  Roman  soldiery  wore  armor  almost  exactly 
like  that  just  described,  save  that  they  carried 
oblong  instead  of  round  shields.  After  a  time, 
too,  they  rejected  the  greaves,  and  fought  with 
the  legs  bare.  So  few  changes  were  made  in  the 


tunics  or  shirts,  divided  so  that  they  fell  on 
each  side  the  horse  of  a  mounted  knight ;  but 
they  made  their  armor  of  actual  mail,  formed 


Koman  Armor.    (From  Trajan's  Column.) 

armor  itself,  however,  that  even  in  the  time  of 
the  crusades  the  soldiers  of  the  eastern  empire 
still  wore  exactly  such  equipments  as  are  pic 
tured  in  the  bass-reliefs  of  Trajan's  column. — 
The  oriental  nations  adopted  at  an  early  period 
an  armor  made  of  overlapping  scales  of  metal 
sewn  upon  leather,  and  fitting  the  whole  body 
of  the  wearer.  They  also  clothed  their  horses 
in  this  armor.  The  Sarmatians  especially  are 
said  to  have  worn  this  armor,  if  indeed  they 
did  not  introduce  it. — Such  were  the  principal 
kinds  of  armor  in  use  among  the  leading  na 
tions  of  eastern  Europe  and  of  the  Orient ;  but 
it  was  in  western  Europe  that  the  complete 
defensive  armor  afterward  used,  which  reached 
its  perfection  in  the  middle  ages,  had  its  origin. 
A  manuscript  of  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald 
(A.  D.  860)  shows  the  armor  of  the  western 
nations  which  had  once  been  Roman  prov 
inces,  or  had  come  in  contact  with  Romans,  to 
have  been  similar  to  the  Roman  dress  just  de 
scribed.  But  soon  afterward  great  changes 
began.  We  have  little  to  show  the  manner  of 
these  changes,  but  we  find  their  result,  two 
centuries  later,  shown  in  the  Bayeux  tapestry, 
executed  some  time  after  the  invasion  of  Eng 
land  by  William  the  Conqueror  (10(36).  This 
shows  the  Saxons  to  have  adopted  an  armor 
consisting  of  a  long  tunic  reaching  to  the  knee, 
and  made  of  leather  upon  which  were  sewed 
stout  metal  rings,  close  together.  They  wore 
conical  steel  caps.  The  Normans  wore  similar 


Norman  Spearman.    (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.) 

of  rings  woven  together  like  those  in  a  modern 
curb  chain ;  they  wore  long  sleeves,  which  the 
Saxons  had  not,  and  long  hose  woven  of  rings. 
The  Norman  shield  was  in  shape  like  a  modern 
smoothing-iron.  The  fact  that  this  flexible 
mail  might  be  driven  into  the  flesh  hy  a  hard 


Full  Suit  of  Chain  Mail,  Time  of  the  Early  Crusades. 

blow,  in  spite  of  the  heaviest  lining,  led  to  the 
introduction  of  plate  armor.  First  the  square- 
topped  helmet  of  the  templars  was  adopted, 
covering  the  whole  face,  and  having  a  door 
opening  laterally  on  hinges.  Then  poldrons,  or 
plates  covering  the  shoulders,  genouilleres,  or 


ARMOR 


733 


knee-pieces,  of  jointed  steel  splints,  and  plate 
shoes,  were  added  to  the  mail ;  and  this  was  the 
suit  of  armor,  of  the  best  and  most  approved 
construction,  so  late  as  to  the  time  of  the  third 
crusade  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  and  Philip 


Armor  comprising  both  Mail  and  Plate,  A.  D.  1370. 

Augustus,  in  1189,  both  of  which  monarchs 
are  represented  in  their  great  seals  equipped 
and  armed  exactly  as  described.  Without  de 
tailing  the  gradual  but  constant  encroachment 
of  plate  armor  upon  mail,  it  is  enough  to  say  that 


Early  Armor  of  Plate,  A.  D.  1416. 

it  lasted  for  200  years,  adding  piece  by  piece, 
until  in  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century  we 
find  complete  suits  of  plate,  casing  the  wearer 


armor  was  gradually  improved,  nntil  it  reached 
its  perfection  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
In  the  suit  of  that  time  we  find  perhaps  the 
greatest  security  and  beauty  ever  combined  in 
armor.  The  whole  suit  is  fluted  ;  the  neck  is 


Fluted  and  Perfected  Plate  Armor  of  Henry  VII.,  1485-1509. 

defended  by  pass  guards,  rising  perpendicularly 
from  the  shoulders  ;  the  helmet  assumes  a  natu- 


Armor  of  Man  aiid  Horse,  A.  I).  1534. 

ral  form  ;  the  back  of  the  neck  is  protected  by 
flexible  plates ;  and  the  whole  of  the  headpiece 
is  made  to  adapt  itself  to  every  movement. 


in  steel  from  head  to  foot.     From  that  time  this    The  horse's  head  is  guarded  by  the  chamfront, 


734 


ARMORICA 


ARMS 


to  wliich  are  added  the  manifaire,  protecting 
the  crest  and    arch  of  the  neck,  the   poitrel 
of  solid  plates  covering  the  counter,  and  the 
croupier,  also  of  solid  steel,  extending  over  the 
whole  rump  ot  the  animal  from  the  castle  of 
the  saddle  to  the  tail.    These  parts  of  the  horse 
armor  constitute  what  is  called   the   barding 
proper.     It  was  in  this  reign  that  the  art  of 
defence  had  so  far  surpassed  the  means  of  of 
fence,  that  it  is  on  record  that  in  Italy,  where 
the  best  armor,  that  of  Milan,  was  made,  two 
armies  fought  from  9  o'clock  in  the  morning 
till  4  in  the  afternoon,  in  which  battle  not  only 
no  person  was  killed,  but  no  one  was  wounded. 
From  this  date,  however,  the  use  of  armor  has 
constantly  declined,  and  with  the  description 
given  above  its  real  history  may  be  said  to 
end ;    for  piece  by  piece  was  gradually    laid 
aside  as  firearms  were  used  and  improved  more 
and   more,    and    hand-to-hand    conflicts   were 
avoided.     At  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen 
tury  the  only  troops  who  still  wore  defensive 
armor  were  the  heavy  cavalry  of  the  Austrian, 
Russian,  and  French  imperial  armies,  who  were 
all  cuirassiers.     Napoleon  I.  made  great  use  of 
this  arm,   but  at  Waterloo  the  iron-sheathed 
cuirassiers  went   down  like  grass  before  the 
English  household  troops,  who  wore  no  armor;  j 
and  in  the  last  battles  of  the  Crimea,  although 
there  were  cuirassiers  in  the  armies  of  all  the  | 
three  belligerents,  no  use  was  made  of  them  in  j 
the  field.     In  the  early  part  of  our  late  civil 
war  an  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  bullet 
proof  waistcoats  of  steel  among  the  national 
troops,  but  they  were  soon  laid  aside. — For  a  i 
detailed   history  of  armor,  see   especially  "  A  | 
Critical   Inquiry  into  Ancient  Armour/'  &c.,  j 
by  Dr.  (Sir  Samuel)  Meyrick  (2d  ed.,  London,  I 
1844) ;  also  an  excellent  essay  and  catalogue  in  | 
the  Catalogue  des  collections  composant  le  musee  \ 
tfartillcrie,  by  O.  Penguilly  I'Haridon  (Paris,  | 
1862). 

ARMORICA,  the  name  anciently  given  to  the  I 
X.  W.  coast  of  Gaul,  from  the  Loire  to  the  i 
Seine.     It  had  a  considerable  fleet  and  carried  j 
on  a  large  intercourse  with  Britain.    Maximus,  j 
a  Roman  officer,  having  revolted  with  the  le 
gions  of  Britain  against  the  emperor  Gratian, 
A.  D.  383,  passed  into  Gaul  with  two  Roman 
legions  and   a  number  of  aboriginal  Britons, 
among   whom  was   one   Conan   Mariadec,   to 
whom  Maximus  gave  the  government  of  Ar- 
morica.     Mariadec  obtained  the  recognition  of 
his  independence  from  the  emperor  Theodo- 
sius,  and  in  the  5th  century  thousands  of  Brit 
ish  Celts  came  over,  rather  than  remain  under 
the  hated  Saxon  yoke.     They  found  in  Armo- 
rica  a  hospitable  reception,  and  a  dynasty  akin 
to  them  in  race.     The  descendants  of  Conan  I 
Mariadec  successfully  repelled  the  Danish,  Nor 
wegian,  and  Irish  pirates  from  the  coasts  of  \ 
Armorica,    and   also,    on   the    land   side,    the  > 
various  German  tribes  who  invaded  and  rav-  | 
aged  Gaul.     During  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  i 
it  was  the  most  peaceful  and  prosperous  part  : 
of  that  country.     The  Christian  religion  was  i 


early  propagated  there.  Bishops  of  Dol,  Quim- 
per,  and  Vannes  are  recorded  at  the  end  of  the 
4th  century,  and  the  annals  of  Armorica  pre 
serve  a  long  roll  of  Celtic  saints  whose  names 
are  not  known  elsewhere.  From  the  influx  of 
Britons  Armorica  about  the  6th  century  be 
gan  to  be  called  Brittany  (Bretagne). 

ARMS,  instruments  or  weapons  of  offence,  as 
opposed  to  defensive  armor.  Arms  may  in  this 
sense  be  separated  into  two  broad  divisions  of 
ancient  and  modern,  reckoning  the  latter  from 
the  adaptation  of  gunpowder  to  purposes  of 
war ;  and  each  of  these  may  be  again  distin 
guished  into  missiles  and  weapons  for  hand-to- 
hand  encounter.  It  is  evident  that  offensive 
arms  were  prior  in  their  invention  and  use  to 
defensive  coverings.  In  the  earliest  wars  re 
corded  in  history,  missiles  were  the  principal 
weapons  used.  The  bow  (see  AKCHERY)  and 
the  javelin  were  in  the  period  chronicled  in 
the  Old  Testament  the  favorite  weapons  of 
the  Assyrians,  Medes,  Persians,  Parthians,  and 
other  oriental  races;  while  their  instruments 
for  close  fight  were  merely  weak,  straight  dag 
gers,  acinac.es,  which  word  has  been  falsely 
translated  scymitars.  In  the  heroic  wars,  as 
described  by  Homer,  missiles  were  still,  in  the 
hands  of  the  leading  chiefs  and  heroes,  the 
most  important  weapons ;  a  ponderous  spear, 
hurled  from  the  hand,  and  rarely  if  ever  used 
to  thrust  with  as  a  pike,  being  the  instrument 
which  began  nearly  all  the  duels  of  the  cham 
pions,  although  they  were  often  ended  by  the 
short  sword.  The  masses,  indeed,  seem  to 
have  fought  in  phalanx  or  close  column  with 
the  pike,  or  sarissa,  afterward  the  arm  of  the 
free  Greeks  of  the  republican  cities,  and  of  the 
barbaric  kingdoms  of  Macedonia  and  upper 
Hellas.  This  was  24  feet  long,  and  the  spear 
men  held  it  in  both  hands,  having  their  per 
sons  obliquely  covered  by  the  great  round 
shield  worn  upon  the  left  arm.  The  tactic  on 
which  the  success  of  this  arm  depended  was  a 
closely  serried  phalanx,  ordinarily  of  12  or  24, 
occasionally  of  50  files  in  depth.  If  the  enemy 
succeeded  in  breaking  this  phalanx,  the  men 
had  recourse  to  their  swords,  which,  however, 
seldom  proved  of  much  use  after  the  spears 
had  given  way. — The  weapons  of  the  Romans 
were  a  short,  massive  javelin,  6  feet  long,  in 
cluding  the  triangular  steel  head  of  18  inches, 
which  they  were  wont  to  hurl  into  the  lines 
of  their  enemy  at  10  or  15  paces  distant,  and  a 
short  two-edged  broadsword,  probably  in  the 
first  instance  of  Spanish  origin  and  manufac 
ture.  This  latter  instrument,  with  which  they 
were  trained  to  stab  rather  than  to  strike,  was 
that  with  which  Rome  cut  her  way  to  univer 
sal  empire.  Her  tactic,  adapted  to  its  use,  was 
a  loose  array  of  open  lines,  each  man  standing 
three  feet  from  his  left  and  right  hand  com 
rades,  so  that  he  had  a  clear  space  of  six  feet 
in  which  to  manage  his  sword  and  buckler, 
and  fighting  as  it  were  a  duel  or  single  com 
bat,  hand  to  hand,  with  his  immediate  oppo 
nent,  over  whom  his  peculiar  weapon,  his  sin- 


ARMS 


ARMSTRONG 


735 


gular  skill  in  its  use,  and  his  incessant  drilling 
in  athletic  exercises  of  all  sorts,  gave  him  im 
mense  advantage.  With  the  Greeks  and  Ro 
mans  infantry  was  the  front  and  principal  fea 
ture  of  their  armies.  In  cavalry  they  were 
weak,  and  in  the  period  of  their  greatest  em 
pire  archery  and  slingers  were  contemptuously 
disregarded". — But  with  the  decline  of  the  Ro 
man  empires,  especially  that  of  the  East,  a 
new  arm  of  the  service  took  the  lead  in  the 
steel-clad  cavalry  of  the  middle  ages.  Infantry, 
with  but  two  exceptions,  the  English  and  the 
Swiss,  were  almost  powerless  against  it.  The 
arms  of  these  feudal  troops  were  the  lance, 
the  mace,  the  battle-axe,  and  the  two-handed 
sword ;  but  it  is  to  the  first  that  they  owed 
their  success.  This  was  a  ponderous  weapon  of 
18  feet  in  length,  balanced  by  the  great  weight 
of  its  butt  end,  which  was  often  nearly  a  foot 
in  diameter  at  20  inches  from  the  extremity, 
having  a  notch  cut  out  to  admit  the  upper  arm 
of  the  champion,  which  steadied  it  as  it  was 
laid  in  rest,  supported  by  a  projecting  iron 
catch  attached  to  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
knight's  corslet.  With  this  weapon,  protrud 
ing  10  feet  beyond  their  horse's  chest,  sheathed 
in  panoply  which  defied  any  missiles  which  in 
that  day  could  be  brought  against  it,  with  the 
sole  exception  of  the  English  clothyard  arrow, 
infantry  could  seldom  resist  their  shock.  The 
arms  of  the  infantry  of  this  time  were,  besides 
the  famous  bows  of  the  Englishmen,  the  bills — 
something  similar  to  a  short  heavy  scythe  blade 
set  erect  on  a  shaft  four  feet  long — leaden  mal 
lets,  and  long  knives  of  the  Anglo-Xorman 
archers ;  the  pikes  and  halberts  of  the  Swiss, 
which  won  them  the  day  of  Sempach,  and  did 
them  good  service  at  Morat,  Granson,  and 
Xancy,  when  the  Austrian  and  Burgundian 
chivalry  had  dismounted ;  the  crossbows  of  the 
Genoese;  ami  the  spears  of  the  Scottish  foot, 
who  fought  like  the  Greeks  in  phalanx. — Such 
were  the  distribution  and  relative  importance 
of  different  arms  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  until  the  battle  of  Pavia, 
in  1525.  This  date  marks  the  division  between 
ancient  and  modern  arms ;  for  although  gun 
powder  had  been  long  before  invented,  it  was 
at  Pavia  that  the  matchlock  was  first  used  in 
such  a  form  as  to  make  it  of  any  practical 
value.  Even  then  it  was  a  most  imperfect  and 
awkward  weapon,  fired  from  a  rest.  From 
this  time  firearms  were  improved,  and  the  an 
cient  offensive  Aveapons,  though  they  held  their 
own  for  a  considerable  period,  passed  slowly 
out  of  use.  The  range  of  firearms  was  still 
very  limited,  and  the  accuracy  of  aim  imper 
fect  ;  and,  till  the  musket  was  combined  with 
the  bayonet,  the  musketeer  had  no  means  of 
defending  himself  either  against  charging  horse, 
or  against  infantry  with  long  weapons,  at  close 
quarters,  and  he  was  therefore  of  necessity 
protected  by  pikemen.  But  at  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century  the  bayonet  was  added  to 
the  arquebuse  or  musket,  which  had  become 
from  a  matchlock  a  firelock,  and  now  united 


m  itself  the  properties  of  both  pike  and  gun, 
and  could  be  used  indiscriminately  as  a  missile 
or  a  weapon  at  close  quarters.  From  this 
time,  so  rapid  was  the  progress  made  in  fire 
arms,  and  so  general  their  adoption,  that  the 
bullet  soon  became  the  arbiter  of  every  battle, 
the  combatants  seldom  coming  to  sufficiently 
close  quarters  to  permit  the  use  of  weapons  of 
the  old  form.  The  American  war  of  indepen 
dence  and  the  French  wars  of  the  revolution 
brought  the  rifie,  which  was  by  no  means  a 
new  weapon — for  the  principle  of  rifling  or 
screwing  barrels,  as  it  was  then  called,  and  its 
effect  on  the  bullet,  were  known  and  used  even 
in  matchlocks  as  early  as  the  16th  century — 
into  general  notice,  and  the  invention  of  per 
cussion  doubled  even  its  utility.  From  this 
time  began  that  wonderful  series  of  improve 
ments  in  rifled  small  arms  and  cannon  which 
has  made  the  military  rifle  of  to-day  a  most 
formidable  weapon.  The  invention  of  the  sim 
ple  modern  percussion  lock,  of  the  Minie  rifle 
bullet,  of  revolving  pistols,  and  especially  of 
breech-loading  firearms  of  every  kind,  has 
enormously  increased  the  means  of  offensive 
warfare.  (See  ARTILLERY,  CAXXOX,  Gux,  GUN 
NERY,  GUNPOWDER,  MUSKET,  PISTOL,  RIFLE.) 

ARMSTRONG,  a  W.  county  of  Pennsylvania, 
intersected  and  partly  bounded  by  Allegheny 
river;  area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  43,382. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  gener 
ally  fertile.  The  Pennsylvania  canal  passes 
through  its  southern  extremity.  Its  most  valu 
able  mineral  productions  are  iron,  salt,  and 
coal.  In  1870  the  county  produced  298,194 
bushels  of  wheat,  135,257*  of  rye,  680,314  of 
Indian  corn,  883,846  of  oats,  33,192  tons  of 
hay,  126,C68  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  964,020  of  but 
ter.  Capital,  Kittanning. 

ARMSTRONG,  John,  an  American  officer  in  the 
revolutionary  war,  born  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1758, 
died  at  Red  Hook,  Dutchess  county,  X.  Y.,  April 
1,  1843.  At  the  age  of  18  he  entered  the  army 
as  a  volunteer,  and  at  the  battle  of  Princeton 
•was  one  of  Gen.  Mercers  aids,  and  bore  him 
in  his  arms  from  the  field  when  he  had  re 
ceived  his  death  wound.  He  afterward  became 
a  favorite  of  Gen.  Gates,  and  served  under  him, 
with  the  rank  of  major,  through  the  remain 
der  of  the  war.  During  the  winter  of  l782-'3, 
while  the  army  was  encamped  at  Xewburgh, 
great  anxiety  was  felt  as  to  the  arrearages  of 
pay,  and  the  half  pay  promised  to  those  officers 
who  should  serve  through  the  war.  After  an 
unsuccessful  application  to  congress,  a  meeting 
of  officers  was  called  anonymously  for  the  llth 
of  March,  1783,  to  discuss  their  grievances. 
An  anonymous  address  was  issued,  in  which 
the  writer  exhorted  his  comrades  to  refuse  to 
perform  further  military  duty  during  the  war, 
or  to  lay  down  their  arms  on  the  return  of 
peace,  unless  their  just  demands  were  com 
plied  with.  Washington  immediately  issued  a 
call  for  a  similar  meeting  on  the  loth,  for  the 
discussion  of  their  claims,  whicn  was  followed 
by  another  anonymous  address,  construing  the 


736 


ARMSTRONG 


ARMY 


action  of  Washington  into  an  approval  of  the 
course  previously  proposed  by  the  writer.  At 
this  meeting  Washington  addressed  the  officers 
with  great  feeling,  assuring  them  of  his  ardent 
desire  to  cooperate  with  them  in  obtaining  the 
ends  which  they  had  in  view,  but  begging 
them  not  to  follow  the  dangerous  advice  of  the 
writer  of  the  addresses.  His  eloquence  was 
successful,  and  he  afterward  obtained  from 
congress  what  the  soldiers  -required.  Arm 
strong  wrote  these  anonymous  productions  at 
the  request  of  many  of  his  fellow  officers,  and 
although  Washington  had  greatly  blamed  their 
author  at  the  time,  he  afterward  changed  his 
opinion.  Gen.  Armstrong  was  subsequently  sec 
retary  of  state  of  Pennsylvania,  and  a  member 
of  the  old  congress.  In  November,  1800,  he 
was  chosen  U.  S.  senator  from  New  York,  and  in 
1804  was  sent  as  minister  to  France,  where  he 
served  with  ability,  at  the  same  time  acting  as 
minister  to  Spain.  He  returned  home  in  1810. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  war  of  1812  he 
received  a  brigadier  general's  commission,  and 
the  command  of  the  district  which  included 
the  city  of  New  York.  In  the  following  year 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  war,  and  re 
moved  the  war  department  to  Sackctt's  Harbor. 
He  incurred  much  blame  for  the  capture  of 
Washington  in  1814,  but  very  unjustly,  as  Gen. 
Winder,  to  whom  the  defence  of  the  district 
had  been  intrusted,  was  appointed  by  the  pres 
ident  in  direct  opposition  to  his  advice.  Gen. 
Armstrong's  indignation  at  Mr.  Madison  for 
taking  no  steps  to  relieve  him  of  this  unde 
served  disgrace  ended  in  his  resignation.  He 
wrote  two  treatises  on  farming  and  gardening, 
a  criticism  of  Gen.  Wilkinson's  memoirs,  bio 
graphical  sketches,  and  a  history  of  the  war 
of  1812.  He  also  partly  prepared  a  history  of 
the  American  revolution. 

ARMSTRONG,  John,  a  British  physician,  poet, 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Castleton 
parish,  Roxburghshire,  about  1709,  died  in 
1779.  His  father  was  a  clergyman.  He  studied 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  after  re 
ceiving  his  medical  diploma  settled  in  London, 
where  he  published  anonymously  "An  Essay 
for  Abridging  the  Study  of  Physic"  (1735), 
ridiculing  the  ignorance  of  the  apothecaries. 
In  1737  he  published  an  outrageously  indecent 
poem  entitled  "The  Economy  of  Love."  In 
1744  appeared  "  The  Art  of  Preserving  Health," 
a  didactic  poem  whose  merits  were  greatly 
overrated.  In  1760,  through  the  influence,  as 
it  is  said,  of  John  Wilkes,  he  was  made  phy 
sician  to  the  army  in  Germany,  and  held  that 
office  until  the  peace  of  1763.  His  remain 
ing  published  writings  include  a  volume  of 
"Sketches  or  Essays,"  a  collection  of  short 
poems  under  the  title  of  "Miscellanies,"  a 
"  Short  Ramble  through  France  and  Italy,"  and 
a  volume  of  medical  essays. 

ARMSTRONG,  John,  an  English  physician  and 
author,  born  at  Bishop -Wearmouth,  May  8, 
1784,  died  in  London,  Dec.  12,  1829.  He  grad 
uated  at  Edinburgh  university,  and  practised 


at  Sunderland,  where  he  wrote  a  work  on 
"Typhus"  (1816),  which  had  a  rapid  sale 
throughout  the  kingdom.  In  1818  he  removed 
to  London,  where  he  failed  to  pass  his  exami 
nation  before  the  college  of  physicians ;  but  as 
that  institution  was  exceedingly  unpopular  in 
the  profession,  his  rejection  was  ascribed  to 
jealousy,  and  he  was  soon  afterward  elected 
physician  to  the  fever  hospital.  In  1821  he 
united  with  Mr.  Grainger  in  founding  the 
Webb  street  school  of  medicine,  where  his  lec 
tures  were  exceedingly  popular.  His  chief 
defect  was  immoderate  egotism.  He  regarded 
himself  as  a  great  reformer  in  the  healing  art, 
and  ridiculed  almost  all  medical  learning  ex 
cept  his  own.  His  lectures,  edited  by  Joseph 
Rix,  were  published  in  1834. 

ARMSTRONG,  Sir  William  George,  an  English 
engineer  and  inventor,  born  at  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyrie,  Nov.  26,  1810.  He  was  educated 
at  Bishop-Auckland,  and  early  busied  himself 
with  experiments  in  the  physical  sciences,  the 
construction  of  models,  &c.  At  his  father's 
wish  he  began  the  study  of  law,  though  he 
had  no  inclination  for  that  profession;  he 
passed  successfully  through  his  preliminary 
studies,  and  became  a  partner  in  the  firm  with 
which  he  had  been  placed.  But  he  devoted 
all  his  leisure  to  mechanical  pursuits,  and  in 
1838  produced  his  first  invention,  an  important 
improvement  in  the  hydraulic  engine ;  and  in 
1845  he  invented  a  hydraulic  crane,  which  im 
mediately  proved  one  of  the  most  useful  ma 
chines  of  its  kind.  In  1842  he  invented  a  ma 
chine  for  the  production  of  electricity  from 
steam.  Mr.  Armstrong  was  made  a  member 
of  the  royal  society  in  1846,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  one  of  a  company  to  establish  the 
Elswick  iron  works,  at  which  his  cranes  are 
manufactured,  with  large  engines,  iron  bridges, 
&c.  In  1854,  during  the  Crimean  war,  the 
attention  of  Mr.  Armstrong  was  attracted  to 
improvements  in  ordnance,  and  somewhat  later 
he  produced  the  plan  of  the  breech-loading 
cannon  which  bears  his  name.  For  this  and 
his  other  inventions  he  was  knighted  in  1859. 
The  construction  of  iron-clad  ships  of  war  led 
him  to  make  in  1861-'2  numerous  experiments 
on  the  penetrability  of  iron  plates;  in  the 
course  of  these  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
shot  fired  at  moderate  distances,  from  muzzle- 
loading,  smooth-bored  cannon  of  large  calibre, 
possess  greater  power  of  penetrating  and 
crushing  iron  plates  than  the  projectiles  of  the 
breech-loading  rifled  ordnance.  This  result 
has  excited  much  comment  from  eminent  artil 
lery  officers  in  England  and  elsewhere.  Since 
1858  Sir  William  Armstrong  has  been  engi 
neer  of  the  war  department,  and  superinten 
dent  of  the  manufacture  of  cannon  at  the  gov 
ernment  foundery  at  Woolwich,  and  also  manu 
factures  a  large  number  at  his  own  works  at 
Elswick. 

ARMY,  the  organized  body  of  armed  men 
which  a  state  maintains  for  the  purposes  of  war. 
Of  the  armies  of  ancient  history,  the  first  of 


ARMY 


737 


which  we  know  anything  positive  is  that  of 
Egypt.  Its  epoch  of  glory  coincides  with  th<? 
reign  of  Rhamses  II.  (Sesostris),  and  the  paint 
ings  and  inscriptions  relating  to  his  exploits  on 
the  monuments  of  his  reign  form  the  principal 
source  of  our  knowledge  on  Egyptian  military 
matters.  The  warrior  caste  of  Egypt,  accord 
ing  to  Herodotus,  was  divided  into  two  classes, 
hermotybii  and  calasirii,  of  which  the  first  was 
100,000  and  the  other  250,000  strong,  in  their 
best  times.  These  two  classes  were  distin 
guished  from  each  other  merely  by  their  age  or 
length  of  service,  so  that  the  calasirii,  after  a 
certain  number  of  years,  passed  into  the  her 
motybii  or  reserve.  The  whole  army  was  set 
tled  in  a  sort  of  military  colonies,  an  ample 
extent  of  land  being  set  apart  for  each  man  as 
an  equivalent  for  his  services.  These  colonies 
were  mostly  situated  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
country,  where  attacks  from  the  neighboring 
Asiatic  states  were  to  be  anticipated ;  a  few 
colonies  only  were  established  on  the  upper 
Nile,  the  Ethiopians  not  being  very  formidable 
opponents.  The  strength  of  the  army,  as  shown 
by  monumental  records,  lay  in  its  infantry, 
and  particularly  in  its  archers.  Besides  these 
latter  there  were  bodies  of  foot  soldiers,  vari 
ously  armed  and  distributed  into  battalions, 
according  to  their  arms,  spearmen,  swords 
men,  clubmen,  slingers,  &c.  The  infantry  was 
supported  by  numerous  war  chariots,  each 
manned  by  two  men,  one  to  drive  and  the 
other  to  use  the  bow.  Cavalry  docs  not  fig 
ure  on  the  monuments.  One  solitary  drawing 
of  a  man  on  horseback  is  considered  to  belong 
to  the  Roman  epoch,  and  it  appears  certain 
that  the  use  of  the  horse  for  riding  and  of  cavalry 
became  known  to  the  Egyptians  through  their 
Asiatic  neighbors  only.  That  at  a  later  period 
they  had  a  numerous  cavalry,  acting,  like  all 
cavalry  in  ancient  times,  on  the  wings  of  the 
infantry,  is  certain.  The  defensive  armor  of 
the  Egyptians  consisted  of  shields,  helmets,  and 
breastplates,  or  coats  of  mail,  of  various  ma 
terials.  The  mode  of  attacking  a  fortified  po 
sition  showed  many  of  the  means  and  artifices 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  They  had 
the  testudo  and  battering  ram,  the  tinea  and 
scaling  ladder;  that  they,  however,  also  knew 
the  use  of  movable  towers,  and  that  they  under 
mined  walls,  as  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  maintains,  is  a 
mere  supposition.  From  the  time  of  Psammet- 
icus  a  corps  of  Greek  mercenaries  was  main 
tained  ;  they  were  also  colonized  in  lower  Egypt. 
— Assyria  furnishes  us  with  the  earliest  speci 
men  of  those  Asiatic  armies  which  for  above 
1,000  years  struggled  for  the  possession  of  the 
countries  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Indus.  There,  as  in  Egypt,  the  monuments  are 
our  principal  sources  of  information.  The  in 
fantry  appear  armed  like  the  Egyptian,  though 
the  bow  seems  less  prominent,  and  the  arms 
offensive  and  defensive  are  generally  of  better 
make.  Spear,  bow,  sword,  and  dagger  are  the 
principal  weapons.  Assyrians  in  the  army  of 
Xerxes  are  also  represented  with  iron-mounted 
VOL.  r. — 1-7 


clubs.  The  defensive  armament  consisted  of 
a  helmet  (often  very  tastefully  worked),  a  coat 
of  mail  of  felt  or  leather,  and  a  shield.  The 
war  chariots  still  formed  an  important  portion 
of  the  army ;  each  had  two  occupants,  and  the 
driver  had  to  shelter  the  bowman  with  his 
shield.  Many  of  those  who  fight  in  chariots 
are  represented  in  long  coats  of  mail.  Then 
there  was  the  cavalry,  which  here  we  meet 
with  for  the  first  time.  In  the  earliest  sculp 
tures  the  rider  mounts  the  bare  back  of  his 
horse ;  later  on,  a  sort  of  pad  is  introduced,  and 
in  one  sculpture  a  high  saddle  is  depicted,  simi 
lar  to  that  now  used  in  the  East.  The  cavalry 
can  scarcely  have  been  very  different  from  that 
of  the  Persians  and  later  eastern  nations — light, 
irregular  horse,  attacking  in  disorderly  swarms, 
easily  repelled  by  a  well  armed,  solid  infantry, 
but  formidable  to  a  disordered  or  beaten  army. 
Accordingly,  it  figured  in  rank  below  the  char 
ioteers,  who  appear  to  have  formed  the  aristo 
cratic  arm  of  the  service.  In  infantry  tactics 
some  progress  toward  regular  movements  and 
formations  in  ranks  and  files  appears  to  have 
been  .made.  The  bowmen  either  fought  in  ad 
vance,  where  they  were  always  covered  each 
by  a  shield-bearer,  or  they  formed  the  rear 
rank,  the  first  and  second  ranks,  armed  with 
spears,  stooping  or  kneeling  to  enable  them  to 
shoot.  In  sieges  they  certainly  knew  the  use 
of  movable  towers  and  mining ;  and  from  a 
passage  in  Ezekiel,  it  would  almost  appear  that 
they  made  some  sort  of  mound  or  artificial  hill 
to  command  the  walls  of  the  town — a  rude  be 
ginning  of  the  Roman  agger.  Their  movable 
and  fixed  towers,  too,  were  elevated  to  the 
height  of  the  besieged  wall,  and  higher,  so  as 
to  command  it.  The  ram  and  vinea  they  used 
also ;  and,  numerous  as  their  armies  were,  they 
turned  whole  arms  of  rivers  into  new  beds  in 
order  to  gain  access  to  a  weak  front  of  the 
attacked  place,  or  to  use  the  dry  bed  of  the 
river  as  a  road  into  the  fortress.  The  Babylo 
nians  seem  to  have  had  armies  similar  to  those 
of  the  Assyrians,  but  special  details  are  want 
ing. — The  Persian  empire  owed  its  greatness 
to  its  founders,  the  warlike  nomads  of  the 
present  Farsistan,  a  nation  of  horsemen,  with 
whom  cavalry  took  at  once  that  predominant 
rank  which  it  has  since  held  in  all  eastern  ar 
mies,  up  to  the  recent  introduction  of  modern 
European  drill.  Darius  Ilystaspis  established 
a  standing  army  in  order  to  keep  the  conquered; 
provinces  in  subjection,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the 
frequent  revolts  of  the  satraps  or  civil  governors. 
Every  province  thus  had  its  garrison,  under  a 
separate  commander;  fortified  towns  were  oc 
cupied  by  detachments.  The  provinces  had  to 
bear  the  expense  of  maintaining  these  troops. 
To  this  standing  army  also  belonged  the  guards 
of  the  king,  10,000  chosen  infantry  (called  the 
"immortals"),  resplendent  with  gold,  followed 
on  the  march  by  a  long  'train  of  carriages, 
with  their  harems  and  servants,  and  of  camels 
with  provisions,  besides  1,000  halberdiers,  1,000 
horse  guards,  and  numerous. war. chariots,  some 


738 


ARMY 


of  them  armed  with  scythes.  For  expeditions  ! 
of  magnitude  this  armament  was  considered 
insufficient,  and  a  general  levy  from  all  the 
provinces  of  the  empire  took  place.  The  mass 
of  these  various  contingents  formed  a  truly  ori 
ental  army,  composed  of  the  most  heterogeneous 
parts,  varying  among  themselves  in  armament 
and  mode  of  lighting,  and  accompanied  hy 
immense  trains  of  baggage  and  innumerable 
camp  followers.  It  is  to  the  presence  of  these 
latter  that  we  must  ascribe  the  enormous  num 
bers  of  the  Persian  armies  as  estimated  by  the 
Greeks.  The  soldiers,  according  to  their  re 
spective  nationality,  were  armed  with  bows, 
javelins,  spears,  swords,  clubs,  daggers,  slings, 
&c.  The  contingent  of  every  province  had  its 
separate  commander ;  they  appear  from  Herod 
otus  to  have  been  divided  by  tens,  hundreds, 
thousands,  &c.,  with  officers  to  command  each 
decimal  subdivision.  The  command  of  large 
corps  or  of  the  wings  of  the  army  was  gener 
ally  given  to  members  of  the  royal  family. 
Among  the  infantry  the  Persian  and  the  other 
Aryan  nations  (Medes  and  Bactrians)  formed  the 
elite.  They  were  armed  with  bows,  spears  of 
moderate  size,  and  a  short  sword ;  the  head 
was  protected  by  a  sort  of  turban,  the  body  by 
a  coat  covered  with  iron  scales ;  the  shield  was 
mostly  of  wickerwork.  Yet  this  elite,  as  well 
as  the  rest  of  the  Persian  infantry,  was  gen 
erally  beaten  whenever  it  was  opposed  to 
even  small  bodies  of  Greeks,  and  its  unwieldy 
and  disorderly  crowds  appear  quite  incapable 
of  any  but  passive  resistance  against  the  incip 
ient  phalanx  of  Sparta  and  Athens;  witness 
Marathon,  Thermopylae  Platrea,  and  Mycale. 
The  war  chariots,  which  in  the  Persian  army 
appear  for  the  last  time  in  history,  might 
be  useful  on  level  ground  against  such  a 
motley  crowd  as  the  Persian  infantry  them 
selves  were ;  but  against  a  solid  mass  of  pike- 
men,  such  as  the  Greeks  formed,  or  against  i 
light  troops  taking  advantage  of  inequalities 
of  ground,  they  were  worse  than  useless.  The 
least  obstacle  stopped  them.  In  battle  the 
horses  got  frightened,  and,  no  longer  under 
command,  ran  down  their  own  infantry.  As 
to  the  cavalry,  the  earlier  periods  of  the  empire 
give  us  little  proof  of  its  excellence.  There 
were  10,000  horse  on  the  plain  of  Marathon — a 
good  cavalry  country — yet  they  could  not  break 
the  Athenian  ranks.  In  later  times  it  distin 
guished  itself  at  the  Granicus,  where,  formed 
in  one  line,  it  fell  on  the  heads  of  the  Macedo 
nian  columns  as  they  emerged  from  the  fords 
of  the  river,  and  broke  them  before  they  could 
deploy.  It  thus  successfully  opposed  Alexan 
der's  advanced  guard,  under  Ptolemy,  for  a 
long  while,  until  the  main  body  arrived  and  the 
light  troops  mano3uvred  on  its  flanks,  when, 
having  no  second  line  or  reserve,  it  had  to  re 
tire.  But  at  this  period  the  Persian  army  had  ! 
been  strengthened  hy  the  infusion  of  a  Greek  i 
element,  imparted  by  the  Greek  mercenaries, 
who,  soon  after  Xerxes,  were  taken  into 
pay  by  the  king ;  and  the  cavalry  tactics  dis-  j 


played  by  Memnon  on  the  Granicus  are  so 
thoroughly  tin- Asiatic  that  we  may,  in  the 
absence  of  positive  information,  at  once  ascribe 
them  to  Greek  influence. — The  armies  of 
Greece  are  the  first  of  the  detailed  organiza 
tion  of  which  we  have  ample  and  certain  in 
formation.  "With  them  the  history  of  tactics, 
especially  infantry  tactics,  may  be  said  to  be 
gin.  In  Athens  every  free-born  man  was 
liable  to  military  service.  The  holders  of  cer 
tain  public  offices  alone,  and  in  the  earlier 
times  the  fourth  or  poorest  class  of  freemen, 
were  exempt.  Every  youth  on  attaining  his 
18th  year  was  obliged  to  do  duty  for  two 
years,  especially  in  watching  the  frontiers. 
During  this  time  his  military  education  was 
completed;  afterward  he  remained  liable  to 
service  up  to  his  00th  year.  In  case  of  war  the 
assembled  citizens  fixed  the  number  of  men  to 
be  called  out ;  in  extreme  cases  only  were  the 
levees  en  masse  (panstratia)  resorted  to.  The 
strategy  ten  of  whom  were  annually  elected 
by  the  people,  had  to  levy  these  troops  and  to 
organize  them,  so  that  the  men  of  each  tribe, 
or  pliyle,  formed  a  body  under  a  separate  phy- 
larch.  These  officers,  as  well  as  the  taxiarchs, 
or  captains  of  companies,  were  equally  elected 
by  the  people.  The  whole  of  this  levy  formed 
the  heavy  infantry  (hoplitce)  destined  for  the 
phalanx  or  deep  line  formation  of  spearmen, 
which  originally  formed  the  whole  of  the 
armed  force,  and  subsequently,  after  the  addi 
tion  of  light  troops  and  cavalry,  remained  its 
mainstay — the  corps  which  decided  the  battle. 
The  phalanx  was  commanded  by  a  general 
with  the  title  of  strategus,  and  was  formed  in 
various  depths;  we  find  phalanxes  8,  12,  and 
25  men  deep,  mentioned  in  Grecian  history. 
The  armament  of  the  hoplitoe  consisted  of  a 
breastplate  or  corslet,  helmet,  oval  target,  spear, 
and  short  sword.  The  forte  of  the  Athenian 
phalanx  was  attack;  its  charge  was  renowned 
for  its  furious  impetus,  especially  after  Mil- 
tiades  at  Marathon  had  introduced  the  quick 
ening  of  the  pace  during  the  charge,  so  that 
they  came  down  on  the  enemy  with  a  run.  On 
the  defensive,  the  more  solid  and  closer  pha 
lanx  of  Sparta  was  its  superior.  While  at 
Marathon  the  whole  force  of  the  Athenians 
consisted  of  a  heavy-armed  phalanx  of  10,000 
hoplitas,  at  Platoaa  they  had,  besides  8,000  hop- 
litae,  an  equal  number  of  light  infantry.  The 
tremendous  pressure  of  the  Persian  invasions 
necessitated  an  extension  of  the  liability  to  ser 
vice  ;  the  poorest  class,  that  of  the  thetes,  was 
enrolled.  They  were  formed  into  light  troops 
(gymnetce-,  psili) ;  they  had  no  defensive  armor, 
or  a  target  only,  and  were  supplied  with  a 
spear  and  javelins.  With  the  extension  of  the 
Athenian  power,  their  light  troops  were  re- 
enforced  by  the  contingents  of  their  allies,  and 
even  by  mercenary  troops.  Acarnanians,  .ZEto- 
lians,  and  Cretans,  celebrated  as  archers  and 
slingers,  were  added.  A  class  of  troops  inter 
mediate  between  them  and  the  hoplita3  was 
formed,  the  peltastw,  armed  like  the  light  in- 


ARMY 


739 


fantry,  but  capable  of  maintaining  a  position.  | 
They  were  of  little  importance  until  after  the  , 
Peloponnesian  war,  when  Iphicratcs  reorgan-  | 
ized  them.  The  light  troops  of  the  Athenians  j 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  intelligence  and  ; 
quickness  both  in  resolution  and  in  execution.  | 
On  several  occasions,  probably  in  difficult 
ground,  they  even  successfully  opposed  the 
Spartan  phalanx.  The  Athenian  cavalry  was 
introduced  at  a  time  when  the  republic  was  | 
already  rich  and  powerful.  The  mountainous  j 
ground  of  Attica  was  unfavorable  to  this  arm, 
but  the  neighborhood  of  Thessaly  and  Boeotia, 
countries  rich  in  horses,  and  consequently  the 
first  to  form  cavalry,  soon  caused  its  introduc 
tion  in  the  other  states  of  Greece.  The  Athe 
nian  cavalry,  first  300,  then  600,  and  even  1,000 
strong,  was  composed  of  the  richest  citizens, 
and  formed  a  standing  corps  even  in  time  of 
peace.  They  were  a  very  effective  body,  ex 
tremely  watchful,  intelligent,  and  enterprising,  j 
Their  position  in  battle,  as  well  as  that  of  the  ! 
light  troops,  was  generally  on  "the  wings  of  the  | 
phalanx.  In  later  times  the  Athenians  also 
maintained  a  corps  of  200  mercenary  mounted 
archers  (hippotoxotce).  The  Athenian  soldier 
np  to  the  time  of  Pericles  received  no  pay. 
Afterward  t\vo  oboli  (besides  two  more  for 
provisions,  which  the  soldier  had  to  find)  were 
given,  and  sometimes  even  the  hoplitas  received 
as  much  as  two  drachms.  Officers  received 
double  pay,  cavalry  soldiers  threefold,  generals 
fourfold.  The  corps  of  heavy  cavalry  alone  cost 
40  talents  (about  $40,000)  per  annum  in  time 
of  peace,  during  war  considerably  more.  The 
order  of  battle  and  mode  of  fighting  were 
extremely  simple.  The  phalanx  formed  the 
centre,  the  men  locking  their  spears  and  cover 
ing  the  whole  front  with  their  row  of  shields. 
They  attacked  the  hostile  phalanx  in  a  parallel 
front.  When  the  first  onset  was  not  sufficient 
to  break  the  enemy's  order,  the  struggle  hand 
to  hand  with  the  sword  decided  the  battle.  In 
the  mean  time  the  light  troops  and  cavalry 
either  attacked  the  corresponding  troops  of 
the  enemy,  or  attempted  to  operate  on  the 
flank  and  rear  of  the  phalanx,  and  to  take  ad 
vantage  of  any  disorder.  In  case  of  a  victory 
they  undertook  the  pursuit ;  in  case  of  defeat 
they  covered  the  retreat  as  much  as  possible. 
They  were  also  used  for  reconnoitring  expedi 
tions  and  forays,  they  harassed  the  enemy  on 
the  march,  especially  when  he  had  to  pass  a 
defile,  and  they  tried  to  capture  his  convoys 
and  stragglers.  The  phalanx  always  operated 
as  a  whole;  its  subdivisions  into  smaller  bodies 
had  no  technical  significance;  their  command 
ers  had  no  other  task  than  to  see  that  the 
order  of  the  phalanx  was  not  broken,  or  was 
quickly  restored.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Pe 
loponnesian  war,  the  Athenian  army  mustered 
1.3,000  hoplitse  for  field  service,  61,000  (the 
youngest  and  the  oldest  soldiers)  for  garrison 
duty,  1,200  horsemen,  and  1,600  archers.  Ac 
cording  to  Bceckh's  calculations,  the  force  sent 
against  Syracuse  numbered  38,560  men,  and 


reinforcements  despatched  afterward,  26,000. 
The  ruin  of  this  expedition  utterly  exhausted  the 
resources  of  Athens. — Sparta  was  preeminently 
the  military  state  of  Greece.  The  Spartans  di 
rected  their  attention  mostly  to  strength,  endu 
rance,  and  hardiness.  They  valued  steadiness  in 
the  ranks,  and  military  point  of  honor,  more  than 
intelligence.  As  long  as  the  phalanx  decided 
the  battle,  the  Spartan  in  the  long  run  had  the 
best  of  it.  In  Sparta  every  freeman  was  en 
rolled  in  the  army  lists  from  his  20th  to  his 
60th  year.  The  ephors  determined  the  num 
ber  to  be  called  out,  and  they  were  generally 
chosen  among  the  middle-aged  men,  from  30 
to  40.  As  in  Athens,  the  men  belonging  to 
the  same  tribe  or  locality  were  enrolled  in  the 
same  body  of  troops.  The  organization  of  the 
army  was  based  upon  the  confraternities  (eno- 
motice)  introduced  by  Lycurgus,  two  of  which 
formed  a  pentecostys  ;  two  of  these  were  uni 
ted  into  a  lochos,  and  eight  or  four  lochi  into 
a  mora.  This  was  the  organization  in  Xeno- 
phon's  time;  in  former  periods  it  appears  to 
have  varied.  The  strength  of  a  mora  is  vari 
ously  stated  at  from  400  to  900  men,  and  their 
number  at  one  time  was  said  to  be  600.  These 
various  bodies  of  free  Spartans  formed  the 
phalanx ;  the  lioplitje  composing  it  were  armed 
with  a  spear,  a  short  sword,  and  a  shield  fas 
tened  round  the  neck.  Later  on,  Cleomenes 
introduced  the  large  Carian  shield,  fastened  by 
a  string  on  the  left  arm,  and  leaving  both 
hands  of  the  soldier  free.  The  Spartans  con 
sidered  it  disgraceful  for  their  men  to  return 
after  a  defeat  without  their  shields;  the  pres 
ervation  of  the  shield  proved  the  retreat  to 
have  been  made  in  good  order  and  in  a  compact 
phalanx,  while  single  fugitives,  running  for 
their  lives,  of  course  had  to  throw  away  the 
clumsy  shield.  The  Spartan  phalanx  was  gen 
erally"  eight  deep,  but  sometimes  the  depth  was 
doubled  by  placing  one  wing  behind  the  other. 
The  men  appear  to  have  marched  in  step ; 
some  elementary  evolutions  were  also  in  use, 
such  as  changing  front  to  the  rear  by  facing 
the  men  about,  advancing  or  retiring  a  wing 
by  wheeling,  &c. ;  but  they  would  seem  to 
have  been  introduced  at  a  later  period  only. 
In  their  best  times,  the  Spartan  phalanx,  like 
that  of  Athens,  knew  the  parallel  front  attack 
only.  The  ranks  on  the  march  were  distant 
from  each  other  six  feet,  in  the  charge  three 
feet,  and  in  a  position  receiving  the  charge 
only  a  foot  and  a  half,  from  rank  to  rank.  The 
army  was  commanded  by  one  of  the  kings, 
who,  with  his  suite  (damosia'),  occupied  a  po 
sition  in  the  centre  of  the  phalanx.  After 
ward,  the  number  of  the  free  Spartans  having 
considerably  decreased,  the  strength  of  the 
phalanx  was  kept  up  by  a  selection  from  the 
subjected  Perioeci.  The  cavalry  was  never 
stronger  than  about  600  men,  divided  into 
troops  (ulami}  of  50  men;  it  merely  covered 
the  wings.  There  was  besides  a  body  of  3CO 
mounted  men,  the  elite  of  the  Spartan  youth, 
but  they  dismounted  in  battle,  and  formed  a 


740 


APvMY 


sort  of  bodjjaarJ  of  hoplita  around  the  king. 
Of  light'  troops,  there  were  the  skiritce,  in 
habitants  of  the  mountains  near  Arcadia,  who 
generally  covered  the  left  wing;  the  hoplitae 
of  the  phalanx,  besides,  had  Helot  servants, 
who  were  expected  in  battle  to  do  duty  as 
skirmishers;  thus,  the  5,000  hoplitie  at  Pla- 
trea  brought  35,000  Helot  light  troops  with 
them,  but  of  the  exploits  of  these  latter  we  find 
nothing  stated  in  history. — The  simple  tactics 
of  the  Greeks  underwent  considerable  changes 
after  the  Peloponnesian  war.  At  the  battle  of 
Leuctra,  Epaminondas  had  to  oppose  with  a 
small  force  of  Thebans  the  far  more  numerous 
and  hitherto  invincible  Spartan  phalanx.  The  j 
plain,  parallel  front  attack  here  would  have  I 
been  equivalent  to  certain  defeat,  both  wings  | 
being  outflanked  by  the  longer  front  of  the 
enemy.  Epaminondas,  instead  of  advancing  in 
line,  formed  his  army  into  a  deep  column,  and 
advanced  against  one  wing  of  the  Spartan 

fhalanx,  where  the  king  had  taken  his  station. 
te  succeeded  in  breaking  through  the  Spartan 
line  at  this,  the  decisive  point ;  he  then  wheeled 
his  troops  round,  and  moving  on  either  hand,  he 
himself  outflanked  the  broken  line,  which  could 
not  form  a  new  front  without  losing  its  tactical 
order.    At  the  battle  of  Mantinea  the  Spartans 
formed  their  phalanx  with  a  greater  depth,  but 
nevertheless  the  Theban  column  again  broke 
through  it.   Agesilaus  in  Sparta,  and  Timothcus, 
Iphicrates,  and  Chabrias  in  Athens,  also  intro 
duced  changes  in  infantry  tactics.     Iphicrates 
improved  the  peltastso.    They  were  armed  with 
a  small  round  target,  strong  linen  corslet,  and 
long  spear  of  wood.     Chabrias  made  the  first 
ranks  of  the  phalanx,  when  on  the  defensive, 
kneel  down  to  receive  the   enemy's  charge. 
Full  squares,  and  other  columns,  &c.,  were  in 
troduced,  and  accordingly  deployments  formed 
part  of  the  elementary  tactics.     At  the  same 
time,  greater  attention  was  paid  to  light  in 
fantry  of  all  kinds;    several  species  of  amis 
were  borrowed  from,  the  barbarous  and  semi- 
barbarous  neighbors  of  the  Greeks,   such   as 
archers,   mounted   and  on   foot,   slingers,  &c. 
The  majority  of  the  soldiers  of  this  period  con 
sisted  of  mercenaries.     The  wealthy  citizens,  | 
instead  of  doing  duty  themselves,  found  it  more  I 
convenient  to  pay  for  substitutes.     The  char-  j 
acter  of  the  phalanx,  as  the  preeminently  na 
tional  portion  of  the  army,  in  which  the'  free  j 
citizens  of  the  state  only  were  admitted,  thus  j 
suffered   from   this   admixture  of  mercenaries 
who  had  no  right  of  citizenship.     Toward  the  j 
approach  of  the  Macedonian  epoch,  Greece  and  j 
her  colonies  were  as  much  a  mart  for  soldiers  J 
of  fortune  and  mercenaries  as  Switzerland  in  j 
the  18th  century.      The  Egyptian  kings  had  at  \ 
an  early  time  formed  a  corps  of  Greek  troops.  I 
Afterward   the  Persian   king   gave   his   army  | 
some  steadiness  by  the  admission  of  a  body  of 
Greek  mercenaries.    The  chiefs  of  these  bodies 
were  regular  condottieri,  as  much  as  those  of 
Italy  in  the  15th  century.     During  this  period 
warlike  engines  for  throwing  stones,  darts,  and 


incendiary  projectiles  were  introduced,  espe 
cially  by  the  Athenians.  Pericles  already  used 
some  similar  machines  at  the  siege  of  Samos. 
Sieges  were  carried  on  by  forming  a  line  of 
contra vallation,  with  ditch  or  parapet,  round 
the  place,  investing  it,  and  by  the  attempt  to 
place  the  war  engines  in  a  commanding  posi 
tion  near  the  walls.  Mining  was  regularly 
made  use  of,  to  bring  the  walls  down.  At  the 
assault,  the  column  formed  the  syna&pi&mus, 
the  outer  ranks  holding  their  shields  before 
them,  and  the  inner  ranks  holding  them  over 
their  heads,  so  as  to  form  a  roof  (the  testudo 
of  the  Romans)  against  the  projectiles  of  the 
enemy. — While  Greek  skill  was  thus  mainly 
directed  toward  shaping  the  flexible  material  of 
the  mercenary  bands  into  all  sorts  of  novel  and 
artificial  formations,  and  in  adopting  or  invent 
ing  new  species  of  light  troops,  to  the  detri 
ment  of  the  ancient  Doric  heavy  phalanx, 
which  at  that  time  alone  could  decide  battles, 
a  monarchy  grew  up  which,  adopting  all  real 
improvements,  formed  a  body  of  heavy  infantry 
of  such  colossal  dimensions,  that  no  army  with 
which  it  came  in  contact  could  resist  its  shock. 
Philip  of  Macedon  formed  a  standing  army  of 
about  30,000  infantry  and  8,000  cavalry.  The 
main  body  of  the  army  was  an  immense  pha 
lanx  of  some  16,000  or  18,000  men,  formed 
upon  the  principle  of  the  Spartan  phalanx,  but 
improved  in  armament.  The  small  Grecian 
shield  was  replaced  by  the  large  oblong  Carian 
buckler,  and  the  moderate-sized  spear  by  tho 
Macedonian  pike  (sarissa)  of  24  feet  in  length. 
The  depth  of  this  phalanx  varied  under  Philip 
from  8  to  10,  12,  and  24  men.  With  the  tre 
mendous  length  of  the  pikes,  each  of  the  six 
front  ranks  could,  on  levelling  them,  make  the 
points  project  in  front  of  the  first  rank.  The- 
regular  advance  of  such  a  long  front  of  from 
1,000  to  2,000  men  presupposes  a  great  per 
fection  of  elementary  drill,  which  in  conse 
quence  was  continually  practised.  Alexander 
completed  this  organization.  His  phalanx 
was  normally  16,384  men  strong,  or  1,024  in 
front  by  16  deep.  The  file  (lochos)  of  16  men 
was  conducted  by  a  lochagos,  who  stood  in  the 
front  rank.  Two  files  formed  a  dilochy,  two 
of  which  made  a  tetrarchy,  two  of  which  a 
taxiarchy,  two  of  which  a  xenagy  or  syntagma, 
16  men  in  front  by  16  deep.  This  was  the  unit 
of  evolution,  the  march  being  made  in  columns 
of  xenagies,  16  in  front.  Sixteen  xenagies 
(equal  to  eight  pentecosiarchies,  or  four  chili- 
archies,  or  two  telarchies)  formed  a  small  pha 
lanx,  two  of  which  a  diphalangarchy,  and  four 
a  tetraphalangarchy  or  phalanx  properly  so 
called.  Every  one  of  these  subdivisions  had 
its  corresponding  officer.  The  diphalangarchy 
of  the  right  wing  was  called  head,  that  of  the 
left  wing  tail,  or  rear.  Whenever  extraordina 
ry  solidity  was  required,  the  left  wing  took 
station  behind  the  right,  forming  512  men  in 
front  by  32  in  depth.  On  the  other  hand,  by 
deploying  the  eight  rear  ranks  on  the  left  of 
the  front  ranks,  the  extent  of  front  could  be 


ARMY 


741 


doubled,  and  the  depth  reduced  to  eight.  The 
distances  of  ranks  and  files  were  similar  to  those 
of  the  Spartans,  hut  the  close  order  was  so  com 
pact  that  the  single  soldier  in  the  middle  of  the 
phalanx  could  not  turn.  Intervals  between 
the  subdivisions  of  the  phalanx  were  not  al 
lowed  in  battle ;  the  whole  formed  one  contin 
uous  line,  charging  en  inuraille.  The  phalanx 
was  formed  by  Macedonian  volunteers  exclu 
sively  ;  though,  after  the  conquest  of  Greece, 
Greeks  also  could  enter  it.  The  soldiers  were 
all  heavy-armed  hoplitae.  Besides  shield  and 
pike,  they  carried  a  helmet  and  sword,  although 
the  hand-to-hand  fight  with  the  latter  weapon 
cannot  very  often  have  been  required  after  the 
charge  of  that  forest  of  pikes.  When  the  pha 
lanx  had  to  meet  the  Roman  legion,  the  case 
indeed  was  different.  The  whole  phalangite 
system,  from  the  earliest  Doric  times  down  to 
the  breaking  up  of  the  Macedonian  empire, 
suffered  from  one  great  inconvenience ;  it  want 
ed  flexibility.  Unless  on  a  level  and  open 
plain,  these  long,  deep  lines  could  not  move 
with  order  and  regularity.  Every  obstacle  in 
front  forced  it  to  form  column,  in  which  shape 
it  was  not  prepared  to  act.  Moreover,  it  had 
no  second  line  or  reserve.  As  soon,  therefore, 
as  it  was  met  by  an  army  formed  in  smaller 
bodies  and  adapted  to  turn  obstacles  of  ground 
without  breaking  line,  and  disposed  in  several 
lines  seconding  each  other,  the  phalanx  could 
not  help  going  into  broken  ground,  where  its 
new  opponent  completely  cut  it  up.  But  to 
such  opponents  as  Alexander  had  at  Arbela, 
his  two  large  phalanxes  must  have  appeared 
invincible.  Besides  this  heavy  infantry  of  the 
line,  Alexander  had  a  guard  of  6,000  hypaspis- 
t<e,  still  more  heavily  armed,  with  even  larger 
bucklers  and  longer  pikes.  His  light  infantry 
consisted  of  aryyraspides,  with  small  silver- 
plated  shields,  and  of  numerous  peltastae,  both 
of  which  troops  were  organized  in  semi -pha 
lanxes  of  normally  8,192  men,  being  able  to 
fight  either  in  extended  order  or  in  line,  like 
the  hoplitrc ;  and  their  phalanx  often  had  the 
same  success.  The  Macedonian  cavalry  was 
composed  of  young  Macedonian  and  Thessalian 
noblemen,  with  the  addition  subsequently  of  a 
body  of  horsemen  from  Greece  proper.  They 
were  divided  into  squadrons  (Ua),  of  which 
the  Macedonian  nobility  alone  formed  eight. 
They  belonged  to  what  we  should  call  heavy 
cavalry ;  they  wore  a  helmet  and  a  cuirass  with 
cuissarts  of  iron  scales  to  protect  the  leg,  and 
were  armed  with  a  long  sword  and  pike.  The 
horses,  too,  wore  frontlets  of  iron.  This  class 
of  cavalry,  the  cataphracti,  received  great  at 
tention  both  from  Philip  and  Alexander  ;  the 
latter  used  it  for  his  decisive  manoauvre  at  Ar 
bela,  when  he  first  beat  and  pursued  one  wing 
of  the  Persians,  and  then,  passing  behind  their 
centre,  fell  upon  the  rear  of  the  other  wing. 
They  charged  in  various  formations  :  in  line,  m 
common  rectangular  column,  in  rhomboid  or 
wedge-shaped  column.  The  light  cavalry  had  no 
defensive  armor ;  it  carried  javelins  and  light 


1  short  lances.    There  was  also  a  corps  of  acroba- 
\  lwt(K  or  mounted  archers.     These  troops  served 
i  for  outpost  duty,  patrols,  reconnoitring,  and  ir- 
I  regular  warfare  generally.    They  were  the  con- 
j  tingents  of  Thracian  and  Illyrian  tribes,  which 
i  also  furnished  some  few  thousands  of  irregular 
;  infantry.     A  new  arm  invented  by  Alexander 
1  claims  our  attention  from  the  circumstance  that 
:  it  has  been  imitated  in  modern  times — the  di- 
macJice,  mounted  troops  expected  to  fight  either 
as  cavalry  or  as  infantry.     The  dragoons  of  the 
16th  and  following  centuries,  as  well  as  the 
1  light  cavalry  and  mounted  infantry  of  our  own 
day,  are  complete  counterparts  to  these  ancient 
dimachae.     We  have  no  exact  information  as 
to  the  success  with  which  the  dimachfe  were 
I  used.     The  foregoing  statement  describes  the 
I  composition  of  the  army  with  which  Alexander 
j  conquered  the  country  between  the  Mediter- 
|  ranean,  the  Oxus,  and  the  Sutlej.     As  to  its 
strength  at  Arbela,  it  consisted  of  two  large 
phalanxes  of  hoplitra  (say  30,000  men),  two 
semi-phalanxes  of  peltastae  (16,000),  4,000  cav 
alry,  and  6,000  irregular  troops;  in  all  about 
56,000  men.     At  the  Granicus,  his  force  of  all 
arms  was  35,000  men,  of  whom  5,000  were  cav 
alry. — The  armies  of  the  successors  of  Alexan 
der  show  no  improvements  on  his  formations. 
The  introduction  of  elephants  was  but  of  short 
duration;  when  .terrified  by  fire,  these  animals 
were  more  formidable  to  their  own  troops  than 
to  the  enemy.     The  later  Greek  armies,  under 
the  Achaean  league,  were  formed  partly  on  the 
Macedonian,  partly  on  the  Roman  system. — Of 
the  Carthaginian  army  we  know  no  details; 
even   the  strength   of  the   force  with  which 
Hannibal  passed  the  Alps  is  disputed. — The 
Roman  army  presents  us  with  the  most  per 
fect  system  of  infantry  tactics  invented  during 
the  time  when  the  use  of  gunpowder  was  un 
known.     It  maintained  the  predominance  of 
heavy  infantry  and  compact  bodies,  but  added 
to  it  mobility  of  the  separate  smaller  bodies,  the 
possibility  of  fighting  in  broken  ground,  the  dis 
position  of  several  lines  one  behind  the  other, 
partly  as  supports  and  reliefs,  partly  as  a  pow- 
!  erf  ill  reserve,  and  finally  a  system  of  training 
!  the  single  soldier  which  was  even  more  to  the 
purpose  than  that  of  Sparta.    The  Romans  ac 
cordingly  overthrew  every  armament  opposed 
to  them,  the  Macedonian  phalanx  as  well  as  the 
Numidian  horse.     In  Rome  every  citizen  from 
his  17th  to  his  45th  or  50th  year  was  liable  to 
|  serve,  unless  he  belonged  to  the  lowest  class,  or 
!  had  served  in  20  campaigns  on  foot,  or  10  cam 
paigns  as  a  horseman.     Generally  the  younger 
|  men  only  were  selected.      The  drill  of  the  sol- 
|  dier  Avas  very  severe,  and  calculated  to  develop 
i  his  bodily  powers  in  every  imaginable  way. 
|  Running,  jumping,  vaulting,  climbing,  wrest- 
I  ling,  swimming,  first  naked,  then  in  full  arma- 
i  ment,  were  largely  practised,  besides  the  regu- 
:  lar  drill  in  the  use  of  the  arms  and  the  various 
;  movements.    Long  marches  in  heavy  marching 
order,  every  soldier  carrying  from  35  to  60  Ibs., 
were  kept  up  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour. 


742 


ARMY 


The  use  of  the  intrenching  tools,  and  the  throw 
ing  up  of  intrenched  camps  in  a  short  time,  also 
formed  part  of  the  military  education  ;  and  not 
only  the  recruit,  but  even  the  legions  of  vet 
erans,  had  to  undergo  all  these  exercises  in 
order  to  keep  their  bodies  fresh  and  supple, 
and  to  remain  inured  to  fatigue  and  want.  In 
the  best  times  of  the  republic  there  were  gen 
erally  two  consular  armies,  each  consisting  of 
two  legions  and  the  contingents  of  the  allies  (in 
infantry  of  equal  strength,  cavalry  double  the 
strength  of  the  Romans).  The  levy  of  the 
troops  was  made  in  a  general  assembly  of  the 
citizens  at  the  capitol  or  on  the  Campus  Mar 
tins  ;  an  equal  number  of  men  was  taken  from 
every  tribe,  which  was  again  equally  subdivid 
ed  among  the  four  legions,  until  the  number 
was  completed.  Very  often  citizens,  freed 
from  service  by  age  or  their  numerous  cam 
paigns,  entered  again  as  volunteers.  The  re 
cruits  were  then  sworn  in  and  dismissed  until 
required.  When  called  in,  the  youngest  and 
poorest  were  taken  for  the  velites,  the  next  in 
age  and  means  for  the  hastati  and  principes, 
the  oldest  and  wealthiest  for  the  triarii.  Every 
legion  counted  1,200  velites,  1,200  hastati, 
1,200  principes,  600  triarii,  and  300  horsemen 
(knights);  in  all,  4,500.  The  hastati,  prin 
cipes,  and  triarii  were  each  divided  into  ten 
manipuli  or  companies,  and  an  equal  number 
of  velites  attached  to  each.  The  velites  (ro- 
rarii,  accensi,  feren ta rii)  formed  the  light  in 
fantry  of  the  legion,  and  stood  on  its  wings 
along  with  the  cavalry.  The  hastati  formed 
the  first,  the  principes  the  second  line  ;  they 
were  originally  armed  with  spears.  The  triarii 
formed  the  reserve,  and  were  armed  with  the 
pilum,  a  short  but  extremely  heavy  and  danger 
ous  spear,  which  they  threw  into  the  front 
ranks  of  the  enemy  immediately  before  enga 
ging  him  sword  in  hand.  Every  manipulus  was 
commanded  by  a  centurion,  having  a  second 
centurion  for  his  lieutenant.  The  centurions 
ranked  through  the  whole  of  the  legion,  from 
the  second  centurion  of  the  last  or  tenth  ma 
nipulus  of  the  hastati  to  the  first  centurion  of 
the  first  manipulus  of  the  triarii  (primus  pilus), 
who,  in  the  absence  of  a  superior  officer,  even 
took  the  command  of  the  whole  legion.  Com 
monly,  the  primus  pilus  commanded  all  the 
triarii,  the  same  as  the  primus  princeps  (first 
centurion  of  first  manipulus  of  principes),  all 
the  principes  and  the  primus  hastatus,  and  all 
the  hastati  of  the  legion.  The  legion  was  com 
manded  in  the  earlier  times  in  turns  by  its  six 
military  tribunes ;  each  of  them  held  the  com 
mand  for  two  months.  After  the  first  civil 
war,  legates  were  placed  as  standing  chiefs  at 
the  head  of  every  legion ;  the  tribunes  now  were 
mostly  officers  intrusted  with  the  staff  or  ad 
ministrative  business.  The  difference  of  arma- 
men^  of  the  three  lines  had  disappeared  before 
the  time  of  Marius.  The  pilum  had  been  given  to 
all  three  lines  of  the  legion ;  it  was  now  the  na 
tional  arm  of  the  Romans.  The  qualitative  dis 
tinction  between  the  three  lines,  as  far  as  it  was 


based  upon  age  and  length  of  service,  soon  dis 
appeared  too.  In  the  battle  of  Metellus  against 
Jugurtha,  there  appeared,  according  to  Sail  list, 
for  the  last  time  hastati,  principes,  and  triarii. 
Marius  now  formed  out  of  the  30  manipuli  of 
the  legion  10  cohorts,  and  disposed  them  in  two 
lines  of  five  cohorts  each.  At  the  same  time,  the 
normal  strength  of  the  cohort  was  raised  to  (>00 
men ;  the  first  cohort,  under  the  primus  pilus, 
carried  the  legionary  eagle.  The  cavalry  re 
mained  formed  in  turmce  of  30  rank  and  file 
and  three  decurions,  the  first  of  whom  com 
manded  the  turma.  The  armature  of  the  Ro 
man  infantry  consisted  of  a  shield  of  semi- 
cylindric  shape,  4  feet  by  2A-,  made  of  wood, 
covered  with  leather  and  strengthened  with 
iron  fastenings;  in  the  middle  it  had  a  boss 
(umbo)  to  parry  off  spear  thrusts.  The  helmet 
was  of  brass,  generally  with  a  prolongation  be 
hind  to  protect  the  neck,  and  fastened  on  with 
leather  bands  covered  with  brass  scales.  The 
breastplate,  about  a  foot  square,  was  fastened 
on  a  leather  corslet  with  Scaled  straps  passing 
over  the  shoulder ;  for  the  centurions,  it  con 
sisted  of  a  coat  of  mail  covered  with  brass 
scales.  The  right  leg,  exposed  when  advanced 
for  the  sword  thrust,  was  protected  by  a  brass 
plate.  Besides  the  short  sword,  which  was 
used  for  thrusting  more  than  for  cutting,  the 
soldier  carried  the  pilum,  a  heavy  spear  4^  feet 
wood  with  a  projecting  iron  point  of  \\  foot, 
or  nearly  6  feet  in  all  long,  but  2-^  inches  square 
in  the  wood,  and  weighing  about  10  or  11  Ibs. 
When  thrown  at  10  or  15  paces  distance,  it 
often  penetrated  shield  and  breastplate,  and  al 
most  always  threw  down  its  man.  The  velites, 
lightly  equipped,  carried  light  short  javelins. 
In  the  later  periods  of  the  republic,  when  bar 
baric  auxiliaries  undertook  the  light  service, 
this  class  of  troops  disappeared  entirely.  The 
cavalry  were  provided  with  defensive  armor 
similar  to  that  of  the  infantry,  a  lance,  and  a 
longer  sword.  But  the  Roman  national  cavalry 
was  not  very  good,  and  preferred  to  fight  dis 
mounted.  In  later  periods  Numidian,  Spanish, 
Gallic,  and  German  horsemen  supplanted  it. 
The  tactical  disposition  of  the  troops  admitted 
of  great  mobility.  The  manipuli  were  formed 
at  intervals  equal  to  their  extent  of  front;  the 
depth  varied  from  5  or  C  to  10  men.  The  ma 
nipuli  of  the  second  line  were  placed  behind 
the  intervals  of  the  first ;  the  triarii  still  fur 
ther  to  the  rear,  but  in  one  unbroken  line. 
According  to  circumstances,  the  manipuli  of 
each  line  could  close  up  or  form  line  without 
intervals,  or  those  of  the  second  line  could 
march  up  to  fill  the  intervals  of  the  first ;  or 
else,  where  greater  depth  was  required,  the 
manipuli  of  the  principes  closed  up  each  in  rear 
of  the  corresponding  manipulus  of  the  hastati, 
doubling  its  depth.  When  opposed  to  the  ele 
phants  of  Pyrrhus,  the  three  lines  all  formed 
with  intervals,  each  manipulus  covering  the 
one  in  its  front,  so  as  to  leave  room  for  the  an 
imals  to  pass  straight  through  the  order  of 
battle.  In  this  formation  the  clumsiness  of  the 


ARMY 


phalanx  was  in  every  way  successfully  over 
come.  The  legion  could  move  and  manoeuvre, 
without  breaking  its  order  of  battle,  in  ground 
where  the  phalanx  durst  not  venture  without 
the  utmost  risk.  One  or  two  manipuli  at  most 
would  have  to  shorten  their  front  to  defile  past 
an  obstacle;  in  a  few  moments  the  front  was 
restored.  The  legion  could  cover  the  whole 
of  its  front  by  light  troops,  as  they  could  retire, 
on  the  advance  of  the  line,  through  the  inter 
vals.  But  the  principal  advantage  was  the 
disposition  in  a  plurality  of  lines,  brought  into 
action  successively,  according  to  the  require 
ments  of  the  moment.  "With  the  phalanx,  one 
shock  had  to  decide.  Xo  fresh  troops  were  in 
reserve  to  take  up  the  tight  in  case  of  a  reverse ; 
in  fact,  that  case  was  never  provided  for.  The 
legion  could  engage  the  enemy  with  its  light 
troops  and  cavalry  on  the  whole  of  his  front ; 
could  oppose  to  the  advance  of  his  phalanx  its 
first  line  of  hastati,  which  was  not  so  easily 
beaten,  as  at  least  six  of  the  ten  manipuli  had 
first  to  be  broken  singly ;  could  wear  out  the 
strength  of  the  enemy  by  the  advance  of  the 
hastati,  and  finally  decide  the  victory  by  the 
triarii.  Thus  the  troops  and  the  progress  of 
the  battle  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  general, 
while  the  phalanx,  once  engaged,  was  irretriev 
ably  engaged,  with  all  its  strength,  and  had  to 
see  the  battle  out.  If  the  Roman  general  de 
sired  to  break  otf  the  combat,  the  legionary 
organization  permitted  him  to  take  up  a  posi 
tion  with  his  reserves,  while  the  troops  engaged 
before  retired  through  the  intervals,  and  took 
np  a  position  in  their  turn.  Under  all  circum 
stances,  there  was  always  a  portion  of  the 
troops  in  good  order,  for  even  if  the  triarii  were 
repulsed,  the  two  first  lines  had  reformed  be 
hind  them.  When  the  legions  of  Flamininus 
met  Philip's  phalanx  in  the  plains  of  Thessaly, 
their  first  attack  was  at  once  repulsed;  but 
charge  following  charge,  the  Macedonians  got 
tired  and  lost  part  of  their  compactness  of  for 
mation  ;  and  wherever  a  sign  of  disorder  mani 
fested  itself,  there  was  a  Roman  manipulus  to 
attempt  an  inroad  into  the  clumsy  mass.  At 
last,  20  manipuli  attacking  the  flanks  and  rear 
of  the  phalanx,,  tactical  continuity  could  no 
longer  be  maintained ;  the  deep  line  dissolved 
into  a  swarm  of  fugitives,  and  the  battle  was 
lost.  Against  cavalry,  the  legion  formed  the 
orb  w,  a  sort  of  square  with  baggage  in  the  cen 
tre.  On  the  march,  when  an  attack  was  to  be 
apprehended,  it  formed  the  legio  qvadrata,  a 
sort  of  lengthened  column  with  a  wide  front, 
baggage  in  the  centre.  This  was  of  course 
possible  in  the  open  plain  only  where  the  line 
of  march  could  go  across  the  country. — In 
Caesar's  time  the  legions  were  mostly  recruited 
by  voluntary  enlistment  in  Italy.  After  the  so 
cial  war,  the  right  of  citizenship,  and  with  it  lia 
bility  for  service,  had  been  extended  to  all  Italy. 
The  pay  was  about  equal  to  the  earnings  of  a 
laborer ;  recruits,  therefore,  were  plentiful,  even 
without  having  recourse  to  the  conscription. 
In  exceptional  cases  only  were  legions  recruited 


in  the  provinces ;  thus  Ca3sar  had  his  fifth  le 
gion  recruited  in  Roman  Gaul,  but  afterward 
it  received  the  Roman  naturalization  en  masse. 
The  legions  were  far  from  having  the  nominal 
strength  of  4,500  men;  those  of  Caesar  were 
seldom  much  above  3,000.  Levies  of  recruits 
were  formed  into  new  legions  (legiones  tironum), 
rather  than  mixed  with  the  veterans  in  the  old 
legions;  these  new  legions  were  at  first  ex 
cluded  from  battles  in  the  open  field,  and  prin 
cipally  used  for  guarding  the  camp.  The  legion 
was  divided  into  ten  cohorts  of  three  manipuli 
each.  The  names  of  hastati,  principes,  and  tri 
arii  were  maintained  as  far  as  necessary  to  de 
note  the  rank  of  officers  according  to  the  sys 
tem  indicated  above ;  as  to  the  soldiers,  these 
names  had  lost  all  significance.  The  six  centu 
rions  of  the  first  cohort  of  each  legion  were  by 
right  present  at  councils  of  war.  The  centuri 
ons  rose  from  the  ranks,  and  seldom  attained 
higher  command  ;  the  school  for  superior  offi 
cers  was  in  the  personal  staff  of  the  general, 
consisting  of  young  men  of  education,  who 
soon  advanced  to  the  rank  of  trilnni  militum, 
and  later  on  to  that  of  legati.  The  armament 
of  the  soldier  remained  the  same :  pilurn  and 
sword.  Besides  his  accoutrements,  the  soldier 
carried  his  personal  baggage,  weighing  from 
35  to  GO  pounds.  The  contrivance  for  carrying 
it  was  so  clumsy  that  the  baggage  had  first  to 
be  deposited  before  the  soldier  was  ready  for 
battle.  The  camp  utensils  of  the  army  were 
carried  on  •  the  backs  of  horses  and  mules,  of 
which  a  legion  required  about  500.  Every  le 
gion  had  its  eagle,  and  every  cohort  its  colors. 
For  light  infantry,  Caesar  drew  from  his  legions 
a  certain  number  of  men  (antesignani)  equally 
fit  for  light  service  and  for  close  fight  in  line. 
Besides  these,  he  had  his  provincial  auxiliaries, 
Cretan  archers,  Balearic  slingers,  Gallic  and 
Nurnidian  contingents,  and  German  mercena 
ries.  His  cavalry  consisted  partly  of  Gallic, 
partly  of  German  troops.  The  Roman  velites 
and  cavalry  had  disappeared  some  time  before. 
The  staff  of  the  army  consisted  of  the  legati, 
appointed  by  the  senate,  the  lieutenants  of  the 
general,  whom  he  employed  to  command  de 
tached  corps,  or  portions  of  the  order  of  battle. 
Caesar  for  the  first  time  gave  to  every  legion  a 
legate  as  standing  commander.  If  there  were 
not  legates  enough,  the  quaestor,  too,  had  to 
take  the  command  of  a  legion.  He  was  prop 
erly  the  paymaster  of  the  army  and  chief  of 
the  commissariat,  and  was  assisted  in  this  office 
by  numerous  clerks  and  orderlies.  Attached 
to  the  staff  were  the  tribuni  militum,  and  the 
young  volunteers  above  mentioned  (contubcr- 
nales,  comites  prcetorii),  doing  duty  as  adju 
tants  or  orderly  officers ;  but  in  battle  they 
fought  in  line,  the  same  as  private  soldiers,  in 
the  ranks  of  the  coliors  proetoria,  consisting  of 
the  lictors,  clerks,  servants,  guides  (specula- 
tores),  and  orderlies  (apparitores)  of  the  head 
quarters.  The  general  had  a  sort  of  personal 
guard,  consisting  of  veterans,  who  had  volun 
tarily  reenlisted  on  the  call  of  their  former 


744 


ARMY 


chief.  This  troop,  mounted  on  the  march,  but 
fighting:  on  foot,  was  considered  the  elite  of 
the  army  ;  it  carried  and  guarded  the  vcxillum, 
the  signal  banner  for  the  whole  army.  In  bat 
tle,  Cresar  generally  fought  in  three  lines,  four 
cohorts  per  legion  in  the  first,  and  three  in  the 
second  and  third  lines  each  ;  the  cohorts  of  the 
second  line  dressed  on  the  intervals  of  the  first. 
The  second  line  had  to  relieve  the  first;  the 
third  line  formed  a  general  reserve  for  decisive 
manoeuvres  against  the  front  or  fiank  of  the 
enemy,  or  for  parrying  his  decisive  thrusts. 
Wherever  the  enemy  so  far  outflanked  the  line 
that  its  prolongation  became  necessary,  the 
army  was  disposed  in  two  lines  only.  One 
single  line  (ac-ics  simplex)  was  made  use  of  in 
an  extreme  case  of  need  only,  and  then  without 
intervals  between  the  cohorts ;  in  the  defence 
of  a  camp,  however,  it  was  the  rule,  as  the  line 
was  still  eight  to  ten  deep,  and  could  form  a 
reserve  from  the  men  who  had  no  room  on  the 
parapet. —  Augustus  completed  the  work  of 
making  the  Roman  troops  a  regular  standing 
army.  He  had  25  legions  distributed  all  over 
the  empire,  of  which  eight  were  on  the  Rhine 
(considered  the  main  strength  of  the  army), 
three  in  Spain,  two  in  Africa,  two  in  Egypt, 
four  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  six  in  the  Danu- 
bian  countries.  Italy  was  garrisoned  by  chosen 
troops  recruited  exclusively  in  that  country, 
and  forming  the  imperial  guard ;  this  consisted 
of  12,  later  on  of  14  cohorts;  and  the  city  of 
Rome  had  also  7  cohorts  of  municipal  guards 
(rig  lies),  formed  originally  from  emancipated 
slaves.  Besides  this  regular  army,  the  prov 
inces  had  to  furnish,  as  formerly,  their  light 
auxiliary  troops,  now  mostly  reduced  to  a  sort 
of  militia  for  garrison  and  police  duty.  On 
menaced  frontiers,  however,  not  only  these 
auxiliary  troops,  but  foreign  mercenaries  also, 
were  employed  in  active  service.  The  number 
of  legions  increased  under  Trajan  to  30,  under 
Septimius  Severus  to  33.  The  legions,  besides 
their  numbers,  had  names,  taken  from  their 
stations  (L.  German  ica,  L.  Italica},  from  em 
perors  (L.  Augusta),  from  gods  (L.  Primige- 
nia,  L.  Apollinaris),  or  conferred  as  honorary 
distinctions  (L.  fidelis,  L.  pia,  L.  mvicta). 
The  organization  of  the  legion  underwent  some 
changes.  The  commander  was  now  called 
prosfectus.  The  first  cohort  was  doubled  in 
strength  (cohors  milliaria),  and  the  normal 
strength  of  the  legion  raised  to  6,100  infantry 
and  726  cavalry ;  this  was  to  be  the  minimum, 
-and  in  case  of  need  one  or  more  cohortes  mil- 
Iiaria3  were  to  be  added.  The  cohors  milliaria 
was  commanded  by  a  military  tribune,  the 
others  by  tribunes  or  prcepositi ;  the  rank 
of  cent ttr-io  was  thus  confined  to  subalterns. 
The  admission  of  liberated  or  non-liberated 
slaves,  natives  of  the  provinces,  and  all  sorts 
of  people  into  the  legions,  became  the  rule; 
Roman  citizenship  being  required  for  the  prte- 
torians  in  Italy  only,  and  even  there  this  was 
abandoned  in  later  times.  The  Roman  nation 
ality  of  the  army  was  thus  very  soon  drowned 


in  the  influx  of  barbaric  and    semi-barbaric, 
Romanized  and  non-Romanized  elements;  the 
officers  alone  maintained  the  Roman  character. 
This  deterioration  of  the  elements  composing 
the  army  very  soon  reacted  upon  its  armament 
and   tactics.     The    heavy  breastplate   and   pi- 
lum  were  thrown  aside ;  the  toilsome  system 
of  drill,  which  had  formed  the  conquerors  of 
the  world,  was  neglected  ;  camp-followers  and 
!  luxuries  became   necessary  to  the  arrny,  and 
the  impedimenta  (train  of  baggage)  increased 
as  strength  and  endurance  decreased.     As  had 
been  the  case  in  Greece,  the  decline  was  mark- 
j  cd  by  neglect  of  the  heavy  line  infantry,  by  a 
!  foolish  fancy  for  all  sorts  of  light  armament, 
and  by  the   adoption  of   barbaric  equipments 
and  tactics.  Thus  we  find  innumerable  classifica- 
!  tions  of  light  troops  (auxiliatores,  exculcatores, 
I  jaculatores,  excursatores^prcecursatore^  scutati, 
|  funditores,  balistarii,  tragularii),  armed  with 
i  all  sorts  of  projectiles;   and  we  are   told  by 
I  Vegetius  that  the  cavalry  had  been  improved 
in  imitation  of  the  Goths,  Alans,  and  Huns. 
.  Finally,  all  distinction  of  equipment  and  arma 
ment  between  Romans  and  barbarians  ceased, 
I  and  the  Germans,  physically  and  morally  su 
perior,    marched   over  the  bodies  of  the  un- 
Romanized  legions.     The  conquest  of  the  West 
|  by  the  Germans  thus  was  opposed  by  but  a 
small  remnant,  a  dim  tradition  of  the  ancient 
Roman  tactics ;  but  even  this  small  remnant 
j  was  now  destroyed. — The  whole  of  the  middle 
!  ages  is  as  barren  a  period  for  the  development 
!  of  tactics  as  for  that  of  any  other  science.  The 
j  feudal  system,  though  in  its  very  origin  a  mil- 
1  itary  organization,  was  essentially  opposed  to 
\  discipline.     Rebellions  and  secessions  of  large 
I  vassals,  with  their  contingents,  were  of  regular 
I  occurrence.     The  distribution  of  orders  to  the 
chiefs  turned  generally  into  a  tumultuous  coun- 
!  cil  of  war,  which  rendered  all  extensive  opera- 
|  tions  impossible.    Wars,  therefore,  were  seldom 
|  directed  on  decisive  points  ;  struggles  for  the 
i  possession  of  a  single  locality  filled  up  entire 
|  campaigns.     The  only  operations  of  magnitude 
i  occurring  in  all  this  period  (passing  over  the 
confused  times  from  the  6th  to  the  12th  cen- 
!  tury)  are  the  expeditions  of  the  German  em- 
!  perors  against  Italy,  and  the  crusades,  the  one 
|  as  resultless  as  the  other. — The  infantry  of  the 
middle  ages,  composed  of  the  feudal  retainers 
and  part  of  the  peasantry,  Avas  chiefly  com- 
j  posed  of  pikemen,   and   mostly  contemptible. 
It  was  great   sport   for  the  knights,   covered 
!  with  iron,  to  ride  singly  into  this  unprotected 
rabble,  and  lay  about  them  with  a  will.     A 
;  portion  of  the  infantry  was  armed  on  the  con- 
1  tinent  of  Europe  with  the  crossbow,  while  in 
!  England   the   longbow   became    the    national 
|  weapon  of  the  peasantry.     This  longbow  was 
i  a  very  formidable  weapon,  and   secured   the 
|  superiority  of  the  English  over  the  French  at 
|  Crecy,  Poitiers,  and  Agincourt.     Easily  pro- 
!  tected  against  rain,  which  rendered  the  cross- 
|  bow  unserviceable  at  times,  it  projected  its 
arrow  to  distances  above  200  yards,   or  not 


ARMY 


745 


much  less  than  the  effective  range  of  the  old 
smooth-bore  musket.  The  arrow  penetrated 
a  one-inch  board,  and  would  even  pass  through 
a  breastplate.  Thus  it  long  maintained  its  place 
even  against  the  tirst  small  firearms,  especial 
ly  as  six  arrows  could  be  shot  off  while  the 
musket  of  that  epoch  could  be  loaded  and  fired 
once  ;  and  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  10th  cen 
tury  Queen  Elizabeth  attempted  to  reintroduce 
the  national  longbow  as  a  weapon  of  war.  It 
was  especially  effective  against  cavalry  ;  the 
arrows,  even  if  the  armor  of  the  men-at-arms 
was  proof  against  them,  wounded  or  killed  the 
horses,  and  the  unhorsed  knights  were  thereby 
disabled,  and  generally  made  prisoners.  The 
archers  acted  either  in  skirmishing  order  or  in 
line. — Cavalry  was  the  decisive  arm  of  the 
middle  yges.  The  knights  in  full  armor  formed 
the  first  effective  body  of  heavy  cavalry,  charg 
ing  in  regular  formation,  which  we  meet  with 
in  history  ;  for  Alexander's  cataphracti,  though 
they  decided  the  day  at  Arbela,  were  so  much 
an  exception  that  we  hear  nothing  more  of 
them  after  that  day.  The  only  progress,  then, 
which  the  middle  ages  bequeathed  to  us,  was 
the  creation  of  a  cavalry,  from  which  our 
modern  mounted  service  descends.  And  yet, 
what  a  clumsy  thing  this  cavalry  was,  is  proved 
by  the  one  fact  that  during  the  whole  middle 
ages  the  cavalry  was  the  heavy,  slow-moving 
arm,  while  all  light  service  and  quick  move 
ments  were  executed  by  infantry.  The  knights, 
however,  did  not  always  tight  in  close  order. 
They  preferred  duels  with  single  opponents, 
or  spurring  their  horses  into  the  midst  of  the 
hostile  infantry ;  thus  the  mode  of  fighting 
out  a  battle  was  carried  back  to  the  Homeric 
times.  AVhen  they  did  act  in  close  order,  they 
charged  either  in  line  (one  deep,  the  more 
lightly  armed  esquires  forming  the  second  rank) 
or  in  deep  column.  Such  a  charge  was  under 
taken,  as  a  rule,  against  the  knights  (men-at- 
arms)  only  of  the  opposing  army  ;  upon  its  in 
fantry  it  would  have  been  wasted.  The  horses, 
heavily  laden  with  their  own  as  well  as  their 
riders'  armor,  could  run  but  slowly  and  for 
short  distances.  During  the  crusades,  there 
fore,  and  in  the  wars  with  the  Mongolians  in 
Poland  and  Silesia,  this  immovable  cavalry 
was  constantly  tired  out,  and  finally  worsted 
by  the  active  light  horsemen  of  the  East.  In 
the  Austrian  and  Burgundian  wars  against 
Switzerland,  the  men-at-arms,  entangled  in 
difficult  ground,  had  to  dismount  and  form  a 
phalanx  even  more  immovable  than  that  of 
Macedon ;  in  mountain  defiles,  rocks  and 
stumps  of  trees  were  hurled  down  upon  them, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  phalanx  lost  its 
tactical  order,  and  was  scattered  by  a  resolute 
attack.  Toward  the  14th  century  a  kind  of 
lighter  cavalry  was  introduced,  and  a  portion 
of  the  archers  were  mounted  to  facilitate  their 
manoeuvring ;  but  these  and  other  changes 
were  soon  rendered  useless,  abandoned,  or  turn 
ed  to  different  account  by  the  introduction  of 
that  new  element,  which  was  destined  to  change 


the  whole  system  of  warfare,  gunpowder. — 
From  the  Arabs  in  Spain  the  knowledge  of  the 
composition  and  use  of  gunpowder  spread  to 
France  and  the  rest  of  Europe ;  the  A  rubs 
themselves  had  received  it  from  nations  fur 
ther  east,  who  again  had  it  from  the  original 
inventors,  the  Chinese.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
14th  century  cannon  were  first  introduced  into 
European  armies — heavy,  unwieldy  pieces  of 
ordnance,  throwing  stone  balls,  and  unfit  for 
anything  but  sieges.  Small  arms,  however,  were 
soon  invented.  Perugia  supplied  itself  in  1304 
with  500  hand-guns,  the  barrels  not  more  than 
eight  inches  long;  they  subsequently  gave  rise 
to  the  manufacture  of  pistols  (so  called  from 
Pistoia  in  Tuscany).  Not  long  afterward  longer 
and  heavier  hand-guns  (arquebuses)  were  manu 
factured,  corresponding  to  our  present  musket ; 
but,  short  and  heavy  in  the  barrel,  they  had 
but  a  restricted  range,  and  the  matchlock  was 
an  almost  absolute  hindrance  to  correct  aim. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  14th  century  there 
was  no  military  force  in  western  Europe  with 
out  its  artillery  and  arquebusiers.  But  the  in 
fluence  of  the  new  arm  on  general  tactics  was 
not  yet  perceptible.  Both  large  and  small 
firearms  took  a  long  time  in  loading,  and  what 
with  their  clumsiness  and  costliness,  they  had 
not  superseded  the  crossbow  by  1450. — In  the 
mean  time  the  general  breaking  up  of  the  feu 
dal  system,  and  the  rise  of  cities,  contributed 
to  change  the  composition  of  armies.  The 
larger  vassals  wrere  either  subdued  by  central 
authority,  as  in  France,  or  had  become  quasi-in 
dependent  sovereigns,  as  in  Germany  and  Italy. 
The  power  of  the  lesser  nobility  was  broken 
by  the  central  authority  in  conjunction  with 
the  cities.  The  feudal  armies  no  longer  existed  ; 
new  armies  were  formed  from  the  mercenaries 
whom  the  ruin  of  feudalism  had  set  free  to 
serve  those  who  would  pay  them.  Thus,  some 
thing  approaching  standing  armies  arose  ;  but 
these  mercenaries,  men  of  all  nations,  difficult 
to  keep  in  order,  and  not  very  regularly  paid, 
committed  great  excesses.  In  France,  King 
Charles  VII.  therefore  formed  a  permanent 
force  from  native  elements.  In  1445  he  levied 
15  compagnies  cPordonnance  of  GOO  men  each ; 
in  all,  9,000  cavalry,  stationed  in  the  towns  of 
the  kingdom,  and  paid  with  regularity.  Every 
company  was  divided  into  100  lances;  a  lance 
consisted  of  one  man-at-arms,  three  archers, 
an  esquire,  and  a  page.  Thus  they  formed  a 
mixture  of  heavy  cavalry  with  mounted  arch 
ers,  the  two  arms  in  battle  acting  of  course 
separately.  In  1448  he  added  10,000  francs- 
archers,  under  four  captains  general,  each  com 
manding  eight  companies  of  500  men.  All 
the  archers  had  crossbows.  They  were  re 
cruited  and  armed  by  the  parishes,  and  free 
from  all  taxes.  This  may  be  considered  the 
first  standing  army  of  modern  times. — At  the 
close  of  this  first  period  of  modern  tactics,  as 
they  emerged  from  mediaeval  confusion,  the 
state  of  things  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 
The  main  body  of  the  infantry,  consisting  of 


746 


ARMY 


mercenaries,  was  armed  with  pike  and  sword, 
breastplate  and  helmet.  It  fought  in  deep, 
close  masses,  but,  better  armed  and  drilled  than 
the  feudal  infantry,  it  showed  greater  tenacity 
and  order  in  combat.  The  standing  levies  and 
the  mercenaries,  soldiers  by  profession,  were 
of  course  superior  to  the  casual  levies  and  dis 
connected  bands  of  feudal  retainers.  The  heavy 
cavalry  now  found  it  sometimes  necessary  to 
charge  in  close  array  against  infantry.  The 
light  infantry  was  still  principally  composed  of 
archers,  but  the  use  of  the  hand-gun  for  skir 
mishers  gained  ground.  The  cavalry  remained 
as  yet  the  principal  arm — heavy  cavalry,  men- 
at-arms  encased  in  iron,  but  no  longer  com 
posed  in  every  case  of  the  nobility,  and  re 
duced  from  its  former  chivalrous  and  Homeric 
mode  of  fighting  to  the  more  prosaic  neces 
sity  of  charging  in  close  order.  But  the  un- 
wicldiuess  of  such  cavalry  was  now  generally 
felt,  and  many  devices  were  planned  to  find  a 
lighter  kind  of  horse.  Mounted  archers,  as 
has  been  stated,  had  in  part  to  supply  this 
want;  in  Italy  and  the  neighboring  countries 
the  stradioti,  light  cavalry  on  the  Turkish 
plan,  composed  of  Bosnian  and  Albanian  mer 
cenaries,  a  sort  of  bashi-bazouks,  found  ready 
employment,  and  were  much  feared,  especially 
in  pursuits.  Poland  and  Hungary  had,  besides 
the  heavy  cavalry  adopted  from  the  West,  re 
tained  their  own  national  light  cavalry.  The 
artillery  was  in  its  infancy.  The  heavy  guns 
of  the  time  were  indeed  taken  into  the  field, 
but  could  not  leave  their  position  after  it  was 
once  taken  up ;  the  powder  was  bad,  the  load 
ing  difficult  and  slow,  and  the  range  of  the 
stone  balls  short. — The  close  of  the  15th  and 
the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century  are  marked 
by  a  double  progress ;  the  French  improved  the 
artillery,  and  the  Spaniards  gave  a  new  char 
acter  to  the  infantry.  Charles  VIII.  of  France 
made  his  guns  so  far  movable  that  he  could 
not  only  take  them  into  the  field,  but  make 
them  change  their  position  during  battle  and 
follow  the  other  troops  in  their  movements, 
which,  however,  were  not  very  quick.  He 
thereby  became  the  founder  of  field  artillery. 
His  guns,  mounted  on  wheeled  carriages  and 
plentifully  horsed,  proved  immensely  superior 
to  the  old-fashioned  clumsy  artillery  of  the  Ital 
ians  drawn  by  bullocks,  and  did  such  execu 
tion  in  the  deep  columns  of  the  Italian  infantry, 
that  Machiavelli  wrote  his  "Art  of  War  "prin 
cipally  in  order  to  propose  formations  by  which 
the  effect  of  such  artillery  on  infantry  could 
be  counteracted.  In  the  battle  of  Marignano, 
Francis  I.  of  France  defeated  the  Swiss  pike- 
men  by  the  effective  fire  and  the  mobility  of 
this  artillery,  which,  from  flanking  positions, 
enfiladed  the  Swiss  order  of  battle.  But  the 
reign  of  the  pike,  for  infantry,  was  on  the  de 
cline.  The  Spaniards  improved  the  common 
hand-gun  (arquebuse)  and  introduced  it  into 
the  regular  heavy  infantry.  Their  musket 
(hacquebutte)  was  a  heavy,  long-barrelled  arm, 
bored  for  two-ounce  bullets,  and  fired  from  a 


rest  formed  by  a  forked  pole.  It  sent  its  bullet 
through  the  strongest  breastplate,  and  was 
therefore  decisive  against  the  heavy  cavalry, 
which  got  into  disorder  as  soon  as  the  men  be 
gan  falling.  Ten  or  15  musketeers  were  placed 
with  every  company  of  pikemen,  and  the  effect 
of  their  fire  at  Pavia  astonished  both  allies  and 
enemies.  Frundsberg  relates  that  in  that  bat 
tle  a  single  shot  from  such  a  musket  would 
bring  down  several  men  and  horses.  From 
that  time  dates  the  superiority  of  the  Spanish 
infantry,  which  lasted  for  above  100  years. — 
The  war  consequent  upon  the  rebellion  of  the 
Netherlands  was  of  great  influence  on  the  for 
mation  of  armies.  Both  Spaniards  and  Dutch 
improved  all  arms  considerably.  Hitherto,  in 
the  armies  of  mercenaries,  every  man  offering 
for  enlistment  had  to  come  fully  equipped, 
armed,  and  acquainted  with  the  use  of  his 
arms.  But  in  this  long  war,  carried  on  during 
40  years  on  a  small  extent  of  country,  the 
available  recruits  of  this  class  soon  became 
scarce.  The  Dutch  had  to  put  up  with  such 
able-bodied  volunteers  as  they  could  get,  and 
the  government  was  now  under  the  necessity 
of  seeing  them  drilled.  Maurice  of  Nassau 
composed  the  first  drill  regulations  of  modern 
times,  and  thereby  laid  the  foundation  for  the 
uniform  instruction  of  a  whole  army.  The  in 
fantry  began  again  to  march  in  step  ;  it  gained 
much  in  homogeneity  and  solidity.  It  was  now 
formed  into  smaller  bodies;  the  companies, 
hitherto  400  to  500,  were  reduced  to  150  and 
200  men,  10  companies  forming  a  regiment. 
The  improved  musket  gained  ground  upon  the 
pike ;  one  third  of  the  whole  infantry  consisted 
of  musketeers,  mixed  in  each  company  with 
the  pikemen.  These  latter,  being  required  for 
hand-to-hand  fight  only,  retained  their  helmet, 
breastplate,  and  steel  gauntlets ;  the  musketeers 
threw  away  all  defensive  armor.  The  forma 
tion  was  generally  two  deep  for  the  pikemen, 
and  from  five  to  eight  deep  for  the  musketeers  ; 
as  soon  as  the  first  rank  had  fired,  it  retired  to 
load  again.  Still  greater  changes  took  place  in 
cavalry,  and  here,  too,  Maurice  of  Nassau  took 
the  lead.  In  the  impossibility  of  forming  a 
heavy  cavalry  of  men-at-arms,  he  organized  a 
body  of  light  horse  recruited  in  Germany,  armed 
them  with  a  helmet,  cuirass,  brassarls  for  the 
arms,  steel  gauntlets,  and  long  boots;  and  as 
with  the  lance  they  would  not  have  been  a 
match  for  the  heavy-armed  Spanish  cavalry, 
he  gave  them  a  sword  and  long  pistols.  This 
new  class  of  horsemen,  approaching  our  mod 
ern  cuirassiers,  soon  proved  superior  to  the  far 
less  numerous  and  less  movable  Spanish  men-at- 
arms,  whose  horses  they  shot  down  before  the 
slow  mass  broke  in  upon  them.  Maurice  of 
Nassau  had  his  cuirassiers  drilled  as  well  as  his 
infantry  ;  he  so  far  succeeded,  that  he  could 
venture  to  execute  in  battle  changes  of  front 
and  other  evolutions  with  large  or  small  bodies 
of  them.  Alva,  too,  had  found  the  necessity 
of  improving  his  light  horse;  hitherto  they 
had  been  fit  for  skirmishing  and  single  combat 


ARMY 


747 


only,  but  under  his  direction  they  soon  learned 
to  charge  in  a  body,  like  the  heavy  cavalry. 
The  formation  of  cavalry  remained  still  five  to 
eight  deep.  About  this  time  Henry  IV.  of 
France  introduced  a  new  kind  of  mounted  ser 
vice,  the  dragoons,  originally  infantry  mounted 
on  horses  for  quicker  locomotion  only ;  but  in 
a  very  few  years  after  their  introduction  they 
were  used  as  cavalry  as  well,  and  equipped  for 
this  double  service.  They  had  neither  defen 
sive  armor  nor  high  boots,  but  a  cavalry  sword, 
and  sometimes  a  lance  ;  they  also  carried  the 
infantry  musket,  or  a  shorter  carbine.  These 
troops  did  not,  however,  come  up  to  the  expec 
tations  which  had  led  to  their  formation  ;  they 
soon  became  a  portion  of  the  regular  cavalry, 
and  ceased  to  light  as  infantry.  In  artillery  the 
French  maintained  the  superiority  they  had 
gained.  The  prolonge  was  invented  by  them 
about  this  time,  and  case  shot  introduced  by 
Henry  IV.  The  Spanish  and  Dutch,  too, 
lightened  and  simplified  their  artillery,  but 
still  it  remained  a  clumsy  concern,  and  light, 
movable  pieces  of  effective  calibre  and  range 
were  yet  unknown. — With  the  30  years'  war 
opens  the  period  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the 
great  military  reformer  of  the  17th  century. 
His  infantry  regiments  were  composed  of  two 
thirds  musketeers  and  one  third  pikemen. 
Some  regiments  consisted  of  musketeers  alone. 
The  muskets  were  so  much  lightened  that  the 
rest  for  firing  them  became  unnecessary.  He 
also  introduced  paper  cartridges,  by  which 
loading  was  much  facilitated.  T.he  deep  for 
mation  was  done  away  with ;  his  pikemen 
stood  six,  his  musketeers  only  three  deep. 
These  latter  were  drilled  in  firing  by  platoons 
and  ranks.  The  unwieldy  regiments  of  2,000 
or  3,000  men  were  reduced  to  1,300  or  1,400, 
in  eight  companies,  and  two  regiments  formed 
into  a  brigade.  With  this  formation  he  defeat 
ed  the  deep  masses  of  his  opponents,  often 
disposed,  like  a  column  or  full  square,  30  deep, 
upon  which  his  artillery  played  with  terrible 
effect.  The  cavalry  was  reorganized  upon  sim 
ilar  principles.  The  men-at-arms  were  com 
pletely  done  away  with.  The  cuirassiers  lost 
the  brassarts  and  some  other  useless  pieces  of 
defensive  armor ;  they  were  thus  made  con 
siderably  lighter  and  more  movable.  His 
dragoons  fought  nearly  always  as  cavalry. 
Both  cuirassiers  and  dragoons  were  formed 
only  three  deep,  and  had  strict  orders  not  to 
lose  time  with  firing,  but  to  charge  at  once 
sword  in  hand.  They  were  divided  into 
squadrons  of  125  men.  The  artillery  was 
improved  by  the  addition  of  light  guns. 
The  leather  guns  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
are  celebrated,  but  were  not  long  retained. 
They  were  replaced  by  cast-iron  four-pound 
ers,  so  light  that  they  could  be  drawn  by  two 
horses :  they  could  be  fired  six  times  "while 
a  musketeer  fired  twice ;  two  of  these  were  at 
tached  to  every  regiment  of  infantry.  Thus,  the 
division  of  light  and  heavy  field  artillery  was 
established ;  the  light  guns  accompanied  the 


I  infantry,  while  the  heavy  ones  remained  in  re- 
i  serve,  or  took  up  a  position  for  the  whole  of 
|  the  battle.     The  armies  of  this  time  begin  to 
|  show  the  increasing  preponderance  of  infantry 
I  over  cavalry.     At  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  Gus- 
I  tavus  Adolphus  had  19,000  infantry  and  11,000 
i  cavalry;  Tilly  had  31,000  infantry  and  13,000 
!  cavalry.     At  Liitzen,  Wallenstem  had  24,000 
:  infantry  and  16,000  cavalry  in  170  squadrons. 
I  The  number  of  guns,  too,  increased  with  the 
j  introduction  of  light  pieces;  the  Swedes  often 
i  had  from  5  to  12  guns  for  every  1,000  men; 
i  and  at  the  battle  of  the  Lech,  Gustavus  Adolphus 
|  forced  the  passage  of  the  river  under  cover  of 
j  the  fire  of  72  heavy  guns. — During  the  latter 
!  half  of  the  17th  and  the  first  half  of  the  18th 
|  century,  pikes  and  all  defensive  armor  for  in- 
|  fantry  were  finally  done  away  with   by  the 
j  general    introduction   of    the    bayonet.  "  This 
I  weapon,  invented  in  France  about  1640,  had  to 
struggle  80  years  against  the  pike.     The  Aus- 
trians  first  adopted  it  for  all  their  infantry,  the 
Prussians  next ;  the  French  retained  the  pike 
j  till  1703,  the  Russians  till  1721.     The  flint-lock, 
invented  in  France  about  the  same  time  as  the 
i  bayonet,  was  also  gradually  introduced  before 
|  the  year  1700  into  most  armies.     It  materially 
!  abridged  the  operation  of  loading,  protected  to 
j  some  degree  the  powder  in  the  pan  from  rain, 
i  and  thus  contributed  very  much  to  the  abolition 
of  the  pike.     Yet  firing  was  still  so  slow  that  a 
man  was  not  expected  to  use  more  than  from  24 
to  36  cartridges  in  a  battle ;  until  in  the  latter 
half  of  this  period  improved  regulations,  better 
drill,  and  further  improvement  in  the  construc 
tion  of  small  arms  (especially  the  iron  ramrod, 
first  introduced  in  Prussia),  enabled  the  soldier 
to  fire  with  considerable  rapidity.     This  neces 
sitated  a  still  further  reduction  of  the  depth  of 
formation,  and  infantry  was  now  formed  only 
j  four  deep.     A  species  of  elite  infantry  was  cre- 
|  ated  in  the  companies  of  grenadiers,  originally 
intended  to  throw  hand-grenades  before  coming 
to  close  quarters,  but  soon  reduced  to  fight  with 
the   musket   only.     In   some   German   armies 
riflemen  had  been  formed  as  early  as  the  30 
years'  war ;  the  rifle  itself  had  been  invented 
at  Leipsic  in  1498.     This  arm  was  now  mixed 
with  the  musket,  the  best  shots  in  each  company 
being  armed  writh  it;  but  out  of  Germany  the 
rifle    found    little    favor.     The  Austrians   had 
also  a  sort  of  light  infantry  called  yandours — 
Croatian  and  Servian  irregulars  from  the  mili 
tary  frontier  against  Turkey,  useful  in  roving 
expeditions  and  pursuit,  but,  from  the  tactics 
of  the  day  and   their   absolute  want  of  drill, 
useless  in  battle.     The  French  and  Dutch  cre 
ated,  for   similar   purposes,  irregular   infantry 
called  compagnies  f ranches.     Cavalry,  too,  was 
lightened  in  all  armies.     There  were  no  longer 
any  men-at-arms;    the   cuirassiers   maintained 
the  breastplate  arid  helmet  only ;  in  France  and 
Sweden  the  breastplate  Avas  also  done   away 
with.     The  increasing  efficiency  and  rapidity 
of  infantry  fire  told  very  much  against  cavalry. 
It  was   soon    considered  perfectly  useless  for 


748 


ARMY 


this  latter  arm  to  charge  infantry  sword  in 
hand ;  and  the  opinion  of  the  irresistibility  of 
H  firing  line  became  so  prevalent  that  cavalry, 
too,  was  taught  to  rely  more  on  its  carbines 
than  on  the  sword.  Thus,  during  this  period, 
it  often  occurred  that  two  lines  of  cavalry 
maintained  a  tiring  light  against  each  other  the 
same  as  if  they  were  infantry ;  and  it  was  con 
sidered  very  daring  to  ride  up  to  within  20 
yards  of  the  enemy,  tire  a  volley,  and  charge 
at  a  trot.  Charles  XII.,  however,  adhered  to 
the  rule  of  his  great  predecessor.  His  cavalry 
never  stopped  to  tire ;  it  always  charged,  sword 
in  hand,  against  anything  opposing  it,  cavalry, 
infantry,  batteries,  and  intrenchments,  and 
always  with  success.  The  French,  too,  broke 
through  the  new  system  and  recommenced  re 
lying  on  the  sword  only.  The  depth  of  cavalry 
was  still  further  reduced  from  four  to  three. 
In  artillery,  the  lightening  of  the  guns,  and  the 
use  of  cartridges  and  case-shot,  now  became 
general.  Another  great  change  was  that  of  the 
incorporation  of  this  arm  with  the  army.  Hith 
erto,  though  the  guns  belonged  to  the  state, 
the  men  serving  them  were  not  soldiers,  but 
formed  a  sort  of  guild,  and  artillery  was  con 
sidered  not  an  arm  but  a  handicraft.  The  offi 
cers  had  no  rank  in  the  army,  and  were  con 
sidered  more  related  to  master  tailors  and  car 
penters  than  to  gentlemen.  About  this  time, 
however,  artillery  was  made  a  component  part 
of  the  army,  and  divided  into  companies  and  bat 
talions  ;  the  men  were  converted  into  permanent 
soldiers,  and  the  officers  ranked  with  the  in 
fantry  and  cavalry.  The  centralization  and  per 
manence  of  the  armed  contingent  upon  this 
change  paved  the  way  for  the  science  of  artil 
lery,  which  under  the  old  system  could  not  de 
velop  itself. — The  passage  from  deep  formation 
to  line,  from  the  pike  to  the  musket,  from  the 
supremacy  of  cavalry  to  that  of  infantry,  had 
thus  been  gradually  accomplished  when  Fred 
erick  the  Great  opened  his  campaigns,  and 
with  them  the  classical  era  of  line  tactics. 
He  formed  his  infantry  three  deep,  and  got  it 
to  fire  five  times  in  a  minute.  In  his  very  first 
battles  at  Mollwitz,  this  infantry  deployed  in 
line,  and  repelled  by  its  rapid  fire  all  charges 
of  the  Austrian  cavalry,  which  had  just  to 
tally  routed  the  Prussian  horse;  after  finishing 
with  the  cavalry,  the  Prussian  infantry  at 
tacked  the  Austrian  infantry,  defeated  it,  arid 
thus  won  the  battle.  Formation  of  squares 
against  cavalry  was  never  attempted  in  great 
battles,  but  only  when  infantry  on  the  march 
was.  surprised  by  hostile  cavalry.  In  a  battle, 
the  extreme  wings  of  the  infantry  stretched 
round  en  potence  when  menaced  by  cavalry, 
and  this  was  generally  found  sufficient.  To  op 
pose  the  Austrian  pandours,  Frederick  formed 
similar  irregular  troops,  infantry  and  cavalry, 
but  never  relied  on  them  in  battle,  where  they 
were  seldom  engaged.  The  slow  advance  of 
the  firing  line  decided  his  battles.  Cavalry, 
neglected  under  his  predecessor,  was  now 
made  to  undergo  a  complete  revolution.  It 


was  formed  only  two  deep,  and  firing,  except 
on  pursuit,  was  strictly  prohibited.  Horseman 
ship,  considered  hitherto  of  minor  importance, 
was  now  cultivated  with  the  greatest  atten 
tion.  All  evolutions  had  to  be  practised  at  full 
speed,  and  the  men  were  required  to  remain 
well  closed  up.  By  the  exertions  of  Seydlitz, 
the  cavalry  of  Frederick  was  made  superior  to 
any  other  then  existing  or  ever  existing  before 
it;  and  its  bold  riding,  close  order,  dashing 
charge,  and  quick  rallying  have  never  yet  been 
surpassed.  The  artillery  was  considerably  light 
ened,  so  much  that  some  of  the  heavy-calibred 
guns  were  not  able  to  stand  full  charges,  and 
had  therefore  to  be  abolished  afterward.  Yet 
the  heavy  artillery  was  still  very  slow  and 
clumsy  in  its  movements,  owing  to  inferior  and 
heavy  carriages  and  imperfect  organization. 
In  battle,  it  took  np  its  position  from  the  first, 
and  sometimes  changed  it  for  a  second  posi 
tion,  more  in  advance ;  hut  manoeuvring  there 
was  none.  The  light  artillery,  the  regimental 
guns  attached  to  the  infantry,  were  placed  in 
front  of  the  infantry  line,  50  paces  in  advance 
of  the  intervals  of  the  battalions;  they  ad 
vanced  with  the  infantry,  the  guns  dragged  by 
the  men,  and  opened  fire  with  canister  at  300 
yards.  The  number  of  guns  was  very  large, 
from  three  to  six  guns  per  1,000  men.  The  in 
fantry,  as  well  as  the  cavalry,  were  organized 
in  brigades  and  divisions;  but  as  there  was 
scarcely  any  manoeuvring  after  the  battle  had 
begun,  and  as  every  battalion  had  to  remain 
in  its  proper  place  in  the  line,  these  sub 
divisions  had  no  tactical  influence.  With  the 
cavalry,  a  general  of  brigade  might  now  and 
then,  during  a  charge,  have  to  act  upon  his 
own  responsibility;  but  with  the  infantry  such 
a  case  could  never  occur.  This  line  formation, 
infantry  in  two  lines  in  the  centre,  cavalry  in 
two  or  three  lines  on  the  wings,  was  a  con 
siderable  progress  upon  the  deep  formation  of 
former  days.  It  developed  the  full  effect  of 
infantry  fire,  as  well  as  of  the  charge  of  caval 
ry,  by  allowing  as  many  men  as  possible  to  act 
simultaneously ;  but  its  very  perfection  in  this 
point  confined  the  whole  army,  as  it  were,  in 
a  strait  waistcoat.  Every  squadron,  battalion, 
or  gun  had  its  regulated  place  in  the  order  of 
battle,  which  could  not  be  inverted  or  in  any 
way  disturbed  without  affecting  the  efficiency 
of  the  whole.  On  the  march,  therefore,  every 
thing  had  to  be  so  arranged  that  when  the 
army  formed  front  again  for  encampment  or 
battle,  every  subdivision  got  exactly  into  its 
correct  place.  Thus,  any  manoeuvres  to  be 
executed  had  to  be  executed  with  the  whole 
army ;  to  detach  a  single  portion  of  it  for  a 
flank  attack,  to  form  a  particular  reserve  for 
the  attack,  with  superior  forces,  of  a,  weak 
point,  would  have  been  impracticable  and 
faulty  with  such  slow  troops,  fit  only  to  fight  in 
line,  and  with  an  order  of  battle  of  such  stiff 
ness.  Then,  the  advance  in  battle  of  such  long 
lines  was  necessarily  executed  with  consider 
able  slowness,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  align- 


ARMY 


749 


ment.  Tents  followed  the  army  constantly, 
and  were  pitched  every  night;  the  camp  was 
slightly  intrenched.  The  troops  were  fed  from 
magazines,  the  baking  establishments  accom 
panying  the  army  as  much  as  possible.  In 
short,  the  baggage  and  other  train  of  the  army 
were  enormous,  and  hampered  its  movements 
to  a  degree  unknown  nowadays.  Yet,  with 
all  these  drawbacks,  the  military  organization 
of  Frederick  the  Great  was  by  far  the  best  of 
its  day,  and  was  eagerly  adopted  by  all  other 
European  governments.  The  recruiting  of  the 
forces  waj  almost  everywhere  carried  on  by 
voluntary  enlistments,  assisted  by  kidnapping; 
and  it  was  only  after  very  severe  losses  that 
Frederick  had  recourse  to  forced  levies  from 
his  provinces. — When  the  war  of  the  coalition 
against  the  French  republic  began,  the  French 
army  was  disorganized  by  the  loss  of  its  of 
ficers,  and  numbered  less  than  150,000  men. 
The  numbers  of  the  enemy  were  far  superior ; 
new  levies  became  necessary,  and  were  made 
to  an  immense  extent,  in  the  shape  of  na 
tional  volunteers,  of  which  in  1793  there  must 
have  been  at  least  500  battalions  in  existence. 
These  troops  were  not  drilled,  nor  was  there 
time  to  drill  them  according  to  the  compli 
cated  system  of  line  tactics,  and  to  the  de 
gree  of  perfection  required  by  movements  in 
line.  Every  attempt  to  meet  the  enemy  in 
line  was  followed  by  a  signal  defeat,  though 
the  French  had  far  superior  numbers.  A  new 
system  of  tactics  became  necessary.  The 
American  revolution  had  shown  the  advantage 
to  be  gained  with  undisciplined  troops  from  ex 
tended  order  and  skirmishing  fire.  The  French 
adopted  it,  and  supported  the  skirmishers  by 
deep  columns,  in  Avhich  a  little  disorder  was 
less  objectionable  so  long  as  the  mass  remained 
well  together.  In  this  formation  they  launched 
their  superior  numbers  against  the  enemy,  and 
were  generally  successful.  This  new  forma 
tion  and  the  want  of  experience  of  their  troops 
led  them  to  fight  in  broken  ground,  in  villages 
and  woods,  where  they  found  shelter  from  the 
enemy's  fire,  and  Avhere  his  line  was  invari 
ably  disordered ;  their  want  of  tents,  field  bat 
teries,  &c.,  compelled  them  to  bivouac  without 
shelter,  and  to  live  upon  what  the  country 
afforded  them.  Thus  they  gained  a  mobility 
unknown  to  their  enemies,  who  were  en 
cumbered  with  tents  and  all  sorts  of  baggage. 
When  the  revolutionary  war  had  produced  in 
Napoleon  the  man  who  reduced  this  new 
mode  of  warfare  to  a  regular  system,  com 
bined  it  with  what  was  still  useful  in  the  old 
system,  and  brought  the  new  method  at  once 
to  that  degree  of  perfection  which  Frederick 
had  given  to  line  tactics,  then  the  French 
were  almost  invincible,  until  their  opponents 
had  learned  from  them,  and  organized  their  ar 
mies  upon  the  new  model.  The  principal  fea 
tures  of  this  new  system  are :  the  restoration  of 
the  old  principle  that  every  citizen  is  liable  in 
case  of  need  to  be  called  out  for  the  defence  of 
the  country,  and  the  consequent  .formation  of 


the  army,  by  compulsory  levies  of  greater  or 
less  extent,  from  the  whole  of  the  inhabitants; 
a  change  by  which  the  numerical  force  of  armies 
was  at  once  raised  to  threefold  the  average  of 
Frederick's  time,  and  might  in  case  of  need  be 
increased   to   larger   proportions  still.      Then, 
the  discarding  of  camp  utensils,  and  of  depen- 
I  dence  for  provisions  upon  magazines,  and  the 
i  introduction  of  the  bivouac    and  of  the  rule 
|  that  war  feeds  war,  increased  the  celerity  and 
I  independence  of  an  army  as  much  as  its  numer- 
!  ical  force  was  raised  by  the  rule  of  general 
!  liability   to   serve.      In   tactical    organization, 
I  the  principle  of  mixing  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
j  artillery  in  the  smaller  portions  of  an  army, 
in  corps  and  divisions,  became  the  rule.     Every 
i  division  thus  became  a  complete  army  on  a  re 
duced  scale,  fit  to  act  independently,  and  capa 
ble   of    considerable    resistance    even    against 
superior  numbers.     The  order   of  battle  was 
now  based  upon  the  column ;  it  served  as  the 
reservoir,    from   which   sallied   and   to  which 
returned  the  swarms  of  skirmishers;    as  the1 
I  wedge-like    compact    mass    to    be    launched 
i  against  a  particular  point  of  the  enemy's  line ; 
j  as  the  form  to  approach  the  enemy  and  then 
j  to  deploy,  if  the  ground  and  the  state  of  the 
I  engagement  made  it  desirable  to  oppose  firing 
j  lines  to  the  enemy.     The  mutual  sup-port  of  the 
j  three  arms,  developed  to  its  full  extent  by  their 
j  combination  in  small  bodies,  and  the  con:bina- 
I  tion  of  the  three  forms  of  fighting,  skirmishers, 
line,  and  column,  compose  the  great  tactical 
superiority  of  modern   armies.     Any  kind  of 
ground  thereby  became  lit  for  fighting ;  and 
the  ability  of  rapidly  judging  the  advantages 
and   disadvantages  of  ground,  and  of  at  once 
disposing  troops  accordingly,  became  one  of  the 
chief  requirements  of  a  captain.     And  not  only 
in  the  commander-in-chief,  but  in  the  subordi- 
|  nate  officers,  these  qualities,  and  general  apt 
ness  for  independent  command,   were  now  a 
necessity.     Corps,  divisions,  brigades,  and  de 
tachments  were  constantly  placed  in  situations 
where  their  commanders  had  to  act  on  their 
own  responsibility;  the   battlefield  no  longer 
presented  its  long  unbroken  lines  of  infantry 
disposed  in  a  vast  plain  with  cavalry  on  the 
wings ;    but   the   single    corps   and    divisions, 
massed  in  columns,  stood  hidden  behind  vil 
lages,    roads,    or    hills,    separated    from    each 
other  by  seemingly  large  intervals,  while  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  troops  appeared  actually 
!  engaged  in  skirmishing  and  firing  artillery  until 
j  the   decisive   moment   approached.     Lines   of 
I  battle  extended  with   the  numbers  and  with 
i  this  formation  ;  it  was  not  necessary  actually 
i  to  fill  up  every  interval  with  a  line  visible  to 
j  the  enemy,  so  long  as  troops  were  at  hand  to 
i  come   up  when   required.     Turning   of  Hanks 
i  now  became  generally  a  strategical  operation, 
I  the  stronger  army  placing  itself  completely  be- 
|  tween  the  weaker  one  and  its  communications, 
I  so  that  a  single  defeat  could  annihilate  an  army 
j  and  decide  a  campaign.     The  favorite  tactical 
•<  manoeuvre  was  the  breaking  through  the  ene-- 


'50 


ARMY 


ray's  centre  with  fresh  troops,  as  soon  as  the 
state  of  affairs  showed  that  his  last  reserves 
were  engaged.  Reserves,  which  in  line  tactics 
would  have  been  out  of  place  and  would  have 
detracted  from  the  efficiency  of  the  army  in  the 
decisive  moment,  now  became  the  chief  means 
to  decide  an  action.  The  order  of  battle,  ex 
tending  as  it  did  in  front,  extended  also  in 
depth  •"  from  the  skirmish  line  to  the  position 
of  the  reserves  the  depth  was  very  often  two 
miles  and  more.  In  short,  if  the  ne\v  sys 
tem  required  less  drill  and  parade  precision, 
it  required  far  greater  rapidity,  exertion,  and 
intelligence  from  every  one,  from  the  lowest 
skirmisher  as  well  as  the  highest  commander; 
and  every  fresh  improvement  made  since  Napo 
leon  tends  in  that  direction. — The  changes  in 
the  materiel  of  armies  were  but  trifling  during 
this  period ;  constant  wars  left  little  time  for 
improvements  the  introduction  of  which  re 
quires  time.  Two  very  important  innovations 
took  place  in  the  French  army  shortly  before 
the  revolution.  The  first  was  the  adoption  of 
a  new  model  of  musket  of  reduced  calibre  and 
windage,  and  with  a  curved  stock  instead  of  the 
straight  one  previously  in  use.  This  weapon, 
more  accurately  worked,  contributed  a  great 
deal  toAvard  the  superiority  of  the  French  skir 
mishers,  and  remained  the  model  upon  which 
with  trifling  alterations  the  muskets  in  use  in 
all  armies  up  to  the  introduction  of  percussion 
locks  were  constructed.  The  second  was  the 
simplification  and  improvement  of  the  artillery 
by  Gribeauval.  The  French  artillery  under 
Louis  XV.  was  completely  neglected  ;  the  guns 
were  of  all  sorts  of  calibres,  the  carriages  old- 
fashioned,  and  the  models  upon  which  they 
were  constructed  not  even  uniform.  Gribeau 
val,  wTho  had  served  during  the  seven  years' 
war  with  the  Austrians,  and  then  seen  better 
models,  succeeded  in  reducing  the  number  of 
calibres,  equalizing  and  improving  the  models, 
and  greatly  simplifying  the  whole  system.  It 
was  with  his  guns  and  carriages  that  Napoleon 
fought  his  wars.  The  English  artillery,  which 
was  in  the  worst  possible  state  when  the  war 
with  France  broke  out,  was  gradually  but  slowly 
much  improved ;  with  it  originated  the  stock- 
trail  carriage,  which  has  since  been  adopted 
by  all  continental  armies,  and  the  arrangement 
for  mounting  the  foot  artillerymen  on  the  lim 
bers  and  ammunition  wagons.  Horse  artillery, 
invented  by  Frederick  the  Great,  was  much 
cultivated  during  Napoleon's  period,  especially 
by  himself,  and  its  proper  tactics  were  first 
developed.  When  the  war  was  over,  it  was 
found  that  the  British  were  the  most  efficient 
in  this  arm.  Of  all  large  European  armies, 
the  Austrian  is  the  only  one  which  supplies 
the  place  of  horse  artillery  by  batteries  in 
which  the  men  are  mounted  on  wagons  provid 
ed  for  the  purpose. — The  German  armies  still 
kept  up  the  special  class  of  infantry  armed 
with  rifles,  and  the  new  system  of  fighting  in 
extended  order  gave  a  fresh  importance  to  this 
arm.  It  was  especially  cultivated  and  in  1838 


taken  up  by  the  French,  who  felt  the  want  of 
I  a  long  range  of  musket  for  Algiers.    The  tirail- 
,  leurs  de  Vincennes,  afterward  chasseurs  d  pied, 
were  formed,  and  brought  to  a  state  of  efficiency 
:  without  parallel.     The  adoption  of  this  forma 
tion  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  great  im- 
i  provements  in  small  arms,   and  especially  in 
|  rifles,  by  which  both  range  and  precision  were 
i  increased  to  a  wonderful  degree.     The  names 
!  of  Delvigne,  Thouvenot,  and  Minie  thereby  be- 
|  came  celebrated.     For  the  whole  infantry,  the 
!  percussion  lock  was  introduced  between  1830 
•  and  1840  inmost  armies;  as  usual,  the  English 
I  and  the  Russians  were  the  last.     In  the  mean 
|  time,  great  efforts  were  made  in  various  quar- 
!  ters  still  further  to  improve  small  arms,  and  to 
I  produce   a   musket   of   superior   range    which 
;  could  be  given  to  the  whole  of  the  infantry. 
The  Prussians  introduced  the  needle  gun,  a  rifle 
j  arm  loaded  at  the  breech,  and  capable  of  very 
|  rapid  firing,  and  having  a  long  range ;  the  in 
vention,  originated  in  Belgium,  was  consider 
ably  improved  by  them.     This  gun,  although 
by  no  means  the  best  of  its  class  either  for  ac 
curacy  or  range,  simplicity  of  construction  or 
certainty   of  action,    was  early   adopted   and 
given  to  their  troops ;  it  was  used  with  great 
effect  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein  war,  and  more 
recently  in  the  remarkable  campaigns  of  the 
i  Prussians  in  Bohemi-a  and  France.     Many  mili- 
:  tary  writers  have  expressed  the  opinion  that 
|  the  Prussians  owe  their  great  successes  in  their 
I  recent  wars  at  least  as  much  to  the  superiority 
|  of  their  artillery  and  small   arms  as  to  any 
I  other  single  cause.     But  this  is  scarcely  true ; 
!  for  while  they  were  probably  provided  with 
i  better  arms  than  the  Austrians,  they  were  cer- 
|  tainly  inferior  to  the  French  in  rifles,  it  being 
|  generally  conceded  that  the  Zundnadelijewehr 
I  or  needle  gun  is  a  less  efficient  weapon  than 
the  Chassepot.     The  English  were  the  first  to 
arm  the  whole  of  their  infantry  with  a  superior 
|  musket,  viz.,  the  Enfield  rifle,  a  slight  altera- 
|  tion  of  the  Minie ;    its  superiority   was   fully 
j  proved  in  the  Crimea,  and  saved  them  at  In- 
i  kerman.    But  the  Americans  have  surpassed  all 
other  nations  in  the  invention  and  use  of  rifles 
!  and  carbines.     The  rifled  musket  made  in  the 
|  government  shops  at  Springfield,  the  Spencer 
!  and  Henry  magazine  guns,  and  the  Remington 
I  carbine   and   rifles,    as   Avell   as  many   others 
which  were  fully  tested  during  the  civil  war, 
!  are  now  acknowledged  to  be  superior  to  any 
;  English,  French,  or  German  arms  of  the  same 
!  class,  and  have  been  adopted  by  many  Euro- 
I  pean  nations. — In  tactical    arrangements,   no 
\  changes  of  importance  have  taken  place  for 
I  infantry  and  cavalry,  if  we  except  the  great 
improvement  of  light  infantry  tactics  by  the 
|  French  chasseurs,  and  the  new  Prussian  system 
!  of  columns  of  companies,  which  latter  forma- 
|  tion,  with  some  variations,  is  now  in  general 
use.    The  formation  in  several  European  armies 
is  nominally  three  deep,   but   in   practice  all 
i  nations  have  adopted  the  two-rank  formation 
introduced  by   the   English  shortly  after   the 


ARMY 


'51 


time  of  Napoleon  I.  As  to  cavalry,  the  Euro 
pean  nations  still  adhere  to  the  system  of  Fred 
erick,  with  some  slight  modifications.  The 
Americans  during  the  civil  war  made  great 
progress  in  the  organization  and  use  of  cavalry, 
or  more  properly  of  mounted  troops.  The  first 
regiments  called  into  service  were  strictly  light 
cavalry,  but  the  improvements  in  carbines  and 
revolvers  or  repeating  pistols,  combined  with 
the  wooded  nature  of  the  country  in  which 
they  were  compelled  to  operate,  soon  gave  a 
distinctively  new  character  to  this  arm.  Instead 
of  fighting  on  horseback,  using  the  sabre  alone 
or  the  sabre  and  pistol,  it  became  necessary  for 
the  cavalry  regiments  to  tight  generally  on 
foot;  and  in  this  they  not  only  reached  a 
high  state  of  efficiency,  but,  under  Sheridan 
in  the  east  and  Wilson  in  the  west,  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  in  bringing  the  war  to 
an  end.  The  mounted  troops  operating  in 
Virginia  were  organized  into  a  separate  body 
from  10,000  to  15,000  strong,  called  the  cavalry 
corps  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac;  while 
those  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  and 
Alabama,  amounting  to  72  regiments,  and 
reaching  at  the  close  of  the  war  35,000  effi 
cients,  were  organized  into  one  command,  of 
ficially  known  as  the  cavalry  corps  of  the 
military  division  of  the  Mississippi.  These 
immense  masses  of  mounted  troops  were  strong 
enough  to  act  independently  against  the  com 
munications  and  depots  of  the  enemy,  or  in 
cooperation  with  the  infantry,  upon  the  flanks 
and  rear  of  the  confederate  armies.  In  the 
final  campaigns  in  Virginia,  and  especially  at 
the  battle  of  AVinchester  or  the  Opequan,  in 
the  destruction  of  the  railroads  about  Rich 
mond,  particularly  the  South  Side  road,  at  the 
battle  of  Five  Forks,  in  the  pursuit  and  cap 
ture  of  Lee's  army,  in  the  battles  of  Franklin 
and  Nashville,  in  the  pursuit  and  dispersion  of 
Hood's  army,  in  the  assault  and  capture  of 
Selma,  Columbus,  and  West  Point  (Ga.),  in  the 
pursuit  and  capture  of  Davis  and  the  confed 
erate  chieftains,  these  corps  gave  proof  of  their 
extraordinary  merits,  not  only  as  cavalry 
marching  rapidly  and  for  long  distances,  but 
as  infantry  fighting  steadily  and  with  great 
dash  against  infantry  and  artillery,  assaulting 
and  carrying  earthworks,  and  in  the  per 
formance  of  the  various  duties  of  active  war 
fare.  The  success  of  these  corps  was  doubt 
less  greatly  influenced  partly  by  their  com 
pact  and  independent  organization,  and  partly 
by  the  efficient  character  of  their  firearms, 
which  at  the  end  of  the  war  were  almost 
exclusively  Spencer  carbines  or  rifles,  breech- 
loading  magazine  guns  of  unrivalled  excel 
lence  at  that  time.  It  is  believed  that  no 
well  directed  attack  made  by  troops  using  these 
arms  was  ever  known  to  fail,  whether  against 
cavalry,  infantry,  or  intrenchments.  (See 
CAVALRY.) — In  artillery,  considerable  improve 
ments  of  detail  and  simplification  of  calibres, 
and  of  models  for  wheels,  carriages,  &c.,  have 
taken  place  in  every  army.  The  science  of 


artillery  has  been  greatly  improved.  All  mod 
ern  armies  now  use  rifled  cannon  for  field  ser 
vice,  as  well  as  for  siege  purposes.  Field  guns 
are  made  of  steel  and  wrought  and  cast  iron, 
and  are  of  various  calibres,  all  throwing  steel 
or  iron  balls,  bolts,  or  shells,  more  or  less 
elongated ;  these  guns  are  also  adapted  to  the 
use  of  canisters  of  small  shot,  and  have  almost 
entirely  replaced  the  smooth-bored  brass  guns 
and  howitzers  in  actual  service.  The  Ameri 
cans,  Prussians,  and  Belgians  have  been  fore 
most  in  making  improvements  in  artillery. 
(See  AETILLEKY.) — The  general  organization 
of  modern  armies  is  very  much  alike.  WTith 
the  exception  of  the  British  and  American, 
they  are  recruited  by  compulsory  levy,  based 
either  upon  conscription,  in  which  case  the 
men,  after  serving  their  time,  are  dismissed  for 
life,  or  upon  the  reserve  system,  in  which  the 
time  of  actual  service  is  short,  but  the  men 
remain  liable  to  be  called  out  again  for  a  cer 
tain  time  afterward.  France  is  the  most  strik 
ing  example  of  the  first,  Prussia  of  the  second 
system.  Even  in  England,  where  both  line 
and  militia  are  generally  recruited  by  voluntary 
enlistment,  the  conscription  (or  ballot)  is  by 
law  established  for  the  militia  should  volunteers 
be  wanting.  In  Switzerland,  no  standing  army 
exists;  the  whole  force  consists  of  militia  drill 
ed  for  a  short  time  only.  The  enlistment  of 
foreign  mercenaries  is  still  the  rule  in  some 
countries ;  the  French  still  have  their  foreign 
legion ;  and  England,  in  case  of  serious  war,  is 
regularly  compelled  to  resort  to  this  expedient. 
The  time  of  actual  service  varies  very  much : 
from  a  couple  of  Aveeks  with  the  Swiss,  18 
months  to  2  years  with  the  smaller  German 
states,  and  3  years  with  the  Prussians,  to  5  or 
6  years  in  France,  12  years  in  England,  and  15 
years  in  Russia.  The  officers  are  recruited  in 
various  ways.  In  most  armies  there  are  now 
no  legal  impediments  to  advancement  from  the 
ranks,  but  the  practical  impediments  widely 
vary.  In  France  and  Austria  a  portion  of  the 
officers  must  be  taken  from  the  sergeants;  in 
Russia  the  insufficient  number  of  educated  can 
didates  makes  this  a  necessity.  In  Prussia  the 
examination  for  officers'  commissions  in  peace 
is  a  bar  to  uneducated  men ;  in  England  ad 
vancement  from  the  ranks  is  a  rare  exception. 
For  the  remainder  of  the  officers  there  are  in 
most  countries  military  schools,  though,  with 
the  exception  of  France,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
pass  through  them.  In  military  and  general 
education  the  Prussian  officers  are  ahead ;  the 
English  and  the  Russians  stand  lowest  in  both. 
With  the  exceptions  named  above,  the  equip 
ment  and  armament  of  modern  armies  are  now 
everywhere  nearly  the  same.  There  is,  of 
course,  a  great  difference  in  the  quality  and 
workmanship  of  the  material.  In  this  respect 
the  Russians  stand  lowest,  and  the  English  and 
Americans,  where  the  industrial  advantages  at 
their  command  are  really  made  use  of.  stand 
highest.  The  infantry  of  all  armies  is  divided 
into  line  and  light  infantry.  The  first  is  the 


752 


ARMY 


rule,  and  composes  the  mass  of  all  infantry ; 
real  light  infantry  has  become  much  more  pop 
ular  since  the  American  civil  war,  and  the  late 
wars  between  Prussia,  Austria,  and  France, 
and  the  tendency  in  all  armies  is  to  the  numeri 
cal  increase  of  this  force.  Cavalry  is  divided 
into  heavy  and  light  everywhere  except  in 
America,  where  it  is  all  light.  Cuirassiers  are 
always  heavy;  hussars  and  chasseurs,  always 
light'horse.  Dragoons  and  lancers  are  in  some 
armies  light,  in  others  heavy  cavalry ;  and  the 
Russians  would  also  be  without  light  cavalry 
were  it  not  for  the  Cossacks.  The  best  light  cav 
alry  in  Europe  is  undoubtedly  that  of  the  Austri- 
ans,  the  national  Hungarian  hussars,  and  Polish 
uhlans.  The  same  division  holds  good  with 
reference  to  artillery.  Light  artillery  is  still 
subdivided  into  horse  and  foot,  the  first  espe 
cially  intended  to  act  in  company  with  cavalry. 
The  Austrians  have  no  horse  artillery;  the 
English  and  French  have  no  proper  foot  artil 
lery,  the  men  being  carried  on  the  limbers  and 
ammunition  wagons. — The  infantry  is  formed 
into  companies,  battalions,  and  regiments.  The 
battalion  is  the  tactical  unit ;  it  is  the  form  in 
which  the  troops  fight,  save  in  a  few  excep 
tional  cases.  A  battalion  must  not  be  too 
strong  to  be  commanded  by  the  voice  and  eye 
of  its  chief,  nor  too  weak  to  act  as  an  inde 
pendent  body  in  battle,  even  after  the  losses 
of  a  campaign.  The  strength,  therefore,  varies 
from  GOO  to~l,400  men  ;  800  to  1,000  forms  the 
average.  The  division  of  a  battalion  into  com 
panies  has  for  its  object  the  fixing  of  its  evolu 
tionary  subdivisions,  the  efficiency  of  the  men 
in  the  details  of  the  drill,  and  the  more  com 
modious  economical  administration.  The  num 
ber  of  companies  in  a  battalion  varies  as  much 
as  their  strength.  The  English  have  ten  of 
from  90  to  120  men,  the  Russians  and  Prussians 
four  of  250  men,  the  French  and  Austrians  six 
of  varying  strength.  Battalions  are  formed 
into  regiments,  more  for  administrative  and 
disciplinary  purposes  and  to  insure  uniformity 
of  drill,  than  for  any  tactical  object;  in  forma 
tions  for  war,  therefore,  the  battalions  of  one 
regiment  are  often  separated.  In  Russia  and 
Austria  there  are  .four,  in  Prussia  three,  in 
France  two  service  battalions,  besides  depots, 
to  every  regiment;  in  England,  most  regiments 
are  formed,  in  peace,  of  but  one  battalion. 
Cavalry  is  divided  into  squadrons  and  regi 
ments.  •  The  squadron,  from  100  to  200  men, 
forms  the  tactical  and  administrative  unit ;  the 
English  alone  subdivide  the  squadron,  for  ad 
ministrative  purposes,  into  two  troops.  There 
are  from  three  to  ten  service  squadrons  to  a  ' 
regiment ;  the  British  have  in  peace  but  three 
squadrons,  of  about  120  horse;  the  Prussians 
four,  of  150  horse;  the  French  five,  of  180  to 
200  horse;  the  Austrians  six  or  eight,  of  200 
horse;  the  Russians  six  to  ten,  of  150  to  170 
horse.  With  cavalry  the  regiment  is  a  body 
of  tactical  significance,  as  a  regiment  offers 
the  means  to  make  an  independent  charge,  the 
squadrons  mutually  supporting  each  other,  and 


is  for  this  purpose  formed  of  sufficient  strength, 
viz.,  between  500  and  1,(500  horse.  The  British 
alone  have  such  weak  regiments  that  they  are 
obliged  to  put  four  or  five  of  them  to  one  brig 
ade  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Austrian  and 
Russian  regiments  in  many  cases  are  as  strong 
as  an  average  brigade.  The  French  have  nom 
inally  very  strong  regiments,  but  have  hither 
to  appeared  in  the  field  in  considerably  reduced 
numbers,  owing  to  their  poverty  in  horses. 
Artillery  is  formed  in  batteries ;  the  formation 
in  regiments  or  brigades  in  this  arm  is  only 
for  peace  purposes,  except  in  America,  where 
it  is  used  exclusively  during  war.  Four  guns  is 
the  least  number  in  a  battery;  the  Austrians 
have  eight,  and  the  French,  Prussians,  English, 
and  Americans  six  guns  for  each  battery.  Rifle 
men  or  other  real  light  infantry  are  generally 
organized  in  battalions  and  companies  only,  not 
in  regiments;  the  nature  of  the  arm  forbids 
its  union  in  large  masses.  The  same  is  the 
case  with  sappers  and  miners,  they  being  be 
sides  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  army. 
The  French  alone  make  an  exception  in  this 
latter  case.  With  the  regiment  the  formation 
of  most  armies  in  time  of  peace  is  generally 
considered  complete.  The  larger  bodies,  brig 
ades,  divisions,  and  army  corps,  are  mostly 
formed  when  war  breaks  out.  The  Russians 
and  Prussians  alone  have  their  army  fully  or 
ganized  and  the  higher  commands  filled  up,  as 
if  for  actual  war. — In  war,  several  battalions  or 
squadrons  are  formed  into  a  brigade,  consisting 
of  from  four  to  eight  battalions  for  infantry, 
or  from  six  to  twenty  squadrons  for  cavalry. 
With  large  cavalry  regiments  these  latter  may 
very  well  stand  in  lieu  of  brigade ;  but  they 
are  very  generally  reduced  to  smaller  strength 
by  the  detachments  they  have  to  send  to  the 
divisions.  Light  and  line  infantry  may  with  ad 
vantage  be  mixed  in  a  brigade,  but  not  light  and 
heavy  cavalry.  The  Austrians  very  generally 
add  a  battery  to  each  brigade.  A  combination 
of  brigades  forms  the  division.  In  most  armies 
it  is  composed  of  all  the  three  arms,  say  two 
brigades  of  infantry,  four  to  six  squadrons,  and 
one  to  three  batteries.  The  French  and  Rus 
sians  have  no  cavalry  to  their  divisions ;  the 
English  form  them  of  infantry  exclusively.  Un 
less,  therefore,  these  nations  wish  to  fight  at  a 
disadvantage,  they  are  obliged  to  attach  cavalry 
and  artillery  respectively  to  the  divisions  when 
ever  the  case  occurs,  which  is  easily  overlooked 
or  often  inconvenient  or  impossible.  The  pro 
portion  of  divisionary  cavalry,  however,  is 
everywhere  but  small,  and  therefore  the  re 
mainder  of  this  arm  is  formed  into  cavalry  di 
visions  of  two  brigades  each,  for  the  purpose 
of  reserve  cavalry.  Two  or  three  divisions, 
sometimes  four,  are  for  larger  armies  formed 
into  an  army  corps.  Such  a  corps  has  every 
where  its  own  cavalry  and  artillery,  even  where 
the  divisions  have  none ;  and  where  these  latter 
are  mixed  bodies,  there  is  still  a  reserve  of  cav 
alry  and  artillery  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
commander  of  the  corps.  It  has  been  found 


ARMY 


753 


best  in  the  United  States  to  separate  the  cav 
alry  from  the  infantry  entirely,  and  form  it  into 
separate  corps  under  separate  commanders. 
Napoleon  was  the  first  to  attach  cavalry  to  his 
other  corps,  and,  not  satisfied  therewith,  he  or 
ganized  the  whole  of  the  remaining  cavalry  into 
reserve  cavalry  corps  of  two  or  five  divisions 
of  cavalry  with  horse  artillery  attached.  The 
Russians  have  retained  this  formation  of  their 
reserve  cavalry,  and  the  other  armies  are  likely 
to  take  it  up  again  in  a  war  of  importance, 
though  the  elFect  obtained  has  never  yet  been 
in  proportion  to  the  immense  mass  of  horse 
men  thus  concentrated  on  one  point,  except  in 
America,  as  heretofore  stated. — Such  is  the 
modern  organization  of  the  fighting  part  of 
an  army.  But,  in  spite  of  the  abolition  of  tents, 
magazines,  field  bakeries,  and  bread  wagons, 
there  is  still  a  large  train  of  non-combatants 
and  of  vehicles  necessary  to  insure  the  effi 
ciency  of  the  army  in  a  campaign.  To  enable 
the  commanders  of  armies,  army  corps,  and 
divisions  to  conduct,  each  in  his  sphere,  the 
troops  intrusted  to  them,  a  separate  corps  is 
formed  in  every  army  except  the  British,  com 
posed  of  officers  exclusively,  and  called  the 
staff.  The  functions  of  these  officers  are  to  re 
connoitre  and  sketch  the  ground  on  which  the 
army  moves  or  may  move ;  to  assist  in  making 
out  plans  for  operations,  and  to  arrange  them 
in  detail,  so  that  no  time  is  lost,  no  confusion 
arises,  no  useless  fatigue  is  incurred  by  the 
troops.  They  are  therefore  in  highly  important 
positions,  and  ought  to  have  a  thoroughly  fin 
ished  military  education,  with  a  full  knowledge 
of  the  capabilities  of  each  arm  on  the  march 
and  in  battle.  They  are  taken  in  all  countries 
from  the  most  able  subjects,  and  carefully  train 
ed  in  the  highest  military  schools.  The  English 
alone  imagine  that  any  subaltern  or  field  officer 
selected  from  the  army  at  large  is  fit  for  such  a 
position,  and  the  consequence  is  that  their  staffs 
are  inferior,  and  the  army  is  incapable  of  any 
but  the  slowest  and  simplest  manoeuvres ;  while 
the  commander,  if  at  all  conscientious,  has  to 
do  all  the  staff  work  himself.  A  division  can 
seldom  have  more  than  one  staff  officer  attach 
ed  ;  an  army  corps  has  a  staff  of  its  own  under 
the  direction  of  a  superior  or  a  staff  officer ;  and 
an  army  has  a  full  staff,  with  several  generals, 
under  a  chief,  who  in  urgent  cases  gives  his 
orders  in  the  name  of  the  commander.  The 
chief  of  the  staff  in  the  British  army  has  an 
adjutant  general  and  a  quartermaster  general 
under  his  orders;  in  other  armies  the  adjutant 
general  is  at  the  same  time  chief  of  the  staff;  in 
France  the  chief  of  the  staff  unites  both  capa 
cities  in  himself,  and  has  a  different  department 
for  each  under  his  orders.  The  adjutant  gen 
eral  is  the  chief  of  the  personnel  of  the  army, 
receives  the  reports  of  all  subordinate  depart 
ments  and  bodies  of  the  army,  and  arranges  all 
matters  relative  to  discipline,  instruction,  for 
mation,  equipment,  armament,  &c.  All  subor 
dinates  correspond  through  him  with  the  com- 
marder-in-chief.  If  chief  of  the  staff  at  the 
VOL.  i. — 48 


i  same  time,  he  cooperates  with  the  commander 
|  in  the  formation  and  working  out  of  plans  of 
|  operation  and  movements  for  the  army.     The 
I  proper  arrangement  of  these  in  European  ar- 
I  mies  is  left  to  the  quartermaster  general ;  the 
;  details  of  inarches,  cantonments,  and  encamp- 
|  ments  are  prepared  by  him.     A  sufficient  num- 
I  her  of  staff' officers  are  attached  to  headquarters 
j  for  reconnoitring  the  ground,  preparing  pro- 
|  jects  as  to  the  defence  or  attack  of  positions, 
&c.     There  are  also  a  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  artillery  and  a  superior  engineer  officer  for 
|  their  respective  departments,  a  few  deputies  to 
|  represent  the  chief  of  the  staff  on  particular 
I  points  of  the  battlefield,  and  a  number  of  or 
derly  officers  and  orderlies  to  carry  orders  and 
despatches.      To  the  headquarters  are  further 
attached  the  chief  of  the  commissariat  with  his 
clerks,  the  paymaster  of  the  army,  the  chief  of 
the  medical  department,  and  the  judge  advo 
cate  or  director  of  the  department  of  military 
j  justice.     The  staff's  of  the  army  corps  and  divi- 
I  sions  are  regulated  on  the  same  model,  but  with 
I  greater   simplicity  and  a  reduced  personnel; 

I  the  staffs  of  brigades  and  regiments  are  still 
•  less  numerous,  and  the  staff  of  a  battalion  may 
consist  merely  of  the  commander,  his  adjutant, 
I  an  officer  as  paymaster,  a  sergeant  as  clerk, 
j  and  a  drummer  or  bugleman. — To  regulate  and 
keep  up  the  military  force  of  a  great  nation, 
I  numerous  establishments  besides  those  hitherto 
j  named  are  required.     There  are  recruiting  and 
remounting  commissioners,  the  latter  often  con 
nected  with  the  administration  of  national  es 
tablishments  for  the  breeding  of  horses,  mili 
tary  schools  for  officers  and  non-commissioned 
officers,  model  battalions,  squadrons,  and   bat 
teries,  normal  riding  schools,  and  schools  for 
veterinary  surgeons.     There  are  in  most  coun 
tries  national  founderies  and  manufactories  for 
small  arms  and  gunpowder ;  there  are  the  va 
rious  barracks,  arsenals,  stores,  the  fortresses 
with  their  equipments,  and  the  staff  of  officers 
commanding  them  ;  finally,  there  are  the  com 
missariat  and  general  staff  of  the  army,  which, 
for  the    whole  of  the  armed   force,  are  even 
more  numerous  and  have  more  extensive  du 
ties  to  perform  than  the  staff  and  commissariat 
of  a  single  active  army.     The  staff  especially 
j  has  very  important  duties.     It  is  generally  di- 
i  vided  into  a  historical  section  (collecting  mate- 
rials  relative  to  the  history  of  war,  the  forma- 
i  tion  of  armies,  &c.,  past  and  present),  a  topo- 
|  graphical  section  (intrusted  with  the  collection 
!  of  maps  and  the  trigonometrical  survey  of  the 
I  whole  country),  a  statistical  section,  &c.     At. 
|  the  head  of  all  these  establishments,  as  well 
I  as  of  the  army,  stands  the  ministry  of  warr  or- 
;  ganized  differently  in  different  countries,, but. 
•  comprising,  as  must  appear  from  the  preceding 
observations,  an  immense  variety  of  subjects. 
i  Such  is  the  vast  machinery  devoted  to  recruit- 
j  ing,  remounting,  feeding,  directing,  and  always 
|  reproducing  a  modern  first-class  army.     The 
!  masses  brought  together  correspond  to  such  an 
1  organization.     Xapoleon's  grand  armv  of  1812,  • 


754 


ARMY 


ARNAULD 


when  he  had  200,000  men  in  Spain,  200,000  in 
France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  Poland,  and  in 
vaded  Russia  with  450,000  men  and  1,300 
guns,  was  equalled  in  1870,  when  Prussia  put 
almost  her  entire  armed  force  in  the  field 
against  France,  under  the  immediate  command 
of  King  William,  assisted  by  Gen.  Von  Moltke 
and  an  able  assemblage  of  army  and  corps 
commanders.  This  remarkable  campaign,  al 
though  it  was  characterized  by  no  extraor 
dinary  loss  of  life  either  to  the  French  or  the 
Prussians,  resulted  in  the  capture  or  annihila 
tion  of  the  entire  French  army  and  the  com 
plete  prostration  of  the  French  empire.  The 
Prussian  army  engaged  in  the  campaign  earned 
for  itself  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  per 
fect,  all  things  considered,  in  the  world.  Its 
artillery  and  infantry  are  specially  good,  but 
its  cavalry  sjcms  to  be  behind  the  age. — The 
military  system  of  the  United  States  is  based 
upon  volunteer  armies  raised  as  occasion  de 
mands.  During  the  civil  war,  from  first  to  last, 
2,690,401  men  (including  reenlistments)  were 
enrolled,  equipped,  and  organized  into  armies. 
The  principal  of  these  were  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  the  army  of  the  Tennessee,  the  army 
of  the  Cumberland,  and  the  army  of  the  Ohio  ; 
the  last  three  were  finally  united  into  one 
command,  known  as  the  military  division  of 
the  Mississippi.  The  troops  constituting  these 
armies  were  raised  by  the  various  loyal  states, 
by  regiments,  under  proclamation  and  demand 
from  the  president  of  the  United  States,  the 
numbers  being  apportioned  by  the  secretary 
of  war,  through  the  provost  marshal  general, 
according  to  the  population  of  the  respective 
states.  As  soon  as  the  various  regiments  were 
mustered  into  the  service  of  the  United  States, 
they  were  under  the  complete  control  of  the 
general  government,  and  were  afterward  as 
signed  to  brigades,  divisions,  corps,  arid  armies, 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  service, 
and  generally  without  regard  to  the  states  from 
which  they  came.  They  received  their  pay, 
arms,  clothing,  and  subsistence  from  the  United 
States,  though,  with  a  few  exceptions,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  colored  troops,  the  field  and  line  offi 
cers  received  their  commissions  and  promotions 
from  the  governors  of  their  respective  states. 
All  general  and  general  staff  officers  were  com 
missioned  by  the  president,  and  no  officer  after 
having  been  mustered  into  the  service  of  the 
United  States  could  be  dismissed  by  the  state 
authorities.  The  requisitions  upon  the  various 
states  were  generally  filled  with  a  reasonable 
degree  of  promptitude,  although,  owing  to  the 
great  expansion  of  the  currency  due  to  the 
emission  of  paper  money  and  the  great  stimula 
tion  of  the  various  industries  of  the  country 
engaged  in  the  production  of  army  supplies, 
the  rates  of  wages  advanced  so  rapidly  that 
before  the  war  ended  it  became  exceedingly 
difficult  to  raise  volunteers,  except  by  the  pay 
ment  of  bounties  amounting  in  many  instances 
to  $1,500  per  man.  The  use  of  this  system  re 
sulted  in  the  success  of  the  national  arms,  but 


at  an  extravagant  cost  in  men,  material,  and 
money.     Immediately  after  the  termination  of 
the   war  the   volunteer   army,   amounting    to 
about  1,100,000  men,  was  quietly  and  rapidly 
disbanded,  the  various  regiments  returning  to 
their  respective  states,  and  becoming  at  once 
absorbed  in  the  body  of  the  people,   without 
the  slightest  disturbance  of  the  peace  and  order 
of  society,    or  derangement  of  its  industries. 
I  The   regular  army,  which  during  the  war  had 
been  increased  from  about  18,000  men  to  some 
thing  over  50,000,  was  reduced  by  successive 
j  steps  to  30,000  men.    This  force  is  mainly  used 
i  for  garrisoning  the  permanent  fortifications,  for 
i  protecting  the  highways  across  the  continent, 
|  and  preserving  order  among  the  Indian  tribes 
!  of  the  west. 

ARXAl'LI),  a  French  family,  several  members 
of  which  are  noted  in  connection  Avith  the  con- 
|  vent  of  Port  Royal  and  the  Jansenist  contro 
versy.     I.  Antoine,  born  in  Paris  in  1560,  died 
there,  Dec.  29,   1019.      He  was  an  advocate, 
and  gained  celebrity  by  an  argument  in  1594 
!  against  the  Jesuits,   and  in  favor  of  the  uni- 
|  versity  of  Paris.     He  was  the  author  of  Avis 
an   roi   Louis   XIII.  pour   lien   regncr,   and 
I  of  various  other  writings.     He  was  a  Roman 
!  Catholic,  although  denounced  by  the  Jesuits  as 
I  a  Huguenot.     lie  was  the  father  of  20  children, 
I  ten  of  whom  died  young,  and  the  others,  four 
i  sons  and  six  daughters,  became  connected  with 
j  the   Port   Royal   convent,     II.  Robert  Arnauld 
j  d'Andilly,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
!  Paris  about  1588,  died  at  Port  Royal,  Sept,  27, 
|  1074.     He  was  originally  an  advocate,  and  like 
|  his  father  distinguished  himself  by  a  plea  for 
I  the  university  of  Paris  and  against  the  Jesuits. 
|  At  the  age  of  55  he  retired  to  a  farm  adjoining 
the  convent  of  Port  Royal,  where  he  passed 
i  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  seclusion,  devoting 
j  his  time  to  theological  subjects,  and  writing 
|  and  translating.     Among  his  works  are  trans 
lations  of  the  Vk  Confessions ?'  of  Augustine  and 
|  of  Joseplms's  "History  of  the  Jews,"  memoirs 
i  of  his  own  life,  L<i  Tie  de  Jesus  (a  poem),  and 
|   Vies  des  saints  peres  du  desert  et  de  quelquex 
\  saintes  (3  vols.  8vo),  which  he  considered  his 
i  best  work.     HI.  Henri,  bishop  of  Angers,  bro- 
;  ther  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1597, 
'  died  at  Angers  about  1092.     He  was  destined 
;  for  the  bar,  but  on  receiving  from  the  crown 
the  gift  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Nicholas,  entered 
the  church.     lie  was  elected  bishop  of  Toul  by 
1  the  diocesan  chapter,  but,  some  question  arising, 
!  he  refused  to  accept  the  position.     In  1045  he 
I  went  to  Rome  to  appease  the  quarrel  between 
the  Barberini  family  and  Pope  Innocent  X. ;  in 
this  he  was  so  successful  that  a   medal   was 
struck  and  a  statue  erected  in  his  honor.     Re 
turning  to  France,  he  was  in  1049  made  bishop 
i  of  Angers.     He  became  a  zealous  Jansenist, 
and  was  one  of  the  four  bishops  who  refused 
i  to  sign  the  acceptance  of  the  papal  bull  con- 
|  demning  the  Augustinus  of  Jansenius.    He  was 
I  accustomed  to  take  only  live  hours'  sleep,  that 
!  he  might  gain  time  for  prayer  and  reading  the 


ARNAULD 


755 


Scriptures.  He  left  his  diocese  only  on  one 
occasion,  and  that  was  to  reconcile  the  prince 
of  Tarento  to  his  father,  the  duke  de  ia  Tre- 
mouille.  In  1G52  Angers  revolted,  and  the 
queen  mother  was  about  to  take  heavy  ven 
geance,  but  was  prevented  by  Arnauld,  who 
in  administering  the  sacrament  said  to  her, 
"Take  the  body  of  Him  who  forgave  his  ene 
mies  when  on  the  cross.''  lie  was  urged  to 
take  one  day  in  the  week  for  recreation ;  but 
replied,  "  I  will  do  so  when  you  find  me  a  day  j 
when  I  am  not  a  bishop."  His  Negotiation*  \ 
d  la  cour  de  Rome  (5  vols.,  1748)  contain  many 
curious  facts  and  anecdotes.  IVt  Antoine,  called 
u  the  great  Arnauld,"  youngest  son  of  Antoine, 
and  brother  of  the  two  preceding,  born  in 
Paris,  Feb.  6,  1012,  died  near  Liege,  Aug.  8, 
1694.  He  studied  for  the  law,  but  was  in 
duced  to  turn  his  attention  to  theology.  In 
1641  he  became  a  priest,  and  was  made  doctor 
of  the  Sorbonne.  In  1643  he  was  made  asso 
ciate  of  the  Sorbonne.  In  this  year  he  pub 
lished  his  famous  work  De  la  frequente  com 
munion,  which  was  sharply  attacked  by  the 
Jesuits.  Arnauld  replied  in  his  Theologie 
morale  des  Jesuites,  which  was  the  beginning 
of  a  long  and  fierce  controversy.  His  op 
ponents  endeavored  to  have  him  summoned  to 
Rome,  to  avoid  which  he  retired  to  the  con 
vent  of  Port  Royal  des  Champs,  near  Paris. 
Soon  afterward  he  became  involved  in  the  dis 
putes  concerning  Jansenius  and  his  Augustinus, 
several  propositions  in  which  had  been  (Aug. 
1,  1641)  condemned  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.  Ar 
nauld  undertook  to  defend  the  work  of  Jan 
senius  against  the  papal  bull.  Besides  strictly 
controversial  works,  he  wrote  at  this  period 
Mceurs  de  Veglise  catholique  ;  La  correction; 
La  grace ;  La  verite  de  la  religion ;  De  la 
foi,  de  Fesperance  et  de  la  charite  ;  and  the 
Manuel  de  Saint  Avgustin  ;  and  translated  his 
Frequente  communion  into  Latin.  He  also 
undertook  the  spiritual  direction  of  the  nuns 
in  the  convent  of  Port  Royal,  of  which  his  sis 
ter  Marie  Jacqueline  was  abbess.  In  connec 
tion  with  Pascal,  Nicole,  and  others,  he  pre 
pared  several  elementary  works  on  education. 
"  The  Port  Royal  Grammars  "  held  their 
place  as  text  books  for  a  long  time.  In  1649 
the  Janscnist  controversy  broke  out  afresh,  and 
the  Augmtinus  was  again  condemned  by  the 
pope.  In  1655  or  1656  Arnauld  found  it  neces 
sary  to  leave  Port  Royal  and  seek  a  secret 
place  of  refuge  ;  he  was  at  this  time  expelled 
from  the  Sorbonne,  and  from  the  faculty  of  the 
ology.  72  doctors  and  many  licentiates  going  out 
with  him.  For  Pascal's  famous  ''Provincial 
Letters,"  against  the  Jesuits,  Arnauld  furnished 
the  materials,  the  wit  and  satire  being  Pascal's. 
In  1658  Arnauld  entered  personally  into  the 
contest,  in  his  Cinque  ecrits  en  far  en r  des  cures 
de  Paris  centre  les  casuutes  reldches,  which 
was  followed  in  1662  by  La  nouvelle  heresie, 
and  in  1669  by  the  first  volume  of  his  Morale 
pratique,  the  last  volume  of  which  was  not 
published  until  the  year  of  his  death.  All 


these  works  were  directed  against  the  Jesuits. 
The  peace  of  Clement  IX.  (1068)  for  a  time 
allayed   the   Jansenist  controversy.      Arnauld 
contributed   to  this  by  an  eloquent  memorial 
to  the  pontiff.     He  was  presented  to  the  papal 
nuncio,  and  to  Louis  XIV.,  who  received  him 
graciously,    and   urged    him    to    u  employ    his 
golden  pen  in  defence  of  religion."     Arnauld, 
in  conjunction  with  Nicole,  wrote  a  work  Ite 
la  perpetuite  de  la  foi  de  Veglise  catholiqve, 
which  was  dedicated  to  the  pope.     This  work 
gave  rise  to  a  controversy  between  Arnauld  and 
the  reformed  minister  Claude.     The  bishop  of 
Paris    procured    from    Louis  XIV.    ;m  order 
for  the  arrest  of  Arnauld,  who  concealed  him 
self  for  a   time   in   the   house    of    the   duch 
ess   de  Longueville ;    but  in   1679  he  went  to 
I  Brussels,   where    he  was    assured    of  protec 
tion.      Here   in    1681    he   published  his   Apo- 
\  logie  pour  les    Catholiqites,  a  defence  of  his 
'  old    antagonists    the    Jesuits   against   the    ab- 
'  surd  charges  brought  forward  in  England  by 
i  Titus  Gates.     In  1689  appeared  an  anonymous 
:  work,  afterward  shown  to  be  written  by  Ar- 
:  nauld,  directed  against  the  prince  of  Orange, 
William  III.  of  England,  in  which  that  states 
man  was  designated  as  u  a  new  Absalom,  a  new 
Herod,  and  a  new  Cromwell."     In  opposition 
to  the  views  of   his  old  friend   Malebranche, 
Arnauld'wrote  in  1683  his  Traite  des  vraies  et 
,  des  fausses  idees,  and  in  1685   his  Reflexions 
philosophiques  et   tlieologiques  sur  le  noureau 
tysterne  de  la  nature  et  de  la  grace  dit  pere  Male- 
\  uranche.     lie  continued  to  the  last,  even  when 
:  more  than  80  years  old,  to  carry  on  his  contro- 
:  versies    with    Maleoranche,   with    the  Calvin- 
I  ists,  and  with  Bayle  and  other  skeptical  philos 
ophers.  His  last  work,  Reflexions  sur  V eloquence 
;  des  predicateurs,  appeared  in  1694.     His  writ - 
j  ings,  as  named  by  Moreri,  comprise 320  works; 
and  as  originally  published  they  appeared  in 
i  100  volumes.     They  were  collected  and  pub 
lished  at  Lausanne  and  Paris  in  45  vols.  4to 
(1775-'83).    V.  Marie  Jacqueline  Angeliqne,  abbess 
I  of  Port  Royal,  sister  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
:  1591,  died  Aug.  6, 1061.  At  the  age  of  14  she  was 
:  made  abbess  of  Port  Royal  des  Champs.     At  17 
;  she  was  directed  by  the  general  of  the  order  of 
St.  Bernard  to  reform  the  abbey  of  Maubuisson, 
where  she  subjected  herself  to  all  the  privations 
imposed  upon  the  sisterhood.     She  became  con 
vinced  that  her  election  as  abbess  of  Port  Royal 
!  was  invalid,  and  resigned,  after  having  secured 
;  a  provision  that  thereafter  the  abbesses  should 
i  be  chosen  triennially.     Some  years  afterward 
;  the  pope  chose  her  to  establish  a  new  convent 
•  which  the  duchess  de  Longueville  was  about 
!  to  found  in  honor  of  the  holy  sacrament.     This 
I  establishment  not  continuing,  Marie  Jacqueline 
|  returned  to  the    convent  of   Port  Royal,  and 
!  was  again  elected  abbess,  a  position  which  she 
i  retained  for  12  years.     Racine,  in  his  Histoire 
\  de  Port  Royal,  attributes  to  her  the  authorship 
j  of  the  history  of  the  persecution  suffered  by  the 
|  nuns,  which  was  published  at  Paris  in  1724.    VI. 
;  Agues,  sister  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1594,  died 


T56 


ARNAULT 


ARNDT 


Feb.  19, 1671.  She  entered  the  convent  when  a 
mere  child,  and  at  the  age  of  15  was  appointed 
mistress  of  the  novices.  She  was  at  the  head 
of  the  establishment  during  the  five  years 
which  her  sister  passed  at  Maubuisson ;  then 
became  her  coadjutor,  and  was  subsequently 
chosen  abbess,  and  for  27  years  governed  Port 
Royal,  alternately  with  her  sister,  whom  she 
survived  nine  years.  She  was  the  author  of 
two  books,  Le  chaplet  secret  da  Saint  Sacra 
ment  (1663),  which  was  suppressed  at  Rome, 
but  without  being  formally  censured,  and 
IS  image  de  la  religieuse  parfaite  et  imparfaite 
(1665)'.  The  Constitutions  de  Port  Royal  are  also 
attributed  to  her.  These  abbesses  were  two  of 
six  sisters,  all  belonging  to  one  convent,  and  all 
attached  to  the  Jansenist  party.  The  arch 
bishop  of  Paris  said  that  they  were  "  as  pure  as 
angels,  but  as  proud  as  devils."  VIL  Aiigelique, 
usually  designated  by  her  conventual  name  Mere 
Angelique  de  St.  Jean,  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  24, 
1624,  died  there,  Jan.  29,  1684.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andilly,  and 
niece  of  the  four  preceding,  She  was  educated 
in  the  convent  of  Port  Royal  by  her  aunt  Marie 
Jacqueline.  When  not  quite  20  years  old  she 
became  a  nun,  and  nine  years  afterward  was 
chosen  sub-prioress  of  the  convent.  When  the 
establishment  was  removed  to  Port  Royal  de 
Paris  she  retained  the  same  position.  A  royal 
order  having  been  issued  for  breaking  up  the 
institution,  the  inmates  were  arrested  by  the 
police,  and  dispersed  through  various  convents, 
every  endeavor  being  made  to  induce  them  to 
accede  to  the  formulary  of  Pope  Alexander  VI. 
From  these  solicitations  Angelique  was  espe 
cially  excepted,  because  her  "  known  obstinacy  " 
made  it  sure  that  she  would  not  agree.  At 
length  the  nuns  were  restored  to  Port  Royal 
des  Champs,  but  were  for  years  subjected  to 
the  surveillance  of  the  police,  no  intercourse 
being  permitted  between  them  and  persons 
outside  of  the  convent.  In  1669  the  Port 
Royal  society  was  reconstituted,  Angelique 
being  again  elected  prioress.  In  1688  she  was 
chosen  abbess.  But  the  next  year  her  pow 
erful  protector,  the  duchess  de  Longueville, 
died,  and  the  persecution  was  renewed,  it  be 
ing  expressly  ordered  that  no  new  novices 
should  be  admitted.  Angelique  exerted  her 
self  to  stem  the  storm ;  she  consoled  the  nuns, 
and  put  forth  all  her  iriiluence  with  persons  in 
power.  Her  efforts  were  unavailing,  and  she 
sank  under  a  complication  of  griefs.  She  was 
learned,  pious,  and  gentle.  She  wrote  several 
books,  the  most  valuable  of  which  is  Memoires 
pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  de  Port  Royal,  et  a  la 
me  de  la  reverende  Mere  Marie  Angelique  de 
Sainte  Madeleine  Arnauld,  reformatrice  de  ce 
monastere  (3  vols.,  Utrecht,  1742).  She  also 
took  a  considerable  part  in  the  preparation 
of  the  Necrologie  de  Port  Royal  des  Champs 
(Amsterdam,  1723),  and  wrote  other  works  in 
defence  of  the  convent. 

ARNAULT,  Vincent  Antoinc,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Paris  in  January,  1766,  died  near  Havre, 


Sept.  16,  1834.  He  became  first  known  to 
fame  by  two  tragedies,  Marius  d  Minturnes  and 
Lucrece.  After  the  massacres  of  September, 
1792,  he  went  to  London  and  Brussels,  and  on 
his  return  in  1793  was  arrested,  but  soon  set 
free.  In  1797  Bonaparte  sent  him  on  a  mission 
to  the  Ionian  Islands.  In  1799  he  produced  in 
Paris  a  tragedy,  Les  Veniticns,  suggested  by 
his  residence  at  Venice,  which  was  very  fa 
vorably  received  by  Napoleon  himself,  before 
whom  he  delivered  several  lectures  on  that 
city.  He  became  in  the  same  year  member  of 
the  French  academy,  in  1805  vice  president 
and  in  1808  principal  secretary  of  the  council 
of  the  university.  All  these  offices  were  taken 
from  him  after  the  emperor's  downfall,  but 
restored  to  him  during  the  hundred  days. 
Besides  his  tragedies  he  wrote  a  number  of 
miscellaneous  prose  works  and  poems,  a  collec 
tion  of  fables,  and  Vie  politique  et  militaire 
de  Napoleon  (3  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1822),  and 
prepared  with  Jay,  Jouy,  and  De  Norvins 
the  Nouvelle  biographic  des  contemporaim  (20 
vols.  8vo,  1820-'25). 

ARNAUTS.     See  ALBANIA. 

ARND,  or  Arndt,  Johann,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Ballenstedt,  Anhalt,  Dec.  27,  1555, 
died  at  Celle,  May  11,  1621.  He  was  pastor 
successively  at  Paderborn  and  Quedlinburg,  and 
in  1599  was  appointed  preacher  to  the  court  at 
Brunswick.  In  1611  he  was  presented  by  the 
duke  of  Ltineburg  to  the  church  at  Celle,  and 
he  soon  afterward  became  superintendent  of 
all  the  churches  of  the  duchy,  which  office  he 
held  till  his  death.  His  writings  are  marked 
by  great  fervor  of  devotion.  His  principal 
work,  on  "True  Christianity,"  which  has  been 
translated  into  almost  all  European  languages, 
approaches  so  near  to  mysticism  that  it  was 
attacked  during  the  lifetime  of  its  author  as 
a  dangerous  and  heretical  production.  The 
fact  that  he  gave  liberally  to  the  poor,  while 
himself  in  poverty,  gave  rise  to  a  belief  that  he 
had  discovered  the  secret  of  making  gold. 

ARNDT,  Ernst  Moritz,  a  German  patriot,  pro 
fessor  of  history  at  the  university  of  Bonn, 
born  at  Schoritz,  on  the  island  of  Riigen,  Dec. 
26,  1769,  died  in  Bonn,  Jan.  29,  1860.  He 
studied  at  Greifswald  and  Jena,  and  after  trav 
elling  over  Europe  was  appointed  professor  at 
Greifswald,  where  he  soon  published  his  "His 
tory  of  Serfdom  in  Pomerania  and  Riigen," 
which  roused  the  wrath  of  some  members  of 
the  Pomeranian  nobility.  In  1807  appeared 
the  first  volume  of  his  Geist  der  Zeit,  contain 
ing  his  attack  against  Napoleon,  for  which  he 
was  expelled  from  the  country.  lie  then  went 
to  Stockholm,  where,  under  a  feigned  name,  he 
supported  himself  by  teaching  languages.  In 
1810  he  ventured  to  return  to  Greifswald  in 
disguise,  but  on  hearing  of  the  Russian  cam 
paign,  he  proceeded  in  1812  to  St.  Petersburg, 
and  published  pamphlet  after  pamphlet  to 
rouse  the  public  mind  of  Europe  from  its  leth 
argy.  His  cry  was,  If  Napoleon  is  successful 
in  Russia,  Germany  is  undone.  Baron  Stein 


ARNE 


ARNIM 


757 


sympathized  and  acted  with  him.  At  this 
time  he  wrote  his  book  defining  the  Rhine  as  a 
German  river,  and  also  his  stirring  national 
songs,  including  Was  ixt  des  Deutschen  Vater- 
land  f  In  1818  he  became  professor  of  modern 
history  at  Bonn,  but  his  liberal  ideas  soon  gave 
renewed  offence  at  Potsdam.  He  was  tried 
for  treason,  and  though  no  verdict  could  be 
found  against  him,  it  was  20  years  before  the 
king  would  allow  him  to  teach  history  again. 
In  1848  he  was  sent  as  deputy  to  the  Frankfort 
parliament;  but  on  May  21,  1849,  he  withdrew 
from  parliament  with  the  whole  constitutional 
party,  which  was  in  favor  of  a  hereditary  em 
pire.  He  returned  to  Bonn,  where,  constantly 
employed  in  literary  labor,  he  passed  an  active 
and  happy  old  age,  known  and  honored  through 
out  Germany,  under  the  popular  name  of  "  Fa 
ther  Arndt,"  as  one  of  the  foremost  liberators 
of  the  country  from  foreign  tyranny  and  home 
abuses.  A  monument  in  his  honor  was  placed 
on  a  plateau  near  Bonn,  July  29,  1865.  His 
residence  and  garden  have  been  purchased  and 
presented  to  the  city  of  Bonn. 

ARSE,  Thomas  Augastine,  an  English  composer 
of  music,  born  in  London  in  1710,  died  March 
5,  1778.  His  father,  an  upholsterer,  gave  him 
a  good  education  at  Eton,  and  bound  him  ap 
prentice  to  an  attorney,  but  afterward  con 
sented  to  his  following  his  inclination  and 
devoting  himself  exclusively  to  musical  compo 
sition.  In  1733  he  set  to  music  Addison's 
"  Rosamond "  and  Fielding's  "Tom  Thumb," 
under  the  name  of  the  "  Opera  of  Operas,"  both 
of  which  were  received  with  much  favor.  The 
former  was  composed  chiefly  for  his  sister, 
afterward  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Gibber.  In  1738 
he  wrote  the  music  to  Milton's  "  Comus,"  which 
firmly  established  his  reputation  as  a  compo 
ser.  During  the  next  20  years  he  wrote  operas 
for  Drury  Lane  theatre,  oratorios,  and  a  vast 
number  of  songs.  In  1 762  his  most  famous  work, 
"  Artaxerxes,"  an  opera  after  the  Italian  style, 
was  produced,  and  for  many  years  held  a  prom 
inent  place  on  the  lyric  stage.  His  other  most 
successful  works  were  the  "Judgment  of  Paris," 
"Eliza,"  "Britannia,"  a  musical  farce  entitled 
"Thomas  and  Sally,"  "The  Fairies,"  and  "The 
Stratford  Jubilee."  His  oratorios,  owing  to 
the  competition  of  Handel's  works,  were  com 
parative  failures.  As  a  composer  of  songs  Dr. 
Arne  was  unsurpassed  by  any  English  writer 
since  the  time  of  Purcell ;  and  many  of  them, 
such  as  "Rule  Britannia,"  and  "The  Soldier 
Tired,"  are  still  popular.  In  1769  he  received 
from  Oxford  the  degree  of  doctor  in  music. 

ARXHEilI,  or  Arnheim  (anc.  Arenacum\  a  city 
of  Holland,  capital  of  the  province  of  G elder- 
land,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  30  m.  E. 
by  S.  of  Utrecht;  pop.  in  1871,  33,181,  half 
Roman  Catholics,  and  the  rest  mostly  Protes 
tants.  It  was  once  a  strong  fortress,  but  the 
ramparts  have  been  converted  into  prome 
nades,  and  the  fine  situation  has  made  the  ad 
joining  pleasure  grounds  and  villages  favorite 
resorts  of  distinguished  and  opulent  persons. 


including  many  retired  East  India  merchants. 
The  town  hall  is  called  the  Devil's  House,  from 
the  peculiar  adornments  of  its  front.  In  the 
church  of  St.  Eusebius  (the  Groote  Kerk)  are 
the  tombs  of  the  dukes  and  counts  of  Gelder- 
land  and  a  fine  mausoleum  of  one  of  the  former, 
Gharles  of  Egmont  The  pulpit  of  the  St.  Wai- 
burg  Roman  Catholic  church  was  designed  by 
Cuypers.  There  are  many  other  interesting 
public  buildings,  including  the  Bronbeek,  a  hos 
pital  for  East  India  invalid  soldiers,  various  ed- 
I  ucational  and  literary  institutions,  and  a  re- 
j  nowned  music  hall  (Musis  sacrum}.  The  trade, 
much  increased  by  railway  communications, 
consists  in  the  export  of  cereals  and  tobacco, 
and  in  a  large  commission  business  with  Ger 
many.  Carriages,  mirrors,  turnery,  and  math 
ematical  and  other  instruments  are  manufac 
tured.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  called  Ar- 
noldi  Villa.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  died  here  in  1586. 
In  1813  it  was  stormed  by  the  Prussians. 

ARNICA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  or 
der  composite.     The  arnica  montana  or  leop 
ard's  bane  grows  in 
the  mountainous  dis 
tricts   of   the    north 
and   middle   of   Eu 
rope,    blossoming   in 
June  and  July.     Its 
flowers,    leaves,   and 
root     are    employed 
in  medicine,  but  the 
|  flowers    are    usually 
I  preferred.      A    tinc- 
1  ture  and  extract  are 
!  prepared    from    the 
;  flowers,  and  a   tinc- 
I  ture   from  the   root. 
An  infusion  may  be 
used.      Arnica    con 
tains    a  volatile   oil, 
bitter  extractive,  and 
resin,  the  first  being 
probably  the   active 
constituent.       When 
taken    internally    arnica    produces    increased 
rapidity  of  the  pulse,  headache,  dizziness,  and 
spasmodic  twitchings  of  the  muscles,  with  oc 
casional  vomiting  and  diarrhoea.     Externally  it 
is  a  slight  irritant.     It  has  been  used,  more  in 
I  Germany  than  in  this  country,  in  low  forms  of 
fever  and  nervous  diseases.     It  is  largely  used 
as  a  remedy  for  sprains  and  bruises. 

A  KM 31,  or  Arnheim,  Johann  Georg,  a  German 

soldier,  born  at  Boitzenburg  in  1581,  died  in 

!  Dresden,   April   18,   1641.     He   fought   under 

\  Gustavus  Adolphus  against  Russia,  and  in  the 

Polish   service  against  the  Turks,  and  was  a 

favorite  officer  of  Wallenstein,  who  made  him 

field  marshal.     In  1631  he  joined  the  elector 

!  of  Saxony,   commanded  the  Saxon  troops  at 

|  Breitenfeld,   invaded   Bohemia,   took   Prague, 

|  and  was  victorious  at  Nimburg,   in  1632  re- 

!  turned  to  Saxony,  then  fought  in  Brandenburg 

'  and  Silesia,  and  in  1634  defeated  the  imperial- 

!  ists  at  Liegnitz.     In  the  following  year  he  left 


Arnica  montana. 


ARNIM 


ARNO 


the  service,  and  in  1037  was  arrested  by  the  j 
Swedes  on  account  of  an  alleged  former  secret  ! 
understanding  with  Wallenstein.     In  Novem-  i 
ber,  1038,  he  escaped  from  Stockholm  to  Ham 
burg,  and  raised  at  his  own  expense  and  with 
the  consent  of  the  imperial  and  Saxon  authori 
ties  an  army  of  10,000  men  against  Sweden,  but 
died  before  it  could  engage  in  active  operations. 

ARNIM,  Karl  Otto  Ludwig  von,  a  German  au-  I 
thor,  born  in  Berlin,  Aug.  1,  1779,  died  there,  j 
Feb.  9,  1801.  His  books  of  travel  in  France,  : 
Italy,  Spain,  Russia,  and  the  East  (Berlin,  0  : 
vols.,  1838-'50)  are  much  valued. 

ARXDI.     I.  Ludwig  Achim   (Joachim)    von,   a 
German  poet,   one  of  the  leaders  of  the  "ro 
mantic  school "  in  German  literature,  born  in  ' 
Berlin,  Jan.  20,  1781,  died  at  his  estate  Wie-  j 
persdorf,  near  Dahme,  Jan.  21,  1831.     He  de-  j 
voted  himself  in  his  youth  to  scientific  studies,  ! 
but  even  in  these  Lis  researches  were  of  a 
fantastic  nature,  and  showed  the  tendency  of  : 
his  mind,  which   soon  exhibited  much  of  its 
singular  originality  in  the  earliest  of  his  liter-  j 
ary  works,  Ariel's  Offenbarungen  (Gottingen, 
1804).     Soon  after  the  publication  of  this  book  | 
lie  travelled  in  Germany,  studying  the  habits 
of  the  common  people,  and  tracing  to  their 
sources   the  current   folk  songs  and   legends,  j 
Of  the  almost  forgotten  beauties  found  among  | 
these  popular  ballads  and  tales  lie  made  ex-  i 
cellent  use  in  several  of  his  works  which  ap-  : 
peared  soon  after — the  principal  portions  of 
Des  Kndben  Wunderhorn  (3  vols.,  Heidelberg,  ! 
1800-'8;    2d   ed.,    1819);    Wintergarten,    eine  \ 
Sammlung  vo?i  Novellen  (Berlin,    1809) ;  Ar- 
muth,    Reiclithum,    ScJiuld     und    Busse    der  \ 
Graft n  Dolores  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1810);  Halle  \ 
und   Jerusalem,    Studentenspiel   und    Pilger-  I 
abenteuer  (Heidelberg,  1811);  and  the  Sch.au-  \ 
biihne   (Berlin,    1813).     In    1811    he    married  j 
Elisabeth   Brentano,    afterward  celebrated   as  ! 
Bettina  von  Arnim.     During  the  years  of  N"a-  j 
poleon's   rule  in   Germany,   Von   Arnim  was  j 
among  the  patriots  who  strove  most  energeti-  i 
cally  to    arouse   his   countrymen   against  the  j 
conqueror's  despotism.     The  years  of  the  war  j 
brought  financial   trouble    upon    him,   and  he 
wrote  but  little  for  a  considerable  time.     That 
difficulty  over,  he  again  appeared  in  literature 
and   published   several   works,   of  which  Die 
Kronemcfichter,  oder  Berthold's  erstes  und  zwei-  \ 
tes  Leben,  was  the  chief.     His  complete  works  j 
were  published  by  Grimm,  in  19  volumes  (Ber 
lin,  1839-'4G).     II.  Elisabeth  von,  best  known 
as  BETTIXA,  wife  of  the  preceding,  and  sister  j 
of  the  poet  Clemens  Brentano,  born  in  Frank-  j 
fort-on-the-Main,  April  4,  1785,  died  in  Berlin,  ; 
Jan.  20,  1859.    Her  education  was  little  guided  ! 
by  her  friends,  and  its  entire  freedom  from  con 
ventional  rules  probably  exaggerated  the  ec-  j 
centricities  which  she  began  at  an  early  age  to  ! 
display.     A  part  of  her  youth  was  spent  in  a 
convent,  a  part  in  Offenbach  and  Marburg,  but 
Frankfort  was  her  favorite  home.     She  formed 
a  friendship  with  a  canoness,  Fraulein  Gtinde-  \ 
rode,  who  exerted  over  her  naturally  fantastic  I 


habits  of  thought  a  most  unhealthy  influence  ; 
the  two  friends  acknowledged  only  a  singularly 
fanciful  worship  of  nature,  and  natural  im 
pulses,  laws,  and  methods  of  life;  a  dreamy 
brooding  over  this  and  the  "  tyranny  "  of  con 
ventionalities  soon  grew  into  almost  a  mental 
disease.  Fraulein  Giinderode  committed  sui 
cide  on  account  of  an  unhappy  passion  for  the 
philologist  Creuzer,  and  this  event  still  further 
affected  Bettina's  morbid  current  of  thought. 
Soon  after  her  friend's  death  she  entered  into 
correspondence  with  Goethe,  for  whom  she 
contracted  a  fantastic  love.  The  poet,  now 
nearly  00  years  of  age,  treated  this  as  a  child's 
whim,  and,  without  encouraging,  still  did  not 
repel  it,  though  he  in  no  way  returned  her 
feeling.  The  outgrowth  of  their  singular  cor 
respondence  was  Bettina  von  Arnim's  book 
Goethe's  Brief wechsel  mit  einem  Kinde  (&  vols., 
Berlin,  1835),  a  record  since  proved  to  be  so 
full  of  falsifications,  distortions,  and  affectations 
as  to  be  worth  little  save  as  a  record  of  its  au 
thor's  egotism  and  eccentricity.  (See  Lewes's 
"  Life  of  Goethe.")  She  herself  translated  the 
work  into  English.  After  her  marriage  to 
Achim  von  Arnim  in  1811,  she  lived  in  Ber 
lin,  where  her  mind  took  a  healthier  tone  from 
her  active  charity  and  from  the  absence  of 
her  former  surroundings.  In  1840  portions  of 
her  correspondence  with  her  old  friend  the  can 
oness  were  published  under  the  title  Die  Gun- 
derode  (partly  translated  into  English  by  Mar 
garet  Fuller).  Her  house  was  a  well  known  ren 
dezvous  of  the  most  famous  literary  characters 
of  the  day,  among  whom  she  was  known  only 
as  "Bettina"  even  in  her  old  age.  Her  note 
worthy  works  besides  those  mentioned  above 
were :  Dies  Buck  gehort  dem  Konige  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1843) ;  Ilius  PampJiilius  und  die  Am 
brosia  (2  vols.,  1848)  ;  Gespracliem.it  Ddmonen 
(1852).  In  analyzing  Bettina's  character,  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  how  much  of  her  eccen 
tricity  is  attributable  to  her  actual  peculiarities, 
and  how  much  to  a  morbid  egotism  and  affec 
tation,  largely  influenced  by  the  opinions  of 
the  unsettled  and  disorganized  time  in  which 
she  lived.  III.  Gisela  von,  daughter  of  the  pre 
ceding,  and  wife  of  Hermann  Grimm,  has  be 
come  known  as  a  writer  by  her  DramatiscJie 
Werke,  published  two  years  before  her  mother's 
death  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  1857). 

ARNO,  a  river  of  Tuscany,  rises  on  the  S. 
slope  of  Monte  Falterona  in  the  Apennines, 
0  in.  N.  of  Prato  Vecchio,  flows  S.  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Arezzo,  where  it  is  joined 
by  the  Chianassa  and  the  Chiana,  thence 
N.  "W.  to  Pontassieve,  where  it  receives  the 
Sieve,  thence  follows  a  westerly  course  through 
Florence  and  Pisa  to  7  m.  below  the  latter 
city,  where  it  flows  into  the  Mediterranean 
through  a  channel  cut  for  it  in  1003;  length 
150  m.  It  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  from 
the  sea  to  Florence,  but  further  is  liable  to  be 
obstructed  by  floods  and  droughts.  To  guard 
against  the  former,  it  has  been  embanked  for 
the  greater  part  of  its  course.  The  valley 


ARNOBIUS 


ARNOLD 


759 


through  which  the  Arno  flows  between  Flor 
ence  and  Pisa  is  the  very  garden  of  Italy,  and 
is  famous  for  its  beauty. 

ARXOBIl'S,  an  African  rhetorician,  born  in 
Sicca  Veneria  (supposed  to  be  the  Tunisian 
Keif),  on  the  eastern  border  of  Numidia, 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen 
tury.  He  was  a  violent  opponent  of  Chris 
tianity,  which  had  been  introduced  into  Nu- 
midia  as  early  as  250,  until,  tradition  says, 
lie  was  warned  in  a  dream  to  embrace  the 
new  religion.  There  is,  however,  reason  to 
ascribe  his  conversion  to  a  rational  investiga 
tion  of  the  gospels.  On  his  conversion  he  ap 
plied  to  the  bishop  of  Sicca  for  admission  to 
the  church.  The  bishop  desired  some -proof 
of  the  sincerity  of  a  man  who  had  been  so  zeal 
ous  a  defender  of  paganism.  Arnobius  there 
fore  wrote  the  famous  treatise  entitled  Adver- 
sus  Gentes,  in  which  he  gives  proof  of  his  zeal 
for  Christianity  by  exposing  the  fallacies  of  his 
former  faith.  The  Adrersus  Gentes  inclines  to 
Gnosticism  and  Dualism,  in  the  conclusion  that, 
since  the  Supreme  Being  would  not  have  cre 
ated  so  imperfect  a  work  as  the  human  soul, 
it  must  have  been  created  by  some  inferior  be 
ing  in  his  image.  Arnobius  taught  that  immor 
tality  was  not  an  attribute  of  the  soul,  but 
could  only  be  acquired  by  effort  to  conquer 
evil  and  rise  to  the  supremacy  of  good. 

ARNOLD,  Benedict,  an  officer  in  the  American 
revolutionary  army,  born  in  Norwich,  Conn., 
Jan.  3,  1740,  died  in  London,  June  14,  1801. 
He  was  trained  to  mercantile  pursuits,  but, 
being  of  a  restless  and  reckless  disposition,  was 
invariably  unsuccessful  in  trade.  He  showed, 
however,  considerable  aptitude  for  military 
life,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  American  rev 
olution  was  the  captain  of  a  company  of  Con 
necticut  militia  known  as  the  "governor's 
guards."  At  the  head  of  this  command  he  re 
paired  to  Cambridge,  Mass.,  after  the  battle  of 
Lexington,  and  was  commissioned  a  colonel. 
He  cooperated  with  Ethan  Allen  in  the  capture 
of  Forts  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  on  Lake 
Champlain,  arid  in  the  latter  part  of  1775  was 
appointed,  in  connectior  with  Gen.  Richard 
Montgomery,  to  the  command  of  an  expedition 
against  Canada,  whence  with  Montgomery  he 
made  (Dec.  31)  a  gallant  but  unsuccessful  as 
sault  upon  Quebec,  receiving  a  severe  wound 
in  the  leg.  For  these  services  he  was  rewarded 
by  congress  with  the  commission  of  a  brigadier 
general.  He  remained  on  the  northern  fron 
tier  during  the  ensuing  spring  and  summer, 
and,  having  organized  a  flotilla  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  fought  a  desperate  battle  on  Oct.  11, 
1776,  with  a  greatly  superior  British  force,  in 
which  he  was  worsted.  On  the  succeeding 
day  he  ran  his  vessels  on  shore  and  fired  them, 
and  then  retired  unmolested  to  Ticonderoga. 
Notwithstanding  these  exploits,  he  was  omitted 
from  the  list  of  five  major  generals  who  soon 
after  were  appointed  by  congress.  A  letter 
from  Washington  soothed  his  wounded  vanity, 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  injustice  of 


congress  in  this  instance  first  suggested  to  his 
rnind  the  idea  of  betraying  his  country.  Re 
ceiving  permission  to  visit  Philadelphia,  where 
congress  was  then  sitting,  he  took  part  near 
Danbury,  Conn.,  in  an  encounter  witli  a  su 
perior  body  of  British  troops,  and  again  dis 
tinguished  himself  by  coolness  and  audacity 
in  the  presence  of  extreme  danger.  Congress 
finally  commissioned  him  a  major  general,  but 
still  left  him  below  the  five  others  recently 
appointed,  which  only  intensified  his  feelings 
of  resentment.  In  the  summer  of  1777  he 
joined  the  northern  army  under  Gates,  and  by 
a  brilliant  movement  relieved  Fort  Stanwix, 
on  the  Mohawk,  besieged  by  a  large  force  of 
British  and  Indians.  He  was  prevented  by  the 
jealousy  of  Gates  from  taking  an  active  part  in 
the  first  battle  of  Bemus  Heights,  but  in  the 
second  battle,  Oct.  7,  he  entered  the  field  with 
out  permission,  led  the  last  desperate  charge 
against  the  Hessian  encampment,  and  was  se 
verely  wounded  in  the  leg  as  he  rode  into  the 
sallyport.  Having  partially  recovered  from  his 
wound,  he  was  appointed  in  June,  1778,  to  the 
command  of  Philadelphia,  then  recently  evac 
uated  by  the  enemy.  During  the  nine  months 
that  he  occupied  this  position  he  governed 
with  a  high  hand,  and  the  council  of  Penn 
sylvania  preferred  charges  of  misconduct,  for 
which  he  was  tried  by  a  court  martial,  and 
in  January,  1780,  was  sentenced  to  lie  repri 
manded  by  the  Commander-in-chief,  who  per 
formed  the  unwelcome  duty  in  as  lenient  a 
spirit  as  possible.  Although  in  presenting  his 
case  to  the  court  he  had  announced  in  exalted 
terms  his  devotion  to  the  American  cause,  it 
was  subsequently  discovered  that  for  many 
months  previous  he  had  been  in  secret  and 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  enemy. 
His  marriage  while  in  Philadelphia  with  Miss 
Shippen,  a  lady  of  strong  tory  predilections, 
also  predisposed  him  to  look  favorably  upon 
any  scheme  of  betrayal  of  his  country.  In  this 
frame  of  mind  he  solicited  and  received  the 
command  of  the  works  at  West  Point,  alleging 
that  his  wounds  still  precluded  him  from 
active  service  in  the  field.  He  entered  upon 
his  new  duties  on  Aug.  3,  1780,  and  estab 
lished  his  headquarters  at  a  house  on  the  op 
posite  bank,  which  had  formerly  belonged  to 
Col.  Beverly  Robinson  of  Virginia,  a  tory.  He 
had  now  been  nearly  18  months  in  treasonable 
correspondence  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  the 
British  commander-in-chief  at  New  York,  and 
his  immediate  object  was  the  surrender  to  him 
of  West  Point,  then  considered  the  key  of 
communication  between  the  eastern  and  south 
ern  states.  The  correspondence  was  conducted 
on  the  part  of  Clinton  by  his  adjutant  general. 
Major  Andre,  who  used  the  pseudonyme  of 
"John  Anderson,"  while  Arnold  signed  him 
self  "Gustavus."  In  September,  1780,  the  plot 
being  ripe,  Arnold  requested  a  personal  inter 
view  with  Andre"  at  headquarters  to  settle  the 
final  details.  On  the  18th,  the  very  day  when 
this  meeting  should  have  taken  pla.ce,  the 


760 


ARNOLD 


..arrival  of  Washington  and  his  suite  at  Ver- 
planck's  Point,  on  his  way  to  Hartford  to  meet 
the  French  admiral  Rochambeau,  greatly  em 
barrassed  Arnold ;  but  with  characteristic  au 
dacity  he  showed  him  a  portion  of  the  treason 
able  correspondence  having  reference  to  the 
proposed  conference,  but  which  was  so  artfully 
worded  as  to  disarm  suspicion.  Washington 
strongly  advised  Arnold  to  hold  no  meeting 
with  persons  corning  from  within  the  enemy's 
lines,  as  such  an  act,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  recent  court  martial,  might  injure  him  in 
public  estimation.  On  the  night  of  the  21st 
the  meeting  with  Andre,  who  had  disembarked 
from  the  British  frigate  Vulture,  finally  took 
place  at  the  foot  of  Clove  mountain,  a  few 
miles  belo\v  Stony  Point.  It  was  continued  in 
to  the  morning  of  the  22d,  when,  having  given 
Andre  a  safe-conduct  to  pass  him  through 
the  American  lines,  and  six  papers  dis 
closing  the  plans  of  the  works  at  West  Point 
and  the  strength  of  the  garrison,  Arnold  re 
turned  to  his  headquarters.  The  Vulture  hav 
ing  meanwhile* dropped  down  stream  in  con 
sequence  of  a  fire  from  the  American  batteries, 
Andre  was  obliged  to  return  to  New  York 
along  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Hudson,  and  on 
the  23d  was  captured  near  Tarrytown.  The 
papers  found  on  his  person  were  at  once  de 
spatched  to  Washington  at  Hartford ;  but  Col. 
Jameson,  the  officer  in  whose  charge  he  was 
placed,  committed  the  error  of  informing  Ar 
nold  of.  the  circumstance.  After  a  hurried 
parting  with  his  wife,  Arnold  was  rowed  in 
his  barge  to  the  Vulture,  where  he  then  basely 
delivered  the  oarsmen  to  the  enemy ;  but  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  at  once  ordered  them  to  be 
released.  On  the  same  da}r  the  papers  found 
on  Andre's  person  were  examined  by  Wash 
ington,  and  the  whole  treasonable  scheme  was 
exposed,  just  in  time  probably  to  defeat  the 
most  formidable  plan  ever  organized  to  crush 
the  cause  of  American  liberty.  Arnold  was 
rewarded  for  his  treachery  by  a  commission  as 
.major  general  in  the  British  army,  and  took 
part  in  several  marauding  expeditions  into 
Connecticut  and  Virginia.  After  the  surrender 
of  Cornwallis  he  went  to  England  and  received 
a  considerable  sum  in  money  from  the  British 
government.  His  subsequent  life  was  neither 
prosperous  nor  happy.  He  was  shunned  by 
men  of  honor  and  repeatedly  insulted.  After 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  engage  in  busi 
ness  in  British  America  and  the  West  Indies, 
he  sank  into  utter  obscurity. — James  Robertson, 
second  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  the  United 
States  in  1780,  died  in  London,  Dec.  27,  1854. 
He  entered  the  British  army  in  1798,  and 
served  with  credit  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
For  several  years  he  was  an  aide-de-camp  of 
William  IV.  Three  years  before  his  death  he 
was  promoted  to  be  a  lieutenant  general. 

ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA  (ABNALDO  DA  BRE 
SCIA),  a  religious  reformer,  born  at  Brescia  in 
Italy  about  the  beginning  of  the  12th  cen 
tury,  executed  at  Rome  in  1155.  He  first  ap 


pears  in  history  as  a  scholar  of  Abelard,  and 
was   distinguished   for   eloquence.     Returning 
from  France  to  Italy,  he  attacked  the  luxury, 
venality,  indifference  to  religious  duties,  and 
degrading  worldliness  of  the  clergy.     His  spe 
cial  doctrine  was  the  antagonism  of  the  church 
to  the  world.     He  held   that  the  same  man 
ought  not  to  hold  secular  and  religious  office. 
This  doctrine  speedily  made  for  him  a  party. 
Disturbances  broke  out,  the  clergy  protested, 
the  bishop  of  Brescia  became  alarmed,  a  com 
plaint  was  sent  to  Rome,  and  at  the  council  of 
the  Lateran  in  1139  Arnold  was  condemned  as 
1  a  disturber  of  the  peace,  forbidden  to  preach, 
and  banished  from  Italy.     His  party,  however, 
was  not  annihilated,  nor  his  influence  destroyed. 
In  France,  where  he  went  to  visit  Abelard, 
whose  name  had  been  joined  with  his  in  the 
sentence  of  condemnation,  and  in  Switzerland, 
where  he  preached  for  some  years,  he  gained 
many  adherents.     Meanwhile,  a  bold  applica- 
|  tion  of  his  principles  had  been  attempted  in 
Rome  itself.     The  demands  of  the  papal  see 
excited  a  popular  movement  (1143),  and  secu 
lar  authorities  were  appointed  to  govern  the 
j  state,  while  the  pope,  Innocent  II.,  was  re- 
|  stricted  to  the  exercise  of  spiritual  authority. 
This  change  in  the  national  government  being 
opposed  by  Innocent  and  his  successors,  a  re 
volt  broke  out  in  1145,  and  Pope  Eugenius  III. 
was  forced  to  leave  the  city.     Arnold  went  to 
Rome  and  assumed  the  direction  of  the  popu 
lar  movement ;  but  the  license  of  rioters  hin 
dered   his  plans,   reaction  came,  one  by  one 
his  reforms  were  nullified,  and  the  unfortunate 
murder  of  a  cardinal  in  the  street  enabled  Pope 
Adrian  IV.   to  turn   against  this  alleged  dis- 
I  turber  of  the  peace  and  enemy  of  the  church 
the  sympathies  of  the  populace.     Arnold  was 
with   his   friends   driven   from   the   city,   and 
sought  refuge  with  some  noblemen  of  Cam 
pania.     When  the  emperor  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa  came  to  Rome  to  be  crowned,  the  pope 
asked  him  to  have  Arnold  arrested.    The  order 
I  was  given  and  executed,  and  Arnold  was  stran- 
'  gled,  and  his  body  burned  and  thrown  into 
I  the  Tiber. — The  character  of  Arnold  has  been 
|  variously  represented.    Baronius  calls  him  "  the 
|  father   of  political   heresies."     The   truth  ap- 
\  pears  to  be  that  he  was  a  great  reforming  spir- 
'  it,  who  fell  into  many  errors  and  excesses,  but 
j  whose  leading  idea  was  to  renovate  the  clerical 
j  order  after  the  apostolic  model.     Baptist  wri 
ters  claim  him  as  one  of  the  forerunners  of 
l  their  faith,  the  denial  of  infant  baptism  being 
among  the  charges  against  him  at  the  Lateran 
j  council  of  1139.     A  sect  called  Arnoldists  ex- 
|  isted  in  Italy  for  some  time  after  his  death. 
|  They  were  condemned  at  the  council  of  Ve- 
;  rona  in  1184,  and  the  name  occurs  in  a  law 
against  heretics  of  Frederick  II.  (1224).- 

ARNOLD,  Christoph,  a  German  astronomer, 
born  at  Sommerfeld,  near  Leipsic,  Dec.  17, 
1650,  died  April  15,  1695.  He  was  a  farmer, 
but  devoted  his  leisure  to  astronomy,  erected 
an  observatory  at  his  own  house,  and  was  the 


ARNOLD 


761 


first  to  call  attention  to  the  comets  of  1682  and  | 
1086.  He  also  acquired  fame  by  his  observa 
tion  of  the  passage  of  Mercury  across  the  sun's  i 
disk,  Oct.  31,  1690.  The  town  of  Leipsic  gave  j 
him  a  present  of  money  and  exempted  him  | 
from  all  city  taxation. 

ARNOLD,  Edwin,  an  English  author,  born  June 
10,  1831.     In  1852  he  obtained  at  Oxford  the  '. 
Newdegate  prize  for  one  of  his  poems,  became  I 
in  1854  second  master  in  a  principal  school  of 
Birmingham,  and  subsequently  was  president  | 
of  the  Sanskrit  college  at  Poonah,  British  India, 
which  office  he  resigned  in  1860.     He  is  a  vo-  i 
luminous  contributor  to  daily  journals  and  pe-  ; 
riodicals,  and  has  published  "Poems,  Narrative  ' 
and  Lyrical ;  "   "Griselda,  a  Tragedy,  and  other  j 
Poems"  (1856);  "The  Wreck  of  the  Northern  | 
Belle"  (1857);  "History  of  the   Administra-  ; 
tion  of  India  under  the  late  Marquis  of  Dal-  I 
housie"   (2   vols.,   1862-'4j ;    and    "Poets   of 
Greece"  (1869). 

ARNOLD,  Matthew,  an  English  poet,  son  of  : 
Thomas  Arnold,  born  at  Laleham,  Dec.  24,  ! 
1822.     He  was  educated  at  Winchester,  Rug-  ! 
by,  and  Oxford ;  won  the  Newdegate  prize  for  j 
English  verse  by  a  poem  entitled  "  Cromwell ;  " 
in  1845  was  chosen  fellow  of  Oriel  college;  ; 
and  from  1846  to  1851  was  private  secretary  to  \ 
Lord  Lansdowne.    Having  married,  Mr.  Arnold  j 
received  an  appointment  as  one  of  the  lay  in-  j 
spectors  of  schools  under  the  committee  of  the  > 
council  of  education.     In  1849  he  published  ! 
anonymously  a  small  volume  of  poems  under  : 
the  title  of  "  The  Strayed  Reveller  and  other 
Poems."     In  1852  a  second  volume  appeared,  j 
"  Empedocles  on  JEtna,  and   other   Poems." 
In  1853  a  new  volume  was  issued  in  his  own  j 
name,  followed  by  a  second   series,  the  two  j 
containing  selections  from  the  previous  collec-  | 
tions  along  with  some  fresh  pieces.     On  May  j 
5,  1857,  Mr.  Arnold  was  elected  professor  of  | 
poetry  in  the  university  of  Oxford.     His  later  j 
noteworthy  works  are:    "Balder;"  "  Merope,  j 
a  Tragedy  "  (1858);  "  On  Translating  Homer" 
(1862);  "Essays  in  Criticism  "  (1865) ;  "Study 
of  Celtic   Literature"   (1867);    "Schools   and 
Universities  on  the  Continent"  (1868);  "Cul 
ture   and   Anarchy"   (1869);    "St.  Paul   and 
Protestantism"    (1870);     "Friendship's    Gar 
land  "  (1871) ;  "  Literature  ancf  Dogma  "  (1873). 

ARNOLD,  Samuel,  Mus.  Doc.,  an  English  com 
poser,  born  in  London,  Aug.  10, 1740,  died  there, 
Oct.  22,  1802.  At  the  age  of  23  he  became 
composer  to  Covent  Garden  theatre,  and  in 
1766  also  to  the  Haymarket,  in  1789  conductor 
of  the  academy  of  ancient  music,  and  in  1793 
organist  of  Westminster  abbey.  He  published 
47  operas,  of  which  "  The  Maid  of  the  Mill " 
was  for  many  years  a  favorite  on  the  stage. 
"The  Prodigal  Son,"  an  oratorio,  also  had  re 
markable  success.  About  1786  he  published  a 
collection  of  cathedral  music  (4  vols.),  which 
has  always  been  held  in  high  esteem.  He  un 
dertook,  under  the  patronage  of  George  III., 
an  edition  in  score  of  Handel's  works,  of  which 
he  published  40  volumes. 


ARNOLD,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  an  English  teacher 
and  historian,  born  at  West  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight, 
June  13,  1795,  died  at  Rugby,  June  12,  1842. 
When  8  years  old  he  was  sent  to  Warrainster, 
and  at  12  to  Winchester  college,  where  he  was 
known  as  an  indolent,  shy,  and  restless  boy. 
In  1811,  having  obtained  a  scholarship  at  Cor 
pus  Christi,  he  removed  to  Oxford,  where  in 

1814  he  took  a  first  class  degree,  and  the  year 
after  was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  college.     In 

1815  and  1817  he  was  chancellor's  prizeman 
for  the  Latin  and  English  essays.     In  1818  he 
was  ordained  deacon,  and  from  1819  employed 
himself  at  Laleham,  near  Staines,  in  the  prepa 
ration  of  young  men  for  the  universities.    From 
this  point  his  career  seems  to  have  fairly  com 
menced.     On  his  application  for  the  post  of 
head  master  of  Rugby  school,  he  was  elected, 
though  others  had  applied  before  him,  the  trus 
tees  being  assured  that  "  he  would  change  the 
face  of  education  all  through  the  public  schools 
of  England."     He  entered  upon  the  duties  of 
this  office  in  August,  1828,  having  shortly  be 
fore  taken  priest's  orders.    Dr.  Arnold  enlarged 
the  basis  of  education  at  Rugby  by  adding  to 
the  classics  other  departments  of  learning ;  but 
his  influence  was  chiefly  felt  in  the  practical 
bearing  upon  life  and  character  which  he  gave 
to  all  education,  and  in  the  lofty  Christian  spir 
it  which  he  endeavored  to  impart  to  his  schol 
ars.     He  substituted  for  the  old  system  of  fag 
ging  a  responsible  supervision  of  the  younger 
lads  by  the  boys  in  the  highest  class — a  plan 
that  was  criticised  in  some  quarters,  but  which 
he  defended  in  the   "Journal  of  Education" 
(1834-'5).     He  was  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the 
new  school  at  Oxford.    He  took  part  in  the  de 
bate  upon  church  and  state,  wrote  a  pamphlet 
in   1833   upon  "Church   Reform,"  and   later 
"Fragments  upon  the  Church,"  in  which  he 
urged  that  church  and  state,  instead  of  being 
formally  united  as  two  separate  interests,  should 
rather  be  identified,  the  state  being  in  fact  the 
working  church.     In  1835  he  accepted  a  fel 
lowship  in  the  senate  of  the  new  London  uni 
versity,  but  resigned  it  three  years  later  on  ac 
count  of  the  refusal  of  the  senate  to  make  an 
examination  in  the  New  Testament  obligatory 
upon  candidates  for  a  degree.     He  delivered 
lectures  before  the  Rugby  mechanics'  institute, 
and  in  1831    started  a  periodical   called  the 
"Englishman's  Register,"  of  which  only  a  few 
numbers  were  published.     He  declined  politi 
cal  preferment;  and  when  Lord  Melbourne  ap 
pointed  him  to  the  regius  professorship  of  mod 
ern  history  at  Oxford,  he  welcomed  it  as  the 
post  of  all  others  best  suited  to  him.     He  held 
it  but  one  year,  when  he  suddenly  died  of  heart 
disease.     His  "History  of  Rome,"  a  work  of 
great  merit,  in  3  vols.  (1838,  1840,  1842),  em 
bodying  the  results  of  Niebuhr's  investigations, 
carried  the  narrative  to  the  end  of  the  second 
Punic  war ;  a  fourth  volume  extends  the  his 
tory,  in  fragments,  to  the  time  of  Trajan.     He 

!  also  published  an  edition  of  Thucydides  with 
;  notes,  a  course  of  lectures  on  modern  history, 


762 


ARNOLD 


AROLSEN 


five  volumes  of  sermons,  and  a  volume  of  mis 
cellaneous  writings.    His  correspondence  in  two 
volumes  was  published,  with  a  memoir,  by  the  i 
Rev.  A.  P.  Stanley. 

ARNOLD,  Thomas  Kerclicver,  an  English  cler-  ! 
gvman  and  author,  born  in  1800,  died  March  9,  | 
1853.     He   was   educated   at   Trinity    college,  | 
Cambridge,  and  in  1838  published  the  first  of  a  j 
numerous   list   of  introductory  books   for  the  I 
study  of  the  Greek,  Latin,   Hebrew,  German,  j 
French,   and  Italian  languages.     These  works 
were  extensively  used  in  England  and  America. 
He  next  prepared  a  series  of  school  classics, 
combining  portions  of  the  best  Greek  and  Latin 
authors;  and  the  full  classical  series  of  Mr.  Ar 
nold  covers  the  entire  ground  from  first  lessons 
to  accomplished   scholarship.     In   addition  to 
these  labors,  he  was  an  occasional  writer  on 
religious  and  ecclesiastical  questions,  and  pub 
lished  a  volume  of  sermons. 

ARNOTT,  Neil,  a  Scotch  physician  and  popular 
writer   upon  science,  born  near   Montrose  in 
1788.     He  studied  medicine  in  Aberdeen  and 
London,   paying  special   attention   to   natural  ! 
philosophy,  and  through  the  influence  of  his 
instructor,  Sir  Everard  Home,  was  appointed 
surgeon  in  the  naval  service  of  the  East  India 
company.     The  position  gave  him  opportunity 
for  scientific  observations  in  different  parts  of  j 
the  world.     In  1811    he  began  to  practise  in  ! 
London,  but  continued  his  scientific  investiga-  j 
tions.     His  "Elements  of  Physics,  or  Natural  j 
Philosophy,  General  and  Medical,  explained  in 
plain  or  non-technical  Language"  (1827),  con-  i 
tamed  the  substance  of  lectures  previously  de 
livered,  and  was  a  successful  attempt  to  illus 
trate  scientific  principles  in  the   language  of 
common  life.     It  was  translated  into  different 
languages,  and  passed  through  five  editions  in 
England  within  six  years.     In  1835  Dr.  Arnott 
was  appointed  one  of  the  senators  of  the  uni 
versity  of  London,  in  1837  one  of  the  physi 
cians  extraordinary  to  the  queen,  and  in  1838  a  I 
fellow  of  the  royal  society.     He  published  at 
the  same  time  his  "Essay  on  Warming  and 
Ventilating."     He  has  invented  numerous  con 
trivances  for  health  and  comfort,  such  as  the 
stove  and  ventilator  to  which  his  name  is  given, 
and  the  water-bed  or  floating  mattress,  which 
has  often  been  USIH!  with  the  happiest  results. 
In  1854  he  received  from  the  royal  society  their 
Rumford  medal ;  and  in  1855  the  jurors  of  the 
universal  exhibition  at  Paris  awarded   him  a  i 
gold  medal,  to  which  the  emperor  added  the  | 
cross  of  the  legion  of  honor. 

ARNOl'Ll),  Sophie,  a  French  actress,   born  in  | 
Paris,  Feb.  14,  1744,  died  in  1803.    Her  father,  ; 
an  innkeeper,  gave  her  a  good  education,  in  ! 
addition  to  which  she  possessed  a  charming  i 
face  and  figure,  a  voice  of  great  flexibility  and  j 
compass,  and  an  unusual  share  of  wit.     Some  | 
ladies  attached  to  the  court  of  Louis  XV.,  hav 
ing  heard  her  sing  at  evening  service  during 
Passion  week,  induced  the  royal  chapel  master 
to  employ  her  in  the  choir.     Here  she  was  not 
long  in  attracting  the  attention  of  Madame  de 


Pompadour.  Her  de"but  upon  the  stage  at  the 
age  of  13  soon  followed,  and  for  21  years,  be 
tween  1757  and  1778,  she  was  the  reigning 
favorite  at  the  French  opera.  Her  beauty,  vi 
vacity,  and  generosity  attracted  such  men  as  Di 
derot,  D'Alembert,  Helvetius,  Mably,  Duclos, 
and  Rousseau,  who  sought  her  society.  She  was 
as  witty  as  she  was  licentious,  and  the  most 
eminent  poets  celebrated  her  charms  in  verse. 
Her  Ions  mots,  of  which  many  have  been  col 
lected,  are  brilliant  and  pointed.  At  the  com 
mencement  of  the  revolution  she  retired  to  a 
country  house  at  Luzarches,  which  had  for 
merly  been  a  parsonage,  and  over  the  door  of 
which  she  inscribed  the  words,  Ite,  missa  est, 
where  she  seems  to  have  passed  the  rest  of  her 
days.  One  of  her  natural  sons,  a  colonel  of 
cuirassiers,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Wagram. 

ARNSBERG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name  in  the  province  of 
Westphalia,  situated  on  a  hill  partly  surrounded 
by  the  Ruhr,  44  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Minister ;  pop. 
in  1871,  4,734.  The  new  portion  of  the  town 
dates  from  the  early  part  of  this  century.  In 
the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle  where 
the  famous  Vehmic  court  used  to  be  held.  The 
once  important  county  of  Arnsberg  came  in 
1368  into  the  possession  of  the  electorate  of 
Cologne,  and  the  town  was  subsequently  for 
some  time  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Westphalia, 
of  which  Arnsberg  is  the  most  populous  and 
prosperous  district. 

ARNSTADT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  prin 
cipality  of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  situ 
ated  on  the  Gera  and  on  the  northern  slope  of 
the  Thuringian  Forest,  10  m.  S.  of  Erfurt;  pop. 
in  1871,  8,603.  Among  the  most  notable  build 
ings  is  a  church  built  in  the  llth  century.  The 
town  has  a  castle  belonging  to  the  reigning 
family,  and  a  gymnasium  with  a  considerable 
library.  Arnstadt  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
of  Thuringia,  being  mentioned  as  early  as  704. 
It  was  formerly  known  as  an  emporium  for 
the  trade  in  timber  and  fruit,  and  has  in  mod 
ern  times  become  a  seat  of  manufactures. 

ARNSWALDE,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov 
ince  of  Brandenburg,  41  m.  S.  E.  of  Stettin, 
between  three  lakes ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,522.  The 
town  has  a  church  celebrated  for  its  bells,  a 
large  chemical  manufactory,  and  extensive  man 
ufactures  of  linen  and  woollens. 

AROLAS,  Juan,  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  Barce 
lona,  June  20,  1805,  died  in  Valencia  in  Novem 
ber,  1849.  He  was  a  member  of  the  order  of 
the  Piarists,  and  chaplain  in  the  normal  school 
of  Valencia,  and  became  insane  five  years  be 
fore  his  death  in  consequence  of  religious  exal 
tation.  His  poetical  works  include  Libro  de 
amoves,  poesias  pastoriles,  cartas  amatorias  (3 
vols.,  Valencia,  1843) ;  Poesias  cal>allercscas  y 
orientates  (new  edition,  1850) ;  and  translations 
of  Chateaubriand's  poems  and  M.olse.  A  com 
plete  edition  of  his  poems  was  .published  in 
Valencia  in  I860,  in  three  volumes. 

AROLSEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of  the 
principality  of  Waldeck  (which  according  to  the 


AROOSTOOK 


ARRAN 


763 


convention  of  1867  is  now  administered  by  the 
king  of  Prussia),  on  the  Aar,  12  m.  N.  of  Wai- 
deck  ;  pop.  in  1867,  2,148.  The  palace  contains 
many  works  of  art  and  a  library  of  80,000  vol 
umes.  In  the  parish  church  are  statues  by 
Ranch,  and  by  Kaulbach,  who  was  born  here. 

AROOSTOOK,  a  county  comprising  the  N.  and' 
N.  E.  portions  of  Maine,  and  bordering  on  the 
provinces  of  Quebec  and  New  Brunswick ; 
area,  6,800  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  29,609.  The 
surface  is  undulating,  with  a  few  mountain 
peaks,  the  loftiest  of  which  are  Chase's  Mount 
and  Mars  Hill.  The  St.  John's  river  forms  the 
N.  boundary  and  flows  through  the  W.  part 
of  the  county,  and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  50 
tons.  It  is  also  watered  by  the  Aroostook,  a 
"W.  tributary  of  the  St.  John's,  Allagash,  Mat- 
tawamkeag,  and  several  smaller  rivers;  and 
there  are  many  small  lakes  and  ponds.  The 
soil  is  generally  very  fertile,  but  a  great  part 
of  the  surface  is  still  covered  by  pine  forests. 
In  1870  the  county  produced  46,946  bushels  of 
wheat,  532,151  of  oats,  360,450  of  buckwheat, 
380,701  of  potatoes,  48,052  tons  of  hay,  86,- 
173  Ibs.  of  wool,  523.510  of  butter,  and.  53,- 
186  of  maple  sugar.  Capital,  Houlton. 

ARPAI),  the  Magyar  national  hero,  son  of  Al- 
mos,  who  led  the  Magyars  into  Hungary,  died, 
after  a  reign  of  about  18  years,  in  907.  He 
completed  the  conquest  begun  by  his  father, 
carried  on  wars  with  the  Bulgarians  and  Mo 
ravians,  conquered  Transylvania,  Croatia,  and 
Slavonia,  and  made  predatory  incursions  into 
Germany  and  northern  Italy.  He  also  suc 
cessfully  began  the  organization  of  his  country. 
His  only  surviving  son,  Zoltan,  continued  the 
Arpad  dynasty,  which  in  1000  assumed  the 
royal  dignity,  and  in  1301  became  extinct  in 
the  male  line  with  Andrew  III. 

ARPINO  (anc.  Arpinum),  a  town  of  S.  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  8  m.  S.  of 
Bora  ;  pop.  about  6,500.  It  has  manufactures 
of  woollen  cloth,  paper,  and  parchment.  It 
was  originally  a  town  of  the  Volsci,  and  sub 
sequently  of  the  Samnites,  from  whom  it  was 
wrested 'by  the  Romans  in  304  B.  C.  It  is  the 
birthplace  of  Marius  and  Cicero,  whose  brother 
Quintus  had  a  celebrated  villa  called  Arcanum. 

ARPIXO,  Gioseppc  Osari  d\     See  CESAEI. 

ARPINOI.     See  AEPIXO. 

ARQIA,  or  Arqnata,  a  village  of  northern 
Italy,  among  the  Euganean  hills,  12  m.  S.  W. 
of  Padua;  pop.  2,600.  It  is  famous  for  con 
taining  the  house  and  tomb  of  Petrarch.  He 
died  here  at  his  villa  in  July,  1374,  and  was 
laid  in  a  sarcophagus  of  red  marble,  raised  on 
four  pilasters,  on  an  elevated  base. 

ARRACK  (Arabic,  literally  perspiration),  a 
strong  spirituous  liquor  distilled  from  fer 
mented  rice  and  from  toddy,  the  fermented 
sap  of  the  cocoanut  tree,  and  also  from  rice  and 
sugar  or  rice  and  molasses  fermented  with 
cocoanut  juice.  The  word  is  used  as  a  generic 
term  for  all  distilled  liquors,  as  there  are  ar 
racks  of  grapes,  berries,  figs,  dates,  and  even 
of  wild  flowers,  in  various  parts  of  the  East. 


Arrack  is  sometimes  made  by  adding  different 
bitter  principles  and  mastic  to  the  fermenting 
liquor,  putting  it  into  leather  bottles,  and  allow 
ing  it  to  undergo  slow  fermentation  under  the 
|  earth  for  a  year,  and  then  subjecting  it  to  a 
|  crude  distillation.  It  is  largely  imitated  in 
i  various  parts  of  Germany  and  Holland.  The 
|  arrack  of  commerce  is  derived  from  Batavia, 
I  Goa,  Ceylon,  Madras,  and  Colombo.  The  best 
•  arrack  in  the  Levant  is  obtained  from  the  island 
j  of  Scio.  In  order  to  prepare  it  for  the  long  voy- 
|  age  some  oil  is  added,  which  on  the  addition 
i  of  warm  water  often  imparts  a  disagreeable  oily 
I  taste  and  smell.  It  is  used  in  the  composition 
!  of  punch  and  for  medical  and  culinary  pur- 
!  poses.  Anise  seed  and  various  aromatic  herbs 
|  are  sometimes  steeped  in  it  to  improve  its  flavor. 
ARRAft,  an  island  forming  part  of  the  Scotch 
'  county  of  Bute,  and  lying  in  the  great  bay 
j  between  the  peninsula  of  Canty  re  and  the  main 
|  coast  of  Scotland,  5  m.  E.  of  the  former,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  Kilbrannan  sound,  and 
!  13  m.  "W.  of  the  latter,  from  which  it  is  sepa 
rated  by  the  frith  of  Clyde.  Its  greatest  length 
i  is  about  21  m.,  greatest  width  about  12  m. 
j  The  surface  is  high  and  rocky,  and  the  scenery 
|  wild  and  picturesque.  In  the  N.  part  the 
|  rugged  mountain  Goatfell  rises  to  a  height  of 
I  2,865  ft.  The  coast  rises  in  many  places  into 
j  bold  basaltic  cliffs ;  in  others  it  is  low  and 
!  sandy.  The  island,  of  which  a  large  portion 
I  is  the  property  of  the  duke  of  Hamilton,  is 
divided  into  two  parishes,  Kilmory  and  Kil- 
j  bride  ;  total  pop.  about  5,500.  supported  by  the 
products  of  small  farms,  and  by  trilling  local 
i  industries.  The  three  villages  are  Brodick, 
i  Lamlash,  and  Shedog.  Many  ancient  monu- 
:  ments,  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by  the 
I  Druids,  are  found  in  Arran.  Gaelic  is  the 
|  ordinary  language  of  the  people,  though  English 
j  is  generally  understood. 

ARRAN,  Isles  of,  three  small  islands  lying  at 
;  the  entrance  of  Gal  way  bay,  off  the  W.  coast 
j  of  Ireland  ;  total  area,  about  18  sq.  m.  The 
I  largest  is  Inishmore,  the  northern  island  ;  the 
;  next  in  size,  Inishmain.  lies  in  the  centre ;  and 
!  the  southern  one  is  called  Inishere.  They  are 
;  low  and  barren,  producing  only  potatoes  and 
the  most  hardy  grain ;  yet  the  greater  part  of 
their  surface,  which  is  divided  into  plots  gene- 
|  rally  less  than  an  acre  in  extent,  is  under  cul- 
i  tivation  by  a  wretched  population  of  about 
I  3,200,  who  live  in  miserable  huts.  Cn  one  of 
I  the  northern  cliffs  of  Inishmore  stands  a  very 
!  ancient  fort  built  by  the  Belg;e,  it  is  supposed, 
early  in  the  1st  century.  Other  structures  of 
!  equal  age  are  found  in  all  three  islands;  and 
!  there  are  also  numerous  ruins  of  the  oratories, 
dwellings,  and  churches  of  early  Irish  hermits, 
!  many  of  whom  retired  to  these  isolated  places 
I  in  the  6th  and  7th  centuries,  giving  to  Inish- 
|  more  especially  the  name  of  Arran  of  the 
i  Saints  (Aran-na-naomli).  The  Irish  carls  of 
;  Arran  take  their  title  from  these  islands. 

ARRAN,  Earl  of,  the  title  of  the  holders  of  the 
i  Scotch  peerage  of  Arran,  created  for  Sir  Thomas 


764 


ARRAS 


ARREST 


Boyd  in  1467,  but  in  1503  passing  by  royal  de 
cree  from  his  son,  who  had  displeased  the 
king,  to  the  house  of  Hamilton,  the  successive 
heads  of  which  bore  this  as  their  chief  title  till 
the  higher  rank  of  marquis  and  afterward  of 
duke  of  Hamilton  was  conferred  upon  them. — 
James  Hamilton,  second  earl  of  his  name,  died 
Jan.  22,  1575.  He  was  appointed  regent  of 
Scotland  upon  the  death  of  James  V.  in  1542, 
and  guardian  of  Mary  Stuart,  to  whom  he  en 
deavored  to  marry  his  son.  Finding  this  im 
possible  on  account  of  the  intrigues  of  Henry 
VIII.  of  England  and  the  earl  of  Lennox,  who 
also  wished  by  this  marriage  to  obtain  the 
Scottish  crown  for  their  own  children,  Arran 
finally  consented  to  her  union  with  the  dauphin 
of  France,  afterward  Francis  II.  For  his  aid 
in  promoting  this  alliance,  the  French  king 
made  him  duke  of  Chatelherault,  in  Poitou, 
and  this  French  title  is  still  borne  by  the  dukes 
of  Hamilton. — James,  son  of  the  preceding,  con 
ceived  a  violent  passion  for  Mary  Stuart,  and 
when  his  father  failed  to  obtain  for  him  her 
hand,  he  became  insane  from  disappointment, 
and  from  the  knowledge  of  her  personal  in 
difference  to  him.  While  in  this  state  he  was 
prevailed  upon  to  enter  into  a  plot  against  her 
throne  ;  but  becoming  conscious  during  a  lucid 
interval  of  the  iniquity  of  the  plan,  he  confessed 
his  share  in  it.  On  account  of  his  evident  in 
sanity  he  was  only  kept  in  a  mild  imprison 
ment  ;  but  he  took  no  further  part  in  political 
affairs. — The  titles  and  estates  of  Arran  passed 
to  his  brother  John,  who  was  created  marquis 
of  Hamilton  in  1599.  (See  HAMILTON.) — There 
is  also  an  Irish  earldom  of  Arran,  conferred  on 
Sir  Arthur  Gore  in  1758  (earl  of  the  Arran 
Islands) ;  but  none  of  its  incumbents  have  be 
come  prominent  in  history. 

ARRAS  (anc.  Nemetocenna  or  Nemetacum, 
capital  of  the  Atrebates),  a  city  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  and  I 
formerly  of  the  province  of  Artois,  on  the  river 
Scarpe,  100  in.  N.  by  E.  of  Paris;  pop.  in  1866, 
25,749.  It  was  fortified  by  Vauban,  and  has 
manufactures  of  thread,  lace,  and  woollens, 
with  an  important  trade  in  grain.  The  woollen 
manufactures  have  been  famous  from  very  re 
mote  times,  and  the  tapestries  of  Arras  during 
the  middle  ages  were  so  celebrated  that  the 
name  of  the  town  was  generally  given  to  this 
species  of  hangings.  Arras  has  been  the  see 
of  a  bishop  since  390.  It  was  the  seat  of  ec 
clesiastical  councils  in  1025  and  1490.  When  j 
Louis  XL  seized  Artois  on  the  death  of  Charles 
the  Bold  of  Burgundy  in  1477,  Arras  resisted, 
whereupon  the  king  assaulted  the  town  in  per 
son,  drove  out  the  inhabitants,  replaced  them 
by  people  drawn  from  all  parts  of  France,  and 
changed  the  name  of  Arras  to  Franchise.  Ro- 
bespierre  was  both  a  native  and  a  representa-  I 
tive  of  Arras. 

ARRAWAKS,  or  Lokono,  a  tribe  on  the  Berbice 
and  Surinam  rivers,  Guiana,  noted  for  their 
mild  and  peaceful  disposition  and  friendship  for 
Europeans.  They  were,  however,  formerly  a 


large,  powerful,  and  warlike  tribe,  extending 
from  the  right  bank  of  the  Orinoco  to  the  Suri 
nam,  and  held  all  the  Carib  tribes  in  subjec 
tion,  driving  some  to  the  Antilles.  The  French 
found  them  so  powerful  that  they  used  them  as 
a  protection  against  other  tribes.  The  Mora 
vian  missionaries  in  the  18th  century  did  much 
to  civilize  them,  and  studied  their  language, 
printing  in  it  various  books  for  their  converts. 
The  fullest  material  for  the  study  of  their 
speech,  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  softest 
in  America,  is  in  the  manuscripts  of  these  mis 
sionaries  preserved  by  the  American  philosoph 
ical  society  (Philadelphia).  They  were  divided 
into  families,  apparently  on  the  same  principle 
as  the  Iroquois,  but  in  greater  number,  as  no 
fewer  than  50  are  enumerated.  Descent  was 
in  the  female  line. 

ARREST,  the  taking  a  person  or  thing  by 
authority  of  the  law  and  into  its  custody.  I. 
In  civil  cases,  arrest  is  the  apprehension  of  a 
person  by  lawful  authority  for  the  purpose  of 
compelling  him  to  answer  in  a  civil  action. 
The  present  tone  of  the  English  law  on  the 
subject  was  probably  first  given  by  a  statute 
of  George  I.  (1726).  That  act,  "to  prevent 
frivolous  and  vexatious  arrests,"  provided  that 
no  person  should  be  held  to  special  bail  on  any 
process  issuing  out  of  any  of  the  superior 
courts,  unless  the  cause  of  action  were  of  the 
amount  of  £10,  and  on  process  of  any  inferior 
court  unless  it  were  of  the  amount  of  40  shil 
lings.  These  amounts  were  raised  from  time 
to  time,  and  by  7  and  8  George  IV.,  ch.  71,  no 
person  could  be  held  to  special  bail,  on  process 
issuing  out  of  any  court,  when  the  amount  in 
volved  was  less  than  £20.  The  1  and  2  Vic 
toria,  ch.  100,  abolished  arrest  on  rnesne  pro 
cess,  but  provided  that  if  a  plaintiff,  who  could 
before  that  act  have  had  the  defendant  ar 
rested,  should  show  that  he  had  a  cause  of 
action,  or  had  sustained  damages  to  the  amount 
of  £20,  and  that  there  was  reasonable  cause 
for  believing  that  the  defendant  was  about  to 
quit  England  unless  he  were  apprehended,  a 
court  might  issue  its  warrant  for  the  arrest  of 
the  defendant  and  hold  him  to  bail  in  the 
amount  of  the  debt  or  damage.  This  act  and 
several  others  were  displaced  by  the  present 
act,  32  and  33  Victoria,  ch.  62,  which  pro 
vides  again  that  no  person  shall  be  arrested  on 
mesne  process  in  any  action,  and  contains  a 
similar  provision  to  that  just  quoted  from  the 
former  act  of  Victoria,  but  requiring  further 
that  the  plaintiff  shall  show,  except  in  suits  for 
penalties,  that  the  threatened  absence  of  the 
defendant  from  the  country  will  materially 
prejudice  him  in  the  prosecution  of  his  action. 
But  the  cause  of  action  must  now  be  of  the 
amount  of  at  least  £50. — In  some  of  the  United 
States  arrest  in  civil  causes  still  remains,  but  in 
Xew  York  and  in  many  others  it  is  allowed 
only  in  such  cases  as  the  following,  or  in  cases 
of  similar  character,  namely :  in  actions  not 
arising  out  of  contract,  when  the  defendant  is 
not  a  resident  of  the  state  or  is  about  to  leave 


ARREST 


7G5 


it;  or  in  cases  of  a  tortious  nature,  or  for  ' 
injuries  to  person  and  character,  or  for  wrong-  j 
fully  converting  property;  or  in  actions  for  ! 
fines  or  penalties,  or  for  the  recovery  of  : 
moneys  or  property  received  and  fraudulently 
withheld  by  persons  acting  in  a  fiduciary  ca-  i 
pacity ;  or  where  the  property  sought  is  con-  j 
cealed  or  disposed  of  with  the  intent  to  deprive  ! 
the  plaintiff  of  the  benefit  of  it ;  or  when  the  '[ 
defendant  has  been  guilty  of  a  fraud  in  incur-  j 
ring  the  obligation  or  in  concealing  or  dispos-  j 
ing  of  the  property  for  the  recovery  of  which  i 
the  action  is  brought ;  or  when  the  defendant  ^ 
has  disposed  of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  do  ! 
so,  with  the  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  I 
It  will  be  seen  that  these  provisions  exclude  \ 
arrest  in  common  actions  of  contract  and  debt,  j 
and  this  is  the  spirit  of  the  recent  legislation 
on  this  head. — By  the  constitution  of  the  United  j 
States,  the  members  of  congress  are  exempt  ! 
from  arrest  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  ; 
or  breach  of  the  peace,  during  their  attendance  j 
at  the  sessions  of  the  respective  houses,  and  in  i 
going  to  and  returning  from  them  to  their  | 
homes.  In  New  York  (and  probably  there  | 
are  similar  exemptions  in  every  state)  a 
member  of  the  legislature  is  privileged  from  I 
arrest  on  civil  process  during  his  attendance  j 
at  the  session  of  the  houses,  except  on  pro-  I 
cess  issued  in  any  suit  for  forfeiture,  misde-  | 
meaner,  or  breach  of  trust  in  any  office  or  j 
place  of  public  trust  held  by  him ;  and  for  14  | 
days  previous  to,  and  while  going  to  or  return-  i 
ing  from  such  session;  and  also  for  14  days  j 
after  any  adjournment,  or  while  absent  on  leave 
of  his  house.  Ambassadors  and  other  public  ; 
ministers  and  their  servants,  and  consuls  and  ! 
vice  consuls,  are  also  exempt  from  all  process  i 
issuing  out  of  a  state  court.  Parties  to  suits,  j 
while  attending  at  or  going  to  or  returning  ' 
from  courts  or  hearings  before  referees,  or  be-  I 
fore  arbitrators  under  a  statute  or  rule  of 
court,  to  attend  the  trial  or  hearing  of  their 
causes  by  these  tribunals,  and  their  witnesses 
subpoenaed  and  their  attorneys  and  counsel,  are  | 
also  exempt.  Attorneys  and  counsellors  are  j 
generally  exempt  during  the  actual  sittings  of  i 
court,  and  while  employed  in  any  cause  pend-  ! 
ing  there.  Married  women  are  generally  privi-  I 
leged  from  arrest  on  mesne  process  in  all  j 
causes  whatsoever,  and  no  female  can  be  ar 
rested  in  New  York  for  any  cause  except  wil-  | 
ful  injury.  Soldiers  and  sailors  in  the  service  I 
of  the  United  States  are  exempt  in  any  cause  j 
of  debt  or  contract.  And  usually,  by  special  ! 
statutes,  voters  on  election  day,  members  of  { 
the  state  militia,  and  certain  public  officers  are  ! 
also  privileged. — A  civil  arrest  may  be  made  j 
at  any  time  except  on  Sundays  and  legal  holi-  j 
days,  and  at  any  place  except  in  presence  of  a  I 
court.  An  officer  may  not  break  the  outer  door  j 
of  defendant's  house  to  arrest  him  in  a  civil 
case,  though  once  in  the  house  he  may  break  i 
inner  doors  to  ccme  at  him  ;  but  after  an  arrest  | 
and  escape,  the  officer  may  break  open  even  j 
an  outer  door  to  retake  his  prisoner.  An  ar-  i 


rest  of  a  person  by  a  wrong  name  cannot  be 
justified  even  though  he  was  the  person  in 
tended,  unless  he  was  commonly  known  by 
either  name.  The  party  arrested  may  ordi 
narily  be  released  at  once  upon  giving  bail ; 
but  when  the  arrest  is  on  final  process,  as  for 
example  when  it  is  to  enforce  an  execution 
against  the  person,  the  defendant,  if  he  has  no 
property,  may  usually  be  discharged  by  taking 
the  benefit  of  such  acts  as  are  provided  for  the 
relief  of  poor  debtors ;  for  mere  imprisonment 
for  debt  is  for  the  most  part  abolished.  II.  In 
criminal  cases,  an  arrest  may  be  made,  under 
certain  conditions,  either  by  a  public  officer  by 
virtue  of  his  general  authority  as  a  conservator 
of  the  peace,  or  upon  a  warrant  or  other  ex 
press  process  or  command,  issued  by  a  court  or 
competent  judicial  officer;  or  it  may  be  made 
by  a  private  unofficial  person  upon  an  implied 
permission  of  the  law.  If  any  person,  whether 
a  public  officer  or  a  private  person,  sees  an 
other  committing  or  attempting  to  commit  a 
felony,  it  is  not  only  his  right  but  his  legal 
duty  to  arrest  him,  even  without  a  warrant. 
Indeed,  if  he  does  not  at  least  try  to  arrest 
him,  he  is  technically  guilty  of  a  misprision  of 
the  felony.  And  if  a  private  person  make  an 
arrest  for  a  felony,  without  a  warrant,  in  good 
faith  and  upon  a  reasonable  suspicion  that  the 
person  whom  he  arrested  had  committed  the 
offence,  he  will  not  be  liable  either  civilly  or 
criminally  though  his  suspicions  turn  out  to 
have  been  unfounded,  provided  the  felony  was 
actually  committed  by  some  one.  Even  in 
respect  to  crimes  of  less  degree  than  a  felony, 
a  private  person  may  make  an  arrest,  though 
there  is  not  in  such  cases  the  same  legal  obli 
gation  as  in  the  case  of  felcnies.  Thus,  in  case 
of  an  affray  or  breach  of  the  peace,  any  person 
may  on  the  spot,  and  without  any  warrant, 
detain  any  of  the  offenders.  Neither  a  private 
person  nor  an  officer  can  make  an  arrest  with 
out  a  warrant  when  the  time  of  the  commis 
sion  of  the  offence  is  fairly  past.  A  constable 
is  not  justified  in  taking  a  person  into  custody 
without  a  warrant  for  a  mere  assault,  unless 
he  is  present  when  the  act  is  done.  But  con 
stables,  police  officers,  and  the  like  officials 
may  on  reasonable  suspicion  arrest  a  person  for 
a  past  felony,  and  they  will  be  protected  in 
such  an  act,  r.nlike  a  private  person  in  this 
respect,  although  no  felony  has  been  committed 
by  anybody.  "  Such  officers  may  ordinarily 
make  arrests  without  special  authority,  in  order 
to  prevent  imminent  breaches  of  the  peace. 
An  officer  may  call  bystanders  to  help  him  in 
making  an  arrest,  though  he  is  acting  without 
a  warrant;  and  a  refusal  to  give  such  help  is 
indictable  at  common  law.  An  officer  may  also 
apprehend  any  one  who  interferes  to  prevent 
his  making  an  arrest,  and  it  is  said  that  he 
may  even  take  into  custody  one  who  encour 
ages  another  already  arrested  to  resist. — It 
seems  to  be  the  better  opinion  that  an  officer, 
especially  one  who  is  commonly  known  to  be 
such,  like  a  sheriff  or  constable  acting  in  his 


r66 


ARREST 


ARRIIIDJEUS 


proper  precinct,  and  probably  as  well  one  who, 
from  being  elected  or  appointed  in  the  usual 
way,  may  be  justly  presumed  to  be  known  to 
be  such  officer,  need  not  show  his  warrant  nor 
even  declare  his  official  character  before  mak 
ing  an  arrest;  for  the  power  to  make  the 
arrest  might  be  lost  by  going  through  the  form 
of  producing  and  explaining  the  process.  If 
the  officer  have  no  proper  warrant  or  authori 
ty,  he  is  liable  in  damages  to  the  person  ar 
rested;  but  if  the  party  resist  before  investi 
gating  the  officer's  right,  and  the  officer  has 
the  authority  in  fact,  then  the  party  is  indict 
able  for  resisting  the  officer  in  the  proper  dis 
charge  of  his  duty.  "When  an  officer  acts  under 
a  warrant,  he  is  justified  in  executing  it, 
though  it  was  unlawfully  issued  in  fact,  pro 
vided  it  is  in  due  and  regular  form  on  its  face, 
and  the  magistrate  had  general  jurisdiction  of 
the  case.  The  question  of  jurisdiction  the  of 
licer  must  decide  for  himself  and  at  his  peril ; 
and  if  the  process  is  invalid  on  that  ground, 
the  officer  is  liable  in  damages.  Tiie  maxim 
of  the  law  that  a  man's  house  is  his  castle, 
does  not  hold  good  so  far  as  to  secure  asylum 
to  criminals ;  and  when  a  felony  has  been  cer 
tainly  committed  and  the  guilty  party  takes 
refuge  even  in  his  own  house,  an  officer  or  a 
private  person,  even  without  a  warrant,  may 
break  into  the  house  to  take  him,  after  a  proper 
demand  for  admission.  An  officer  in  such  a 
case,  acting  in  good  faith  on  the  positive  in 
formation  and  charge  of  another,  would  be 
excused  even  though  the  party  arrested  were 
not  the  guilty  party.  But  a  private  person,  in 
order  to  justify  the  breaking  of  doors  without 
a  warrant,  must  in  general  prove  the  actual 
guilt  of  the  party  arrested,  and  it  will  not  suf 
fice  for  him  to  show  that  a  felony  was  actually 
committed  by  some  person,  or  that  reasonable 
grounds  of  suspicion  existed.  When  an  officer 
has  a  warrant,  he  may,  even  before  an  indict 
ment,  break  open  doors  in  cases  of  treason  or 
felonies  or  breaches  of  the  peace ;  but  it  seems 
to  be  the  law  that,  without  a  warrant  and 
before  indictment,  he  may  not  do  so  in  the  case 
of  mere  misdemeanors  unaccompanied  with 
violence.  After  indictment,  a  person  guilty  of 
an  offence  of  any  degree  may  be  arrested  in 
any  place,  and  no  house  can  give  him  sanc 
tuary  ;  and  not  only  his  own  house,  but  the 
house  of  a  third  person,  may  in  such  a  case  be 
broken  into,  after  reasonable  demand,  for  the 
purpose  of  taking  him. — To  constitute  an  ar 
rest,  there  must  ordinarily  be  some  physical 
force  or  restraint  imposed  upon  the  person, 
though  there  need  not  be  more  than  the  slight 
est.  Mere  words  are  not  enough,  unless  upon 
these  the  party  submits  without  the  manifesta 
tion  of  any  force.  The  mere  laying  of  the 
hand  upon  the  prisoner,  or  preventing  his 
egress  from  a  room,  with  words  indicating  the 
intent  to  arrest  him,  is  sufficient.  If  an  officer 
attempts  to  arrest  one  committing  a  felony, 
and  he  takes  to  flight  to  escape  arrest,  the  of 
ficer  may,  after  demanding  that  he  stop  and 


surrender,   shoot  him   to   compel   him   to   do 
so.     But  the  officer  may  not  do  this  in  the 
case  of  a  mere  misdemeanor.     And  if  an  officer 
or  other  authorized  person,  in  attempting  to 
i  make  an  arrest,  is  resisted,  and  in  overcoming 
the  resistance,  and  in  using  what  seems  to  him 
to  be  necessary  force,  kills  the  man,  he  will 
|  be  held  innocent;  and  if  a  person  already  ar- 
I  rested  attempts  to  escape,  an  officer  is  justified 
j  in  killing  him  if  that  is  necessary  to  prevent 
his  escape.     But  whenever  an  unlawful  arrest 
is  attempted  or  made,  as  for  example  when  an 
:  officer   arrests   for  a  misdemeanor   without  a 
warrant,  and  neither  on  fresh  pursuit  nor  when 
a  breach  of  the  peace  is  threatened,  the  party 
arrested  may  lawfully  resist ;  and  if  in  making 
j  such    resistance   he  take  the  officer's  life   by 
!  mischance,  it  is  only  manslaughter.     When  a 
j  prisoner   is    arrested    without   a   warrant,   he 
I  should  be  handed  over  without  delay  to  some 
I  magistrate.     When  the  arrest  is  made  under  a 
i  warrant,  all  its  requirements  must  be  observed, 
i  and  such  a  process  usually  directs  the  officer 
!  to  take  his  prisoner  to  some  court  or  justice. 
— It  is  a  common  practice  for  police  officers 
j  and  constables  to  search  a  prisoner  immediate- 
|  ly  after  his  arrest,  and  take  from  him  every- 
i  thing  found  in  his  possession.     There  are  sev- 
I  oral  English  cases  reported  on  this  subject,  and 
i  it  is  laid  down  in  them  that  there  is  no  legal 
j  authority  for  such  a  proceeding,  unless  possibly 
i  it  be  in  those  cases  where  the  things  taken  are 
I  probably  the  fruits  of  the  crime  with  which  the 
I  prisoner  is  charged.     In  several  such  cases  in 
i  England  the  judges  have  severely  denounced  the 
i  practice,  and  have  ordered  money  especially  to 
be  returned  to  prisoners  where  their  possession 
of  it  did  not  appear  to  have  any  connection 
with  the  offence  for  which  they  were  taken, 
and  on  the  ground  that  therefore  there  was  no 
possible  justification  for  depriving  them  of  it. 
ARRHID^IS,  Philip,  a  natural  son  of  Philip 
of  Macedon  and  the  dancing  girl  Philinna  of 
|  Larissa,  died  in  317  B.  C.     After  the  death  of 
I  Alexander  the  Great  in  323,  tlie  Macedonian 
troops  in  the  East  nominated  Arrhidaeus  king, 
with  the  proviso  that  the  child  with  which 
Alexander's  wife  Roxana  was  pregnant  should 
be   associated  with  him  in   the   government. 
The  claims  of  Arrhidrcus  were  strengthened  by 
|  the  fact  that  his  wife,  Eurydice,  was  the  grand 
daughter  of  Philip's  elder  brother  and  prede- 
!  cessor.     Being  of  very  feeble  intellect,  he  was 
!  a  mere  puppet  in  the  hands  of  Perdiccas.     On 
|  the  death  of  the  latter  (321),  Arrhidaeus  and 
I  Eurydice  were  in  Cappadocia,  where  Antipater, 
j  the  regent  of  Macedonia,  found  them  and  took 
j  them  over  with  him  to  Pella.     After  his  death 
(319),  the  regent  Polysperchon  and  the  dowa- 
I  ger   grandmother,  Olympias,  set  up,  in  pref- 
i  erence    to  Arrhidreus,    Alexander,    Roxana's 
!  young  son.     Arrhidaeus  and  Eurydice  protest- 
i  ed,  and  called  in  the  aid  of  Oassander,  Anti< 
!  pater'  s  disinherited  heir,  but,  falling  into  the 
I  hands  of  Olympias,  were  both  murdered  by 
!  her  orders. 


ARRIA 


ARROWROOT 


ARRIA,  a  Roman  woman  who  immortalized 
herself  by  suicide,  A.  D.  42.  Her  husband, 
Oaecina  Protus,  was  condemned,  as  a  traitor  to 
the  emperor  Claudius,  to  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life.  As  Cnecina  hesitated  to  do  it,  his  wife 
took  up  the  dagger  and  stuck  it  to  the  hilt  in 
her  own  bosom.  Handing  it  back  to  her  hus 
band  she  said,  Pcete,  non  dolet  ("Paetus,  it  does 
not  hurt''),  and  expired.  Psetus  at  once  fol 
lowed  her  example. 

ARRIAN  (FLAT i us  AEEIANUS),  a  Greek  phi 
losopher  and  historian,  born  in  Nicomedia, 
Bithynia,  about  A.  1).  100.  He  served  under 
Hadrian  and  the  Antonines,  obtained  the  Ro 
man  citizenship,  was  prefect  of  Cappadocia, 
fought  successfully  there  against  the  Alans,  and 
after  holding  the  consulship  retired  to  Nicome 
dia  about  150,  and  devoted  himself  to  letters. 
Being  a  pupil  and  friend  of  the  Stoic  Epictetus, 
he  published  the  philosophical  lectures  and  an 
abstract  (Enchiridion)  of  the  practical  philoso 
phy  of  his  master,  and  wrote  dialogues,  of 
which  only  fragments  have  reached  us.  He 
also  published  works  upon  history,  geography, 
tactics,  and  hunting.  The  best  of  them  is  his 
excellent  history  of  the  campaigns  of  Alexan 
der  the  Great.  The  Athenians  made  him  a  cit 
izen  of  Athens  under  the  name  of  his  model  in 
composition,  Xenophon,  his  book  being  like 
wise  called  Anabasis.  With  this  work  his 
Indica  is  closely  connected,  in  which  he  de 
scribes  the  Hindoos,  their  institutions  and  cus 
toms,  as  they  were  found  by  Alexander.  He 
also  wrote  a  history  of  Bithynia,  an  account 
of  the  circumnavigation  of  the  Black  sea 
("The  Periplus  of  the  Euxine  Sea'1),  "The 
Order  of  Battle  against  the  Alans,"  and  other 
smaller  works. 

ARRIYABFJVE,  Giovanni,  count,  an  Italian  po 
litical  economist,  born  in  Mantua  in  1789.  In 
1821  he  was  imprisoned  seven  months  in  Ven 
ice  for  refusing  to  denounce  Silvio  Pellico,  of 
which  40  years  later  he  published  an  account 
(Dhme  epogue  de  ma  vie,  Brussels,  1861).  Sen 
tenced  to  death  by  contumacy  in  1824,  he 
spent  some  time  in  France  and  England,  and 
has  been  since  1827  a  resident  and  since  1840 
a  naturalized  citizen  of  Belgium.  lie  trans 
lated  into  Italian  (Lugano,  1836)  Mill's  "Ele 
ments,"  and  into  French  Senior's  "Fundamen 
tal  Principles  of  Political  Economy;"  and  has 
written  on  benevolent  societies  and  the  amelio 
ration  of  the  working  classes,  besides  Situation 
economique  de  la  Belgique  (Brussels,  1843). 

ARROO,  Arm,  or  Aroe,  a  group  of  about  80 
islands  in  the  Malay  archipelago,  north  of  Aus 
tralia,  between  lat.  5°  and  7°  S.,  and  Ion.  134° 
and  135°  E.  At  the  end  of  them  is  a  consider 
able  reef  of  coral,  where  pearls  and  tripang 
abound.  The  products  are  pearls,  mother-of- 
pearl,  tortoise-shel),  birds  of  paradise,  and  tri 
pang.  Dobbo,  a  town  in  the  island  of  Wam- 
ma,  is  the  entrepot  of  the  islands,  and  im 
ports  calicoes,  iron,  hardware,  and  gunpowder, 
shipped  from  Singapore.  The  population  num 
bers  about  14,000,  a  few  of  whom  are  Chrb- 


tians.     There  are  two  or  three  native  teachers 
from  Amboyna. 

ARROWROOT,  a  name  loosely  applied  to  the 
starch  extracted  from  a  number  of  roots  and 
grains,  as  the  maranta,  manihot,  tacca,  arum, 
potato,  &c.     It  was  originally  limited  to  the 
starch  of  the    maranta  arundinacea,  a  plant 
which  grows  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and 
which  was  considered  a  specific  for  the  wounds 
caused  by  poisoned  arrows.    It  is  a  simple  food, 
;  in  high  repute  for  invalids.    Not  containing  ni- 
i  trogen,  it  is  well  adapted  for  producing  fat  and 
j  promoting  the  warmth  of  the  body.    According 
I  to  Liebig,  4  Ibs.  of  it  contain  as  much  carbon 
j  for  supplying  animal  heat  by  its  combustion  as 
15  Ibs.  of  animal  tlesh.     In  its  preparation  the 
tubers  are  mashed,  and  the  pulp  is  soaked  in 
water.     This  dissolves  out  the  starch,  which  is 
separated  from  the  fibre  by  straining.     After 
settling,  the  clear  water  is  drawn  01%  and  the 
starch  washed  with  fresh  water  and  again  al 
lowed  to  settle.     It  is  finally  dried  in  the  sun. 


Maranta   arundinacea. 

The  most  common  adulterations  are  with  the 
cheap  potato  starch,  sago,  and  manioc  or  tapi 
oca,  all  which  can  be  detected  by  the  micro 
scope.  The  granules  of  the  potato  are  of  very 
irregular,  ovoid,  and  truncated  forms,  and  of 
various  sizes,  f'%om  ^Tro  t°  ToVo"  °f  an  mcn  m 
diameter,  while  the  particles  of  the  arrowroot 
are  very  regular  ovoid  forms,  and  of  nearly 
equal  sizes.  Dilute  nitric  acid  is  also  a  good 
test.  When  triturated  with  it  in  a  mortar,  ar 
rowroot  changes  into  an  opaque  paste,  which 
is  some  time  in  becoming  viscid;  but  potato 
and  flour  starch  thus  treated  form  immediately 
a  transparent,  thick  paste.  From  the  inferior 
starches  alcohol  extracts  an  unwholesome  oil  of 
disagreeable  odor,  but  none  from  arrowroot. 
The  composition  of  the  fresh  root  was  ascer 
tained  by  Benzon  to  be  in  100  parts  as  follows: 
volatile  oil,  0*07;  starch,  26;  vegetable  albu 
men,  1'58;  a  gummy  extract,  0*0;  chloride  of 


768 


ARS 


ARSENIC 


calcium,  0'25 ;  insoluble  fibrine,  6 ;  and  water, 
C5'5.  Of  the  starch  23  parts  are  obtained  in 
the  form  of  powder,  and  the  other  3  are  extract 
ed  in  the  form  of  paste  from  the  parenchyma 
with  boiling  water. — There  is  a  so-called  arrow 
root  brought  from  Florida,  derived  from  a 


Florida  Arrowroot  (Coontie)  and  Fruit. 

plant  allied  to  the  sago  palm,  and  sometimes 
known  as  coontie.  The  plant  grows  among 
the  everglades  in  great  profusion.  It  is  of  an 
inferior  quality,  containing  only  12  per  cent, 
of  starch. 

ARS.     See  AKS-SUR-MOSELLE. 

ARSAMAS.     See  ARZAMAS. 

ARSENIC  (Gr.  apcreviKdv  or  a'ppeviKfo,  male, 
from  its  power  in  destroying),  the  common 
name  of  the  white  oxide  of  arsenic,  or  arseni- 
ous  acid.  In  ancient  times  the  name  was  ap 
plied  to  a  reddish-colored  mineral  compound 
of  arsenic  and  sulphur,  a  substance  in  use  then 
as  a  medicine,  and  also  in  painting.  Metallic 
arsenic  occurs  native  in  veins  in  the  crystal 
lized  rocks  and  older  slates,  and  it  is  also  pre 
pared  by  subliming  its  oxide  in  presence  of  a 
reducing  flux,  and  protected  from  the  air. 
Many  modern  chemists  do  not  regard  it  as  a 
metal,  though  it  is  commonly  treated  as  such. 
Combined  with  oxygen,  it  unites  with  metals, 
forming  arsenites  and  arseniates  of  these  metals, 
but  is  never  itself  the  base  of  any  salt.  The 
ores  of  the  metal  are  not  therefore  carbonates 
and  sulphates  of  its  oxide,  but  combinations  of 
the  metal  itself  with  sulphur,  forming  the  sul- 
phuret,  and  this  combined  with  iron,  cobalt,  or 
nickel ;  or  they  are  oxides  of  the  metal,  or  else 
compounds  of  its  oxides  with  other  metals.  It 
is  remarkable  as  the  most  volatile  and  one  of 
the  most  combustible  of  the  metals,  is  readily 
sublimed  at  a  temperature  of  360°  F.,  apparently 
before  it  melts,  and  at  a  greater  heat  it  takes 
fire  and  burns  with  a  pale  blue  flame.  In 
subliming,  it  gives  out  dense  fumes  of  a  pecu 
liar  garlicky  odor,  which  distinguish  it  from 
other  substances  even  when  present  in  very 
minute  quantity.  It  is  more  brittle  than  anti 
mony,  and  may  be  reduced  to  fine  powder  in  a 
mortar.  Freshly  prepared,  it  has  a  brilliant 
metallic  appearance,  a  bluish- white  color,  and 
crystalline  structure ;  but  in  the  air  the  metal 
becomes  black  and  crumbles  to  powder.  In 
water  it  may  be  kept  without  change.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  5'96.  It  is  the  softest  of  the 


solid  metals,  its  hardness  being  rated  on  the 
mineralogical  scale  at  8 -5.  Arsenic  readily 
combines  as  an  alloy  with  other  metals,  render 
ing  them  more  fusible  and  brittle.  Its  presence 
is  particularly  injurious  in  iron  ores,  making 
the  cast  metal  exceedingly  brittle ;  but  it  gives 
great  fluidity  to  the  melted  iron,  so  that  for 
tine  castings  that  do  not  require  much  strength, 
but  sharply  defined  and  delicate  outline,  it  is 
sometimes  desirable.  It  also  increases  the 
brightness  of  some  alloys.  It  is  not  employed 
for  any  useful  purposes  in  the  metallic  state. — 
Arsenious  acid,  or  white  arsenic,  is  the  most 
common  combination  of  this  metal.  It  is  the 
sublimate,  w'hich  escapes  when  arsenic  is  heated 
in  the  open  air.  The  metal  combines  in  the 
proportion  of  1  equivalent  with  3  of  oxygen, 
the  compound  consisting  of  arsenic  75 '76  per 
cent,  and  oxygen  24'24  per  cent.  The  subli 
mate,  after  exposure,  is  a  white  powder,  but 
may  be  collected  in  the  form  of  a  glassy,  trans 
parent  cake,  or  crystallized  in  octahedrons. 
It  is  partially  soluble  in  boiling  water,  and  less 
so  in  cold  water.  The  solution  is  slightly  acid, 
having  but  a  feeble  reaction  upon  litmus  paper. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important 
tests  given  for  detecting  the  presence  of  this 
poison :  The  blowpipe  develops  its  peculiar 
odor,  with  little  liability  of  mistake,  in  arsen 
ical  matters,  heated  on  charcoal.  It  also  re 
duces  the  metal,  and  causes  it  to  condense  in 
the  form  of  a  metallic  ring  in  the  cold  part  of  a 
glass  tube,  in  which  the  substance  containing 
arsenious  acid  has  been  placed*  with  carbonate 
of  soda  and  charcoal,  and  heated.  The  pres 
ence  of  arsenic  may  be  shown  by  this  method, 
when  the  particle  containing  it  is  so  small  as  to 
be  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  in  the  follow 
ing  manner,  communicated  by  Prof.  A.  K.  Ea 
ton  of  New  York :  The  microscopic  particle  is 
placed  in  a  bulb  of  a  small  glass  tube,  and  a 
fine  splinter  of  charcoal  is  placed  by  the  side 
of  it.  The  whole  should  then  be  thoroughly 
dried.  The  neck  of  the  bulb  is  next  to  be 
drawn  out  to  a  capillary  tube,  and  cooled.  On 
applying  heat  to  the  matter  in  the  bulb,  this 
produces  by  sublimation  a  plainly  visible  arsen 
ical  ring  in  the  fine  bore  of  the  tube.  The  acid 
is  precipitated  from  its  solutions  by  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  in  the  form  of  tersulphuret  of  arsenic 
of  a  lemon-yellow  color.  This  is  a  very  accu- 
j  rate  test,  and  is  so  delicate  that  the  yellow 
j  tint  is  apparent  when  only  To,Viro  of  the  acid  is 
j  present,  and  the  precipitate  when  the  arseni- 
!  ous  acid  is  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  to  80,- 
\  000  of  water.  It  is  precipitated  in  a  white 
powder  by  excess  of  lime  water,  when  forming 
TJ--o  part  of  the  liquid.  Ammonio-sulphate  of 
i  copper  gives  an  apple-green  precipitate,  appa- 
•  rent  when  the  acid  forms  TY,-3hnr  Part-  A  still 
!  more  delicate  test  is  that  of  Prof.  Reinsch,  to 
place  a  slip  of  bright  copper  leaf  in  the  aque 
ous  solution  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid  ; 
a  gray  film  of  arsenic  is  deposited  upon  the 
copper,  showing  the  presence  of  less  than 
To-oVfro  part  °f  tne  aGid.  It  is  affirmed  that 


ARSENIC 


769 


even  TToVcro  Part  °f  arsenic  will  not  escape  de 
tection  by  this  test.  Nitrate  of  silver  gives 
with  it  a  yellow  precipitate.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind,  in  attempting  to  determine  the 
presence  or  absence  of  arsenious  acid  in  any 
mixture  in  which  organic  substances,  partic 
ularly  those  which  are  not  volatile,  are  present, 
that  some  of  these  substances  often  produce 
very  similar  reactions,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  they  prevent  or  modify  those  which  ar 
senious  acid  should  produce  in  mixtures  where 
no  organic  substances  are  present. — "Marsh's 
apparatus  "  has  been  long  known  as  affording 
an  easy  means  of  detecting  the  presence  of 
arsenious  acid.  The  process  depends  on  the 
property  possessed  by  arsenic  of  forming  a  gas 
with  hydrogen,  and  depositing  itself  in  the  me 
tallic  state  upon  the  surface  of  a  cold  plate 
held  over  the  flame  of  the  burning  gas.  Hy 
drogen  is  prepared  in  the  usual  way,  with 
granulated  zinc  and  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  in 
n  glass  flask  provided  with  a  tube  of  glass 
drawn  out  to  a  small  orifice  at  its  outer  end ; 
or  a  mere  tube  itself  may  be  used,  bent  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  U,  one  end  drawn  out,  the 
other  left  open  for  introducing  the  materials, 
and  closed  with  the  thumb  when  in  use.  The 
hydrogen  evolved  should  first  be  tested  by 
burning  it  against  a  porcelain  plate  to  prove 
that  it  is  free  from  arsenic,  and  then  the  sus 
pected  liquid  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  appara 
tus.  If  it  contain  any  traces  of  arsenious  acid, 
it  will  be  shown  by  the  bluish-white  color  of 
the  flame,  by  the  fumes  of  the  acid,  and  brown 
shining  spots  of  arsenic  of  metallic  appearance 
will  be  deposited  upon  the  porcelain  plates. 
By  heating  the  glass  tube  with  a  spirit  lamp, 
metallic  arsenic  will  be  deposited  in  the  colder 
part  of  it,  forming  a  beautiful  incrustation. 
The  tube  may  be  cut  off  at  this  point,  the  arse 
nic  be  converted  into  arsenious  acid  by  heat, 
dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  tested  by  the  am- 
monio-sulphate  of  copper  and  nitrate  of  silver. 
This  apparatus  has  been  modified  by  Dr.  Ure, 
so  that  the  gas  may  be  made  at  will  to  pass 
through  the  solutions  by  which  the  arsenic  is 
precipitated,  or  to  deposit  the  metallic  incrus 
tation  in  the  tube,  or  the  spots  upon  the  plate. 
In  its  most  simple  form,  however,  it  is  a  very 
useful  contrivance  for  detecting  arsenic.  Anti 
mony  combined  with  hydrogen  produces  a  spot 
that  may  J)e  confounded  with  that  of  arsenic  ; 
but  a  solution  of  hypochlorite  of  soda  instantly 
dissolves  arsenical  spots,  and  has  no  effect  upon 
those  of  antimony.  The  arsenical  spots  also 
are  volatilized  at  a  temperature  of  500°  applied 
by  a  bath  of  olive  oil,  while  the  antimonial  are 
unchanged.  The  proper  solvent  for  organic 
matters  supposed  to  contain  arsenic  is  a  mix 
ture  of  3  parts  of  hydrochloric  and  1  part  of 
nitric  acid,  and  the  quantity  of  this  should  be 
equal  in  weight  to  the  organic  substance,  which 
before  being  dissolved  should  be  cut  into  small 
pieces  and  dried  at  a  gentle  heat.  The  mix 
ture  being  distilled,  the  arsenic,  if  present, 
comes  over  in  the  form  of  the  volatile  terchlo- 
VOL.  i. — 49 


ride,  which  is  then  to  be  converted  into  the 
tersulphuret    by  sulphuretted  hydrogen. — Ar 
senious  acid  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  at 
!  Altenburg  and   Rfcichenstein,  in  Silesia,   from 
the  ore  called  arsenical  iron.     In  many  other 
i  places  it  is  obtained  as  a  secondary  product  in 
|  the  treatment  of  cobalt  ores,  and  of  other  me 
tallic  ores  with  which    arsenic  is    associated. 
The  process   consists   in   roasting  the   ore  in 
I  large   muffles,  10   ft.  long  and  6  ft.  wide,  in 
!  charges  of  9  or  10  cwt.  each,  and  collecting 
j  the  vapors  as  a  sublimate  upon  the  walls  of  a 
i  succession  of  chambers,  arranged  in  a  tower 
I  through  which  they  pass,  and  from  which  the 
I  uncondensable  gases  escape  by  a  chimney.     The 
muffles  are  placed  inclining  upward  from  their 
mouth,  and  are  left  open  for  the  passage  of 
heated  air  to  aid  in  subliming  the  arsenic  and 
converting  it  all  into  arsenious  acid.     A  charge 
is  worked  off  in  about  12  hours,  and  is  imme 
diately  followed  by  another.     Charcoal  is  the 
fuel  used,  and  as  very  little  more  heat  is  required 
than  what  is  evolved  by  the  chemical  changes, 
the    quantity  consumed  is   very  small.      The 
purest  arsenic  is  found  in  the  flues  and  cham- 
J  bers  nearest  the  furnace ;  in  the  upper  cham 
bers  it  is  intermixed  with  the  condensed  sulphu 
rous  vapors.     To  purify  it  for  market,  it  is  all 
sublimed  again.      It  is  placed  in  cast-iron  or 
porcelain  pots,  which  hold  3|-  cwt.  each,  and 
these   are   set  vertically  in  a  furnace.     They 
open  above  into  sheet-iron  drums,  which  serve 
!  as  condensers,  and  which  are  connected  by  a 
funnel  with  the  condensing  chamber.     The  fire 
j  must  be  carefully  regulated  to  maintain  the 
I  proper  temperature  for  the  acid  to  sublime  in 
j  the  form  of  a  glassy  cake.     If  the  heat  is  too 
high,  metallic  arsenic  is  apt  to  be  sublimed  and 
I  mixed  with  the  acid,  appearing  in  dark  spots. 
I  This  must  be  picked  out,  or  the  whole  sublimed 
|  over.     The  preparation  of  arsenious  acid  is  a 
I  most   dangerous   occupation.      The   workmen 
employed  generally  die  before  the  cge  of  40 ; 
indeed,  their  mean  term  of  life  is  stated  to  be 
only  from  30  to  35  years.     Dumas  states  that 
they  are  compelled  to  avoid  alcoholic  drinks, 
and  live  principally  upcn  leguminous  vegeta- 
!  bles,  with  plenty  of  butter,  taking  very  little 
!  meat,  and  that  very  fat;  and  to  each  man  two 
;  small  glasses  of  olive  oil  are  administered  daily. 
In  removing  the  acid  from  the  chambers  the 
workmen  are  completely  enveloped  in  a  dress 
and  helmet  of  leather,  the  latter  furnished  with 
j  glass  eyes.     The  passage  for  the  air  is  protected 
I  with  a  wet  sponge,  by  which  it  is  filtered  as  it 
:  passes  to  the  mouth  and  nostrils. — Arsenious 
j  acid  is  also  found  native,  crystallized  in  octahe- 
I  drons  and  capillary  forms,  at  Andreasberg,  in 
!  the  Hartz,  and  at  mines  in  Hungary  and  Bohe- 
|  mia.    Combined  with  iron  and  sulphur,  it  forms 
the  common  ore  of  arsenic,    called  arsenical 
i  iron,  or  mispickel,  which  is  of  frequent  occur 
rence  in  veins  of  iron  pyrites,  and  of  copper,, 
lead,  silver,  zinc,  cobalt,  nickel,  and  tin  ores. 
This  ore  is  found  in  many  localities  in  Connec 
ticut  and  New  Hampshire  particularly,  but  is 


770 


ARSENIC 


not  rare  in  any  of  the  New  England  states,  or 
wherever  p yritous  ores  are  found  along  the  range 
of  the  primary  rocks  of  the  Appalachian  chain. 
The  acid  is  also  found  in  tl*  ashes  of  many 
plants ;  in  certain  soils  and  mineral  waters ; 
and  Orfila  has  detected  it  in  the  earth  of  grave 
yards.  Its'  diffusion  in  minute  quantities  is 
very  remarkable. — The  uses  of  arsenious  acid 
are  principally  in  medicinal  preparations,  such 
as  Fowler's  solution,  the  basis  of  which  is  the 
arsenite  of  potash  ;  or  it  may  be  given  in  sub 
stance  in  the  dose  of  TV  of  a  grain,  combined 
with  something  to  increase  its  bulk.  Exter 
nally,  arsenious  acid  is  used  as  a  caustic  and 
forms  the  important  ingredient  in  many  "  can 
cer  cures."  It  is,  however,  a  very  painful  ap 
plication,  and  in  the  large  majority  of  cases 
this  method  of  removing  tumors  possesses  no 
advantage  over  the  knife.  It  may  be  absorbed 
from  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied,  and 
give  rise  to  the  usual  symptoms  of  arsenical 
poisoning.  Internally,  it  is  used  chiefly  in  skin 
diseases,  and  in  malarial  fevers  or  the  cachexia 
arising  therefrom.  In  these  affections  it  dis 
plays  decided  efficacy.  It  is  also  used  occasion 
ally  in  other  diseases  as  a  tonic.  The  symptoms 
which  denote  that  its  use  has  been  carried  suf 
ficiently  far  are  a  peculiar  swell  ing  and  stiffness 
of  the  face  and  eyes,  and  some  irritation  of  the 
digestive  apparatus. — The  statements  of  Von 
Tschudi  in  regard  to  the  habitual  use  of  arsenic 
by  the  peasants  of  Styria,  formerly  regarded  as 
unworthy  of  credit,  have  been  confirmed  by 
subsequent  observers.  Dr.  C.  Maclagan  has 
published  in  the  "Edinburgh  Medical  Journal  " 
for  September,  1864,  an  account  of  two  cases, 
in  one  of  which  between  four  and  five  grains, 
and  in  the  other  six  grains  of  white  arsenic 
were  taken  in  his  presence.  The  urine  passed 
by  each  of  these  men  after  taking  the  dose  was 
analyzed,  and  found  to  contain  the  drug.  They 
stated  that  they  took  a  dose  once  or  twice  a 
week,  and  one  of  them  said  that  the  good  effects 
lasted  for  eight  days.  They  were  both  healthy. 
It  is  said  to  be  given  to  horses  to  improve  their 
wind  and  the  smoothness  of  their  coats. — Ar 
senic  is  sometimes  chosen  for  criminal  poisoning 
on  account  of  its  taste!  essness.  Its  symptoms 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  are  tolerably 
characteristic,  and  it  is  almost  sure  to  be  de 
tected  by  proper  chemical  tests.  The  symp 
toms  and  post-mortem  appearances  observed  in 
the  majority  of  fatal  or  severe  cases  are  those 
of  the  most  violent  gastro-intestinal  irritation, 
with  proportionate  depression  of  the  circula 
tion,  intense  burning  pain  of  the  stomach,  ob 
stinate  vomiting,  and  extreme  depression.  In 
a  few  cases,  however,  death  takes  place  rapidly 
by  collapse,  and  there  are  no  characteristic 
post-mortem  appearances.  When  a  poisonous 
dose  of  arsenic  has  been  swallowed,  recourse 
should  be  had  to  emetics  or  the  stomach  pump, 
unless  vomiting  takes  place  spontaneously. 
Demulcent  drinks  may  be  given  until  the 
proper  antidote  can  be  procured.  This  is  the 
hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron,  which  should  be 


*.       ARSINOE 

kept  at  hand  in  the  moist  condition  by  every 
apothecary.  The  materials  for  making  a  fresh 
supply,  namely,  a  solution  of  some  persalt  of 
iron,  for  instance  the  persulphate  or  the  tinc 
ture  of  the  chloride, "and  water  of  ammonia, 
should  also  be  ready,  since  the  oxide  is  most 
efficacious  when  freshly  prepared.  The  two 
solutions  should  be  mixed,  and  the  resulting 
precipitate,  after  being  rapidly  filtered  and 
washed,  administered  in  the  form  of  a  paste. 
Recently  precipitated  magnesia  has  been  pro 
posed  as  an  antidote.  A  mixture  of  chalk  and 
castor  oil  is  said  to  mechanically  envelop  the 
particles  of  arsenic  and  render  them  harmless. 
The  effect  of  the  peroxide  of  iron  in  neutraliz 
ing  the  action  of  arsenious  and  arsenic  acids  is 
seen  in  the  harmless  nature  of  the  chalybeate 
waters  of  Wattwiller  in  Alsace,  in  which  ar 
senic  was  found  by  Lassaigne  to  the  amount 
of  2'8  per  cent. — A  milder  grade  of  poisoning 
has  resulted  from  the  use  of  arsenical  salts  as 
pigments  on  wall  paper  or  articles  of  millinery. 
ARSINOE.  I.  A  concubine  of  Philip,  the  son 
of  Amyntas,  who  became  the  wife  of  Lagus, 
a  Macedonian  general,  antl  the  mother  of  Ptol 
emy  L,  king  of  Egypt.  She  was  said  to  have 
been  pregnant  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  and 
her  son  Ptolemy  was  generally  regarded  as 
the  brother  of  Alexander.  II.  A  daughter  of 
Ptolemy  L,  king  of  Egypt,  was  married  to 
Lysimachus,  king  of  Thrace,  who  had  cast  off 
his  former  wife  Amastris  that  he  might  espouse 
her.  Arsinoe,  being  determined  to  secure  the 
Thracian  sceptre  for  her  own  issue,  caused  her 
stepson  Agathocles,  the  son  of  Macris,  to  be 
put  to  death.  Lysandra,  the  widow  of  Agatho 
cles,  fled  to  Syria  with  her  children,  and  im 
plored  Seleucus  to  avenge  the  murder  of  her 
husband.  A  war  ensued  between  the  Thracian 
and  Syrian  monarchs,  in  which  Lysimachus 
lost  his  life  (281  B.  0.).  After  this  catastrophe 
Arsinoe  sought  refuge  in  Cassandria,  a  city  of 
Macedonia,  where,  with  her  sons  by  Lysimachus, 
she  remained  in  security  for  some  time.  But 
Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  having  in  280  assassinated 
Seleucus  and  seized  the  crown  of  Macedonia, 
desired  to  gain  Cassandria  and  get  the  heirs 
of  Lysimachus  into  his  power;  he  made  an 
offer  of  his  hand  to  Arsinoe,  who  accepted  it. 
No  sooner,  however,  did  Ceraunus  find  himself 
in  possession  of  the  city  than  he  caused  the 
children  of  Lysimachus  to  be  slain  in  the  pres 
ence  of  their  mother.  Arsinoe  now  fled  from 
Cassandria  to  Samothrace,  whence  she  pro 
ceeded  to  Egypt.  Here  she  was  kindly  re 
ceived  by  her  brother  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
the  king,  who  speedily  made  her  his  queen. 
III.  A  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Eucrgetes,  wife  of 
her  brother  Philopator,  whom  she  accompanied 
to  the  war  against  Antiochus  the  Great  in  217 
B.  C.  Some  years  later  a  courtier  named  Phil- 
ammon  put  her  to  death  by  order  of  the  king ; 
but  her  murder  was  subsequently  avenged  by 
her  friends,  who  killed  Philammon  and  all  his 
family.  She  was  the  mother  of  Ptolemy  Epi- 
phanes  by  Philopator.  IV.  A  daughter  ct 


ARSINOE 

Ptolemy  Auletes,  was  proclaimed  queen  by 
the  Alexandrians  after  her  brother  Ptolemy 
Dionysius  had  become  prisoner  to  Caesar  (47 
B.  CJ.  She  subsequently,  however,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  was  carried  to 
Rome,  and  served  to  adorn  his  triumph  (46). 
Her  deportment  excited  the  sympathy  of  the 
Roman  people,  and  Csesar  permitted  her  to  re 
turn  to  Egypt.  In  41  Antony,  at  the  instiga 
tion  of  her  sister  Cleopatra,  had  her  taken  from 
the  temple  of  Diana  at  Miletus,  whither  she 
had  fled  for  refuge,  and  put  to  death. 

ARSINGE.  I.  An  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  cap 
ital  of  the  nome  or  district  of  Arsinoitis,  W. 
of  the  Nile,  and  not  far  from  Lake  Mceris. 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  gave  it  that  name  in 
honor  of  his  favorite  sister  and  queen  Arsinoe. 
Originally,  however,  it  was  called  Crocodilo- 
polis  by  the  Greeks,  because  the  crocodile 
there  received  divine  honors  from  the  Egyp 
tians.  The  ruins  of  the  city  may  be  seen  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  modern  Medinet  el-Fayoom. 
II*  An  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  capital  of  the 
Heroopolite  nome,  at  the  N.W.  extremity  of  the 
Red  sea,  near  the  site  of  the  present  town  of 
Suez.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  considerably  en 
larged  and  improved  it,  and  gave  it  its  name. 
Arsinoe  was  connected  with  the  Nile  by  the 
Ptolemgean  canal,  and  was  long  the  great  east 
ern  emporium  of  Egypt.  Its  revenues  belonged 
to  Queen  Arsinoe  and  her  successors. 

ARSON  (Lat.  ardere,  to  burn),  at  common  law, 
the  wilful  and  malicious  burning  of  another's 
house.     House  is  to  be  understood  in  general 
to  mean  a  dwelling  house,  and  it  included  at 
common  law  all  the  outhouses  that  belonged 
to  the  dwelling,  even  though  they  were  not 
under  the  same  roof  or  joined  to  it,  as  barns 
and  stables    containing  hay  or   corn   of  the 
owner  of  the  house ;  and  anciently  even  the  ; 
burning  of  a  stack  of  corn  was  arson.     The  | 
offence  was  for  a  long  time  and  until  very 
lately  punished  by  the  English  and  American 
law  with  death.     The  law  on  the  subject  is  not  ! 
now  so  simple  as  it  once  was ;   for  malicious  ! 
burnings    not    merely    of   dwellings,    but  of  ! 
churches,  warehouses,  public  buildings,  vessels,  \ 
crops,  and  many  other  kinds  of  property  are  j 
now  made  the  subjects  of  express  statutory 
provisions,  and  usually  named  arsons ;  and  the  ' 
subdivisions  of  the  subject  are  very  minute, 
and  the  character  of  the  different  offences  in  i 
the  different  cases  is  very  nicely  distinguished. 
Arson  is  still  used  as  a  word  of  description,  but 
the  statutes  do  not  always  employ  it ;  and  in-  I 
deed  many  of  the  offences  which  they  refer  to 
were  not  arsons  at  common  law  at  all. — The 
English  law  as  to  malicious  burnings  of  all  sorts 
of  property  has  been  revised  and  consolidated  ! 
in  the  single  act  of  24  and  25  Victoria,  ch.  i 
97  (1861).     It  provides  that  the  unlawful  and  ; 
malicious  setting  fire  to  any  dwelling  house,  i 
any  person  being  therein,  is  a  felony.     It  pun 
ishes  also  the  burning  of  churches  or  other 
places   of   divine   worship,    warehouses,    out 
houses,  farm  buildings,  or  any  building  used  in 


ARSON 


771 


|  carrying  on  trade  or  manufacture  ;  crops  of  hay, 
j  grass,  corn,  or  grain,  or  any  vegetable  produce, 
whether   cut   or   standing;    woods,    coppices, 
heath,  gorse,   or  furze ;  stacks  of  corn,  grain, 
or  hay;  turf,  peat,  charcoal,  coal  mines,  and 
I  other  kinds  of  property;    and  the  penalty  in 
almost  all  these  cases  is  penal  servitude  for  life 
|  or  for  not  less  than  live  years,  or  imprisonment 
'  for  any  term  not  exceeding  two  years,  with  or 
j  without  hard  labor.    The  statutes  in  the  United 
;  States  include  not  only  the  burning  of  dwell- 
|  ing.  houses,  but  also  the  burning  of  jails,  state 
!  houses,  court  houses,  school  houses^  and  other 
;  public  buildings,  outhouses  and  edifices  of  all 
descriptions,  and  in  some  of  the  states  ships 
and  water  craft  of  all  kinds.     In  many  of  the 
states  recent  statutes  of  this  character  also  pro 
vide   for   cases  of  burning  or  setting  fire  to 
buildings  with'  the  intent  to  defraud  insurers. 
In  Louisiana  and  Maine  burning  a  dwelling 
house  may  be  punished  with  death ;  but  gen- 
I  erally  that  penalty  has  been  abolished,  impris 
onment  for  life  or  for  a  shorter  term  being  sub 
stituted  in  its  place. — The  statutes  of  two  or 
!  three  of  the  states  will  fairly  represent  the 
|  condition  of  the  American  law  on  the  subject. 
j  In  Maine  any  person  who  sets  fire  to  the  dwell- 
!  ing  house  of  another,  or  to  any  building  adjoin- 
|  ing  thereto,  or  to  any  building  owned  by  him- 
I  self  or  another,  with  the  intent  to  burn  such 
|  dwelling  house,  and  it  is  thereby  burned  in  the 
1  night  time,  shall  be  punished  with  death.     But 
if  the  accused  proves  to  the  jury  that  there 
!  was  no  person  lawfully  in  the  dwelling  house 
|  at  the  time,  or  if  the  offence  was  committed 
in  the  day  time,  the  punishment  shall  be  in?- 
I  prisonment  for  life.     The  statute  of  California 
j  provides  that  every  person  who  shall  wilfully 
!  and  maliciously  burn  or  cause  to  be  burned  in 
i  the  night  time  any  dwelling  house  in  which 
there  shall  be  at  the  time  any  human  being,  is 
guilty  of  arson  in  the  first  degree.     Such  burn 
ing  of  any  dwelling  house  the  property  of  an 
other,  in  the  day  time,  or  such  burning  either 
in  the  day  or  night  of  any  office,  shop,  barn, 
stable,  warehouse,  stack  of  grain,  or  standing 
crop,  the  property  of  any  other  person,  or  of 
any  church,  school  house,  state  house,  or  any 
other  public  building,  or  any  ship,  of  the  value 
in  any  case  of  $50,  is  arson  in  the  second  de 
gree,  and  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  for 
not  more  than  ten  years  and  not  less  than  one. 
If  any  life  is  lost  in  consequence  of 'any  such 
burning,  the  offender  is  guilt}7  of  murder.    Any 
jail  or  other  edifice  usually  occupied  by  per 
sons   lodging   there   at   night   is   deemed   the 
dwelling  house   of  such  persons.     In  Massa 
chusetts  the  statute  enacts  that  if  any  person 
wilfully  and  maliciously  burns  the  dwelling 
house  of  another,   or  any  building  adjoining 
such  dwelling  house,  or  sets  fire  to  any  build 
ing   by   the   burning   whereof  such   dwelling 
house  is  burned,  he  shall  suffer  imprisonment 
for  life;  and  the  same  punishment  is  inflicted 
on  such  burning  of  certain  other  buildings  and 
of  barns  and  the  like  structures  within  the 


772 


ARS-SUR-MOSELLE 


ARTABAZUS 


curtilage  of  a  dwelling  house,  if  it  is  done  in 
the  liight.  If  the  commission  of  arson  causes 
the  death  of  any  person,  the  penalty  is  death ; 
but  without  that,  it  is  imprisonment  from  seven 
to  ten  years.  In  New  York,  arson  in  the  first 
degree  consists  in  wilfully  setting  fire  to  or 
burning  in  the  night  time  a  dwelling  house  in 
which  there  shall  be  at  the  time  some  human 
being;  and  every  house,  prison,  jail,  or  other 
edifice  which  shall  have  been  usually  occupied 
by  persons  lodging  therein  at  night  shall  be 
deemed  a  dwelling  house.  The  punishment  is 
imprisonment  for  life  at  hard  labor.  No  ware 
house,  barn,  or  other  outhouse  is  to  be  deemed 
a  dwelling  house  unless  it  is  actually  part  of 
one.  Arson  in  the  second  degree  is  such  burn 
ing  in  the  day  time  of  a  dwelling  house  as 
would  be  arson  in  the  first  degree  if  done  in 
the  night ;  or  the  burning  in  the  night  time  of 
any  building  not  the  subject  of  arson  in  the 
first  degree,  adjoining  to  or  within  the  curti 
lage  of  a  dwelling  house,  so  that  such  dwelling 
is  endangered. — If  a  man  set  fire  to  a  house  in 
the  execution  of  a  wicked  design  to  do  some 
other  unlawful  act — as  for  example,  if,  in  the 
burning  of  his  own  house  to  defraud  an  in 
surance  company,  he  burns  another's — he  is 
guilty  of  arson.  If  one  sets  fire  to  a  hay  stack 
situated  so  near  the  house  of  another  that  it  is 
likely  to  carry  the  fire  to  that,  and  it  does  in 
fact,  he  is  also  guilty.  When  the  house  burnt 
is  said  to  be  another's,  it  is  not  meant  that  it  shall 
be  the  absolute  property  of  another,  but  only 
another's  house  or  dwelling  for  the  purpose  of 
habitation  or  occupation,  and  a  special  prop 
erty  is  ordinarily  sufficient.  As  to  dwelling 
houses,  it  has  been  held  that  a  building  design 
ed  for  that  purpose,  but  not  yet  finished  and 
never  yet  occupied,  is  not  a  house  of  which 
arson  may  be  committed  at  common  law ;  and 
the  same  doctrine  was  held  in  the  case  of  a 
building  erected  for  a  dwelling  house,  but 
which  was  not  occupied  as  such  at  the  time 
of  the  burning,  and  had  not  been  for  ten 
months  previously.  As  to  the  burning,  it  is 
not  essential  to  the  offence  that  the  house 
should  be  entirely  consumed.  It  is  enough  if 
the  fire  takes  effect  so  as  to  burn,  that  is,  de 
stroy  by.  fire,  in  any  degree. 

ARS-SUR-MOSELLE,  a  town  in  Alsace-Lor 
raine,  administrative  division  of  Lorraine,  for 
merly  belonging  to  the  French  department  of 
Moselle,  5  m.  S.  W.  of  Metz,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Mance  with  the  Moselle;  pop.  in  1871, 
5,330.  In  and  near  the  town  are  important 
iron  mines,  iron  forges,  and  paper  mills.  Dur 
ing  the  investment  of  Metz  by  the  Germans  in 
1870,  Ars  had  great  strategical  importance,  as 
the  railway  from  Nancy  to  Metz  here  crosses 
the  Moselle ;  it  was  therefore  selected  as  one  of 
the  principal  depots  of  provisions  for  the  army 
of  Prince  Frederick  Charles. 

ARTA  (anc.  Ambracid),  a  town  at  the  south 
ern  extremity  of  Albania,  Turkey,  near  the 
northern  boundary  of  Greece,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  Arta,  and  7  m.  N.  of  the  gulf  of 


the  same  name ;  pop.  about  7,000.  It  is  in  the 
pashalic  of  Janina,  under  a  bey  appointed  by 
the  pasha.  Woollens,  cotton  cloth,  Russia 
leather,  and  clothing  are  the  principal  manu 
factures.  Remains  of  ancient  Greek  fortifica 
tions  extend  along  the  river  on  one  side  of  the 
town,  and  portions  of  them  were  used  in  build 
ing  the  castle  which  is  near  them.  There  are 
also,  in  another  quarter,  ruins  of  two  convents, 
one  built  by  the  empress  Theodosia  in  the  9th 
century,  the  other  of  later  construction.  The 
river  is  crossed,  opposite  the  town,  by  a  re 
markable  bridge  200  yards  long,  built  by  the 
Venetians  ;  it  rises  rapidly  from  the  low  banks 
to  a  central  point  100  feet  above  the  river. 
In  1821,  during  the  war  of  Grecian  indepen 
dence,  Arta  was  besieged  and  partly  occupied 
by  Marco  Bozzaris,  and  was  reduced  almost  to 
ruins.  Before  this  it  was  a  city  of  consider 
able  beauty  and  prosperity,  but  it  has  never 
since  recovered,  and  is  now  a  place  of  small 
importance.  (See  AMBEACIA.) 

ARTABANUS,  a  native  of  Hyrcania,  command 
er  of  the  bodyguard  of  Xerxes,  whom  he  assas 
sinated  465  B.  C.  He  persuaded  one  of  the 
king's  sons,  Artaxerxes,  to  kill  another,  Darius, 
and  then  attempted  to  murder  the  survivor 
that  he  might  seize  the  throne  himself.  He 
failed  in  this  attempt  and  was  slain. 

ARTABAZUS.  I.  A  Persian  general,  son  of 
Pharnaces,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes  I.  He 
commanded  the  Parthians  and  Chorasmians 
in  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  against  Greece, 
480  B.  C.,  and  returned  to  Pallene  after  the 
king  had  recrossed  the  Hellespont,  to  punish 
certain  cities  which  had  revolted  after  the 
battle  of  Salamis.  He  besieged  and  took 
Olynthus,  killed  the  inhabitants,  and  gave  their 
city  to  Chalcidians.  He  next  laid  siege  to 
Potidrea,  the  walls  of  which  were  washed 
on  one  side  by  the  sea.  The  water  having  for 
a  time  receded,  however,  he  marched  his 
troops  upon  the  sand  thus  left  bare  between 
the  ocean  and  the  fortifications,  and  the  town 
seemed  lost ;  when  suddenly  an  unusually  high 
tide  overwhelmed  nearly  all  his  army,  while 
the  Potidasans  by  a  sally  defeated  the  re 
mainder.  With  the  few  troops  remaining, 
Artabazus  joined  Mardonius  in  Thessaly.  He 
endeavored  in  vain  to  dissuade  that  leader  from 
attempting  the  battle  of  Platsea  (479  B.  C.), 
and  after  his  defeat  led  the  retreat  of  40,000 
men  from  the  field.  With  a  remnant  of  these 
he  reached  Asia  after  many  difficulties.  II.  A 
Persian  general  in  the  reigns  of  Artaxerxes  II., 
Artaxerxes  III.,  and  Darius  Codomannus.  In 
362  B.  C.  he  was  sent  by  the  first-named  king 
against  the  rebellious  satrap  of  Cappadocia, 
Datames,  but  was  defeated  by  him.  Arta 
xerxes  III.  made  Artabazus  satrap  of  western 
Asia,  but  he'  soon  revolted,  and,  aided  by 
Greek  and  ^Theban  mercenaries,  defeated  in 
two  battles  the  armies  sent  by  the  king  to 
punish  him.  Losing  the  aid  of  his  allies,  how 
ever,  by  the  successful  schemes  of  his  enemies, 
he  was  at  last  defeated  and  taken  prisoner, 


ARTAXATA 


ARTEMISIA 


773 


but  liberated  by  the  exertions  of  his  brothers- 
in-law,  Mentor  and  Memnon.  Unsuccessful  in 
another  attempt  at  rebellion,  he  was  compelled 
to  take  refuge  with  Philip  of  Macedon.  But 
Mentor,  who  had  joined  the  side  of  the  king 
and  had  been  of  great  assistance  in  the  war 
against  Egypt,  secured  his  pardon  about  3-49. 
He  now  returned  to  Persia,  and  afterward,  in 
the  reign  of  Darius  Codomannus,  occupied  sev 
eral  positions  of  trust.  His  daughters  married 
Alexander,  Ptolemy,  and  Eumenes.  He  re 
signed  his  satrapy  in  328. 

ARTAXATA  (Arm.  Ardashad),  an  ancient  city 
on  the  Araxes,  capital  of  Armenia,  68  m.  S.  S. 
E.  of  Erivan.  It  was  built  under  the  direction 
of  Hannibal  while  a  refugee  at  the  court  of 
Artaxias,  after  whom  it  was  named.  In  A.  D. 
58  it  was  destroyed  with  fire  by  the  Roman 
general  Corbulo,  but  rebuilt  by  Tiridates,  who 
called  it  Xeronia.  In  370  it  was  taken  by  the 
Persians,  who  partially  destroyed  it  and  carried 
into  captivity  most  of  its  inhabitants.  In  450 
a  famous  council  was  held  here,  at  which  the 
patriarch  Joseph  presided. 

ARTAXERXES,  or  Artoxcrxcs  (in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  Arta'hshashta  or  Arta'hshasta),  the 
name  of  three  kings  of  ancient  Persia,  signify 
ing,  according  to  Herodotus,  "  great  warrior." 
I.  Surnamed  Longimanus,  was  the  third  son 
of  Xerxes  L,  and  was  brought  to  the  Persian 
throne  by  the  assassination  of  his  father  and 
elder  brother  Darius  (see  ABTABANUB)  in  465 
B.  C.,  and  died  in  425.  Troubles  in  Bactria, 
excited  by  his  elder  brother  Hystaspes,  first 
engaged  his  attention.  Meanwhile  Egypt,  aided 
by  the  Athenians,  revolted  under  Inarus  against 
the  Persian  yoke.  Artaxerxes  at  length  com 
pelled  the  Athenians  to  evacuate  Egypt,  but 
they  continued  to  struggle  on  their  own  account 
under  Cimon,  until  on  the  death  of  the  latter 
(449),  Artaxerxes  was  forced  to  make  a  disad 
vantageous  peace.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Xerxes  II.  II.  Surnamed  Mnemon  on  ac 
count  of  his  good  memory,  succeeded  his  father 
Darius  II.  in  405  or  404  B.  C.,  died  about  359. 
He  is  chiefly  known  in  history  from  his  contest 
with  his  younger  brother  Cyrus  (see  CYEUS 
THE  YorxGEE),  after  whose  bloody  end  in  the 
battle  o£  Cunaxa  (401)  he  was  left  in  quiet  pos 
session  of  the  Persian  throne.  The  Lacede 
monians  had  meanwhile  given  evidence  of  a 
design  to  take  advantage  of  the  Persian  com 
plications  to  attack  the  empire  in  the  moment 
of  its  weakness ;  and  now  that  the  critical 
time  was  over,  Artaxerxes  avenged  himself 
by  a  successful  war  against  them,  which  hasten 
ed  the  decline  of  the  Spartan  power.  Sparta 
having  consented  to  the  humiliating  peace  of 
Antalcidas  (387),  Artaxerxes  prosecuted  a  war 
against  Evagoras  of  Cyprus,  and  subsequent 
ly  against  the  Cadusii  on  the  shores  of  the  Cas 
pian  sea,  rendering  them  tributary ;  he  then 
turned  his  forces  against  revolted  Egypt,  but 
failed  through  the  unskilful  management  of  his 
general,  Pharnabazus,  and  12  years  later  re 
newed  the  attempt  with  the  same  result.  He 


put  to  death  his  eldest  son,  having  detected 
him  in  a  conspiracy,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
third  son  Ochus.  III.  Ochus,  on  his  accession, 
assumed  the  name  of  Artaxerxes.  The  princi 
pal  events  of  his  reign  (about  359-338),  which 
was  stained  by  cruelty,  were  the  quelling  of  a 
revolt  raised  by  Artabazus,  the  resubjugation 
of  Egypt,  and  the  pacification  of  Phoenicia  and 
Cyprus.  He  was  poisoned  by  his  favored  eu 
nuch  Bagoas. — Besides  these,  Ardeshir,  the 
founder  of  the  Sassariide  dynasty,  is  called  by 
ancient  historians  Artaxerxes. 

ARTEMIDORIS  OF  EPHESIS,  a  Greek  geog 
rapher,  flourished  at  the  end  of  the  2d  and  the 
beginning  of  the  1st  century  B.  C.  He  is 
said  to  have  travelled  in  Spain  and  Gaul,  and 
to  have  made  voyages  in  the  Euxine,  the  Medi 
terranean,  the  Red  sea,  and  the  Indian  ocean, 
with  the  object  of  correcting  the  errors  which 
former  geographers  had  fallen  into  in  describ 
ing  them.  The  result  of  his  travels  and  obser 
vations  consisted  originally  of  11  books.  All 
of  these  have  perished,  save  the  fragments 
(collected  by  Hudson)  which  Strabo,  Marcian, 
and  other  ancient  writers  have  preserved. 

ARTEMIS.     See  DIANA. 

ARTEMISIA.  I.  A  queen  of  Halicarnassus, 
in  Caria,  who,  as  a  vassal  of  the  Persian 
crown,  joined  the  expedition  of  that  monarch 
against  Greece  with  a  squadron  of  five  ships, 
and  shone  by  her  valor  and  prudence  in  the 
battle  of  Salamis  (480  B.  C.).  According  to  a 
doubtful  tradition,  she  became  enamored  of  a 
youth  of  Abydos  named  Dardanus,  who  did  not 
reciprocate  her  affection,  whereupon  she  had 
his  eyes  put  out.  Afterward  regretting  her 
cruelty,  she  consulted  an  oracle  as  to  how  she 
should  make  atonement,  and  in  obedience  to 
the  mandate  of  the  divinity  cast  herself  into 
the  sea  from  the  Leucadian  rock.  II.  The 
sister,  wife,  and  successor  of  Mausolus,  king 
of  Caria,  celebrated  for  the  excessive  grief 
which  she  manifested  at  his  loss  (352  B.  C.). 
She  employed  the  most  eloquent  rhetori 
cians  of  Greece  to  pronounce  panegyrics  in 
his  honor,  and  raised  a  monument  to  his  mem 
ory  at  Halicarnassus,  which  was  considered 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  and 
from  which  the  now  general  term  mausoleum 
is  derived.  She  survived  him  about  two  years. 

ARTEMISIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order 
composite^,  noted  for  bitter,  tonic,  or  aro 
matic  properties.  A.  absinthium,  or  worm 
wood,  is  a  perennial  plant  with  woody  stems 
in  clusters  two  or  three  feet  high,  with  long- 
petioled,  irregularly  pinnatifid,  silvery  leaves, 
and  small,  clustered,  inconspicuous  flowers. 
Its  common  name  is  derived  from  its  virtues  as 
an  anthelmintlc.  A.  abrotanum,  or  southern 
wood,  is  cultivated  in  gardens  for  its  aromatic 
foliage,  and  much  used  in  Europe  in  beer  mak 
ing.  A.  dracunculus,  or  tarragon,  a  native  of 
Siberia,  is  used  in  pickles  for  flavoring.  A. 
Chinensis  or  moxa  produces  a  woolly  sub 
stance  on  the  stems  and  leaves  which  is  used 
by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  as  a  moxa  by 


774 


ARTEMISIUM 


ARTESIAN  WELLS 


burning  it  upon  parts  of  the  body  affected  with 
gout  or  rheumatism.  A.  Ludoviciana  is  the 
common  sage  bush  of  the  American  plains,  and 
is  a  low  irregular  shrub,  with  thick,  crooked 
stems,  growing  in  dry  alkaline  soils,  which  un 
less  irrigated  will  produce  little  else.  Its  strong 
odor  may  be  noticed  at  some  distance  away. 
With  greasewood  it  serves  as  the  principal  if 
not  the  only  fuel  on  the  plains.  All  artemisias 
are  easily  propagated  by  seeds  or  divisions  of 
the  roots. 

ARTEMISIUM,  properly  a  temple  of  Artemis 
(Diana),  the  name  of  several  places  in  ancient 
geography.  The  most  important  of  them  was 
the  promontory  on  the  N.  coast  of  Eubcea,  off 
which  the  Greek  ships  fought  with  the  fleet  of 
Xerxes,  almost  simultaneously  with  the  battle  of 
Thermopyla3,  in  480  B.  C.  The  success  achieved 
here  by  the  Greeks  was  soon  followed  by  the 
great  victory  at  Salamis. 

ARTERY  (Gr.  aprqpia,  from  a^p,  air,  and  rripeiv, 
to  keep),  a  blood  vessel  conveying  the  blood 
outward  from  the  heart  to  the  organs ;  so  called 
because  the  ancients  supposed  these  vessels  to 
contain  u  spirits  "  or  air.  An  artery  is  distin 
guished  from  other  blood  vessels  mainly  by  the 
thickness  and  elasticity  of  its  walls.  When 
cut  open,  therefore,  in  the  dead  body,  after  most 
of  the  blood  has  collected  in  the  great  veins 
and  internal  organs,  the  artery  does  not  col 
lapse  as  a  vein  would,  but  stands  open,  allow 
ing  the  air  to  pass  into  its  cavity.  It  was  this 
circumstance  which  led  the  old  anatomists  to 
believe  that  the  arteries  also  contained  air 
during  life.  They  supposed  that  the  air,  pene 
trating  the  lungs  at  the  moment  of  inspiration, 
was  partly  received  by  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart,  and  thence  distributed  by  the  arteries 
throughout  the  body,  while  the  blood  was  sent 
out  If om  the  right  ventricle  by  the  veins.  It 
was  not  until  Galen,  in  the  2d  century,  opened 
the  arteries,  with  some  experimental  precau 
tions,  in  the  living  animal,  that  it  became 
known  that  these  vessels  during  life  served  as 
conduits  for  blood  and  riot  for  air.  An  artery 
is  composed  of  three  coats,  the  internal  or 
serous,  the  middle  or  fibrous,  and  the  ex 
ternal  or  cellular.  The  external  coat  is  the 
most  resisting  of  the  three,  and  prevents  the 
vessel,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  from 
being  distended  beyond  a  certain  point.  The 
middle  coat  is  distensible;  but,  owing  to  the 
peculiar  nature  of  the  fibres  which  constitute 
its  substance,  it  also  has  the  power  of  elastic  re 
action,  and  in  the  smaller  arteries  that  of  mus 
cular  contractility.  In  the  larger  and  medium- 
sized  arteries,  the  elasticity  of  their  walls  re 
acts  upon  the  blood  during  the  intervals  of  the 
heart's  pulsation  and  urges  it  onward  toward 
the  periphery:  so  that  the  current  of  blood 
in  this  part  of  the  circulation,  though  pulsating 
in  character,  is  yet  continuous,  or  nearly  so,  and 
merely  increases  in  velocity  with  every  pulsa 
tion  of  the  heart,  and  diminishes,  without  ceas 
ing  altogether,  in  the  intervals.  In  the  smaller 
arteries,  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  middle  coat, 


under  the  varying  influence  of  the  nervous  sys 
tem,  contract  or  relax  at  certain  periods ;  thus 
increasing  or  diminishing  the  resistance  of  the 
vessels  to  the  flow  of  blood,  and  causing  local 
variations  in  the  circulation  of  particular  parts. 
When  an  artery  is  wounded  the  blood  escapes 
in  jets,  coming  with  greater  force  at  the  instant 
of  each  pulsation  of  the  heart ;  and  it  can  be 
distinguished  by  this  feature  from  hasmorrhage 
from  the  veins,  in  which  the  blood  escapes  in 
a  comparatively  feeble  but  continuous  stream. 
If  the  wounded  artery  be  of  considerable  size, 
it  requires  to  be  secured  by  a  ligature  in  order 
to  stop  the  flow  of  blood. 

ARTESIAN  WELLS,  small  holes  sunk  in  the 
earth,  through  which  currents  of  water,  struck 
at  great  depths,  rise  toward  the  surface,  and 
sometimes  flow  over ;  so  named  from  the  prov 
ince  of  Artois  in  France  (Lat.  Artesium),  in 
which  they  have  for  a  long  time  been  in 
use.  Water  thus  pressed  up  must  have  its 
source  in  some  more  elevated  lands,  and  be 
confined  in  the  strata  of  rock  through  which  it 
has  percolated  ;  precisely  as  water  is  conveyed 
in  pipes  below  the  surface,  and  pressed  up 


An  Artesian  "Well. 

into  buildings  to  a  height  nearly  equal  to  that 
at  which  the  pipes  commence.  Water  finds  its 
way  down  into  the  earth  by  flowing  into  the 
crevices  and  chasms  of  the  rocks,  and  by  per 
colating  through  the  porous  strata.  In  a  region 
of  limestone  rocks  it  hollows  out  for  itself  its 
own  bed,  by  dissolving  the  limestone,  and  even 
in  this  way  produces  great  caves.  When  forced 
by  the  pressure  behind,  the  water  is  pushed  up 
through  any  apertures  it  meets  and  flows  out 
as  a  spring  or  artesian  well.  There  are  three 
conditions  essential  to  the  successful  boring  of 
an  artesian  well:  1.  A  fountain  head  more 
elevated  than  the  locality  where  the  boring  is 
to  be  undertaken.  2.  A  moderate  downward 
dip  of  the  strata  toward  the  site  of  the  well ; 
a  steep  or  high  angle  of  inclination  of  dip  is 
unfavorable,  as  the  water  is  apt  to  flow  away 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  boring,  which  must 
needs  pass  at  an  acute  angle  through  few 
layers  of  rock.  3.  Alternations  of  porous  and 
impervious  strata  beneath  the  surface  soil.  It 
is  sometimes  the  case  that  the  head  of  water 
is  at  so  high  an  elevation,  that  the  column 
bursts  forth  from  the  ground  as  a  fountain, 


ARTESIAN  WELLS 


775 


throwing  up  a  continual  jet.  The  principle  is 
precisely  that  of  our  artificial  fountains.  By 
raising  the  water  above  the  surface  in  a  pipe, 
and  letting  it  flow  over,  convenient  water 
power  is  obtained ;  artesian  wells  are  applied 
to  this  purpose  at  many  localities  in  France, 
the  water  they  supply  being  found  sufficient  to 
run  heavy  machinery.  From  the  great  depth 
at  which  the  currents  of  water  are  reached, 
their  supplies  may  be  regarded  as  permanent. 
A  well  at  Aire  in  Artois,  France,  which  was 
bored  over  a  celitnry  ago,  has  since  then  flow 
ed  steadily,  the  water  rising  11  ft.  above  the 
surface  at  the  rate  of  250  gallons  a  minute; 
and  at  Lillers  (Pas-de-Calais)  one  well  has 
flowed  steadily  since  the  year  1126.  In  the 
vicinity  of  London  it  is  observed  that  the 
height  to  which  the  water  rises  diminishes  as 
the  number  of  wells  is  increased.  In  1838  the 
supply  of  water  from  them  was  estimated  at 
6,000,000  gallons  daily,  and  in  1851  at  nearly 
double  the  amount,  and  the  average  annual  fall 
of  the  height  of  the  water  is  about  2  ft.  But 
in  cases  of  single  wells,  the  supply  of  water  or 
the  height  to  which  it  rises  is  seldom  known 
to  vary.  From  their  depth,  also,  the  water 
brought  up  is  warmer  than  that  found  near  the 
surface.  This  increase  of  temperature  with  the 
depth  takes  place  at  different  rates  in  different 
places.  At  Paris,  where  the  mean  temperature 
at  the  surface  is  51°  F.,  the  water  of  the  ar 
tesian  well  of  Grenelle  is  82°  from  a  depth 
of  1,797  ft,,  which  is  about  1°  for  every  58 
ft.  deep.  At  St.  Louis,  the  temperature  of  the 
water  at  1,515  ft,  is  18'18°  F.  higher  than  the 
mean  temperature  at  the  surface,  making  the 
increase  1°  for  every  83 -3.  ft,  descent.  At 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  the  temperature  of  the  water 
at  the  surface  is  68°  F. ;  at  500  ft.  it  is  73'5° ; 
at  1,000  ft.,  84°;  and  at  1,106  ft,,  88°.  The 
average  rate  of  increase  is  about  1°  for  every 
524-  ft.,  as  stated  by  Prof.  Hume  of  the  state 
military  academy.  The  hot  springs  that  flow 
out  to  the  surface  in  many  parts  of  the  world  are 
natural  artesian  wells  rising  from  great  depths. 
In  Virginia  these  springs  are  found  along  the 
lines  of  great  faults  or  breaks  in  the  stratifica 
tion  of  the  rocks,  by  which  formations  usually 
separated  by  thousands  of  feet  are  brought 
into  contact  with  each  other.  Warm  waters 
obtained  by  artesian  wells  have  been  applied 
to  useful  purposes  connected  with  manufactur 
ing.  They  are  especially  valuable  where  pure 
wrater  of  a  uniformly  warm  temperature  is 
required.  In  Wiirtemberg  large  manufactories 
ire  warmed  by  the  water  being  sent  through 
.them  in  metallic  pipes;  a  constant  temperature 
of  47°  is  thus  maintained  when  the  tempera 
ture  without  is  at  zero.  Hospitals  and  green 
houses  are  also  kept  warm  in  the  same  manner. 
— The  strata  of  clays,  sands,  and  limestones, 
which  form  the  tertiary  basins  of  London  and 
Paris,  are  particularly  well  arranged  for  fur 
nishing  water  by  artesian  wells.  Covering 
areas  of  many  square  miles,  the  slope  of  the 
strata  is  toward  the  centre  of  the  basin,  and 


|  here,  at  the  depth  to  which  these  reach,  the 
j  waters  must  collect  in  large  quantities.     The 
I  strata,  moreover,  are  not  difficult  to  penetrate 
;  by  boring.     In  these  basins  are    concentrated 
i  the  greatest  number  and  the  most  expensive  of 
|  these  wells.     The  famous  Grenelle  well  in  the 
!  Paris  basin  was  commenced  in  1833,  with  the 
i  expectation   of    obtaining   water   at    1,200   or 
!  1,500  ft.,  in  the  secondary  greensand   forma- 
|  tion,  which  underlies  the  chalk,  the  uppermost 
member  of  this  series.     For  the  first  50  ft.  the 
bore  was  12  in.,  which  was  then  reduced  to  9 
i  in.  for  the  next  1,050  ft, ;  a  second  reduction  to 
!  7l  in.  was  made  till  the  depth  of  1,300  ft.  was 
j  reached,  where  there  was  a  final  decrease  to 
|  6  in.    At  1,500  ft.  the  government  would  have 
|  abandoned  the  enterprise  but  for  the  urgent 
j  appeals  of  M.  Arago.     It  was  continued  till, 
on  Feb.  26,  1841,  at  the  depth  of  1,797  ft.,  the 
boring  rod  suddenly  penetrated   the  arch  of 
rock  over  the  subterranean  waters,  and  fell  14 
ft.     In  a  few  hours  the  water  rose  to  the  sur 
face  in  an  immense  volume   and  with   great 
violence,  bringing  up  sand  and  mud.    To  check 
I  the  supply  a  vertical  pipe  was  raised  many  feet 
into  the  air,  in  which  the  water  rises  and  flows 
over.    The  water  is  perfectly  limpid,  and  flows 
at  the  rate  of  500,000  gallons  in  24  hours.     It 
I  is  used  for  warming  the  hospitals  at  Grenelle, 
j  as  its  temperature  is  uniformly  82°  F.     A  well 
very  similar  to  that  at  Grenelle,  though  of  in 
creased   diameter,   was  begun  at   Passy,   two 
miles  distant,  in  September,  1854,  and  finished 
,  Sept,  24,  1861.     The  boring  began  at  a  height 
j  above  the  sea  of  305'2  ft.,  and  that  at  Grenelle 
at  121-3  ft. ;  the  depth  is  1,923  ft.,  and  diame 
ter  within  the  tube  2 '4  ft.     The  flow  from  this 
well  began  slowly,  but  on  Sept.  27  had  reached 
over  5,500,000  gallons  per  day.     The  yield  at 
the  mouth  was  greatly  decreased  when  raised 
through  a  tube  25  ft.  high;  a  like  result  fol 
lowed  at  Grenelle,  where  the   yield  was  440 
gallons   per  minute  at    the   surface,    but   de- 
|  creased  to  185  gallons  when  forced  through  a 
i  tube  33  ft.  high.    That  these  two  wells,  though 
|  two  miles  apart,  drew  their  supply  from  the 
same  source,  is  evident  both  from  their  tem- 
!  perature,  82C  F.  in  each,  and  from  the  fact  that 
I  the  opening  of  the  Passy  well  reduced  the  flow 
at  Grenelle  from  135  to  100  gallons  per  minute, 
!  though  it  is  anticipated  that  by  forcing  the 
|  water  at  Passy  through  a  still  higher  tube  the 
I  yield  at  Grenelle  may  be  increased.     This  de 
pendence  of  several  wells  upon  one  source  is 
!  shown   also    in   the   Pennsylvania   oil   region, 
i  where    the   water   from   one  well,   when   not 
|  pumped  out,  often  finds  an  exit  through  the 
j  tubes  of  those  adjoining.     The  work  on  both 
the  above-mentioned  wells  was  much  delayed 
by  accidents.     Wlien  that  at  Grenelle  was  at  a 
depth  of  1.254ft.,  the  drill  broke  off  and  fell 
i  with  270  ft.  of  rods  to  the  bottom;  15  months 
I  were  spent  in  breaking  these    and  removing 
!  the  pieces.     The  tubing  in  the  Passy  well  was 
|  also  burst  by  the  external  pressure  of  sand  and 
i  water,  and  had  to  be  removed  and  new  tubes 


7G 


ARTESIAN  WELLS 


hiserted,  retarding  the  work  for  many  months. 
At  Kissingen,  Bavaria,  there  is  a  well  1,878  ft. 
deep,  the  last  138  ft.  of  which  passes  through 
rock  salt.  The  water,  which  flows  from  it  at 
the  rate  of  100  cubic  feet  a  minute,  contains 
3£  per  cent,  of  salt;  its  temperature  is  60°  F., 
and  the  whole  cost  of  boring  was  about 
$33,000. — Artesian  wells  are  of  peculiar  value 
upon  desert  plains,  and  those  vast  prairies  that 
rest  upon  porous  limestone  formations,  through 
which  the  surface  water  finds  its  way  and  is 
lost.  In  May,  1858,  M.  Jus,  a  French  engineer, 
commenced  boring  for  water  in  the  desert  of 
Sahara,  and  on  June  19  a  well  was  sunk,  from 
which  there  flowed  a  steady  stream  of  pure 
water,  having  a  temperature  of  61°  F.,  at  the 
rate  of  1,000  gallons  per  minute.  Up  to  the 
present  time  (1872)  over  75  wells  have  been 
bored  in  that  desert,  yielding  an  aggregate  of 
600,000  gallons  an  hour.  The  effect  of  this 
abundant  supply  of  water  upon  the  once  bar 
ren  soil  ,of  the  desert  is  plainly  apparent ;  two 
new  villages  have  been  built  in  the  midst  of 
former  solitudes,  150,000  palm  trees  have  been 
planted  in  more  than  1,000  new  gardens;  the 
oases  of  Tamelhat,  Oum  Tliior,  and  Shegga 
have  each  their  wells  yielding  from  25  to  1,000 
gallons  per  minute.  A  promising  feature  in 
these  wells  is  that  water  is  reached  at  a  com 
paratively  slight  depth,  the  one  in  the  oasis  of 
Sidi  Nached  being  hardly  200  ft.  deep.  There 
is  also  a  well  at  Bourne,  England,  which, 
though  but  92  ft.  deep,  yields  557,000  gallons 
of  pure  water  per  day,  and  the  pressure  is  suf 
ficient  to  supply  the  town  and  force  a  stream 
above  the  highest  roofs.  The  proprietors  of 
the  Continental  hotel,  Philadelphia,  have  late 
ly  completed  a  well,  8  inches  in  diameter  and 
only  200  ft.  deep,  which  supplies  them  with 
50,000  gallons  of  pure  water  per  day. — The 
success  attending  the  work  of  the  French  en 
gineers  in  Africa  is  one  of  great  promise  to 
those  who  would  undertake  the  irrigation  of 
the  rich  plains  of  the  Colorado  desert ;  and  al 
ready  a  well  bored  by  direction  of  the  Pacific 
railway  company  at  Point  of  Rocks,  805  m. 
W.  of  Denver,  in  the  midst  of  the  alkali  dis 
trict,  furnishes  abundant  water  for  the  engines 
on  that  road,  the  water  rising  to  within  11  ft. 
of  the  surface.  In  1855  the  United  States  gov 
ernment  sent  out  an  expedition,  under  com 
mand  of  Capt.  Pope,  for  the  purpose  of  boring 
for  water  in  the  Llano  Estacado,  near  the  bor 
ders  of  Texas  and  Xew  Mexico.  The  first  well 
was  sunk  at  a  point  15  m.  due  E.  of  the  river 
Pecos,  on  the  32d  parallel  of  latitude.  At  the 
deptli  of  360  ft.  the  first  stream  of  water  was 
struck,  which  rose  to  the  height  of  70  ft.  in  the 
tubing ;  at  641  ft.  a  second  stream  was  struck, 
which  rose  400  ft.  Five  miles  E.  of  this  point 
a  second  well  was  bored  to  the  depth  of  860 
ft.,  in  which  the  water  rose  750  ft. — Of  the 
artesian  wells  in  the  United  States,  those  at 
St.  Louis,  Louisville,  and  Charleston  are  among 
the  most  important,  both  from  their  extreme 
depth  and  the  difficulties  attending  the  sink 


ing.  The  well  at  St.  Louis  was  completed  at 
the  expense  and  under  the  direct  supervision 
of  William  II.  Belcher  of  that  city.  An  inter 
esting  account  of  its  progress  is  given  by  A. 
Litton,  M.  1).,  in  the  "Transactions  of  the 
Academy  of  Science  of  St.  Louis,"  vol.  i.,  No.  1, 
1857.  The  boring  of  this  well  was  begun  from 
the  bottom  of  an  open  well  30  ft.  deep  in  the 
spring  of  1849.  The  bore  to  the  depth  of  219 
ft.  was  9  in.  in  diameter,  then  5^-  in.  for  731  ft. 
further,  and  continued  at  3^  in.  till  the  full 
depth,  2,199  ft,,  was  reached..  At  550  ft.,  the 
top  of  a  limestone  layer,  the  water  became 
salty ;  200  ft.  below  this,  in  a  layer  of  shale,  it 
contained  1|-  per  cent,  of  salt;  and  at  965  ft., 
below  a  bed  of  bituminous  marl,  2£  per  cent. 
At  the  depth  of  1,179  ft.  the  hardest  rock  was 
encountered,  being  a  bed  of  chert  62  ft.  thick. 
The  work  was  stopped  on  March  12,  1854,  in 
silicious  and  clayey  beds  belonging  to  the 
lower  Silurian  formation.  The  water  is  at 
present  discharged  through  a  20-inch  pipe  at 
the  rate  of  75  gallons  per  minute  ;  it  is  only  fit 
for  medicinal  purposes,  having  a  strong  odor 
of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  containing  over 
8  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter,  including  6  per 
cent,  of  salt ;  its  temperature  is  even  at  7344°  F. 
The  total  cost  of  this  work  exceeded  $10,000. 
The  well  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  has  a  3-inch  bore, 
and  is  2,086  ft.  deep.  The  water  flows  from  it 
at  the  rate  of  330,000  gallons  per  day,  and 
with  a  force  equal  to  10-horse  power.  It  is 
perfectly  clear,  though  highly  charged  with 
mineral  substances,  being  similar  in  composi 
tion  and  medical  properties  to  the  celebrated- 
Kissingen  waters,  and  the  Blue  Licks  of  Ken 
tucky. — Of  all  the  wells  sunk  in  the  United 
States,  none  is  so  remarkable  for  the  difficul 
ties  encountered  and  successfully  overcome  as 
that  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  Since  1824  five  at 
tempts  have  been  made  by  the  city  govern-, 
ment  to  obtain  good  water  by  this  means.  In 
1848  the  last  operation  was  commenced  under 
the  direction  of  Maj.  Welton.  The  strata  first 
penetrated  were  alluvial  sands,  saturated  with 
water,  which  caused  them  to  rim  as  quicksand. 
These  were  shut  out  by  cast-iron  tubing  of  6 
in.  diameter,  which  penetrated  the  clays  and 
marls  of  the  postpliocene  formation,  and 
finally  reached  the  depth  of  230  ft.,  where  it 
rested  upon  a  rock  of  the  eocene  formation. 
From  this  point  down  alternations  of  hard 
rock  and  loose  sands  were  met  with,  the  latter 
causing  the  same  trouble  as  those  above,  run 
ning  in  and  filling  the  well,  sometimes  even  to 
the  height  of  140  ft.  up  from  the  bottom  in  a 
single  night.  When  it  was  found  impossible 
to  draw  out  the  sands  from  these  beds,  the 
plan  was  adopted  of  shutting  them  out  by 
tubing.  The  bore  of  the  lower  part,  being 
first  enlarged  from  3^  to  5^  in.,  was  lined  with 
sheet-iron  tubes  to  the  depth  of  700  ft.  Sand 
flowing  in  at  1,020  ft.  rendered  it  necessary  to 
take  out  the  tin  tubing,  and  replace  it  with 
heavier  tubes  of  4  in.  diameter  and  f  in.  thick, 
which  screwed  one  upon  another;  this  was 


ARTESIAN   WELLS 


77 


done  to  the  depth  of  1,102  ft.  The  sinking 
was  extended,  of  3-inch  bore,  to  1,250  ft.,  the 
last  strata  being  sandstones,  sand,  and  marls, 
probably  of  the  cretaceous  formation.  The  dis 
charge,  10  ft.  above  the  surface,  is  about  1,200 
gallons  an  hour.  The  water  is  saline,  and  dis 
agreeable  to  the  taste,  but  soft.  Its  tempera 
ture  is  87°. — In  Onarga,  Iroquois  county,  111., 
85  m.  S.  of  Chicago,  there  are  artesian  wells 
that  deserve  especial  notice,  both  because  of 
their  number  (over  200  within  a  radius  of  20 
m.),  and  from  the  fact  that  they  are  all  flowing 
wells,  though  the  average  depth  does  not  ex 
ceed  70  ft.  They  are  sunk  with  an  auger  6  in. 
in  diameter,  and  the  water  vein,  a  bed  of 
white  sand,  is  reached  after  boring  through  5 
ft.  of  surface  soil.  10  to  20  ft.  of  common  sand, 
15  to  20  ft,  of  blue  clay,  and  20  to  30  ft.  of 
hardpnn,  a  mixture  of  clay  and  gravel.  The 
flow,  which  rises  several  feet  above  the  sur 
face,  varies  in  amount  from  20  to  120  gallons 
per  minute.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
daily  yield  from  these  wells  is  53,400,000  gal 
lons.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that  the 
district  in  which  they  are  located  is  at  a  level 
of  92  ft,  above  that  of  Lake  Michigan,  and 
that  the  nearest  probable  fountain  head  is  at 
least  200  m.  distant.  This  dependence  upon  a 
distant  source  of  supply  is  also  demonstrated 
by  the  famous  Chicago  wells.  One  of  these 
has  a  surface  diameter  of  5  in.,  which  is  re 
duced  to  4i  on  nearing  the  bottom,  at  a  depth 
of  711  ft.  The  other  is  5  in.  in  diameter  from 
top  to  bottom ;  the  first  42  ft.  are  lined  with 
an  iron  tube,  which  projects  22  ft.  above  the 
surface ;  from  this  level  the  water  flows  at  the 
rate  of  432,000  gallons  per  day,  and  with  a 
resisting  power  of  from  600  to  800  Ibs.  The 
site  of  both  wells  is  82  ft,  above  the  level  of 
the  lake,  and  the  general  character  of  the  sur 
rounding  country  is  flat;  whence  it  is  conjec 
tured  that  they  may  be  fed  from  the  region  of 
the  Rock  river,  100  m.  distant. — Though  the 
geological  structure  of  Manhattan  island  is 
exceedingly  unfavorable,  yet  several  artesian 
wells  were  sunk  in  the  city  of  Xew  York  years 
ago  by  Mr.  Levi  Disbrow.  One  of  the  oldest 
and  deepest  of  these  wells  is  at  the  United 
States  hotel,  known  when  the  well  was  sunk 
as  Holt's,  on  Pearl,  Fulton,  and  Water  streets. 
The  boring  for  the  first  126  ft.  was  in  stratified 
sands  and  blue  clay  alternating  with  river 
mud.  At  this  depth  the  surface  of  the  rock 
was  struck  under  a  bed  of  coarse  gravel ;  and 
below  this  the  shaft  was  continued  in  the 
gneiss  rock  500  ft.  further.  The  upper  200  ft. 
of  the  well  was  bored  3  in.  in  diameter ;  the 
remainder  was  2i  in.  The  water  for  a  time 
was  tolerably  good,  but  soon  became  impreg 
nated  with  the  salt  river  water,  and  at  last 
unfit  for  use.  At  the  corner  of  Bleecker  street 
and  Broadway  a  well  was  sunk  448  ft.,  of  7 
in.  bore — the  first  42  ft.  through  sands  and 
gravel,  and  406  ft.  through  the  hard  gneiss 
rock  of  the  island.  The  water,  as  stated  by 
Mr.  Disbrow,  rose  within  30  ft.  of  the  surface, 


to  the  amount  of  120,000  gallons  in  24  hours. 
At  the  dry  dock,  llth  street,  East  river,  the 
rock,  met  with  at  130  ft.,  was  penetrated  200 
ft.  further.  Many  other  wells  of  this  nature 
have  been  sunk  in  and  near  the  city,  but  with 
no  features  of  particular  interest. — In  con 
sidering  the  methods  of  boring  artesian  wells, 
and  examining  the  implements  now  used,  it  is 
interesting  to  note  the  similarity  between  these 
and  those  employed  by  inhabitants  of  China 
centuries  ago.  The  missionary  Imbert  stated 
in  1827  that  in  the  province  of  Ou-Tong-Kiao, 
in  a  district  10  leagues  long  and  4  wide,  these 
wells  may.be  counted  by  "tens  of  thousands," 
sunk  at  very  remote  periods  for  the  salt  water 
and  bituminous  matters  which  they  emit. 
These  products  are  met  with  at  the  depth  of 
nearly  1,800  ft.,  and  some  of  the  wells  that 
had  lost  them  have  been  carried  down  even  to 
3,000  ft.  .  From  this  enormous  depth  currents 
of  carburetted  hydrogen  come  up  in  such  quan 
tity  that  it  is  used  to  furnish  heat  for  evaporating 
the  salt  water.  (The  gas  from  the  Pennsylva 
nia  oil  wells  is  often  burned  under  the  steam 
boilers.)  Instead  of  using  rods  to  sink  their 
wells,  the  Chinese  suspend  the  cutting  drill, 
which  is  attached  to  a  heavy  metal  rod  6  ft. 
long  and  4  in.  in  diameter,  by  a  rope  or  chain, 
which  passes  over  a  wheel.  Around  the  drill  is 
a  cylindrical  chamber,  which  by  means  of  sim 
ple  valves  takes  up  and  holds  the  broken  frag 
ments.  As  the  rope  is  raised  and  dropped,  it 
gives  by  its  torsion  a  turn  to  the  drill,  causing 
it  to  vary  its  position  at  each  stroke.  When 
the  cylinder  requires  to  be  discharged,  it  is 
easily  wound  out  by  a  windlass  or  horse-whim. 
The  rope  is  protected  from  wear  by  knobs  of 
wood  attached  to  it  at  intervals.  This  principle 
has  been  successfully  applied  in  Germany  to 
sinking  holes  for  ventilating  mines;  with  large 
drills  18  in.  in  diameter  a  hole  of  this  size  has 
been  carried  down  several  hundred  feet. — The 
demand  for  improved  methods  of  sinking  these 
wells  which  the  opening  of  the  Pennsylvania 
oil  region  created,  has  resulted  in  the  intro 
duction  of  many  ingenious  labor-saving  ap 
pliances,  though  the  attention  of  the  oil  men 
has  been  chiefly  directed  toward  the  devising 
of  methods  by  which  the  boring  tools  may  be 
safely  and  quickly  removed  in  case  of  accident. 
A  general  description  of  the  processes  of  1  or- 
ing,  tubing,  and  pumping,  as  practised  in  west 
ern  Pennsylvania,  may  best  serve  to  illustrate 
the  latest  advances  made  in  the  methods  of 
sinking  artesian  wells.  Directly  over  the  site 
of  the  proposed  well  a  wooden  derrick  or 
open  tower  is  erected,  14  to  16  ft.  square  at 
the  base  and  30  to  60  ft.  high,  the  four  corner 
posts  converging  so  as  to  form  a  square  at  the 
top  2£  ft.  in  diameter,  upon  which  rests  a 
heavy  framework  for  the  reception  of  the  pul 
ley  over  which  the  drill  rope  is  to  play.  Near 
tbe  bottom  of  the  derrick,  and  in  ninge  with 
the  band  wheel  from  which  the  power  is 
derived,  is  a  shaft  of  timber  6  or  8  ft.  long,  and 
about  8  in.  in  diameter,  mounted  on  journals, 


778 


ARTESIAN   WELLS 


and  similar  in  character  to  the  common  hoist 
ing  windlass.  Upon  each  end  of  this  shaft  is 
driven  a  large  pulley  called  the  bull  wheel; 
between  these,  upon  the  main  shaft,  the  drill 
rope,  a  cable  of  from  1J  to  If  in.  in  diameter, 
is  coiled,  the  outer  end  passing  from  it  over  the 
pulley  on  the  top  of  the  derrick,  and  attached 
to  the  drilling  tools.  When  these  are  to  be 
lowered  or  withdrawn,  it  is  done  by  means  of 
power  applied  to  the  bull  wheel.  In  localities 
where  the  rock  is  some  distance  below  the 
surface,  it  is  customary  to  drive  down,  by  the 
aid  of  a  suitable  weight  and  guide  way,  a  heavy 


Boring  TooL>. 

ictal  pipe,  called  the  drive  pipe;  this  is  usu- 
illy  of  cast  iron,  from  6  to  8  in.  in  diameter 
and  an  inch  in  thickness ;  it  is  driven  in  sec 
tions  of  10  ft,,  and  great  care  is  needed  that 
it  be  not  bent  or  deflected,  since  it  is  to 
guide  the  drilling  tools.  The  engine  is  so 
placed  that  its  drive  or  balance  wheel  shall  t>e 
from  20  to  25  ft.  from  the  centre  of  the  derrick, 
and  at  one  half  this  distance  is  planted  the 
sampson  post,  a  heavy  hewn  timber  from  12  to 


!  15  in.  square  and  12  ft.  high,  the  top  of  which 
i  is  fitted  to  receive  the  working  beam.  This 
working  or  walking  beam  transmits  and  ap 
plies  the  power  to  the  drills ;  it  is  of  wood  8 
or  10  in.  square,  and  of  such  a  length  that 
I  when  balanced  upon  the  sampson  post  one  end 
j  may  stand  directly  over  and  connect,  by  means 
of  a  connecting  rod,  with  a  crank  attached  to 
|  the  shaft  of  the  drive  wheel ;  by  the  revolu- 
j  tion  of  this  crank,  which  has  a  radius  of  about 
!  20  in.,  a  reciprocating  movement  is  given  to 
!  the  further  end  of  the  working  beam;  on  this 
is  bolted  an  iron  joint,  to  which  may  be  at 
tached  the  temper  screw  when  drilling,  or  the 
sucker  rods  when  pumping.  The  drilling  tools 
consist  of  centre  bits,  reamers,  an  auger  stem, 
jar,  and  sinker  bar,  with  a  socket  for  attach 
ing  this  last  to  the  drill  rope.  The  centre  bit 
is  of  2tj-inch  wrought  iron,  3^  ft.  long,  and 
having  a  wedge-shaped  cutting  edge  of  steel, 
3£  to  4  in.  on  the  face.  The  reamer,  which 
follows  this  and  serves  to  enlarge  and  trim  out 
the  hole,  is  very  similar  in  shape,  though  about 
an  inch  broader  on  the  face,  which  is  also  more 
blunt ;  the  average  weight  of  each  is  about  75 
Ibs.  The  auger  stem,  into  which  bits,  reamers, 
and  dislodging  tools  are  screwed,  is  a  wrought- 
iron  bar  about  20  ft.  long.  The  sinker  bar, 
a  heavy  rod  of  iron  10  ft.  long,  serves  to  in 
crease  the  Jforce  of  the  blow ;  it  is  separated 
from  the  auger  stem  by  an  ingenious  contriv 
ance  called  a  jar,  consisting  of  two  links  or 
loops  of  iron  or  steel,  which  slide  in  upon  each 
other  when  the  drill  strikes  bottom,  thus,  by  a 
quick  blow  upon  the  top  of  the  auger  stem,  in 
creasing  the  effect  of  the  fall ;  and  on  the  up 
ward  movement  the  sudden  jerk  or  jar  serves 
to  loosen  the  tools,  in  case  they  become  wedged. 
When  connected,  these  tools  weigh  from  800 
to  1,600  Ibs.,  as  the  hardness  of  the  rock  re 
quires.  The  drill  rope  is  attached  to  the  work 
ing  beam  by  means  of  a  temper  screw,  sus 
pended  from  it  and  made  fast  to  the  rope  by  a 
screw  clamp.  This  temper  screw  is  about  3  ft. 
long,  and  is  made  with  a  coarse  thread  that 
works  in  a  thin  frame.  At  the  lower  end  of 
this  screw  is  a  wheel,  by  which  it  is  let  down 
after  each  stroke,  whereby  the  tension  is 
regulated  and  the  drill  properly  guided.  The 
tools  are  lifted  and  dropped  by  the  rocking 
motion  of  .the  working  beam,  and  lowered  or 
withdrawn  by  aid  of  the  bull  wheel  and  shaft. 
The  sediment  and  battered  rock  is  removed  by 
means  of  a  sand  pump,  which  is  a  heavy  metal 
tube,  slightly  smaller  than  the  well  bore,  and 
about  6  ft,  long,  with  the  lower  end  closed  by 
a  simple  valve  opening  upward ;  this  is  lowered 
and  withdrawn  by  the  drill  rope,  and  the  well- 
man  by  an  examination  of  its  contents  is  in 
formed  of  the  progress  and  prospects  of  his 
work.  The  pump  is  used  after  each  drilling 
of  6  to  1 2  in.  The  tubing  of  a  well  consists  in 
driving  down  a  heavy  iron  pipe  in  sections,  the 
joints  of  which  are  flush  both  inside  and  out. 
At  the  lower  end  of  the  first  section  driven 
down  is  a  simple  ball- valve  pump,  the  piston 


ARTESIAN   WELLS 


779 


of  which  is  connected  with  the  working  beam 
by  jointed  poles  or  metal  rods.  When  it  is 
desirable  to  exclude  all  water  from  above  a 
given  point,  it  is  effected  by  binding  around 
the  tubing  a  leather  bag  of  flax  seed  before 


Boring  Tools  in  Operation — Pennsylvania  Oil  Region. 

driving  it  down;  the  swelling  of  this  closes 
the  space  between  the  main  wall  and  the  tube. 
The  steam  engines  in  use  in  western  Pennsyl 
vania  range  from  6  to  20  horse  power,  one  of  8 
horse  power  being  sufficient  to  bore  a  well  000 
ft.  deep.  Artesian  wells  have  been  sunk,  though 
very  slowly,  by  the 
aid  of  two  men 
and  an  old-fashioned 
spring  pole. — Among 
the  accidents  liable 
to  occur  in  the  bor 
ing  of  artesian  wells, 
are  the  breaking  of 
the  drills,  or  their 
detachment  from  the 
auger  stem,  and  the 
loss  of  the  sand  pump 
or  the  whole  boring 
gear  by  the  wearing 
away  of  the  drill  rope. 
At  times  the  drill  enters  what  is  known  as  a  mud 
vein,  a  thin  stratum  of  mud  or  ,  uicksand,  which 
often  flows  in  so  rapidly  as  to  enclose  and  bury 
the  drilling  tools.  There  are  many  ingenious 
contrivances  for  the  removal  of  these  obstruc 
tions,  and  the  forms  of  several  of  the  less  com 
plex  are  shown  in  the  cut.  Fig.  1  is  designed 
chiefly  for  removing  detached  or  broken  pipe 


Simplest  Boring  Apparatus. 


u 

\ 


j  or  rods.      It  is  lowered  down  the  well  bore 

until  the  rod  passes  up  above  the  ends  of  the 

two  arms,  when  by  an  upward  movement  the  two 

catches,  being  pressed 

forward    by    springs. 

take  hold  of  the  rod 

and  grasp  it  the  more 

firmly  the  greater  the 

resistance.     Fig.  2  is  ^ 

of  service   mainly  in 

removing  a  detached 

drill   or  reamer;    the 

shorter  arm  acts  as  a 

guide,  while  the  hook 

at  the  end  of  the  largei 

one  passes  below  anc. 

takes  hold  of  the  low 
er  edge  of  the  drill. 

Figs.  3  and  5  are  alsc 

designed  for  removing 

broken  rods.  In  3  the 
j  rod  passes  through  the 

metal  cylinder,  and  is 
|  prevented  from  fall- 
1  ing  back  bv  the  drop-  Tools  for  t*t™cting  Obstruc- 

?  -i          -i    "  -p,.  tions. 

I  catch  and  spring.  I  ig. 

5  consists  of  an  angular  claw  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  rod    by  which   it   is  lowered ; 
this  is  twisted  under  the  shoulder  of  the  rod, 
thus  securing  it  as  in   a  wrench.      Fig.  4  is 
the   ordinary  lazy  tongs,  and  is  of  very  gen^ 
eral   service,  as  its  construction  indicates. — 
In   addition  to   the   contrivances  above  men 
tioned,  the  French  engineers  have  introduced 
certain    improved    drills,    pumps,    &c.      The 
drill  invented  by  M.  Goulet-Collet  consists  of 
I  a  cylinder  of  sheet  iron  6  ft.  long,  suspended 
;  by  a  chain,  and  armed  at  its  lower  end  with  an 
j  annular  cutting   head  of  steel,  in   which  two 
I  knives  or  chisels  are  inserted  at  right  angles 
across  the  opening.     These  chisels  serve  to  ci  t 
the  rock,  which  when  finally  divided  rises  with 
the  water  through  the  openings ;    these  may 
be  provided  with  valves,  the  instrument  thus 
serving     the    double    purpose    of    drill    and 
|  pump.     The   method  of  Ix.ring  by  means  of 
|  the  diamond  drill  is  essentially  different  from 
|  that  described  above.     (See  BOEIXG.)    When 
I  a  well  fails  to  yield  a  fair  amount  of  oil  or 
|  water,  an  increase  in  the  flow  is  often  effected 
|  by  means  of  the  Roberts  torpedo.     This  is  a 
j  thin  water-tight  cylinder  of  metal  or  pper,  4 
|  to    6   ft.    long    and   2    or   3   in.  in   diameter, 
!  charged    witli    powder,    guncotton,    or    nitro 
glycerine.     It  is  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the 
|  well,  or  to  a  depth  that  will  bring  it  opposite 
I  the  desired  stratum,  and  the  well  then  flooded. 
|  The  charge  is  exploded  by  a  cap  or  electric 
spark,  and  the  explosion  olten  clears  away  the 
obstruction  from  the  oil  or  water  vein.     Wells 
|  yielding  only  5  bbls.  of  oil  per  day  have  been 
|  increased  by  this  means  to  75  or  100  bbls. — - 
i  Negative  artesian  wells  are  those  which  serve 
to  convey  away  surface  waters  into  some  ab- 
|  sorbing  stratum.     They  are  of  service  about 
j  manufactories  from  which  large  quantities  of 


V80 


AftTEVELDE 


ARTHRITIS 


impure  liquids  are  discharged,  the  flow  of 
which  upon  the  surface  would  prove  a  nuisance. 
ARTEVELDE.  I.  Jacob  van,  a  citizen  and  pop 
ular  leader  of  Ghent,  and  for  a  time  almost  ruler 
of  Flanders,  born  about  1300,  killed  in  a  popu 
lar  insurrection,  July  17,  1345.  He  was  of 
noble  family,  but  caused  himself  to  be  enrolled 
in  the  guild  of  brewers  as  a  means  of  gaining 
the  favor  of  the  people.  By  the  generous  use 
of  his  great  wealth,  and  by  his  sympathy  with 
the  popular  cause,  he  si>on  acquired  a  wide 
influence,  was  chosen  leader  of  many  other 
guilds  besides  his  own,  and  won  the  univer 
sal  confidence  of  the  people.  War  Was  at 
this  time  raging  between  England  and  France. 
Count  Louis  I.  of  Flanders  and  nearly  all 
the  Flemish  nobility  were  openly  on  the  side 
of  the  latter,  while  the  sympathies  of  the 
people  of  Ghent  and  the  great  Flemish  com 
mercial  cities  were  entirely  with  the  English. 
Count  Louis  had  made  himself  most  unpopu 
lar  with  his  subjects  by  his  tyrannous  acts, 
while  Artevelde  had  attained  such  power  that 
he  acted  with  entire  independence  of  his  sove 
reign.  Thus,  when  a  crisis  was  brought  about 
by  a  message  from  Edward  III.  of  England  to 
the  Flemings,  asking  their  alliance,  Artevelde 
took  it  upon  himself  to  make  a  treaty  with 
him,  in  which  he  was  sustained  by  the  citizens 
of  Ghent.  Aided  by  the  English,  the  popular 
leader  forced  Bruges  and  Ypres  to  join  in  his 
treaty  with  Edward,  compelled  the  count  to 
retire  into  France,  and  was  himself  proclaimed 
leader  or  governor  (ruwaert).  He  now  as 
sumed  complete  control  of  Flanders,  removed 
the  officials  appointed  by  Count  Louis,  and 
when  in  1338  the  latter  returned  to  Ghent 
to  seek  a  reconciliation '  with  the  citizens,  he 
made  him  prisoner,  and  forced  him  (Decem 
ber,  1339)  to  agree  to  the  English  alliance. 
Soon  afterward  Count  Louis  again  returned  to 
France.  Artevelde  retained  almost  absolute 
power  in  Flanders  for  nine  years,  until,  by  an 
injudicious  project  for  proclaiming  the  prince 
of  Wales  (the  Black  Prince)  governor  of  the 
country,  he  lost  the  popular  confidence.  Feuds 
followed  between  the  different  guilds,  which 
he  no  longer  controlled ;  the  chief  of  the  weav 
ers,  Gerard  Denys,  aspired  to  be  his  rival; 
and  finally  a  battle  was  fought  in  the  market 
place,  between  the  weavers  and  other  guilds,  in 
which  the  former  were  victorious.  Artevelde 
now  thought  himself  in  danger,  and  introduced 
a  body  of  English  troops  into  his  house  ;  this 
enraged  the  people,  who  rose  against  him  and 
killed  him  in  his  own  dwelling.  II.  Philip  van, 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  like  him  a  popular 
leader  and  governor,  born  about  1340,  died  in 
battle,  Nov.  27,  1382.  During  his  youth  he 
took  no  part  in  public  affairs ;  but  when  the  ! 
citizens  of  Ghent  revolted  against  Louis  II.,  j 
the  son  and  successor  of  his  father's  enemy,  his  | 
name  and  associations  brought  him  into  imme-  j 
diate  prominence,  and  he  was  chosen  ruwaert  ! 
in  1381.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  bring  to  I 
execution  twelve  of  those  who  had  assisted  in  i 


the  murder  of  his  father.  Count  Louis  had  in 
the  mean  time  succeeded  in  so  completely 
cutting  off  supplies  from  Ghent  that  he  had 
reduced  the  city  to  great  want.  But  the  cit 
izens  endured  the  suffering  bravely,  two  who 
proposed  surrender  being  put  to  death,  and 
Artevelde  resolved  upon  a  sally  against  the 
count,  who  had  his  headquarters  at  Bruges. 
With  6,000  troops  he  encountered  Louis  near 
that  city,  defeated  him  with  great  slaughter, 
and  took  and  plundered  the  city ;  upon  this  vic 
tory,  the  other  Flemish  towns,  except  Oude- 
narde,  which  he  unsuccessfully  besieged,  sub 
mitted.  The  French  king,  Charles  VI.,  now 
sent  an  army  to  the  assistance  of  Count  Louis. 
It  entered  Flanders  in  November,  1382,  and  on 
the  27th  met  and  routed  the  troops  of  Arte 
velde,  killing  an  immense  number.  Artevelde's 
body  was  found  among  the  dead,  and  hung  by 
the  victors  to  a  tr^e. 

ARTHRITIS  (Gr.  apOpin^  belonging  to  the 
joints,  from  apOpov,  a  joint),  inflammation  of  the 
joints,  of  which  there  are  three  kinds,  trau 
matic  arthritis,  rheumatic  arthritis,  and  gouty 
inflammation  of  the  joints.  For  the  two  lat 
ter  varieties,  see  GOUT,  and  RHEUMATISM. 
Traumatic  arthritis  is  a  frequent  complication 
arising  from  wounds  or  bruises,  contusions, 
and  surgical  operations  in  or  near  the  articu 
lations.  Acute  inflammation  of  the  articula 
tion  sometimes  occurs  also,  without  external 
cause,  from  the  absorption  of  pus  or  morbid 
matter  within  the  system.  Women  suffering 
from  recent  childbirth,  or  persons  afflicted  with 
phlebitis,  blennorrhagia,  or  purulent  infection, 
are  liable  to  suffer  from  arthritis.  Blows,  falls, 
sprains,  violent  distortion  of  a  joint,  fractures, 
and  wounds  made  by  sharp  instruments,  may 
all  produce  acute  inflammation  of  the  joints. 
All  the  parts  of  the  joint  may  be  involved,  or 
some  of  the  external  or  internal  tissues  only ; 
for  the  intensity  of  the  inflammation  is  much 
greater  when  the  capsule  of  the  joint  is  lace 
rated  and  admits  the  air.  During  the  first  day 
or  two  the  case  may  seem  very  simple  and  with 
out  danger  to  the  patient;  but  often  on  the 
third  or  the  fourth  day,  or  even  later,  the 
symptoms  become  more  severe,  and  the  pain 
excessive.  Traumatic  arthritis  is  sometimes  so 
severe  as  to  derange  the  general  health  pro 
foundly,  causing  delirium  and  convulsions ;  the 
skin  is  burning  hot,  the  tongue  is  red,  bile  is 
vomited,  and  the  patient  suffers  much  from 
bodily  pain  and  mental  anxiety.  Suppuration 
is  the  usual  termination  of  this  kind  of  inflam 
mation.  When  traumatic  arthritis  is  superfi 
cial,  it  is  easily  cured ;  but  when  deeply  seated 
and  admitting  air  into  the  joint,  it  is  a  seri 
ous  disease.  The  proper  treatment  consists  of 
cloths  and  compresses  steeped  in  cold  water, 
and  placed  around  the  inflamed  parts ;  rest  for 
the  whole  body,  and  particularly  for  the  im 
plicated  limb  ;  cooling  diet,  with  appropriate 
sedatives  and  other  medicines.  Cupping  and 
leeching  are  sometimes  useful ;  and  where  sup 
puration  has  commenced,  it  is  commonly  more 


ARTHUR 


ARTICHOKE 


781 


prudent  to  allow  it  to  form  its  own  opening  for 
evacuation. 

ARTHl'R,  a  hero  of  British  mythology,  be 
lieved  by  many  to  have  been  identical  with  an 
actual  sovereign  in  England  in  the  6th  century.  ! 
Nennius,  the  most  ancient  Cymric  poetry,  the  j 
Triads,  and  the  Welsh  bards  Lly  warchf  Hen,  and  j 
Taliesin,  mention  Arthur,  a  chief  of  the  Brit-  j 
ons,  fighting  against  the  Saxons  under  Cerdic.  ! 
Based  upon  their  statements,  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  prove  the  actual  existence 
of  a  great  sovereign  corresponding  with  the 
Arthur  of  romance.  It  seems  probable  that  a 
prince  called  Arthur  ruled  in  Britain  about 
525,  fought  many  battles  with  the  Saxons,  was 
killed  by  his  nephew,  and  buried  at  Glas- 
tonbury,  where  his  tomb  is  said  to  have  been 
found  iii  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  But  late  au 
thorities  (among  them  George  W.  Cox,  who 
makes  a  searching  inquiry  into  the  story)  may 
be  said  to  have  proved  that  the  Arthur  of  ro 
mance  is  a  purely  mythical  personage.  Mr. 
Cox  points  out  the  resemblance  between  the 
legends  of  Arthur  and  the  myths  of  other 
ancient  nations,  and  by  the  aid  of  etymology 
shows  that  many  of  these  were  merely  al 
legories  derived  from  natural  phenomena. — 
The  Arthur  of  the  famous  legend  was  the  son 
of  Uther  Pendragon  and  Igerne  of  Cornwall, 
whom  Uther,  by  the  enchantments  of  the  sage  j 
Merlin,  was  enabled  to  visit  in  the  guise  of  her  j 
husband  Gorlois.  His  high  descent  was  con-  I 
cealed,  and  he  was  brought  up  by  a  faithful  j 
knight,  who  treated  him  as  his  own  son  until  j 
after  the  death  of  Uther,  when  Arthur,  going  j 
with  his  foster  brother  to  London,  gave  evi 
dence  there  of  his  royal  birth  by  drawing  from 
the  stone  in  which  it  was  imbedded  a  sword 
with  this  inscription:  "Whoso  pulleth  this 
sword  out  of  this  stone  ...  is  rightwise  born 
•king  of  all  England."  He  was  crowned,  and 
after  reigning  for  several  years  he  married  Gui 
nevere,  "the  fairest  woman  in  the  land."  With 
her,  as  a  part  of  her  dower,  he  acquired  the 
enchanted  round  table  which  had  once  be 
longed  to  his  father  Uther.  About  this  he 
formed  the  famous  circle  of  knights  of  the 
round  table,  and  with  these  began  the  brilliant 
court,  the  wonderful  series  of  exploits  at  home 
and  abroad,  and  the  countless  adventures  of 
various  heroes,  celebrated  in  the  legends  pre 
served  in  the  Chronicles  of  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth  and  elsewhere.  The  story  of  Arthur 
ends  with  the  wound  given  him  by  his  false 
nephew  Modred,  at  a  battle  near  Salisbury ; 
after  which  the  king  was  borne  away  by  the 
fairies  to  be  cured  by  them  in  the  valley  of  Av 
al  on,  whence,  said  the  legend,  he  should  some 
time  come  again  to  lead  the  British  Celts 
against  the  Saxons. — The  legends  of  Arthur 
and  his  knights  have  been  the  subject  of  num 
berless  poems  in  almost  every  modern  lan 
guage.  Tennyson,  more  than  all  others,  has 
added  by  his  "Idyls  of  the  King,"  "Morte 
d' Arthur,"  and  other  poems,  to  the  beauty  of  the 
legends  as  we  know  them.  For  discussions  as 


to  the  actual  existence  of  Arthur,  see,  for  sup 
port  of  the  theory,  "  England  under  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Kings,"  translated  from  the  German  of 
Dr.  J.  M.  Lappenberg  by  B.  Thorpe  (London, 
new  ed.,  1857)  ;  for  the  opposite  view,  the  in 
troduction  to  Cox's  "  Popular  Romances  of  the 
Middle  Ages"  (London,  1871);  for  history  of 
the  old  romances  treating  of  Arthur,  the  ap 
pendix  to  the  "  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons," 
by  Sharon  Turner  (London,  7th  ed.,  1852);  for 
a  good  rendering  of  the  legends  themselves,  the 
work  of  Cox,  just  cited. 

ARTHUR,  Timothy  Shay,  an  American  author, 
born  near  Newburgh,  Orange  county,  N.  Y., 
in  1809.  He  was  about  eight  years  old  when 
his  parents  removed  to  Baltimore.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  a  trade,  was  for  several  years  a 
clerk,  and  in  1833  visited  the  west  as  agent  of 
a  banking  company.  Upon  his  return  to  Balti 
more  he  became  connected  with  a  newspaper, 
and  began  to  publish  a  series  of  short  novels. 
Since  1841  he  has  resided  in  Philadelphia, 
and  for  many  years  edited  and  published  a 
weekly  journal  and  a  monthly  magazine.  His 
productions  are  numerous,  consisting  chiefly  cf 
works  of  fiction  of  a  domestic  character,  writ 
ten  with  a  moral  aim,  several  of  them  relating 
especially  to  the  subject  of  temperance. 

ARTHUR,  William,  an  Irish  Wesleyan  clergy 
man  and  author,  born  in  the  county  of  Antrim 
in  1819.  After  a  thorough  classical  training 
and  special  studies  in  Italian  literature,  he  en 
tered  the  Wesleyan  theological  institution  near 
London,  and  upon  graduating  was  appointed 
missionary  to  India ;  but  after  three  years  of 
successful  labor,  being  threatened  with  total 
blindness,  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  England. 
Subsequently  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  missionary  society  of  the  Wesleyan  church, 
and  soon  afterward  was  elected  president  cf 
the  British  conference.  In  1867  he  was  chosen 
principal  of  the  Wesleyan  college,  Belfast,  Ire 
land.  In  1870  he  was  recalled  to  England,  and 
made  honorary  secretary  of  the  missionary  soci 
ety  of  the  Wesleyan  church.  Apart  from  many 
valuable  contributions  to  educational  and  mis 
sionary  literature,  Mr.  Arthur  is  best  known 
by  the  following  works:  "Personal  Reminis 
cences  of  a  Mission  to  the  Mysore,"  "The 
Successful  Merchant — a  Memoir,"  "  The  Tongue 
of  Eire,"  and  "State  in  Transition." 

ARTICHOKE,  an  edible  plant  of  the  genus 
cynara,  order  composite?,  resembling  a  large 
thistle,  known  in  the  south  of  Europe  as  early 
as  1548.  C.  scolymus  and  its  variety  C.  her- 
tensis  are  the  green  and  globe  artichokes  of  the 
garden.  The  portion  eaten  is  the  under  side 
of  the  head  before  the  flower  opens.  The 
whole  head  is  removed  and  boiled,  the  leaves 
laid  aside,  and  the  bottom  eaten,  dipped  in  but 
ter  with  a  little  pepper  and  salt.  A  sauce 
made  of  butter  and  spices  is  frequently  used. 
The  French  sometimes  gather  the  heads  when 
not  larger  round  than  a  dollar,  and  eat  the 
lower  end  of  the  leaves  raw,  dipping  them  in 
oil,  pepper,  and  vinegar.  The  globe  variety  is 


ARTICHOKE 


ARTICULATA 


generally  preferred  by  gardeners.  Artichoke 
seed  should  be  sown  in  a  gentle  hot-bed  or 
warm  open  border  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
frost  will  permit.  The  plants  should  be  set 
four  feet  apart  each 
way,  in  a  stony 
soil,  well  prepared. 
They  will  bear  heads 
the  succeeding  year. 
Some  gardeners 
place  six  plants  in  a 
hill,  making  the  hills 
six  feet  apart.  Ar 
tichokes  may  be 
raised  from  sets  or 
shoots,  which  should 
be  removed  and 
carefully  transplant 
ed.  As  often  as 
heads  are  removed 
from  a  plant,  it 
should  be  broken 
down  to  encourage 
the  growth  of  new 
.shoots.  In  autumn 
all  plants  should  re 
ceive  a  good  supply 
of  earth  or  litter.  Stable  dung  is  too  heating, 
and  should  never  be  employed.  In  the  spring 
remove  the  autumn  covering  and  take  away  all 
offsets  except  two  or  three  of  the  best.  During 
the  first  season  the  young  plants  of  the  previous 
year  will  produce  heads  from  June  to  October. 
In  succeeding  years  they  will  give  heads  from 
May  to  June  or  July.  To  have  them  the  whole 
season,  an  annual  plantation  must  be  made. 
The  flowers  of  the  artichoke  have  the  property 
of  rennet  in  curdling  milk.  The  French  use 
the  heads  of  the  second  crop  of  artichokes 
when  dried,  baked  in  meat  pies  with  mush 
rooms.  Artichoke  heads  are  sometimes  made 
to  grow  larger  by  tying  a  ligature  tightly  around 
the  stem  three  inches  below  each. — The  JEKU- 
SALEM  ARTICHOKE  (helianthus  tuberosm,  order 
compositcB)  is  not  a  true  artichoke,  but  the  root 


Globe  Artichoke. 


Tuber  of  Jerusalem  Artichoke. 

of  a  species  of  sunflower.  In  Italian  it  is  named 
girasole,  or  sunflower,  which  in  English  is  cor 
rupted  into  Jerusalem.  In  America  it  is  some 
times  called  Canada  potato  or  Virginia  potato. 
It  was  well  known  in  England  as  an  edible  root 
about  the  year  1620,  having  been  brought  from 


Brazil.  The  tubers  are  good  for  swine  and 
cattle.  They  are  capable  of  resisting  the  se 
verest  degree  of  cold  when  left  in  the  soil  the 
whole  winter  ;  being  lifted  in  spring,  they  form 
excellent  food  for  stock.  The  Jerusalem  arti 
choke  may  be  raised  in  all  classes  of  soil,  and 
when  grown  in  light  sands  and  gravels,  swine 
are  allowed  to  dig  the  tubers  for  themselves. 
It  is  difficult  to  eradicate  this  plant  from  the 
soil,  and  it  is  seldom  entirely  removed  where 
once  rooted  in  a  rich  soil.  The  tops  cured  in 
autumn  form  an  excellent  hay,  yielding  five  or 
six  tons  per  acre.  Sandy  soil  of  fair  quality  is 
said  to  yield  from  1,200  to  1,500  bushels  per 
acre.  They  are  not  quite  as  nutritious  as  the 
potato,  containing  72*2  percent,  of  water,  being 
about  4  per  cent,  more  than  is  contained  in  the 
potato.  Cordage  is  sometimes  made  out  of  the 
tops,  and  in  the  south  of  Europe  a  kind  of 
coarse  cloth  is  manufactured  from  them. 

ARTICULATA,  the  third  great  division  of  the 
animal  kingdom  in  the  classification  of  Cuvier, 
and  by  him  subdivided  into  four  classes.  Other 
naturalists  have  added  four  more,  making  the 
following  eight  classes,  of  which  the  first  four 
are  those  of  Cuvier  : 

1.  Annelida,  as  leeches,  earthworms.  &c. 

2.  Crustacea,  as  crabs,  lobsters,  prawn,  shrimps,  &c. 

3.  Arachnida,  as  spiders,  scorpions,  mites,  &c. 

4.  Insecta,  as  beetles,  flies,  butterflies.  &c. 

5.  Myriopoda.  as  centipedes. 

6.  Cirrhopoda,  as  barnacles  and  sea  acorns. 

7.  Eotifora.  wheel-shaped  animalcules,  aquatic. 

8.  Entozoa— lowest  of  the  worms — parasites  upon  or  with 
in  other  animals. 

Each  of  these  classes  will  be  found  treated  un 
der  its  own  name.  The  articulata  may  properly 
be  ranked,  upon  the  whole,  as  higher  ill  the 
animal  scale  than  the  mollusca,  although,  as  in 
this  division,  some  species  may  be  found  less 
highly  organized  than  are  some  of  the  radiata, 
the  fourth  division  of  the  series ;  for  the  ar 
ticulata  possess  a  high  development  of  the  loco 
motive  organs,  in  which  the  mollusca  are  par 
ticularly  deficient.  The  nervous  system  also 
is  so  organized  that  it  presents  a  sufficient 
characteristic  for  designating  the  group ;  and 
the  name  Jiomogangliata  has  been  proposed  by 
Prof.  Owen  as  a  substitute  for  that  of  articu 
lata,  this  having  reference  only  to  the  external 
conformation  of  the  body  in  transverse  rings, 
which  may  be  of  the  soft  skin  or  integument, 
or  else  serve,  in  the  form  of  a  hard  shell,  as  an 
external  skeleton,  to  which  the  muscles  are  at 
tached.  This  arrangement  of  the  nerves  is  a 
chain  of 'knots  or  ganglia,  symmetrically  dis 
posed  upon  a  double  cord,  which  passes  through 
the  ventral  region  of  the  body,  and  from  each 
ganglion  nervous  filaments  pass  off  to  the  dif 
ferent  segments  of  the  body.  A  nervous  ring 
from  the  anterior  pair  of  ganglia  encircles  the 
oesophagus.  Filaments  connect  this  with  the 
organs  of  the  senses,  and  the  oesophageal 
ganglia  have  hence  been  regarded  as  analogous 
to  the  brain  in  the  higher  orders.  They  are 
more  and  more  concentrated  as  the  animal  oc 
cupies  a  more  elevated  position  in  the  division, 
the  members  of  the  body  being  at  the  same 


ARTICULATION 


783 


time  brought  into  closer  connection.  The  sym 
metrical  arrangement  of  the  nerves  suggests 
that  of  the  members  also ;  and  the  limbs  are 
found  arranged  in  pairs,  in  the  centipedes  each 
pair  proceeding  from  one  of  the  articulations 
of  the  body.  In  the  higher  classes,  as  the  crus- 
tacea,  the  same  symmetry  of  pairs  of  limbs  is 
perceived,  and  the  connection  of  each  pair 
with  a  segment  of  the  body,  eveii  when  the 
thorax,  or  body,  needing  no  tiexibility  for  loco 
motive  purposes,  has  its  rings  very  obscurely 
detined:  The  lower  groups  contain  the  greater 
number  of  articulations  or  rings,  and  these  are 
usually  soft,  upon  an  elongated  body,  furnished 
in  most  cases  with  no  true  limbs.  Progressive 
motion  is  obtained  by  the  bending  of  the  flex 
ible  body  in  one  and  another  direction,  the 
muscles  which  effect  this  occupying  a  large 
portion  of  the  body  which  in  other  animals  is 
usually  devoted  more  to  the  organs  of  nutrition 
and  digestion.  These  in  the  articulate,  are  not 
so  elaborate  as  in  the  mollusca.  The  organs 
for  respiration  are  much  more  highly  organized, 
particularly  in  the  insecta.  In  the  air-breath 
ing  species  the  blood  is  aerated  by  being  ex 
posed  to  the  action  of  the  air  introduced  within 
the  body,  the  fluid  being  distributed  in  cavities 
or  tubes  permeable  to  the  air;  the  former  ap 
pear  to  be  analogous  to  lungs.  In  the  articu- 
lata  is  found  the  greatest  diversity  of  forms  and 
habits  of  life.  The  largest  animals  of  the  divi 
sion  are  the  lobsters  and  crabs  of  the  Crustacea ; 
the  rest  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  small  size, 
many  of  them  so  minute  as  to  pass  unnoticed 
in  the  watery  elements  in  which  they  abound. 
ARTICULATION,  a  term  in  anatomy,  denoting 
the  various  modes  of  union  between  the 


bones  of  the  skeleton. 


1-.- 


Fro.  1.—  Elbow  joint,  show 
ing  the  hinge-like  articu 
lation  of  the  huincrus  with 
the  ulna. 

1.  Lower  extremity  of  the 
humerus,  or  bone  of  the 


We  may  class  articu 
lations  under  three  gen 
eral  heads,  viz.,  mov 
able  joints,  immovable 
joints,  and  joints  of 
a  mixed  order,  being 
somewhat  movable, 
without  much  relative 
displacement  of  the 
contiguous  surfaces. 
Movable  joints  are  the 
most  complex  and  va 
rious  in  structure ;  im 
movable,  the  most  sim 
ple.  Movable  joints  are 
common  in  the  limbs, 
and  the  articulation  of 
the  lower  jaw  with  the 
skull;  immovable  joints 
are  common  in  the  head 
and  face  and  lower  por 
tion  of  the  trunk;  mixed 
forms  of  articulation 


upper  arm. 

2,  s.  Upper  extremity  of  the  are  common  in  the  spi- 


ulna,  or  bone  of  the  fore 
arm. 


nal  column  and  the 
upper  portions  of  the 
trunk.  The  hinge  joints  of  the  elbows  and  the 
knees,  allowing  free  movements  in  one  plane 
only,  form  one  order  of  the  movable  class ;  the 


'  ball-and-socket  joints  of  the  hip  and  shoulder, 
allowing  free  movements  in  a  circular  direc 
tion,  form  a  second  order  of  the  movable  class ; 
I  and  different  combinations  of  these  two  orders, 
j  as  seen  in  the  articulations  of  the  lower  jaw 
I  with  the  skull,  of  the  hands  and  feet  with  the 
•  arms  and  legs  at  the  wrists  and  the  ankles,  and 
i  also  of  the  bones  of  the  hands  and  fingers,  feet, 
j  and  toes,  form  a  third  order  of  the  movable 
i  class.  The  elbow  joint,  in  fact,  is  of  a  com- 
|  pound  order,  being  of  the  hinge-joint  form 
i  with  reference  to  the  cubital  movement  of 
;  the  forearm  on  the  arm,  and  of  the  ball- 
j  and-socket  form  with  reference  to  the  radial 
I  movement  of  the  forearm  on  the  arm,  in  what 
are  termed  the  supination  and  pronation  of  the 
hand  and  arm. — The  class  of  immovable  joints 
may  also  be  subdivided  into  different  orders  and 
varieties.  In  the  sacrum  and  the  pelvis  many 
bones  which-  are  distinct  at  first  literally  grow 
together  in  some  subjects,  so  as  to  efface  all 
trace  of  original  separation,  while  in  others 
traces  remain  visible  of  former  separation. 
In  the  cranium  and  the  face  there  are  numer 
ous  modes  of  junction  between  bones  connect 
ed  by  immovable  articulation.  The  most  prom 
inent  order  of  this  class  in  the  cranium  is  the 
serrated  suture,  the  firmness  of  the  union  being 
increased  by  alternate  notches  or  indentations 
and  projections  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw  formed 
on  the  edges  of  the  bones,  the  teeth  of  the  one 
being  adapted  to  the  indentations  of  the  other. 
In  this  manner  the  bones  of  the  skull  unite  at 
the  top  of  the  head  and  in  the  centre  of  the 
forehead.  In  other  cases  bevelled  edges  over 
lap  each  other,  and  in  this  manner  the  tempo 
ral  bones  are  joined  to  the  parietal  bones  of 
the  skull.  Another  form  of  fixed  articulation 
is  the  ridge-and-groove,  a  ridge  being  formed 
on  the  edge  of  one  bone  and  a  grooved  fissure 
in  another  to  receive  it.  By  this  means  the 
bony  part  of  the  septum  of  the  nose  is  inserted 
into  the  floor  of  the  nasal  cavity  to  divide  the 
nostrils,  and  thus  form  a  double  cavity  by 
means  of  a  partition  wall. — The  mixed  class  of 
articulations  contains  many  varieties  of  adapta 
tion.  The  mode  in  which  ribs  are  attached  to 
the  spinal  column  behind  and  to  the  sternum 
in  front  forms  one  simple  order  of  the  mixed 
class;  the  mode  in  which  th«  vertebra  are 
connected  with  each  other  in  the  spinal  col 
umn,  another,  more  complex  ;  and  the  mode  in 
which  the  slightly  yielding  portions  of  the  pel 
vic  articulations  are  connected,  a  third  and 
simple  order  of  this  class. — The  movable  artic 
ulations,  being  the  most  complex  in  form  and 
structure,  will  give  the  best  idea  of  the  various 
elements  of  an  articulation ;  and  the  ball-and- 
socket  joint,  being  the  most  simple  of  this  kind, 
will  serve  the  purpose  of  a  simple  illustration. 
In  the  hip  joint  we  have  a  kind  of  ball,  or 
rounded  surface,  at  the  head  of  the  thigh  bone, 
which  hemispherical  surface  is  capped  with  a 
thin  layer  of  cartilage,  somewhat  elastic  in 
structure,  and  exceedingly  smooth  on  its  exter 
nal  surface.  In  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  a  socket 


'Si: 


ARTICULATION 


ARTILLERY 


is  formed,  called  the  acetabulum,  exactly  shaped 
for  the  reception  of  this  hemispherical  head 
of  the  thigh  bone,  and  this  socket  is  lined  with 
a  thin  layer  of  dense,  elastic,  and  polished  car- 


FIG.  2.—  A  section  of  the  hip  joint  taken  through  the  acetabu 
lum  and  the  middle  of  the  head  and  neck  of  the  thigh  bone. 
—  L.  T.  Ligamentuin  teres,  or  round  ligament. 

tilage,  so  that  in  the  joint  two  polished  surfaces 
meet  together  and  allow  free  movement,  with 
the  least  possible  amount  of  friction  ;  but  to 
lessen  the  eflfect  of  friction,  and  facilitate  the 
movements  of  these  surfaces  one  upon  the 
other,  a  delicate  membrane  surrounds  the  ex 
ternal  borders  of  the  articular  cartilages,  and 
secretes  a  viscid  fluid  which  lubricates  the  sur 
faces,  preventing  actual  contact  and  destruc 
tive  friction  of  the  cartilaginous  tissues.  This 
lubricating  fluid  is  technically  called  synovia, 
and  the  secreting  membrane  the  synovial  sac 
or  synovial  membrane.  To  prevent  the  dislo 
cation  of  the  joint,  a  strong  rope  of  fibrous  tis 
sue,  very  similar  in  structure  to  that  part  of  an 
oyster  which  cannot  easily  be  removed  from 
the  shell,  connects  the  top  of  the  ball  with  the 
bottom  of  the  socket,  in  a  somewhat  loose  but 
very  strongly  attached  manner.  This  is  termed 
the  round  ligament  ;  it  is  very  short  and  very 
strong.  The  outer  surfaces 
of  the  ball  and  socket  (not 
in  the  socket,  but  outside) 
are  connected  by  means  of 
a  strong  ligamentous  band 
of  fibrous  tissue,  loosely 
connecting  the  head  of  the 
thigh  bone  with  the  pelvic 
bones,  on  the  outer  rim  of 
the  socket,  but  strongly  at 
tached  to  the  bones  them 
selves,  which  it  binds  to 
gether  firmly,  while  per- 
Fio.  3.—  Diagram  of  a  mitting  a  considerable  free- 
longitudinal  section  of  (]om  of  motion  or  rotation 
an  articulation.  A. 
Bones.  B.  Articular 


cartilage,   c.  Perioste- 


,->         .    .  T  , 

m     the    joint.        In     Other 

joints  of  the  movable  class 
1  Syn°Vial  the  outer  ligaments  are  not 
always  continuous  and  cir 
cular  bands  as  in  this  case,  but  take  the  form  of 
distinct  fibrous  ropes,  strongly  attached  to  the 


bones,  and  forming  strong,  flexible  bands,  as 
strips  of  leather  nailed  to  the  body  and  the  lid 
of  a  box  serve  as  ligaments  where  there  are 
no  hinges.  Thin,  dense,  elastic  layers  of  carti 
lage  cap  the  articular  edges  and  surfaces  of 
bones  in  the  great  majority  of  joints ;  strong, 
fibrous,  and  flexible  ligaments  connect  the 
bones  externally ;  and,  where  the  joints  are 
very  movable,  synovial  membranes  surround 
the  articulating  surfaces,  and  the  synovia  which 
they  secrete  lubricates  the  surfaces  exposed  to 
contact,  friction,  and  mobility. 

ARTIGAS,  Jose,  a  South  American  general, 
born  at  Montevideo,  in  Uruguay,  in  1755,  died 
in  Paraguay  in  1851  (not,  as  often  stated,  about 
1826).  The  son  of  a  wealthy  landed  proprietor, 
he  led  for  a  time  an  adventurous  life  as  a  gau- 
cho,  and  then  served  as  captain  in  the  light  cav 
alry  of  the  provinces,  but  on  account  of  some 
difficulty  with  the  governor  passed  in  1811 
into  the  service  of  the  junta  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  then  in  insurrection  against  Spain.  At 
I  the  head  of  a  band  of  gauchos,  he  defeated 
the  Spaniards  in  several  encounters,  and  vigor 
ously  supported  the  republican  army  which  be 
sieged  the  Portuguese  troops  from  Brazil  who 
then  occupied  Montevideo.  Passionate  and 
scheming,  he  soon  acted  independently,  and 
finally  detached  his  men  from  the  besieging 
army ;  whereupon  Posadas,  director  of  the 
junta,  outlawed  him  and  set  a  price  upon  his 
head.  But  the  gauchos  flocked  to  his  standard, 
and  Artigas,  having  defeated  the  troops  sent 
against  him,  obliged  his  enemies  to  cede  to  him 
the  whole  of  Uruguay  (1814).  He  next  com 
pelled  the  Portuguese  to  abandon  their  attempt 
to  regain  possession  of  Montevideo,  which  had 
surrendered.  He  now  acted  as  dictator  in  his 
native  country,  and  made  a  vigorous  but  un 
successful  attempt  against  Buenos  Ayres  (1815). 
After  various  contests  he  was  twice  defeated, 
in  1819  and  1820,  and  compelled  to  flee  to  Par 
aguay,  where  Dr.  Francia,  the  dictator,  ban 
ished  him  to  Candelaria.  Here  the  former 
gaucho  chief  devoted  himself  to  husbandry, 
and  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  needy,  and  at 
tained  a  patriarchal  age. 

ARTILLERY,  the   cannon  employed  in  war, 
and  the  troops  organized  to  use  them.     The 
Chinese  as  early  as  A.  I).  969;  under  the  em 
peror  Tai-tsu,  tied  rockets  to  their  arrows  to 
propel  them  to  greater  distances,  as  well  as  for 
incendiary  purposes.     During  the  first  half  of 
the  13th  century  all  the  resources  of  their  mil 
itary  art  became  known  to  the  Arabs  through 
the  Mongol  conquerors  of  China.     The  idea  of 
the  application  of  gunpowder  to   projectiles, 
|  though   said   to  have  been   accidentally  sug- 
j  gested  to   Berthold   Schwarz    about   1330,  is 
probably  due  to  the  Moors  or  Arabs  of  north 
ern  Africa,  who  had  artillery  at  Cordova  as 
I  early  as  1280.     The  Spaniards  learned  its  use 
|  from  them,  Ferdinand   IV.    of  Castile  taking 
I  Gibraltar  with  cannon  in  1309,  and  guns  being 
|  employed  soon   after  at   the  sieges  of  Baza, 
I  Martos,  and  Alicante.     A  knowledge  of  artil- 


ARTILLERY 


785 


lery  soon  extended  throughout  Europe,  the 
French  having  cannon  at  the  siege  of  Puy  Guil- 
laume  in  1338,  and  the  English  three  small 
guns  at  the  battle  of  Crecy  in  1346.  Cannon 


FIG.  1.— Early  English  Cunaoa.  time  of  Battle  of  Crecy. 

are  not  referred  to  in  the  Hindoo  books  before 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  century ;  but  during 
the  next  hundred  years  their  use  became  gene 
ral  throughout  India,  and  upon  the  landing  of 
the  Portuguese  in  1498  they  found  the  natives 
their  equals  in  the  construction  and  use  of  fire 
arms. — The  European  as  well  as  the  Asiatic  can 
non  of  the  14th  century  were  made  of  longitudi 
nal  bars  of  iron  bound  together  by  hoops,  being 
shaped  externally  and  internally  like  an  apoth 
ecary's  mortar;  they  were  called  bombards, 


FIG.  2.— Bombard. 


vases,  or  mortars,  were  very  heavy,  and  pro 
jected  stone  balls  at  high  angles,  doing  but  lit 
tle  execution ;  when  put  in  position  they  were 


FIG.  3.— Mortar. 

fired  from  a  timber  stock  or  framework,  gun 
carriages  being  unknown.  These  unwieldy  ma 
chines,  some  of  which  were  breech-loaders, 
were  used  not  only  in  siege  operations,  but 
in  the  field  and  even  on  shipboard.  To  give 
a  more  accurate  direction  to  the  projectile, 
the  bore  wns  afterward  made  cylindrical  and 
terminated  in  a  very  narrow  and  deep  cham 
ber,  the  object  being  to  increase  the  effect 
of  the  powder  by  retarding  the  escape  of  the 
gas  before  it  acted  upon  the  ball.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  loth  century  bombards  were 
improved  upon  and  made  very  large ;  in  France 
one  weighed  10,000  Ibs.  with  a  400-lb.  projec 
tile,  a  second  36,000  Ibs.  with  a  projectile  of  900 
VOL.  i. — 50 


Ibs. ;  they  were  generally  made  of  several  pieces 
screwed  together,  and  could  not  be  moved 
unless  taken  apart.  Mortars  only  differed  from 
bombards  in  length,  but  were  very  rare.  The 
other  cannon  of  the  day  were  veuglaires, 
breech-loaders  of  less  size  and  power  than  bom 
bards;  crapeaudeavx,  still  smaller,  weighing 
from  100  to  150  Ibs. ;  and  cuhcrins,  the  small 
est  of  all,  unchambered  and  using  projectiles 
of  lead.  To  facilitate  pointing  and  firing,  two 
or  more  of  the  smaller  guns  were  occasionally 
mounted  on  a  two- wheeled  wagon,  the  whole 
being  called  a  ribaiidequin,  or  organ  gun,  the 
earliest  form  of  the  modern  mitrailleuse.  Artil 
lery  was  very  much  used  during  the  French  war 
of  independence  against  the  English.  At  the 
defence  of  Orleans  in  1428  Joan  of  Arc  herself 
pointed  the  guns ;  and  as  the  struggle  went  on 
the  brothers  Jean  and  Gaspard  Bureau  became 
very  successful  in  the  conduct  of  siege  opera 
tions,  being  the  first  to  make  regular  approaches 
and  place  guns  in  breaching  batteries  under 
cover  of  casks  filled  with  earth,  instead  of 
merely  hiding  them  behind  wooden  screens. 
The  marked  progress  made  by  artillery  had  the 
effect  of  everywhere  increasing  the  power  of, 
the  crown  at  the  expense  of  the  feudal  nobility, 
whose  castles  were  no  longer  able  to  defy  the 
sovereign.  The  French  were  far  in  advance 
of  their  contemporaries,  Charles  VII.  being 
able  to  retake  in  one  year  all  the  strong  places 
held  by  the  English.  On  the  other  hand,  as 
late  as  1453  Constantinople  had  to  be  taken  by 
assault,  the  guns  of  Mohammed  II. -being  pow 
erless  to  breach  the  walls;  while  the  Greek 
I  cannon,  firing  150-lb.  stone  balls,  did  less  dam 
age  to  the  Turks  than  to  their  own  defences. 
In  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  bombards 
were  universally  made  of  separate  pieces  of 
forged  iron  or  bronze,  and  the  greet  number 
of  attempts  at  a  suitable  carriage  for  the 
smaller  guns  showed  the  importance  attached 
to  such  a  mechanism ;  culverins  were  frequently 
imbedded  in  stocks  which  could  be  raised  or 
low  ered  to  change  the  inclination,  a  few  having 
small  side  projections,  the  forerunners  of  trun 
nions,  to  prevent  lateral  rotation. — We  have  now 
come  to  one  of  the  most  important  eras  in  the 
history  of  artillery,  the  striking  improvements 
made  by  the  French  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XL, 
1461-'83.  Having  invented  trunnions  of  suuV 
cient  strength  to  stand  the  recoil,  they  had  an 
axis  about  which  the  gun  could  turn  with  ease 
and  be  elevated  or  depressed  at  will ;  this  great 
difficulty  overcome,  they  readily  devised  a  car 
riage  at  once  suited  for  the  transportation  and 
;  service  of  the  piece,  while  their  progress  in 
metallurgy  enabled  them  to  substitute  cast-iron 
|  for  stone  balls.  The  iron  projectiles,  by  their 
'  greater  density,  increasing  the  tension  of  the  gas 
|  so  as  to  endanger  the  guns  in  use,  they  were 
;  forced  to  do  away  with  them  and  introduce 
I  brass  pieces  of  smaller  calibre  and  increased 
|  thickness  of  metal,  called  cannons,  culverins 
\  or  serpentines,  and  falcons.  The  last  were  the 
smallest,  and  fired  leaden  projectiles  instead  of 


786 


ARTILLERY 


cast-iron  balls.  The  culverin,  though  of  less 
calibre  than  the  cannon,  was  a  much  larger 
gun,  and  differed  entirely  from  the  culverin  of 
the  preceding  century.  Artillery  had  hitherto 
been  employed  in  attacking  cities  and  castles 
alone,  but  the  perfection  to  which  it  had  been 
brought  in  France  made  it  very  formidable  in 
the  field  also.  The  rapid  conquest  of  Italy  by 
Charles  VIII.,  the  successor  of  Louis  XL,  was 
entirely  due  to  his  improved  artillery ;  the 
French  guns,  mounted  on  the  new  carriages, 
well  horsed,  and  ready  to  go  into  battery  at 
any  moment,  presenting  a  marked  contrast  to 
the  cumbersome  Italian  bombards,  firing  stone 
balls,  and  dragged  with  great  difficulty  by  bul 
locks. — During  the  16th  century  brass  guns  and 
cast-iron  projectiles  were  adopted  throughout 
Europe,  while  Tartaglia  in  Italy  made  great  im 
provements  in  gunnery,  and  invented  the  gun 
ner's  quadrant.  The  carriages,  however,  had 
no  limbers  and  were  still  heavy  and  awkward ; 
and  as  the  principal  dimensions  only  were  fixed, 
great  differences  existed  even  in  those  for  guns 
of  the  same  calibre.  The  cannon  belonging  to  an 
army,  together  with  the  wagons  loaded  with 
implements  and  ammunition,  were  collected 
into  an  artillery  train,  to  which  certain  officers 
and  artillerists  were  attached.  The  latter  were 
looked  upon  as  mechanics,  served  a  regular 
apprenticeship,  and  had  a  guild  of  their  own ; 
they  were  divided  into  cannoneers,  who  served 
the  guns,  and  artificers,  who  conducted  ver 
tical  fire  and  made  up  warlike  stores.  When 
a  war  broke  out,  the  different  monarchs  hired 
as  many  as  they  required  or  could  get,  their 
pay  being  four  times  that  of  a  soldier.  In 
battle,  artillery  tactics  consisted  in  the  sin 
gle  detail  of  putting  the  guns  in  position,  gener 
ally  in  front  of  the  line,  taking  care  to  hide 
them  as  much  as  possible  behind  troops  until 
they  were  to  open  fire.  In  case  of  disaster 
they  nearly  always  fell  into  the  enemy's  hands, 
from  its  being  so  difficult  to  move  them. 
The  German,  Spanish,  and  Italian  cannon  of 
that  age  were  of  sizes  and  calibres  innumera 
ble.  Charles  V.  had  more  than  50  different 
kinds,  from  124-pdrs.  down,  and  found  this 
such  a  disadvantage,  particularly  in  the  field, 
that  he  attempted,  though  ineffectually,  to  limit 
their  number  to  eight,  including  mortars. 
About  the  year  1550  the  French  calibres,  which 
had  run  all  the  way  from  80-pdrs.  down  to 
1-pdrs.,  were  reduced  to  six,  viz.:  cannons, 
three  sizes  of  culverins,  falcons,  and  falconets ; 
there  were  no  mortars.  During  the  last  half 
of  the  century  case  shot  (IlagclkugeT)  was  in 
vented  in  derm  any,  but  was  not  brought  into 
general  use ;  about  the  same  time  shells  were 
successfully  fired  from  mortars  in  that  country, 
the  result  being  kept  a  profound  secret.  These 
projectiles,  originally  made  by  fastening  toge 
ther  two  hollow  metal  hemispheres,  and  known 
to  the  Chinese  and  Arabs,  were  first  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Italians.  In  Holland,  mor 
tar  shells  and  hand  grenades  were  first  rendered 
useful  and  effective  during  the  early  part  of  the 


|  17th  century,  and  Maurice  and  Henry  Frede- 
!  rick  of  Nassau  made  many  artillery  improve 
ments,  doing  away  with  the  arbitrary  distinc- 
;  tions   between   cannons   and   culverins,  -based 
I  upon  their  lengths,  and  restricting  the  calibres 
!  to  48,  24,  12,  and  6-pdrs.,  called  cannons,  half 
|  cannons,  quarter  cannons,  and  falcons,  the  last 
|  t\vo  being  proportionally  longer  and  heavier  to 
;  prevent  damage  to  embrasures.     The  dimen- 
I  sions  of  these  pieces  were  fixed,  while  handles 
I  and  cascables,  shaped  for  the  attachment  of 
!  ropes,  facilitated  mechanical  manoeuvres.     The 
gun  carriages,  which  had  limbers  and  ammu- 
]  nition  chests,  were  similarly  reduced  to  four, 
and   their  dimensions  made  so  uniform   that 
wheels  and  other  parts  were  interchangeable. — 
1  About  the  same  time  Gustavus  Adolphus,  per- 
j  ceiving  the  advantages  that  would  result  from 
i  guns  capable  of  quick  motion  and  rapid  fire, 
|  introduced  light  pieces  made  of  thin  copper 
and  wrapped  about  with   rope   and  leather; 
these,  not  proving  durable,  were  replaced  by 
|  iron  4-pdrs.  weighing  about  650  Ibs.,  and  drawn 
by  a  single  pair  of  horses.     Rapidity  of  fire 
was  attained  by  the  use  of  cartridges,  the  slow 
process  of  inserting  the  powder  by  ladlefuls 
being  thus  gotten  rid  of.     Two  of  these  guns 
were  attached  to  each  regiment,  and  were  at 
first  intended  to  fire  canister,  before  that  time 
only  used  in  siege  operations  and  by  ships  of 
war ;  but  they  soon  came  to  fire  solid  shot,  and 
did  great  execution  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic  in 
1631.     Gustavus  did  much  also  toward  devel 
oping  the  tactical  powers  of  the  arm  by  mass 
ing  the  heavy  guns  in  strong  batteries  on  the 
wings  and  centre,  and  doing  away  with  the  old 
fashion  of  stringing  them  out  in  front  of  the. 
line   of  battle.     lie  had  great  confidence  in 
his   artillery,  which  was  very  strong  in  pro 
portion  to  the  other  arms,  there  being  80  pieces 
in  1630  to  20,000  men,  and  200  pieces  before 
Frankfort  to  only  18,000,— Mai  thus,  a  noble 
man  who  had  served  in  the  Low  Countries,  in 
troduced  the  mortar  shell  into  France,  where 
it  was  first  used  in  1634.     Mortars  of  10,  12, 
and  14-inch  calibre  were  cast  under  his  .direc 
tion,  and  about  this  time  came  into  general  use 
throughout  Europe.     The  shell  after  being  in 
serted  was  kept  in  place 
by  a  tamping  of  earth,  and 
its    fuse   was   lighted   by 
hand   before   the  mortar 
was  fired.    The  small  mor 
tar  which  still  bears  the 
name  of  its  inventor  Coe- 
horn,    an    officer   in   the 
service  of  the  prince  of 
Orange,  was  first  used  in 
1674.     The  invention  of 
howitzers     was     another 
signal   service  which  the 
FIG.  4.— Cockom  Mortar.    Dutch    rendered    to    the 
art  of  war,  the  idea  hav 
ing  first  occurred  to  them  that  shells  might 
be  used  in  cannon  by  shortening  the  pieces  so 
that  the  projectile  could  be  inserted  by  hand. 


ARTILLERY 


'87 


Howitzers  were  soon  adopted  and  improved 
upon  by  the  English ;  like  the  early  mortars, 
they  were  at  first  discharged  by  applying  fire 
both  to  shell  and  charge.  Light  pieces  called 
pierrieres,  firing  stone  balls  weighing  from  12 
to  48  Ibs.,  were  still  used  in  some  of  the  Euro 
pean  services. — In  France,  toward  the  end  of 
this  century,  artillery  materiel  was  modified 
and  improved,  much  attention  being  paid  to  the 
character  of  the  gun  metal,  to  the  form  of  the 
chamber,  and  to  the  proper  length  and  weight 
of  the  piece.  The  calibres  were  restricted  to 
33,  24,  16,  12,  8,  and  4-pdrs.,  most  of  which 
have  been  retained  to  this  day  among  their 
smooth-bore  guns;  the  ammunition  consisted 
of  grape  and  canister  as  well  as  of  solid  shot. 
Gun  carriages  were  also  changed  for  the  bet 
ter  and  provided  with  limbers,  while  trains  of 
wagons  or  carts  were  organized  for  carrying 
ammunition  ;  some  of  the  field  carriages  were 
made  of  wrought  iron.  Louis  XIV.  was  the 
first  sovereign  to  create  a  special  artillery  force ; 
he  raised  in  1671  a  regiment  for  artillery  duty 
only,  and  in  1690  founded  the  first  artillery 
schools.  To  his  age  belong  also  the  important 
inventions  of  the  elevating  screw,  the  prolonge, 
and  the  priming  tube  filled  with  powder,  the  old 
method  being  to  work  powder  into  the  vent. — 
During  the  first  part  of  the  18th  century  artillery 
was  generally  recognized  as  an  arm,  had  its  reg 
ularly  incorporated  troops,  and  in  consequence 
made  very  marked  progress.  In  the  campaigns 
of  Marlborough  large  numbers  of  guns  were 
used  on  both  sides,  and  sometimes  handled 
with  judgment  and  skill ;  at  Blenheim  artillery, 
massed  on  the  right  so  as  to  enfilade  the  French 
position,  contributed  materially  to  the  victory; 
and  at  Malplaquet  the  English  put  forward  40 
pieces  in  the  centre,  while  the  French  guns  did 
not  cease  firing  until  the  intrenchments  were 
assaulted ;  only  eight  or  ten  were  taken  not 
withstanding  this  persistence,  showing  that 
greater  mobility  had  been  attained.  In  1732 
Valliere  made  important  changes  in  the  French 
artillery,  doing  away  with  the  33-pdr.  as  too 
heavy,  and  giving  uniformity  to  the  five  remain 
ing  calibres  as  well  as  to  the  mortars.  'In  1747 
the  French  began  to  fire  howitzers  in  siege  ope 
rations  without  first  igniting  the  shell,  it  hav 
ing  been  found  that  the  flash  from  the  charge 
would  light  the  fuse  if  there  was  no  tamping. 
The  gun  carriages  and  ammunition  wagons 
were  still  of  various  patterns,  each  arsenal 
having  its  own  way  of  constructing  them ;  the 
axletrees  were  of  wood,  and  the  limbers  very 
low,  with  horses  attached  in  single  file.  After 
the  seven  years'  war  position  grins  began  to  be 
permanently  assigned  to  brigades  in  5  or  10-gun 
batteries.  In  Prussia,  Frederick  the  Great  in 
troduced  short,  light  regimental  guns,  12,  6, 
and  3-pdrs.,  whose  weight  was  but  from  80  to 
150  times  that  of  the  shot ;  his  example  was  fol 
lowed  by  Austria  and  other  countries.  He  also 
made  extensive  use  of  howitzers  firing  15,  20, 
and  50-lb.  shell,  which  were  afterward  united 
in  separate  batteries.  At  the  end  of  the  seven 


years'  war  the  Prussian  artillery  was  in  a  state 
of  great  confusion,  there  being  12  and  6-pdrs. 
of  no  less  than  three  different  kinds  and  weights ; 
this  was  mainly  due  to  the  want  of  a  proper 
chief  of  artillery,  and  to  the  fact  that  Frede 
rick  had  looked  upon  the  arm  with  disfavor. 
After  Rossbach,  where  it  did  excellent  service, 
he  seems  to  have  gotten  over  his  prejudice,  and 
we  are  indebted  to  him  for  the  first  formation 
of  horse  artillery  in  1759  :  it  consisted  of  a  bat 
tery  of  10  light  6-pdrs.,  and,  though  long  in  a 
very  inefficient  condition,  and  destroyed  at  Ku- 
nersdorf  and  again  at  Maxen,  was  always  reor 
ganized.  The  seven  years1  war  opened  the 
eyes  of  the  Austrians  to  the  importance  of  the 
artillery  arm,  which  was  carefully  reorganized 
and  improved  under  the  direction  of  Prince 
Liechtenstein,  who  was  created  chief  of  artil 
lery,  with  rank  and  authority  in  proportion  to 
the  importance  of  his  position ;  this  gave  their 
artillery  an  immense  advantage,  and  assured  its 
constant  superiority  to  that  of  most  of  the  con 
temporary  powers.  The  Russians  always  at 
tached  great  importance  to  their  artillery. 
When  they  entered  Germany  in  1758  they  had 
425  guns  to  104,000  men,  three  licornes  or 
howitzers,  with  mounted  gunners,  being  at 
tached  to  each  of  their  dragoon  regiments. 
Artillery  in  this  century  consisted  of  regimen 
tal  guns  attached  in  pairs  to  each  infantry  bat 
talion,  of  guns  of  position  organized  into  large 
batteries,  and  of  siege  or  garrison  guns.  The 
number  of  guns  was  usually  4  or  5  to  1,000 
men.  The  regimental  guns  advanced  with 
their  battalions,  unlimbering  at  500  paces  from 
the  enemy  and  being  thence  moved  forward  by 
hand.  The  position  guns  were  posted  at  the 
most  favorable  points  along  the  line ;  occasion 
ally  they  were  able  to  take  a  second  position, 
but  it  was  usually  impossible  to  move  them  in 
time  to  decide  the  result  of  a  battle.  The 
bronze  cannon  of  this  age  were  elaborately 
ornamented  with  carvings  and  with  the  ciphers 
and  coats  of  arms  of  the  reigning  monarchs, 
the  early  custom  of  giving  a  special  name  to 
each  piece  being  also  retained. — We  now  come 
to  one  of  the  foremost  names  in  modern  artillery 
annals,  Gribeauval.  This  celebrated  French 
man,  having  served  in  the  Austrian  artillery 
under  Prince  Liechtenstein  during  the  seven 
years'  war,  returned  to  France  with  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  all  the  improvements  suggested 
by  the  experiences  of  that  struggle,  and  was 
intrusted  in  1765  with  the  reorganization  of 
the  French  artillery,  then  in  very  poor  con 
dition.  He  began  by  creating  a  distinct  ma 
teriel  for  each  service,  field,  siege,  garrison, 
and  seacoast.  His  field  guns,  12,  8,  and 
4-pdrs.,  were  18  calibres  long  and  about  loO 
times  heavier  than  their  projectiles.  The 
charges  were  reduced  from  one  half  to  one 
third  the  weight  of  the  shot;  but,  as  the 
windage  was  also  diminished,  he  was  able  to 
make  the  guns  shorter  and  lighter  without  sen 
sibly  affecting  the  range.  To  these  were  added 
a  6-inch  howitzer,  still  retaining  a  small  charge, 


788 


ARTILLERY 


though  proportionally  larger  than  that  before 
used.  These  pieces  were  without  ornaments, 
and  were  cast  solid  and  then  bored  out,  which 
made  their  dimensions  much  more  exact  than 
the  old  hollow-cast  cannon;  the  trunnions 
were  strengthened  by  rimbases,  and  copper 
vent  pieces  enabled  the  guns  to  be  rehashed. 
The  horses  were  hitched  in  double  files,  which 
greatly  facilitated  the  movements  of  the  car 
riages,  and  the  draught  was  made  easier  by 
iron  axletrees,  higher  limbers,  and  travelling 
trunnion  holes ;  the  allowance  of  horses  was 
six  to  the  12-pdrs.  and  four  to  the  8  and  4-pdrs. 
Fixed  ammunition,  elevating  screws,  and  tan 
gent  scales,  together  with  bricoles  and  pro- 
longes,  facilitated  the  service  and  increased  the 
mobility  of  the  piece.  Stronger  carriages  were 
made  for  the  lighter  guns,  and  uniformity  was 
established  in  all  new  constructions  by  requir 
ing  the  arsenals  to  make  every  part  of  the  car 
riages,  wagons,  and  limbers  after  certain  fixed 
dimensions,  so  that  spare  parts  could  be  taken 
into  the  field  exactly  corresponding  to  those  in 
use.  An  equipment  was  thus  obtained  which 
could  be  moved  and  repaired  with  a  facility 
hitherto  unknown.  Gribeauval's  reforms  did 
not  stop  at  the  materiel,  the  personnel  of  the 
French  artillery  being  completely  reorganized 
in  1765  through  his  efforts.  Two  guns  were 
still  assigned  to  each  infantry  battalion,  which 
were  served  by  detachments  from  a  company 
of  artillery  attached  to  each  brigade  of  four 
regiments.  The  rest  of  the  field  artillery  was 
organized  into  two  or  three  reserves,  each  re 
serve  consisting  of  divisions  of  eight  pieces,  to 
each  of  which  was  assigned  a  company  of  artil 
lery.  Here  we  have  the  creation  of  the  artil 
lery  unit ;  the  company  organization,  afterward 
merged  in  that  of  the  battery  with  its  horses 
and  drivers,  being  for  the  first  time  inseparably 
joined  to  its  munitions  and  guns.  Like  all 
military  reformers,  Gribeauval  encountered 
most  determined  opposition,  the  changes  he 
proposed  not  being  permanently  adopted  till 
1774.  His  system  was  for  superior  to  any 
other  of  its  day,  and  long  served  as  a  model  to 
that  of  other  nations,  being  introduced  with 
but  slight  modifications  into  all  the  European 
services.  Thoroughly  tested  in  the  wars  of 
the  revolution,  the  results  triumphantly  vindi 
cated  the  abilities  and  military  genius  of  its 
originator. — The  French  introduced  horse  ar 
tillery  in  1792,  and  cut  down  their  divisions  to 
six  pieces,  eight  being  found  too  unwieldy; 
these  divisions  received  the  name  of  batteries, 
and  were  usually  composed  of  five  guns  and 
one  howitzer.  In  1799  they  entirely  aban 
doned  battalion  guns  as  impairing  the  mobility 
of  the  infantry,  one  or  two  batteries  attached 
to  each  division  taking  their  places.  An  artil 
lery  train  or  corps  of  drivers,  composed  of  en 
listed  men,  was  organized  Jan.  3,  1800,  and 
distributed  among  the  French  batteries,  to 
gether  with  a  proper  complement  of  horses 
bought  for  the  purpose;  they  had  previously 
depended  upon  civilian  drivers  hired  with  their 


teams  by  contractors,  the  result  being  that  the 
men,  horses,  and  harness  were  always  in  bad 
condition.  No  changes  in  materiel  took  place 
under  the  empire,  with  the  exception  of  the 
admission  of  6  and  3-pdrs.  into  the  service  on 
account  of  the  immense  number  of  captured 
guns  of  these  calibres.  The  tactical  combina 
tions  of  the  arm,  however,  though  at  first  with 
out  any  essential  change,  were  always  bril 
liant  ;  at  Marengo  the  two  batteries  of  Boudet's 
division  kept  the  Austrians  in  check  until  ree'n- 
forcements  came  up  and  materially  assisted  in 
gaining  that  brilliant  victory.  The  use  of  ar 
tillery  in  mass  dates  from  the  French  camp  at 
Boulogne  in  1805,  where  this  great  tactical  im 
provement  was  conceived  and  taught,  the  first 
instance  of  its  employment  being  at  Friedland, 
June  14,  1807.  In  this  battle  Gen.  de  Senar- 
mont,  chief  of  artillery  of  the  French  first  corps, 
combined  the  divisional  batteries  into  two 
masses,  which  suddenly  went  into  action  at 
GOO  paces  from  the  Russian  left  and  gradually 
advanced  to  within  300  paces,  firing  with  the 
utmost  rapidity ;  seeing  the  formidable  effect 
produced,  he  united  both  masses  into  one  grand 
battery  of  36  pieces  at  150  paces  from  the  ene 
my,  who  began  to  waver  under  the  terrible 
fire  of  canister.  Upon  the  Russian  cavalry's 
attempting  to  charge  the  grand  battery,  the 

j  general  of  artillery  ordered  it  to  change  front 
and  drove  them  off;  the  French  infantry  then 

i  advanced  and  overthrew  the  enemy.  The  artil 
lery  lost  1  officer,  10  men,  and  53  horses  killed ; 
3  officers  and  42  men  wounded;  rounds  ex 
pended,  2,516,  of  which  362  were  canister. 
The  ground  was  level  and  very  favorable  to  ar 
tillery  fire.  The  battle  of  Wagram,  July  5-6, 
1809,  presents  another  prominent  example  of 
the  use  of  artillery  masses.  Sixty  French  pieces 
under  Gen.  Lauriston,  supported  by  infantry  and 
cavalry,  advanced  in  two  columns  without  open 
ing  fire  up  to  canister  range  of  the  Austrian  cen 
tre  ;  only  45  pieces  got  into  position,  the  others 
being  dismounted  by  the  fire  of  the  enemy's 
artillery,  but  these  were  gradually  reenforced 
by  45  more.  The  fire  of  this  immense  battery, 
which  lasted  half  an  hour,  though  inflicting 
great  losses,  failed  to  break  the  Austrians,  who 
repulsed  an  attack  of  the  French  infantry  and 
cavalry ;  they  were  however  compelled  to  fall 
back  on  account  of  the  turning  of  their  left 
before  the  French  could  reform  for  a  second  at 
tack.  At  Borodino,  or  on  the  Moskva,  Sept.  7, 
1812,  and  at  Liitzen,  May  2,  1813,  the  French 
successfully  employed  artillery  masses  for  de 
fensive  purposes.  At  the  former  battle  Gen. 
Sorbier,  chief  of  the  French  artillery,  by  uniting 
80  pieces,  brought  the  Russians  to  a  stand  and 
finally  forced  them  to  retire;  at  the  latter,  a 
battery  of  60  guns  checked  the  movement  of 
the  allies  against  the  French  centre.  Further 
instances  of  the  employment  of  artillery  masses 
are  found  in  the  battles  of  Ocaila,  1809  ;  Gross- 
Beeren,  1813;  Bautzen,  1813;  Ilanau,  1813; 
and  Brienne,  1814. — The  English  artillery 
about  the  beginning  of  the  French  revolution 


ARTILLERY 


'89 


had  boon  greatly  neglected,  and  was  far  behind 
that  of  other  nations.  There  was  no  reserve 
artillery,  each  regiment  having  two  guns, 
whose  horses  and  drivers  were  hired.  As  late 
as  1799  there  were  only  two  C-pdrs.  to  a  bri 
gade  of  infantry,  each  piece  drawn  by  three 
horses  in  single  file,  the  driver  on  foot  with  a 
long  wagoner's  whip.  Horse  artillery  was 
however  introduced  in  1793,  and  a  drivers' 
corps  established  the  following  year.  Tn  1802 
the  battalion  guns  were  abandoned,  and  were 
replaced  by  field  brigades  (mounted  batteries) 
and  troops  (horse  batteries).  Each  field  bri 
gade  had  five  guns  (12,  9,  and  heavy  or  light 
6-pdrs.)  and  one  5J-inch  howitzer,  while  the 
troops  were  armed  with  9  or  light  6-pdr. 
guns  and  the  howitzer.  The  detachment  of 
drivers  with  a  field  brigade  was  an  independent 
organization  under  its  own  lieutenant,  who  had 
no  authority  over  the  cannoneers  and  took  rank 
after  all  the  artillery  officers  proper.  In  1803 
Gen.  Shrapnel  devised  a  case  shot,  the  first 
projectile  of  the  kind  since  the  German  Hagel-  \ 
kugel  of  the  10th  century.  It  was  first  used  at  j 
the  battle  of  Vimieira  in  1808,  but,  not  proving  j 
very  successful  on  account  of  the  imperfection  \ 
of  the  fuse,  was  not  adopted  by  other  nations,  j 
— We  have  now  come  to  the  period  extending 
from  the  peace  of  1815  to  1859,  when  rifled 
guns  were  for  the  first  time  successfully  em 
ployed  in  war.  In  France  Gen.  Paixhans  pro 
posed  in  1822  that  large  heavy  shells  should  be 
fired  from  long-chambered  guns,  resembling 
those  already  invented  by  Bomford  in  Ameri 
ca;  and  he  proved,  in  spite  of  the  greatest  op 
position,  that  it  was  as  practicable  and  almost 
as  easy  to  throw  shells  to  a  great  distance  with 
slight  elevations  as  to  throw  shot.  Designed 
originally  for  the  naval  service,  his  chambered 
pieces,  known  as  Paixhans  guns,  were  felt  to 
be  of  equal  importance  for  seacoast  defence. 
Their  adoption  into  almost  every  service,  with 
the  consequent  development  of  horizontal  shell 
fire,  was  beyond  question  the  most  important  ! 


event  in  the  history  of  artillery  since  Gribeau- 
val's  time,  and  eventually  led  to  the  adoption 
of  iron  armor  as  a  protection  for  vessels  of 
war.  The  first  instance  of  the  employment  of 
this  kind  of  fire  on  a  large  scale  was  at  the 
siege  of  Antwerp  by  the  French  in  1832,  where 
it  proved  so  formidable  that  the  defence  were 
able  to  make  but  a  feeble  resistance.  At  Si- 
nope,  where  the  whole  Turkish  fleet  was  de 
molished  in  about  an  hour  by  the  Russian 
shells,  at  Sebastopol,  as  well  as  in  the  more 
recent  naval  combat  between  the  Kearsarge 
and  Alabama,  Paixhans's  predictions  as  to  the 
destructive  effects  of  heavy  shells  have  been 
completely  verified.  The  French  field  materiel 
was  modified  in  1827  by  the  substitution  of  32 
and  24-pdr.  howitzers,  lengthened  to  corre 
spond  with  12  and  8-pdr.  guns,  for  the  6-inch 
howitzer  and  4-pdr.  gun,  which  were  abol 
ished;  the  limber  of  the  gun  carriage  was  sub 
sequently  lightened  and  provided  with  an  am 
munition  chest,  its  wheels  being  made  of  the 
same  size  as  those  of  the  carriage ;  the  mode 
of  connecting  the  limber  with  the  carriage  was 
also  simplified,  so  as  to  greatly  facilitate  the  ma- 
nreuvres  of  limbering  and  unlimbering ;  while 
the  two  fiasks  which  formed  the  trail  were  re 
placed  by  a  single  piece  called  the  stock,  which 
permitted  the  carriage  to  turn  in  a  smaller  cir 
cle  than  before.  In  1850  a  light  12-pdr.  gun 
devised  by  Louis  Napoleon,  and  known  as  the 
gun-howitzer  or  Napoleon  gun,  was  experi 
mented  upon  in  France.  The  object  chiefly 
aimed  at  in  its  construction  was  the  substitu 
tion  of  a  single  gun  of  medium  weight  and  cal 
ibre,  firing  both  shot  and  shell,  for  the  12  and 
8-pdr.  guns  and  32  and  24-pdr.  howitzers.  The 
new  piece,  giving  very  favorable  results,  was 
issued  in  1853  to  the  divisional  batteries,  taking 
the  place  of  the  8-pdr.  gun  and  24-pdr.  howit 
zer,  the  heavy  12-pdr.  gun  and  32-pdr.  howit 
zer  being  temporarily  retained  in  the  reserve 
artillery.  It  was  most  successfully  used  by  the 
French  during  the  Crimean  war,  and  was 
adopted  into  various  European  services  as  well 
as  into  that  of  the  United  States. — In  England 
the  drivers'  corps  was  abolished  in  1822,  and 
men  were  enlisted  for  the  royal  artillery  both 
as  cannoneers  and  drivers;  the  troops  of 


FIG.  5.— Diagram  of  Gun  Carriage.    1.  1.  Foot  Boards.    2.  Pintle  Hook.    3.  Pole.    4.  Prolonge.    5.  Trace  Hooks. 
6.  Ammunition  Chest.    7.  Elevating  Screw. 


790 


ARTILLERY 


horse   artillery,  however,    continued   to  have  | 
drivers    specially   enlisted    for   that    purpose,  j 
and  to  this  very  faulty  system   the  mounted 
batteries    have   reverted    since    the   Crimean 
war.      In     1827    three    field     batteries    were 
organized,    each    having  four  pieces    and  45 
horses.     The  British  artillery  continued  in  a 
very  imperfect  state  up  to  1848,  a  mistaken  ! 
notion  of  economy  having  kept  it  insufficiently  : 
supplied  with  guns  and  horses.     At  that  date,  j 
as  well  as  in  1852,  it  was  largely  increased  and  j 
placed  on  a  better  footing.     Each  battery  now 
consisted  of  four  guns  and  two  howitzers;  the 
armament  being  improved  by  the  substitution  j 
of  24-pdr.  and  12-pdr.  howitzers  for  the  old 
5^-inch  howitzer,  by  the  introduction  of  the 
32-pdr.  howitzer,  and  by  the  practical  aban-  j 
donment  of  the  heavy  6-pdr.  and  3-pdr.  guns. 
The   ammunition,    particularly   the    shrapnel, 
was  also  made  more  efficient  by  the  adoption 
of   Captain   Boxer's  fuse.     At  Sebastopol  in 
1854  the  English  siege  pieces  consisted  of  32 
and  24-pdr.  guns,  10  and  8-inch  shell  guns,  and  j 
13,   10,  and   8-inch  mortars.     To  these  were  j 
joined  68-pdr.  guns  borrowed  from  the  fleet,  j 
then  thought  of  enormous  size ;  some  of  them 
were  fired  as  many  as  4,000  times,  with  a  charge 
of  16  Ibs.  of  powder  and  with  great  rapidity. 
The  calibres  of  the  French  siege  cannon  did  not 
materially  differ  from  those  of  their  ally. — The  j 
artillery  improvement  of  the  other  European  ' 
powers  was   steadily  maintained  during   this 
generally  peaceful  era,  and  the  importance  of 
the  arm  continued  to  be  felt  in  the  few  cam 
paigns  which  took  place.     In  the  Polish  war 
of  1831,   as  well  as  in   the  Hungarian  cam 
paign  of  1849,  the  Russians  embraced  every  | 
opportunity  for  the  employment  of  artillery  in 
mass.     At  "Warsaw  the  concentrated  fire  of  a 
large  number  of  guns  decided  the  success  of 
their  coup-de-main  and  put  an  end  to  the  resis 
tance  of  the  Poles ;  tlte  loss   in  the  Russian 
artillery  was  however  very  severe,  the  killed 
alone  amounting  to  40  officers,  400  men,  and 
800  horses.     On  the  other  hand,  at  Inkerman 
in  1854  the  Russian  attack  failed  on  account 
of  the   unskilful   handling   of  their    artillery 
masses.     The  principal  large  calibres  of  Rus 
sian  cast-iron  guns  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol 
were  120  (shell),  96,  56,  and  40-pdrs.     In  Bel 
gium  the  invention  (1835)  of  a  new  fuse  by 
Gen.  Bormann  gave  case  shot  an  importance 
and  utility  hitherto  unknown ;  while  iron  came 
into  general  use  throughout  Europe  for  heavy 
gun  carriages. — The  systems  of  field  and  siege 
artillery  in  the  United  States  were  chiefly  de 
rived  from  those  of  France.     After  the  war  of 
1812  with  Great  Britain  the  artillery  arm  was 
almost  entirely   neglected;  no   field    batteries 
were  kept  up,  and  the  heaviest  gun  mounted  j 
on  the  seacoast  in  1820  was  a  24-pdr.     About 
1839  Secretary  of  War  Poinsett  caused  field 
batteries  to  be  organized,  which,  though  few 
in    number,    were   brought   to   a    high    state 
of  efficiency  and   rendered   valuable   services 
during  the  Mexican  war  (1846-'8),  particular 


ly  at  Buena  Yista,  Feb.  22,  1847,  where  they 
saved  the  day.  The  columbiad,  a  long-cham 
bered  piece  capable  of  projecting  shot  and 
shell  at  high  angles  and  with  heavy  charges, 
was  invented  by  Col.  Bomford  and  used  during 
the  war  of  1812  ;  a  similar  gun  (Paixhans),  as 
we  have  already  seen,  was  afterward  introduced 
with  great  success  in  Europe.  In  1844  tho 
columbiad  was  lengthened  and  made  heavier  to 
enable  it  to  stand  an  increased  charge  of  one 
sixth  of  the  .weight  of  the  solid  shot ;  but  not 
proving  strong  enough,  even  with  these  modi 
fications,  in  1858  its  use  was  restricted  to  shells, 
a  new  gun  of  improved  model  taking  its  place. 
Wrought-iron  carriages  for  heavy  guns  were 
about  this  time  introduced  into  the  United 
States,  and  great  care  was  taken  in  the  selec 
tion  and  treatment  of  American  iron,  some  of 
which  is  specially  adapted  to  gun  fabrication. 
About  1847  Gen.  Rodman  developed  his  now 
universally  adopted  theory  of  initial  tension — in 
other  words,  of  such  a  disposition  of  the  metal 
that  when  the  gun  is  at  rest  the  interior  parts 
are  in  a  state  of  compression,  while  the  exte 
rior  are  in  a  state  of  tension  ;  this  adds  great 
ly  to  the  strength  of  the  metal,  the  outer  lay 
ers  being  thus  forced  to  stand  more  and  the 
inner  layers  less  than  would  otherwise  be  the 
case  when  the  gun  is  fired.  To  practically 
obtain  this  result  in  cast-iron  guns,  Rodman 
had  them  cast  on  a  hollow  core  and  cooled 
from  within  by  passing  a  stream  of  water 
through  them.  In  1850  Admiral  Dahlgren 
proposed  a  new  system  of  cast-iron  guns  for 


FIG.  6. — Dahlgren  Gun. 

the  navy,  which  upon  trial  gave  very  favor 
able  results  and  was  adopted  in  1855.  His 
guns  (9,  10,  and  11-inch)  were  made  of  cast 
iron,  solid,  and  cooled  from  the  exterior ;  to 
obviate  the  difficulty  of  strain  due  to  unequal 
shrinkage,  they  were  cast  nearly  cylindrical 
and  then  turned  down  to  the  required  shape, 
thus  getting  rid  of  the  exterior  metal  which 
caused  the  strain  by  cooling  first  in  the  mould. 
The  chamber  is  of  the  Gomer  form,  the  thick 
ness  of  the  metal  around  the  seat  of  the  charge 
being  a  little  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the 
bore;  the  chase  tapers  more  rapidly  than  in 
other  cast-iron  guns,  which  makes  the  breech 
appear  thicker  than  it  really  is.  In  1857  the 
calibres  of  the  land  service  consisted  of  10  and 
8-inch  columbiads,  42,  32,  24,  18,  and  12-pdr. 
guns,  10  and  8-inch  and  24-pdr.  howitzers,  and 


ARTILLERY 


791 


13,  10,  and  8-inch   mortars,  all  of  cast  iron. 
Besides  the  light   12-pclr.    or   Napoleon  gun, 


FIG.  7.— 13-inch  Mortar. 


the  bronze  pieces  consisted  of  heavy  12  and 
6-pdr.  guns,  and  of  32,  24,  and  12-pdr.  howitz 


ers,  together  with  12-pdr.  mountain  howitzers 
and  24-pdr.  Coehorn  mortars. — We  have  now 
come  to  the  most  recent  period  in  the  history 
of  artillery  improvement,  extending  from  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1859  to  the  present  date 
(1873).  Although  the  employment  of  rifle 
cannon  in  war  was  originally  attempted  by  the 
English,  the  French  are  entitled  to  the  credit 
of  first  successfully  using  them  in  battle.  The 
English  68-pdr.  and  8-inch  Lancaster  rifles 
failed  at  Sebastopol  in  1854,  the  shot  jamming 
in  the  bores;  but  the  French  bronze  rifled 
i'ours,  after  a  model  devised  by  Col.  Treuille 
de  Beaulieu,  were  brilliantly  successful  in  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1859.  So  recent  was  their 
construction  that  the  batteries  had  to  march 
with  empty  carriages,  the  guns  being  boxed 
up  and  sent  to  the  army  after  it  had  left  France. 
Once  in  Italy,  the  incontestable  superiority  of 
the  French  artillery  seemed  to  recall  the  days 


Caxcalle.   Breech. 


Reenforce. 


Chase. 


MuzzU. 


Bore. 


FIG.  8.  —  Field  6-pdr.  smooth-bore  Bronze  Gun. 


of  Charles  VIII. ;  at  Solferino  particularly,  it 
destroyed  the  Austrian  batteries  at  the  unpre 
cedented  range  of  1,600  yards  before  they 
could  get  into  position  to  return  the  fire,  and 
shook  the  confidence  of  the  reserves  by  shell 
ing  them  at  distances  hitherto  deemed  entirely 
safe.  •  When  every  gun  fired  a  cast-iron  spheri 
cal  projectile,  its  weight  indicated  the  diameter 
of  the  bore,  or  calibre  of  the  piece ;  but  with 
the  elongated  projectiles  of  rifled  cannon  which 
are  of  various  lengths,  the  case  is  very  different, 
the  weight  of  the  shot  being  no  indication  of 
the  power  of  the  gun,  nor  giving  any  definite 
idea  of  the  size  of  the  bore.  With  French 
rifle  projectiles  whose  length  does  not  exceed 
twice  their  diameter,  the  same  numbers  desig 
nate  their  calibres  as  of  old,  but  they  now  re 
fer  to  kilogrammes  instead  of  pounds ;  thus  the 
4-pdr.,  or  four,  formerly  meant  that  the  gun 
fired  a  cast-iron  sphere  weighing  4  Ibs.,  but 
now  signifies  that  its  projectile  weighs  about  4 
kilogrammes  or  8'823  Ibs.  Compared  with 
English  guns  of  the  same  diameter  of  bore,  the 
French  throw  a  lighter  shot,  the  English  pro 
jectiles,  particularly  the  Whitworth,  being  al 
ways  longer.  The  rifled  twelves,  consisting  of 
the  gun-howitzers  (Napoleon  guns)  converted 
by  rifling,  were  not  used  in  Italy,  there  not 
being  enough  ammunition,  but  were  success 
fully  tested  in  Mexico;  at  Puebla  they  were 
found  very  useful  in  breaching  masonry.  The 


!  French   also  transformed   by   rifling  the  old 
i  12-pdr.   field  gun  into  a   gun  of  reserve  and 
!  position,  the  old  long  12-pdr.  gun  into  a  garri- 
j  son  gun,  and  the  short  24-pdr.  gun  and  50-pdr. 
j  gun  into  siege  guns.     None  of  these  pieces  fire 
I  solid  shot ;  the  three  kinds  of  twelves  use  the 
j  same  projectiles,  but  with  different  charges  of 
'  powder.     The  short  twenty-four  weighs  2,000 
I  kilogrammes  or  two  tons,  and  the  charge  is  va 
ried  according  to  the  range  desired,  up  to  a 
maximum  of  2|-  kilos  (5-|-  Ibs.),  which  gives  a 
range   of  5,000   metres;    the   carriage   of  the 
gun  enables  it  to  be  fired  as  a  mortar.     The 
long  twenty-four  only  differs  from  the  short  by 
its  length  and  weight,  which  is  three  quarters 
of  a  ton  (740   kilos)  more.     The  fifty  is   not 
heavier   than  the   short    twenty-four,    and  is 
fired  with    the  same    charge  of   powder;    its 
projectile  weighs   51    kilos  (113  Ibs.),  with  a 
bursting   charge   of  3 -5    kilos  (7  Ibs.  13  oz.). 
Both  are  mounted  on  the  same  carriage,  which 
is  drawn  by  only  six  horses.     Following  the 
same  principles,   the   French   artillerists  have- 
also  utilized  some  of  the  old  Paixhans  guns  by 
rifling  and  hooping  with  steel ;  a  gun  of  this 
kind  of  22  centimetres  bore  weighs  about  14 
tons,  and  throws  170-lb.  hollow  projectiles  to 
a  distance  of  6,000  or  7,000  yards.     So,  too, 
with  their  naval  guns:  the  old  thirties,  origi 
nally  intended  to  carry  spherical   32-lb.  shot 
with  a  charge  of  11  Ibs.,  after  being  hooped 


792 


ARTILLERY 


and  rifled  became  useful  and  valuable  pieces. 
Although  the  French  artillery  board  rejected 
the  breech-loading  system  as  a  needless  com 
plication  for  field  guns,  they  were  quick  to  j 
adopt  it  for  heavy  ordnance  as  economizing  | 
space,  greatly  increasing  the  ease  and  rapidity 
of  loading,  and  affording  more  protection  to 
the  cannoneers.  The  principal  French  naval 
guns  are  the  (Ji-inch,  7i-inch,  9i-inch,  and 
102-inch  breeclf-loading  rifles,  consisting  of  a 
core  of  cast  iron  with  a  reenforce  of  steel  hoops 
made  of  a  double  series  of  steel  rings,  one  over 
the  other,  so  as  to  break  joints.  In  the  aper 
ture  of  the  bore  a  female  screw  of  15  or  16 
threads  is  cut  into  the  metal  of  the  gun,  which 
receives  a  cylindrical  screw  or  breech  plug, 
mounted  in  front,  with  an  elastic  steel  cup  or 
gas  check.  That  time  may  not  be  wasted  at 
each  discharge  by  screwing  and  unscrewing 
the  whole  length  of  the  plug,  its  surface,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  female  screw  in  the  breech, 
is  divided  into  six  equal  parts,  from  three  of 
which  the  threads  are  removed;  when  the 
breech  is  to  be  closed  the  threaded  portions  of 
the  plug  are  presented  so  that  they  come  oppo 
site  the  smooth  parts  of  the  hole,  and  vice 
versa;  the  plug  or  stopper  is  then  pushed  in, 
and  a  third  of  a  turn  with  the  handle  brings 
the  screws  of  both  parts  together.  No  further 
changes  were  ma<le  in  the  materiel  of  the  field 
batteries  before  the  war  with  Prussia  in  1870, 
where  the  French  guns  for  the  first  time  in 
history  were  found  far  inferior  to  those  of  their 
opponents  in  range,  accuracy,  and  power  of 
execution,  the  weakest  points  about  them  being 
the  want  of  flatness  in  the  trajectory  and'  the 
rapidity  with  which  enlargements  and  lodg 
ments  occurred  in  the  soft  metal  of  the  bore. 
Their  projectiles,  too,  were  not  effective,  many 
bursting  in  the  air  or  burying  themselves  in  the 
ground  without  producing  any  effect,  while  the 
German  percussion  shells  almost  invariably  ex 
ploded  on  touching  the  object.  The  striking 
superiority  of  the  Prussian  batteries  with  the 
Krupp  breech-loaders  was  freely  admitted  by 
the  French,  and  had  a  most  important  bearing 
upon  the  issue  of  the  war.  In  this  struggle 
the  mitrailleuse  or  machine  gun  was  introduced 
and  extensively  used  by  the  French,  in  batte 
ries  of  ten  pieces  each,  and  with  most  destruc 
tive  effects.  The  weapon  is  on  the  same  gen-  j 
eral  principle  as  the  Montigny  mitrailleuse,  j 
which  has  37  barrels  fitted  and  soldered  into 
a  wrought-iron  tube,  with  a  movable  breech 
piece  worked  by  a  lever,  and  so  arranged  that  ! 
the  barrels  can  be  fired  simultaneously  or  at  I 
any  interval,  reloading  taking  five  seconds,  and  I 
ten  discharges  per  minute  being  maintained  if 
necessary.  The  Gatling  mitrailleuse,  adopted 
by  the  United  States  several  years  previously, 
has  not  been  actually  employed  in  war.  Seve 
ral  hundred  new  bronze  breech-loading  sevens 
were  made  in  Paris  during  the  siege  and  used 
with  effect,  and  great  attention  has  been  paid 
since  the  war  to  the  reorganization  of  the  French 
batteries,  it  being  intended  to  suppress  the  old 


muzzle-loading  guns  as  soon  as  a  definite  breech- 
loading  system  can  be  determined  upon. — The 
regimental  organization  of  artillery,  which  has 
been  always  maintained  by  the  French  and  other 
great  European  powers,  was  abolished  in  Eng 
land  in  1859,  brigades  of  horse,  field,  and  gar 
rison  artillery  taking  its  place;  each  brigade 
consists  of  eight  batteries,  the  terms  troop  and 
company  being  done  away  with.  In  1 802  the 
royal  artillery  was  consolidated  with  that  of 
the  Indian  army,  the  artillery  establishment 
being  then  divided  into  5  horse  artillery  brigades 
and  25  field  and  garrison  brigades ;  it  now  con 
sists  of  6  horse,  8  field,  14  garrison,  and  3  mixed 
brigades  of  fi^ld  and  garrison  artillery  ;  to  these 
must  be  added  one  depot  and  one  coast  brigade. 
The  Armstrong  system  was  adopted  in  1859, 
after  the  unsuccessful  debut  of  the  Lancaster 
guns  in  the  Crimea,  and  up  to  1864  nearly 
$13,000,000  were  expended  in  its  development. 
Experience  showed,  however,  that  it  was  too 
complicated  and  would  not  stand  the  test  of 
active  service;  the  fermature  of  the  breech 
loaders,  40.  20,  12,  9,  and  6-pdrs.,  proved 
very  defective,  and  the  lighter  calibres  have 
been  lately  superseded  by  muzzle-loading 
rifles,  7,  9,  and  1 6-pdrs.,  except  in  the  horse 
batteries,  where  a  few  Armstrong  guns  are 
still  retained.  The  heavier  calibres,  muzzle- 
loading  600,  300,  150,  and  70-pdrs.,  have  been 
replaced  since  1867  by  guns  of  the  Frazer  sys 
tem  ;  these  new  guns  are  .600,  400,  250,  180, 
and  115-pdrs.,  the  corresponding  calibres  being 
12,  10,  9,  8,  and  7  inches;  they  are  all  rifled  on 
the  Woolwich  system,  the  twist  being  uniform 
in  the  7-inch,  but  increasing  in  the  higher  cali 
bres  ;  a  700-pdr.  of  35  tons  has  been  recent 
ly  made,  its  calibre  being  11^  inches.  The 
64-pdr.  muzzle-loading  rifled  gun  is  of  various 
constructions,  Armstrong,  Frazer,  and  Palliser 
converted  cast-iron,  the  last  being  rather 
heavier  than  the  others.  All  the  heavy  guns 
fire  the  Palliser  chilled  shot,  cast-iron  projec 
tiles  with  gun-metal  studs,x  except  in  those 
common  to  the  various  64-pdrs.,  which  have 
copper  studs. — During  the  past  20  years  a 
number  of  different  systems  of  rifled  ordnance 
have  been  invented  in  England,  the  two  most 
prominent  being  the  Armstrong  and  Whit  worth. 
Armstrong  guns  are  both  muzzle-loaders  and 
breech-loaders,  the  fermature  being  only  strong 
enough  to  apply  to  the  smaller  calibres.  The 
latter  are  made  by  welding  together  at  the 
ends  wrought-iron  tubes,  made  of  spiral  cords 
formed  by  twisting  a  square  bar  around  a  man 
drel  and  then  welding;  two  additional  thick 
nesses  or  tubes  envelop  it  in  rear  of  the  trun 
nions  to  give  it  more  strength,  the  outer  of  the 
same  material  as  the  inner,  the  inner  one  formed 
of  an  iron  slab  bent  into  a  cylindrical  shape 
and  w elded  at  the  edges ;  the  breech  is  closed 
by  a  vent  piece  slipped  into  a  slot  and  held 
in  its  place  by  a  breech  screw,  which  presses 
against  it  from  behind ;  the  screwr  is  tubular,  so 
that  the  charge  can  be  passed  into  the  cham 
ber  when  the  vent  piece  is  withdrawn;  the 


ARTILLERY 


793 


vent  is  in  the  breech  piece,  which  can  be  easily 
renewed  when  the  former  becomes  enlarged. 
In  the  large  muzzle-loading  Armstrong  guns 
the  barrel  or  part  surrounding  the  bore  is  made 


FIG.  9.— Armstrong  Gun. 

of  solid  steel  tempered  in  oil,  which  diminishes 
brittleness  and  adds  to  the  tenacity  ;  the  barrel 
in  rear  of  the  trunnions  is  enveloped  by  three 
layers  of  wrought-iron  tubes,  not  welded  to 
gether  at  the  ends,  but  hooked  to  each  other 
by  a  system  of  shoulders  and  recesses ;  the  tube 
around  the  barrel  opposite  the  seat  of  the 
charge  is  called  the  breech  piece,  and  is  not 
made  of  spiral  bars  like  the  others,  but  has  its 
fibres  and  welds  longitudinal  so  as  to  resist  the 
recoil  of  the  barrel  against  the  head  of  the 
breech  plug  screwed  into  the  breech  piece. 
The  number  of  grooves  in  the  breech-loaders 
is  34,  and  the  twist  one  turn  in  9  feet ;  in  the 
muzzle-loaders  the  grooves  are  from  3  to  10, 
and  the  twist  from  one  turn  in  80  to  one  turn 
in  38  calibres.  The  muzzle-loading  Arm 
strongs  were  formerly  rifled  upon  the  shunt 
system,  in  which  the  grooves  are  much  wider 
than  the  buttons  on  the  projectile,  except  near 
the  bottom  of  the  bore  ;  that  part  or  side  of 
the  groove  passed  over  by  the  projectile  in 
passing  down  the  bore  is  deep  enough  to  ad 
mit  the  buttons  freely,  while  the  other  side  is 
so  shallow  that  the  ends  of  the  buttons  are 
pressed  against  it  as  the  projectile  comes  out, 
thereby  forcing  its  centre  or  axis  toward  the 
axis  of  the  bore.  This  system  has  altogether 
foiled  in  calibres  larger  than  the  9-inch,  and 
was  finally  abandoned  in  1870  even  for  small 
calibres.  In  1805  the  French  soft-metal  stud 
and  bearing  system  of  ritiing  was  adopted  for 
large  muzzle-loading  guns,  under  the  name  of 
the  Woolwich  system;  after  seven  years'  trial 
it  is  not  found  to  give  general  satisfaction,  and 
will  probably  be  changed.  The  Frazer  gun  is 
a  modification  of  the  Armstrong;  the  number 
of  coils  being  lessened,  cheaper  iron  used  for 
the  outer  coils,  which  are  shrunk  on  with  the 
trunnion  piece,  and  the  arrangement  of  shoul 
ders  and  recesses,  to  prevent  separation  of  the 
parts,  being  improved.  Whitworth  guns  are 
made  of  a  substance  called  "  homogeneous 
iron,"  a  species  of  low  steel  said  to  be  made 
by  melting  short  bars  of  Swedish  iron  and  add 
ing  a  small  amount  of  carbonaceous  matter. 


The  smaller  Whitworth  guns  are  forged  solid ; 
the  larger  built  up  with  coils  or  hoops,  which 
are  forced  on  by  hydraulic  pressure,  being 
made  with  a  slight  taper  and  the  ends  joined 
by  screw  threads.  The  hoops  are  first  cast 
hollow  and  then  hammered  out  over  a  steel 
mandrel,  or  rolled  out  in  a  machine  like  that 
used  for  forming  wheel  tire ;  before  receiving 
their  final  finish,  they  are  subjected  to  an  an 
nealing  process  for  three  or  four  weeks,  which, 
though  making  the  metal  very  ductile,  slightly 
impairs  its  tenacity;  the  breech  pin  is  made 
with  offsets  in  such  a  way  as  to  screw  into  the 
end  of  the  barrel  and  the  next  two  surrounding 
hoops,  the  breech  in  the  larger  guns  being 
hooped  with  a  harder  and  higher  steel  than 
that  used  for  the  barrel.  The  cross  section  of 
the  bores  of  the  Whitworth  guns  is  a  hexagon 
with  rounded  corners,  and  the  twist  is  very 
rapid.  The  projectiles  are  very  long,  those 
intended  for  armor  punching  being  made  of 
hardened  iron  or  steel  with  very  thick  flat 
heads  to  prevent  glancing ;  shells  of  this  kind 
have  no  fuse,  the  bursting  charge  being  ignited 
by  the  heat  generated  by  the  violent  blow  of 
the  projectile  on  the  plate ;  the  powder  before 
being  inserted  is  wrapped  in  one  or  more  thick 
nesses  of  flannel,  thus  interposing  a  slow  con 
ductor  between  it  and  the  heated  metal,  and 
delaying  the  explosion  until  the  shell  has  com 
pleted  its  penetration.  The  principal  Whit- 


FIG.  10.— Whitworth  Gun. 

worth  guns  are  the  120,  TO,  and  12-pdrs.  of 
G'4,  5,  and  2*75  inches  diameter  respectively, 
and  firing  151,  81,  and  12-lb.  projectiles. — 
The  Blakely  gun  combines  in  its  construction 
the  principles  of  initial  tension  and  varying 
elasticity,  the  object  being  to  bring  the  strength 
of  all  the  metal  of  the  piece  into  simultaneous 
play  to  resist  explosion.  The  inner  tube  or 
barrel  is  made  of  low  steel,  having  considera 
ble  but  not  quite  enough  elasticity;  the  next 
tube  is  made  of  high  steel  with  less  elasticity. 
and  is  shrunk  on  the  barrel  with  just  sufficient 
tension  to  compensate  for  the  insufficient  differ 
ence  of  the  elasticity  between  the  two  tubes ;  the 
outer  cast-iron  jacket,  to  which  the  trunnions 
are  attached,  is  the  least  elastic  of  all.  and  is  put 
on  with  only  the  shrinkage  obtained  by  wanning 
it  over  a  fire.  The  steel  tubes  are  cast  hollow 
and  hammered  over  steel  mandrels,  under  steam 
hammers ;  by  this  process  they  are  elongated 
about  130  per  cent.,  and  the  tenacity  of  the 


ARTILLERY 


metal  is  increased ;  all  the  parts  are  annealed. 
Blakely  guns  are  rifled  with  one-sided  grooves, 
and  are  tired  with  expanding  projectiles.  The 
principal  calibres  are  the  700,  550,  350,  250, 
'200,  120,  and  100-pdrs.,  the  diameters  of  the 
bore  varying  from  12  inches  to  0*4  inches,  and 
the  weights  of  projectiles  from  700  to  100  Ibs. 
Palliser's  manner  of  making  a  gun  consists  in 
introducing  into  a  cast-iron  gun  a  hollow  cylin 
der  of  coiled  wrought  iron,  of  such  thickness 
in  proportion  to  its  calibre  that  the  residual 
strain  borne  by  the  tube  has  such  a  relation  to 
the  strain  it  transmits  to  the  surrounding  cast 
iron  as  is  best  proportioned  to  their  respective 
elasticities ;  and  by  varying  the  thickness  of  the 
tube,  the  transmitted  strains  can  be  regulated 
with  the  greatest  nicety.  In  the  larger  guns 
he  proposes  to  use  two  or  more  concentric 
tubes;  in  the  very  largest,  three  tubes,  the 
inner  one  to  be  of  the  softest  and  most  ductile 
wrought  iron,  the  next  of  a  stronger  and 
harsher  quality,  and  the  third  of  steel  for  some 
distance  in  front  of  the  chamber.  Old  smooth- 
bored  guns,  chiefly  f>8-pdrs.,  reamed  out  and 
strengthened  in  this  way,  have  shown  remark 
able  endurance,  and  have  been  thus  utilized  in 
large  numbers.  Parsons's  plan  of  conversion 
consists  in  introducing  a  tube  with  a  jacket, 
both  of  steel,  through  the  breech  of  a  gun, 
which  is  afterward  stopped  up  by  screwing  in 
a  large  cascabel ;  though  stronger  than  Palliser's 
method,  it  is  much  more  expensive.  Mon- 
crieffs  counterpoise  gun  carriage  is  designed  to 
shield  heavy  guns  from  direct  fire,  and  enable 
them  to  be  loaded  under  cover.  Having  given 
satisfactory  results  upon  its  trial  in  1808,  the 
British  propose  to  use  it  extensively  for  coast 
defence,  particularly  in  low  sites  where  the 
batteries  are  but  little  above  the  water  level. 
The  top  carriage  rests  on  a  strong  bolt  con 
necting  two  elevators,  curved  in  rear,  and  with 
a  box  between  them  for  the  counterpoise,  which 
is  rather  heavier  than  the  gun.  Upon  firing 
the  recoil  makes  the  elevators  roll  backward 
on  the  chassis,  the  gun  descending  and  the 
counterpoise  rising.  The  weight  of  the  latter 
gradually  checks  the  motion  and  brings  the 
piece  to  rest  below  the  parapet,  where  a  brake 
holds  the  elevators  down  until  the  loading  is 
completed.— During  the  past  decade  the  Prus 
sian  artillery  has  taken  the  foremost  place, 
a  consequence  in  great  part  of  Krupp's  ex 
cellent  system  of  breech-loading  rifled  can 
non.  The  Krupp  guns  are  made  of  cast  steel, 
composed  of  puddled  steel  and  pure  wrought 
iron,  melted  in  crucibles  and  then  run  into 
large  ingots,  which  are  worked  under  pow 
erful  steam  hammers ;  the  fermature  consists 
of  a  ^  block  sliding  in  a  horizontal  mortise 
crossing  the  bore,  which  is  continued  through 
the  gun;  the  gas  check  is  a  steel  ring,  which 
by  its  expansion  prevents  the  escape  of  the  gas. 
In  loading,  the  breech  block  is  only  drawn  out 
far  enough  to  allow  the  charge  and  projectile 
to  pass  through  a  hole  in  its  end ;  an  exterior 
lever  working  on  a  hingo  starts  the  block, 


which  being  guided  by  proper  grooves  can  ow 
readily  moved  in  or  out.  The  rifling  is  poly- 
grooved,  the  lands  being  very  much  narrower 
at  the  breech,  which  relieves  the  initial  strain 


FIG.  11. — Krupp  Gun. 

due  to  the  forcing  of  the  projectile  into  the 
grooves.  %The  various  calibres  are  forged  from 
a  single  ingot  up  to  the  9-inch,  in  which  the 
trunnion  ring  is  a  separate  forging;  the  larger 
guns  are  built  up  by  shrinking  successive  hoops 
of  steel  over  a  central  steel  tube,  the  fermature 
in  the  experimental  14-inch  being  slightly  mod 
ified  so  that  the  charge  and  projectile  are  in 
serted  at  the  side  of  the  breech  instead  of 
through  the  end.  The  Krupp  projectiles  are 
of  cast  steel  lead-coated,  and  take  the  rifling 
at  four  raised  rings  on  their  surface.  The  deep 
grooves  cut  in  the  steel  to  retain  the  lead  re 
duce  the  strength  of  the  shells  so  much  that 
they  can  only  contain  very  small  bursting 
charges  compared  with  those  of  other  systems; 
the  Armstrong  and  Whitworth  9-inch  shells 
carrying  charges  of  from  10  to  14  Ibs,,  while 
that  of  the  Krupp  9-inch  is  less  than  4  Ibs. 
The  Krupp  cannon  sometimes  use  Gruson's 
chilled  iron  projectiles.  Krupp  sixes  and  fours, 
firing  13'8-lb.  and  8'5-lb.  projectiles  respec 
tively,  were  adopted  in  the  Prussian  field  ar 
tillery  in  1804,  and  gave  so  much  satisfaction 
that  they  were  exclusively  nssd  in  the  war  of 
1806  with  Austria,  although  ono  third  of  the 
Prussian  batteries  were  then  armed  with  the 
old  12-pdr.  smooth-bore.  In  the  late  war 
with  France  the  marked  superiority  of  the 
Prussian  field  guns  was  greatly  enhanced  by 
the  skilful  manner  in  which  they  were  han 
dled.  The  principal  battles,  from  Weissen- 
burg  and  Forbach  to  Gravelotte,  Beaumont, 
Sedan,  and  Metz,  as  well  t  as  the  engagements 
with  the  French  army  of  the  north  and  sec 
ond  army  of  the  Loire,  were  to  a  great  extent 
a  series  of  artillery  combats ;  and  both  French 
and  Prussians  attribute  the  unprecedented  suc 
cesses  of  the  latter  mainly  to  the  artillery, 
which  whenever  practicable  was  employed  in 
mass.  At  Worth  a  grand  battery  of  96  guns 
covered  the  overwhelming  attack  on  MacMa- 
hon ;  near  Gravelotte  over  300  guns  deployed 
on  the  road  to  the  right  of  St.  Privat  and 


ARTILLERY 


795 


forced  the  French  infantry  to  retire ;  and  at 
Sedan,  the  greatest  artillery  battle  of  the  war, 
the  fire  of  more  than  750  guns  repeatedly 
drove  back  the  French  troops,  with  the  enor 
mous  loss  of  10,000  killed  and  20,000  wound 
ed.  The  heaviest  Krupp  guns  used  at  the 
siege  of  Paris  were  6-inch  (15-centimetre), 
weighing  about  6,000  Ibs.  and  firing  55  to  60-lb. 
projectiles;  they  were  opposed  to  the  heaviest 
French  naval  guns.  As  a  matter  of  economy, 
converted  twelves  and  twenty-fours  of  bronze 
and  cast  iron  are  temporarily  retained  in  the 
Prussian  service  for  siege  and  reserve  pur 
poses.  The  larger  Krupp  calibres  are  from 
6  to  8,  8  to  0,  9  to  10,  11,  12,  and  14  inches, 
most  of  them  being  used  in  both  the  land 
and  naval  services  of  Prussia.  The  8-inch  sea- 
coast  gun  (20(J-lb.  projectile)  can  be  used  with 
great  effect  up  to  1,800  yards  against  ships 
covered  by  4£-inch  plates;  and  within  the 
same  range  the  9-inch  gun  (297-lb.  projectile) 
can  do  very  serious  injury  to  6-inch  armor 
plates ;  up  to  700  yards  the  9-inch  gun  can 
breach  an  8-inch  shield,  but  at  greater  dis 
tances  11-inch  guns  must  be  employed,  which, 
with  their  495-lb.  projectiles,  are  very  effective 
against  the  heaviest  ironclads  at  2,000  yards. 
But  two  14-inch  guns  have  been  made ;  with 
an  150-lb.  charge  they  fire  shells  weighing 
1,080  Ibs.,  exclusive  of  a  bursting  charge  of  17 
Ibs.,  the  weight  of  the  solid  shot  being  1,212  Ibs. 
The  14-inch,  with  its  carriage  and  turntable, 
weighs  about  90  tons;  the  gun  alone  112,000 
Ibs.,  not  quite  as  much  as  the  American  20-inch 
Rodman.  The  English  have  always  deemed 
steel  guns  dangerous,  which  is  true  so  far  as 
large  solid  steel  guns  are  concerned ;  the  built- 
up  guns  of  this  material  have  however  shown 
remarkable  endurance,  but  in  justice  to  other 
systems  it  should  be  stated  that  the  Rodman 
prismatic  powder,  exclusively  used  in  the 
Krupp  gum'.,  gives  extremely  low  pressures. 
In  a  recent  competitive  trial  of  endurance,  how 
ever,  between  a  9-inch  Krupp  and  a  9-inch 
Armstrong,  both  using  prismatic  powder,  the 
German  gun  had  a  decided  advantage.  To 
Prussia  also  belongs  the  credit  of  the  introduc 
tion  of  the  new  8]-inch  rifled  mortar,  the  pro 
jectile  having  a  bursting  charge  of  15  Ibs.,  and 
exploding  by  a  percussion  fuso;  it  was  used 
during  the  late  war  at  the  sieges  of  Paris,  Bel- 
fort,  and  other  places,  the  precision  of  its  fire 
being  very  remarkable.  Russia  adopted  in  1859 
French  bronze  rifled  fours;  these  have  been 
given  up  and  replaced  by  Krupp  fours  and 
nines,  as  well  as  by  bronze  breech-loading  fours 
and  nines,  the  bores  lined  with  steel  tubes, 
made  at  the  arsenals  so  as  to  utilize  the  old 
material.  The  fours  weigh  765  Ibs.,  their  pro 
jectiles  16  Ibs.;  the  nines  1,382  Ibs.,  and  the 
projectiles  31  £  Ibs.  The  Krupp  system  has 
been  also  adopted  for  heavy  guns,  some  of 
which  are  constructed  by  the  government  at 
the  Ahukoff  works  near  St.  Petersburg;  the 
8  and  9-inch  guns  were  the  largest  calibres  up 
to  1868,  when  the  11-inch  gun  was  added. 


Russia  has  also  adopted  the  Prussian  rifled 
mortar;  there  are  two  calibres,  8  and  6-inch, 
weighing  8,624  and  3,360  Ibs.,  with  195  and  90- 
Ib.  projectiles,  the  charges  being  19  and  8  Ibs. 
respectively.  Immediately  after  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859  the  Austrians  put  in  service 
field  guns  very  similar  to  the  French  fours; 
later  they  had  rifled  guns  on  the  Lcnk  system, 
which  were  fired  with  guncotton  instead  of 
powder ;  finally  in  1863  they  adopted  an  entirely 
new  system  of  muzzle-loading  bronze  guns,  of 
two  calibres,  eights  and  fours,  weighing  1.099 
and  580  Ibs.  respectively,  with  14£  and  8-lb. 
projectiles.  For  mountain  service  bronze  rifled 
threes  are  used,  weighing  only  185  Ibs.  and 
firing  a  o-lb.  projectile.  The  Krupp  system 
has  been  adopted  for  all  their  heavy  guns. 
Italy  and  Spain  adopted  without  modification 
the  French  system  of  bronze  muzzle-loading 
rifles,  which  in  the  latter  country  were  replaced 
in  1868  by  Krupp  field  pieces,  some  bronze 
breech-loaders  being  also  made.  Following 
the  example  of  France,  Spain  had  her  large 
cast-iron  cannon  hooped  to  increase  their  dura 
bility,  the  results  giving  great  satisfaction.  The 
8-inch  Krupp  is  now  included  among  her  heavy 
guns,  and  in  Cuba  she  has  in  service  a  great 
many  large  American  cannon,  Parrott  rifles  and 
Rodman  smooth-bores.  Belgium  has  Krupp 
fours  and  sixes  with  calibres  of  3  and  3*5  inches ; 
her  heavy  guns  are  on  the  same  system.  The 
Krupp  field  guns  are  also  used  by  Turkey,  Ron- 
mania,  and  Servia,  as  well  as  in  China  and  Ja 
pan.  Switzerland,  after  adopting  in  18G2  rifled 
muzzle-loaders,  exchanged  them  in  1866  for 
steel  breech-loaders.  The  Swedish,  Dutch,  and 
Danish  governments,  like  the  French,  construct 
their  large  rifles  of  cast  irdft  hooped  with  steel ; 
some  of  them  have  shown  great  endurance,  a 
Swedish  rifle,  it  is  said, -having  been  fired  1,100 
times. — In  the  United  States  cast-iron  cannon 
attained  an  unrivalled  degree  of  perfection. 
Gen.  Rodman's  model,  which  does  not  ma- 


FIG.  12. — Rodman  Gun. 

terially  differ  from  that  of  1858,  was  adopted 
in  1860  for  all  seacoast  cannon;  the  exterior 
shape  is  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and 
relative  lightness,  the  parts  being  proportioned 
with  reference  to  the  exact  amount  and  locality 
of  the  strain,  to  the  entire  neglect  of  the  merely 
ornamental  or  traditional.  Rodman's  method 
of  hollow  casting  having,  in  conjunction  with 


796 


ARTILLERY 


his  big-grained  powder,  obviated  the  main 
difficulties  in  making  very  large  cast-iron  can 
non,  a  15-inch  gun  weighing  50,000  Ibs.  was 
successfully  cast  in  1800,  followed  in  18G3  by  a 
20-inch  gun  weighing  115,000  Ibs.  and  firing  a 
1,080-lb.  solid  shot.  The  Rodman  smooth-bores 
are  the  20,  15,  I-'),  10,  and  8-inch,  the  last  two 
being  but  temporarily  retained  in  service  until 
replaced  by  heavier  guns ;  only  two  20  arid  two 
13-inch  guns  have  been  made  for  experimental 
purposes,  but  they  have  given  favorable  results. 
A  large  number  of  15-inch  Rodmans  are  now 
in  service;  the  shell  weighs  330  Ibs.,  the  solid 
shot  from  440  to  425  Ibs.,  the  service  charge 
being  100  Ibs.,  which  will  give  an  initial  ve 
locity  of  1,500  feet.  The  accuracy  of  the  gun 
at  1,500  yards  is  as  great  as  that  of  any  rifle; 
its  trajectory  within  this  distance  is  flatter,  and 
the  projectile  bein  2;  round  has  greater  precision 
in  ricochet  fire.  On  the  other  hand,  rifles  can 
project  loaded  shells  of  peculiar  construction 
so  as  to  penetrate  and  then  explode  in  the  ob 
ject  ;  their  projectiles  do  not  lose  their  velocity 
as  soon  as  those  of  smooth-bores,  so  that  they 
are  more  effective  at  long  ranges;  while  if 
made  of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  though  far  more 
costly,  they  have  much  greater  endurance  than 
cast-iron  guns.  The  experimental  Rodman  cast- 
iron  rifles,  12  and  8-inch,  the  former  having  the 
exterior  form  of  the  15-inch  smooth-bore,  were 
found  not  to  possess  the  requisite  strength,  and 
the  United  States  is  now  (1873)  about  to  ex 
periment  upon  several  other  systems  of  rifled 
cannon,  with  a  view  to  the  adoption  of  that 
found  most  advantageous.  The  20,  15,  and  13- 
inch,  and  of  late  the  11-inch,  naval  guns  have 
the  Dahlgrcn  exterior  shape,  but  are  cast  hol 
low  with  the  Rodman  elliptical  chamber.  A 
3-inch  rifle  muzzle-loading  wrought-iron  gun 
was  adopted  in  1801 ;  it  is  made  by  wrapping 
boiler  plate  about  an  iron  bar  so  as  to  form  a 
cylindrical  mass,  which  is  brought  to  a  welding 
heat  in  a  furnace,  and  then  passed  between  roll 
ers  to  thoroughly  unite  it ;  the  trunnions  are 
afterward  welded  on  and  the  piece  bored  and 
turned  to  the  proper  size  and  shape,  the  latter 
being  of  the  general  character  of  the  Rodman 
pattern.  Its  weight  is  820  Ibs.,  that  of  the 
projectile  being  only  10  Ibs.,  in  which  respect 
it  does  not  compare  favorably  with  the  Prus 
sian,  Russian,  and  Austrian  fours,  which  fire  a 
much  heavier  projectile  in  proportion  to  the 
weight  of  the  piece.  The  4^-inch  rifle  is  simi 
lar  in  shape  to  the  3-inch,  and  was  adopted 
about  the  same  time :  it  is  of  cast  iron  cooled 
from  the  exterior,  its  weight  being  3,450  Ibs., 
that  of  the  projectile  30  Ibs.,  while  the  Russian 
nine,  which  only  weighs  1,382  Ibs.,  fires  a  31J- 
Ib.  projectile.  Though  intended  for  siege  and 
garrison  purposes,  it  has  been  used  with  an  army 
in  the  field  in  spite  of  its  want  of  mobility.  The 
Parrott  muzzle-loading  rifles  are  cast-iron  pieces 
of  ordinary  dimensions,  strengthened  by  shrink 
ing  a  wrought-iron  hoop  or  barrel  over  that 
portion  of  the  reenforce  which  surrounds  the 
charge ;  the  cast-iron  body  in  the  larger  cali- 


j  bres  is  hollow-cast  on  the  Rodman  plan ;   the 
i  barrel  is  shrunk  on  by  the  aid  of  heat,  the  cast 
;  iron   being  prevented    from   expanding  by   a 
stream  of  cold  water  made  to  run  through  the 
bore.     Parrott  guns  consist  of  300,  200,  100, 
I  30,  20,  and  10-pdrs.,  the  diameter  of  the  bores 
being   respectively  10,    8,  6 '4,  4-2,   3-67,  and 
<  3  inches,  and  weights  of  projectiles  250,  150, 
I  86,  28,  19,  and  10  Ibs.     This  system  has  not 
!  been  adopted  by  the  United  States  government, 
|  though  a  great  many  Parrott  rifles  were  used 
\  during  the  civil  war,  and  a  certain  number  of 
guns  of  the  larger  calibres  are  still  temporarily 
retained.      While   some  Parrott  cannon  have 
shown  very  great  endurance  and  been  largely 
used  in   breaching  masonry   and  other  siege 
operations,  a  number  have  burst,  particularly 
in  the  navy,  the  accidents  being  mainly  ascribed 
to  the  breaking  and  wedging  of  the  projectile 
in  the  bore ;    the  inventor,  however,  now  as 
serts  that  he  has  corrected  this  evil.     At  the 
beginning  of  the  war  a  number  of  old  42  and 
32-pdrs.  were  rifled  on  the  Parrott  system  for 
temporary  use,  and  served  with  projectiles  of 


Fro.  13.— Parrott  Gun. 

j  twice  the  weight  of  the  corresponding  round 

shot ;   the  42-pdrs.   only  were  hooped.      The 

|  Brooke  gun,  made  and  used  by  the  confcde- 

i  rates,  is  very  similar  to  the  Parrott  in  shape 

!  and  construction,  except  that  the  hoop  is  made 

I  of  wrought-iron   rings   not   welded   together. 

I  King's  counterpoise  gun  carriage,  recently  tried 

j  in  the  United  States,  was  found  to  excel  Mon- 

j  crieff ' s  in  strength  and  simplicity,  while  giving 

equal  protection  to  the  piece  and  cannoneers. 

The  counterpoise,  connected  with  the  top  car- 

I  riage  by  ropes  and  pulleys,  is  placed  in  a  well 

j  made  in  the  parapet  opposite   the  gun;    the 

chassis  slopes  considerably  to  the  rear,  so  as  to 

1  form  an  inclined  plane  for  the  descent  of  the 

!  piece  and  top  carriage ;  as  the  recoil  forces  them 

|  back  and  down,  the  counterpoise  rises  in  the 

well  until  its  weight  suffices  to  bring  the  piece 

to  rest  behind  the  parapet.     The  counterpoise 

being  heavier  than  the  gun,  the  cannoneers  have 

no  difficulty  in  making  it  run  up  into  battery 

after  throwing  the  eccentric  wheels  into  gear. 

An  improved  form  of  the  ribaudequin  or  organ 

gun  of  the  loth  century,   temporarily  in  the 

United  States  service,  received  favorable  men- 

\  tion  at  the  siege  of  Charleston  in  1863,  under 

the  name  of  the  Requa  rifle  battery;    it  con- 

j  sisted  of  25  horizontal  barrels  in  an  iron  frame, 


ARTILLERY 


ARTOIS 


797 


a  sliding  bar  in  rear  worked  by  two  levers 
forcing  the  cartridges  into  the  chambers.  Gat- 
ling's  mitrailleuse  or  machine  gun  was  adopted 
just  too  late  to  be  used  in  the  war.  It  is  com 
posed  of  six  barrels,  a  hand  crank  causing  them 
to  revolve  about  a  central  axis  parallel  to  their 
bores ;  as  each  barrel  comes  opposite  a  certain 
point  a  self-primed  metal-cased  cartridge,  fall 
ing  from  a  hopper,  is  pushed  into  the  breech  by 
a  plunger,  where  it  is  exploded  by  the  firing  pin. 
The  machinery  is  simple  and  not  apt  to  get  out 
of  order,  and  the  gun  can  fire  200  shots  a  minute 
with  great  range  and  precision.  There  are  two 
calibres  in  the  United  States  service,  1-inch  and 
l|-inch,  the  former  firing,  besides  the  ^-lb.  bul 
let,  a  cartridge  containing  1C  smaller  projectiles, 
which  at  short  ranges  is  highly  effective.  As 
the  weight  of  the  Gatling  gun  (1,000  Ibs.)  is 
very  great  compared  to  that  of  the  charge, 
there  is  little  or  no  recoil,  and  when  once 
pointed  it  requires  hardly  any  adjustment.  It 
is  an  admirable  arm  against  night  attacks,  as 


FIG.  14.— Gatling  Gun. 

well  as  to  sweep  flanks  of  fortifications,  bridges, 
streets,  breaches,  &c.,  and  is  in  general  use  in 
the  United  States  for  the  defence  of  military 
posts  on  the  Indian  frontier.  The  Gatling  gun 
has  been  also  adopted  by  England,  Russia, 
Austria,  Turkey,  and  Egypt.  The  light  guns 
employed  by  the  United  States  troops  during 
the  civil  war  consisted  of  3 -inch  wrought-iron 
rifles,  3-inch  Parrotts.  and  12-pdr.  Napoleon 
guns;  the  last,  though  abandoned  in  Europe, 
being  still  retained  in  the  American  service. 
Heavy  rifled  guns  played  a  very  prominent 
part  in  siege  operations,  the  reduction  of  Fort 
Pulaski  demonstrating  that  at  2,400  yards  they 
can  breach  the  best  constructed  brick  scarp ; 
at  Fort  Sumter  the  barbette  fire  was  entirely 
destroyed  and  the  work  badly  crippled  by  14 
Parrott  rifles  (300,  200,  and*  100-pdrs.)*  at 
ranges  varying  from  3.428  to  4,290  yards.  Ver 
tical  fire  was  largely  used  also  on  both  sides. 
In  April,  1862,  Fort  Jackson,  Louisiana,  was 
bombarded  at  from  2,950  to  3,980  yards  by  19 


13-inch  mortars  from  the  mortar  flotilla  under 
Admiral  Porter ;  the  fire  was  exceedingly  ac 
curate,  and  at  the  end  of  seven  days  made  the 
place  untenable.  At  the  assault  alter  the  ex 
plosion  of  the  mine  at  Petersburg,  July  80, 
18(54,  10  10-inch  mortars,  using  case  for  the 
first  time  in  America,  prevented  an  annoy 
ing  confederate  battery  from  firing  a  single 
shot.  The  little  24-pdr.  Coehorn  mortar  proved 
very  useful,  particularly  at  the  sieges  of  Charles 
ton  and  Petersburg.  This  war  also  presents 
various  instances  of  the  employment  of  artil 
lery  masses.  At  Malvern  Hill,  July  1,  18(12,  the 
repeated  assaults  of  the  confederate  infantry 
were  handsomely  repulsed  by  a  grand  battery 
of  more  than  150  guns  under  Gen.  Barry,  chief 
of  artillery,  posted  on  the  heights  to  the  west 
of  the  plateau.  At  Chancellor.sville,  May  2-8, 
1863,  after  the  rout  of  Howard's  corps,  the  vic 
torious  confederates  were  checked  and  driven 
back  by  24  pieces  in  mass  hastily  collected  from 
different  corps ;  and  at  the  same  time  another 
battery  of  38  guns  assembled  near 
Fairview  under  Col.  Best,  chief 
of  artillery  of  the  12th  corps,  did 
great  service  in  keeping  back  the 
enemy.  At  Gettysburg,  July  1-3, 
1863/120  confederate  guns  under 
Gen.  Pendleton,  chief  of  artillery, 
opened  on  the  left  of  the  Union 
army  preparatory  to  an  assault. 
Their  fire  was,  however,  too  much 
dispersed;  and  although  Gen. 
Hunt,  chief  of  artillery,  could  only 
bring  80  pieces  to  reply,  he  was 
able  to  render  most  efficient  assist 
ance  to  the  infantry  in  repulsing 
both  of  their  grand  columns  of  at 
tack. — Rapid  as  the  development 
of  artillery  has  been  since  1850,  we 
are  still  in  a  period  of  transition  due 
to  the  successful  introduction  of 
rifled  cannon.  This  condition  of 
change  has  also  necessarily  extend- 
!  ed  to  the  science  of  fortification,  which  must 
f  conform  to  the  offensive  capacities  of  artillery. 
:  (See  CANXOX,  GUNXEEY,  and  GUNPOWDEE.) 

ARTIODACTTLES,  a  name  given  by  Owen  to 
the   even-toed    division   of    the    ungulata   or 
hoofed,  herbivorous  animals,  including  the  ru 
minants  or  the  two-toed  animals  which  chew 
I  the  cud,  like  the  cow,  sheep,  antelope,  camel, 
and  the  fossil  anoplotherium,  and  the  omniyo- 
|  rous  mammals  like  the  hog.     In  the  opposite 
!  division  of  the  perissodactylcs,  there  is  an  odd 
number  of  toes :   either  one,  as  in  the  solidungu- 
i  late  horse  and  hipparion ;  three  or  five,  as  in 
1  the  multungulate  tapir,  rhinoceros,  and  pala?- 
i  otherium;  or  five,  as  in  the  proboscidian  ele 
phant  and  mastodon. 

ARTOIS,    a    former    province    of    northern 

France,  which,  with  a  small  portion  of  Picardy, 

;  now  forms   the  department   of  Pas-de-Calais. 

:  It  lay  principally  between  Flanders  on  the  X.  E. 

and  E.  and  Picardy  on  the  S.  W. ;  area,  about 

1,800  sq.  m.     The*land  is  here  almost  level,  and 


798 


ARTOT 


ARUNDEL 


the  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  owing  to  the  abun 
dance  of  streams.  Artesian  wells  receive  their 
name  from  Artois,  where  they  have  been  com 
mon  for  many  years.  (See  PAS-DE-CALAIS.) 
Artois  was  named  from  the  Atrebates,  its  origi 
nal  inhabitants.  After  being  subject  from  the 
5th  to  the  9th  century  to  the  Franks,  it  was 
made  in  863  a  part  of  the  dowry  of  Judith, 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bald,  when  she  mar 
ried  Baldwin  of  Flanders,  but  it  was  restored 
to  France  when  Isabella  of  Hainault  married 
Philip  Augustus  in  1180.  Louis  IX.  made  it  a 
county  in"  1236,  under  his  brother  Robert  as 
count.  Artois  was  henceforth  governed  by 
Robert's  descendants,  male  and  female;  but 
one  of  the  latter  marrying  a  Flemish  prince, 
the  county  became  part  of  Flanders  until  the 
treaties  of  the.  Pyrenees  and  of  Nirneguen 
(1659  and  1678),  when  it  was  again  made  part 
of  France.  Before  his  accession  to  the  throne 
(1824)  and  after  his  abdication  (1830)  Charles  X. 
bore  the  title  of  count  of  Artois. 

ARTOT,  Joseph,  a  Belgian  violinist,  born  in 
Brussels  in  1815,  died  in  Paris,  July  20,  1845. 
When  a  mere  child,  he  was  able  to  execute 
very  difficult  pieces  on  the  violin.  In  the  con 
servatoire  at  Paris,  he  won  at  the  age  13  the 
first  prize  for  violin  playing.  After  travelling 
over  Europe  with  marked  success,  he  associated 
himself  in  1843  with  Mme,  Damoreau,  and  they 
gave  concerts  in  the  United  States,  soon  after 
which  he  died. 

ARUNDEL,  Thomas  Howard,  earl  of  Arundel 
and   Surrey,   an  English   patron  of  art,   born 
July  7,  1592,  died  in  Padua,  Oct.  4,  1646.     Un 
der  Elizabeth  he  enjoyed  by  courtesy  the  title 
of  Lord  Multravers.     The  titles  forfeited  by  the 
attainder  of  his  father  were  restored  in  1603  ; 
he  was  created  earl  marshal  in  1621,  and  earl 
of  Norfolk  in  1644.     He  served  as  privy  coun 
cillor,  lord  high  steward  at  the  trial  of  Lord 
Strafford,  envoy  to  the  queen  of  Bohemia  and  I 
the  states  general  of  the  Netherlands,  and  am 
bassador   extraordinary  to    the    emperor  Fer-  | 
dinand   II.      lie  is  best  remembered  by  his  i 
gallery    of    statuary,    which  •  he    commenced  | 
during  his  residence  in  Italy  (1607-'14),  and 
for  the  collection  of  which  he  sent  John  Evelyn 
to  Rome,  and  Mr.  (afterward  Sir)  William  Petty 
to  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.     The  English  am 
bassadors  at  the  Hague,  Turin,  Brussels,  and  | 
Madrid  also  aided  in  its  formation.     Petty  ac-  | 
quired  valuable    works  at  Paros,   Delos,   and 
Smyrna,    particularly   the    celebrated    Parian 
Chronicle,  a  long,  oblong  slab  of  marble,  with  | 
important  chronological   records.    The  Arun- 
delian  collection,  when   entire,  comprised  37 
statues,  128  busts,   and  250  marbles  with  in-  ! 
scriptions,  exclusive  of  sarcophagi,  altars,  and 
fragments ;  it  included  also  gems,  medals,  and 
other  intaglios  which  Lord  Arundel  had  pur 
chased  at  Venice  from  Daniel  Nys  for  £10,000. 
During  the  civil  war  (1 642),  when  he  returned  ' 
to  Italy,  part  of  the  collection,  chiefly  the  gems,  j 
were  believed  to  have  been  removed  by  him ;  I 
while  of  those   confiscated  by  parliament,  a  i 


number  were  said  to  have  been  secured  by  the 
Spanish  ambassador  in  London,  through  the 
medium  of  Cromwell,  for  removal  to  Spain. — 
On  Lord  Arundel's  death  his  personal  estate 
was  divided  between  his  eldest  son  Henry 
and  his  second  son  Sir  William,  the  celebrated 
Viscount  Stafford,  who  was  executed  in  1680. 
His  grandson  Henry,  6th  duke  of  Norfolk,  in 
1667  presented  the  inscribed  marbles  forming  a 
part  of  his  moiety  to  the  university  of  Oxford, 
at  the  instance  of  Evelyn  and  Selden.  The 
statues,  chiefly  the  busts,  were  in  1755  pre 
sented  to  the  university  of  Oxford  by  the  coun 
tess  dowager  of  Pomfret,  into  whose  possession 
they  had  passed.  Other  works  of  the  Arundel 
collection  were  scattered;  some  went  to  Chis- 
wick  House,  others  to  Beaconsfield,  to  Fawley 
Court,  to  the  Norfolk  seat  at  Worksop  Manor, 
&c.  The  divorced  duchess  of  Norfolk,  by 
whom  the  busts  and  statues  were  sold,  was  also 
the  owner  of  the  cameos  and  intaglios,  which 
finally  passed  to  the  duke  of  Marlborotigh  and 
are  known  as  the  Marlborough  gems.  Lord 
Arunders  favorite  bronze  head  of  Homer, 
which  is  introduced  into  his  portrait  by  Van 
dyke,  was  purchased  by  Lord  Exeter  and  pre 
sented  by  him  to  the  British  museum.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Greek  inscriptions  in  the 
Arundel  collection  at  Oxford  were,  according 
to  Gassendi,  discovered  by  Peiresc  at  Smyrna 
previous  to  their  having  been  secured  by  Petty. 
They  were  increased  by  Selden's  private  col 
lection  and  other  contributions  to  150  in 
scribed  marbles  of  various  descriptions.  It  is 
proposed  to  remove  both  the  Arundel  and 
Pomfret  marbles  from  the  rooms  beneath  the 
Bodleian  library,  where  they  now  are  (1873), 
to  the  new  Oxford  museum.  The  Parian 
Chronicle  was  executed  at  Paros  about  263  B. 
C.,  and  contains  chronological  records  from 
1582  to  264  B.  0.  Celebrated  among  Lady 
Pomfret's  contributions  to  the  collection  are  a 
colossal  torso  of  a  Minerva,  and  several  statues 
of  Roman  senators,  including  one  supposed  to 
represent  Cicero.  At  the  suggestion  of  Sir 
Richard  Cotton,  and  in  concert  with  two  em 
inent  scholars,  Selden  published  Marmora 
ArundcUana  (1628).  An  edition  by  Prideanx 
of  the  whole  set  of  inscriptions,  issued  in  1676 
under  the  title  of  Marmora  Oxoniensia,  ex 
Arundelianis,  Seldenianis,  &c.,  was  repub- 
lished  with  additional  comments  by  Mattaire  in 
1732.  In  1763  a  new  and  splendid  edition  was 
published  under  the  auspices  of  Dr.  Chandler 
of  Magdalen  college,  including  ancient  inscrip 
tions  collected  by  various  learned  travellers 
and  engravings  of  167  marbles,  103  of  which 
belonged  to  the  Pomfret  donation.  Among  the 
other  valued  authorities  on  the  subject  is 
Bockh's  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Gra'carum, — 
The  Arundel  society  in  London,  for  the  multi 
plication  of  fine  chromotint  copies  of  remark 
able  monuments  of  the  old  masters,  was  founded 
in  1849,  and  has  given  a  wide  and  cheap  circu 
lation  to  works  of  art  which  had  been  pre 
viously  accessible  only  to  the  rich. 


AltUNDELIAN   MARBLES 


ARYAN  LANGUAGE 


'99 


ARODELIAN  MARBLES.  See  ABUNDEL,  THOM 
AS  HOWARD. 

ARUNDELL,  Blanch,  daughter  of  the  earl'  of 
Worcester,  and  wife  of  Lord  Thomas  Arundell, 
died  in  1649,  aged  66.  With  only  25  men  she 
for  nine  days  defended  Wardour  castle  against 
1,300  of  the  parliamentary  troops,  and  finally 
made  an  honorable  surrender,  the  conditions  of 
which  were  broken  by  the  victors.  Her  tomb 
is  in  the  chapel  of  the  castle. 

ARWIDSSON,  Adolf  Ivar,  a  Swedish  poet, 
born  at  Padasjoki  in  Finland,  Aug.  7,  1791, 
died  at  Viborg,  June  21,  1858.  He  was  in 
structed  in  history  at  the  university  of  Abo, 
where  he  founded  in  1821  t\\e  Abo  Morgoriblad, 
a  literary  and  political  journal.  This  enter 
prise  was  unsuccessful,  as  the  Russian  gov 
ernment  suppressed  the  publication  in  a  few 
months,  on  account  of  its  outspoken  judgments 
of  the  acts  of  the  authorities.  Soon  after  this 
Arwidsson  published  a  political  essay  in  the 
Mnemosyne,  which  was  of  such  a  tone  as  to 
lead  to  his  immediate  banishment.  He  went 
to  Sweden,  secured  a  position  in  the  royal  li 
brary  at  Stockholm,  was  made  its  chief  libra 
rian  in  1843,  and  continued  in  this  office  till  his 
death.  In  the  last  years  of  his  life  the  Russian 
decree  of  banishment  against  him  was  annulled, 
and  it  was  while  taking  advantage  of  this  to 
revisit  Finland  that  he  died.  His  principal 
works  are :  Ungdoms  Rimfrost  ('"  The  Hoar 
frost  of  Youth,"  Stockholm,  1832),  a  collection 
of  poems ;  an  excellent  collection  of  Swedish 
folk  songs  under  the  title  Svenslca  Fornsdnger 
("Ancient  Swedish  Songs,"  3  vols.,  1834-'42); 
Stockholm  forr  och  nu  ("  Stockholm  formerly 
and  now,"  1837-'40);  and  a  translation  of  the 
Icelandic  Friiliiofs  Saga  (2d  ed.,  Stockholm, 
1841). 

ARYAN  RACE  AND  LANGUAGE.  Arya  (San 
skrit,  dry  a  ;  Zend,  airy  a]  is  a  name  by  which 
the  cultivated  race  of  parts  of  S.  W.  Asia 
(Iran  and  India)  anciently  called  itself,  by 
way  of  distinction  from  the  ruder  aborigines 
by  whom  it  was  surrounded  or  among  whom 
it  had  intruded  itself;  and  the  adjective  Aryan 
is  now  commonly  used  to  designate  collectively 
the  principal  tongues  and  races  both  of  the  re 
gion  indicated  and  of  Europe.  Ariana,  Iran, 
Iron,  and  other  kindred  appellations,  are  de 
rived  from  it;  its  own  derivation  is  wholly  ob 
scure,  and  the  various  conjectures  formed  re 
specting  it  are  not  worth  reporting  here.  At 
tempts  have  been  made  to  trace  it  also  in 
European  use,  but  they  have  not  been  success 
ful.  It  is,  then,  strictly  applicable  only  to  the 
Asiatic  or  Indo-Pe-sian  division  of  the  family, 
and  it  is  so  applied  by  the  great  majority  of 
German  authorities,  with  many  French,  Eng 
lish,  and  others;  while  the  whole  family  is 
styled  Japhetic,  or  (oftenest  by  the  Germans) 
Indo-Germanic,  or  Indo-European :  it  is  doubt 
less  the  unwieldiness  of  the  last  two  names  that 
has  given  superior  currency  of  late  to  Aryan. 
—The  Aryan  family  of  languages  is  divided 
into  seven  principal  branches  :  1,  Germanic  or 


1  Teutonic  ;  2,  Slavo-Lithuanic  or  Letto-SIavic ; 
I  3,    Celtic ;    4,  Italic  (Latin,  &c.) ;    5,   Greek ; 
|  6,  Iranian  or  Persian ;   7,  Sanskritic  or  Indian. 
That   all   the   languages  mentioned  do  really 
form  one  family  together,  as  common  descen- 
;  dants  of  a  single  original,  is  beyond  all  question  ; 
1  the  correspondences  which  they  exhibit,  both 
of  material  and  of  structure,  are  such  as  admit 
of  no   other   explanation.      The   comparative 
I  study  of  languages  shows  that  there  may  he 
between  any  two  even  unrelated  dialects  a  cer 
tain  number  of  resemblances  purely  accidental ; 
,  also,  that  one  may  borrow  from  another  either 
single  scattering  words,  or,  under  the  influence 
i  of  mixture  of  races  or  of  influence  exercised  by 
I  conquest  or  by  superiority  of  civilization,  whole 
parts  of  a  vocabulary ;  but  only  common  <le- 
I  scent  can  account  for  resemblances  that  reach 
'  even  into,   and  are  most  conspicuous  in,  the 
I  whole  series   of  numerals,   the  personal   and 
!  other  pronouns,  the  words  of  relationship,  and 
the  like;  and,  yet  more,  that  reach  into  the 
j  apparatus  of  verb  and  noun  inflection,  and  of 
!  derivation.     On  the  other  hand,   there  is  no 
!  amount  and  degree  of  discordance  which  may 
not  arise  between  languages  originally  one,  but 
|  long  separated  and  growing  apart.     The  difter- 
i  ences  between   English  and  Irish  and  Polish 
and  Hindi  are  merely  greater  in  amount  and 
i  degree  than  between  English  and  Dutch  and 
German,  covering    up    and    disguising    more 
effectually    the    common    basis   which   really 
underlies  the  one  series  as  well  as  the  other, 
and  making  a  more  thorough  and  skilled  search 
necessary  to  its  discovery.     By  way  of  speci 
men  of  the  correspondences  of  Aryan  language, 
we  give  below  the  forms  in  all  the  brandies  of 
one  word  out  of  each  class  mentioned  above  : 


English. 

Slavic, 

Lithuania, 

Celtic, 

Latin, 

Greek, 

Iranian, 

Sanskrit, 


three, 
tri, 

tri, 

tri, 

tres, 

treis, 

thri, 

tri, 


me. 

man. 

manen, 

me, 

me, 

me, 

me, 

ma, 


mother. 

mater. 

motcr. 

math  air. 

matfr. 

meter. 

matar. 

matar. 


In  verbal  conjugation,    relics  of  the  original 
i  personal  endings  mi,  ti,  si  in  the  singular,  and 
masi,  tfisi,  nti  in  the  plural,  are  more  or  less 
'  distinctly  traceable  in  all  the  branches,  espe- 
'  cially  among  the  older  dialects.     It  is  needless 
|  to  go  further  in  this  illustration :  the  compara 
tive  grammars  of  Bopp  and  Schleicher  give  a 
!  complete  exhibition  of  the  accordant  ground- 
|  work  and  superstructure,  phonetic  and  gram- 
|  matical,   of  the  whole  body  of  languages  in- 
I  eluded  in  the  family ;  and  a  host  of  less  com- 
!  prehensive  works  show  in  like  manner  the  con 
nection  of  one  and  another  branch  with  the 
rest. — It  is  held  by  those  who  have  studied 
j  Aryan  language  most  successfully,  that  its  en- 
•  tire  structure  is  developed  out  of  monosyllabic 
i  elements,  usually  called  roots.     These  were  of 
'  two  classes:  predicative  or  verbal,  indicating 
action  or  quality ;  and  demonstrative  or  pro- 
;  nominal,  indicating  position  or  direction.     By 
i  the  combination  of  these  two,  especially,  were 


800 


ARYAN  RACE  AND  LANGUAGE 


grammatical  forms  made  and  parts  of  speech  ' 
distinguished.  The  addition  of  pronominal  | 
endings  to  verbal  roots  made  a  verbal  tense  , 
in  three  numbers  (the  dual  perhaps  of  later  j 
origin  than  singular  and  plural,  and  mostly  lost  j 
again  in  the  later  languages),  with  three  per-  | 
sons  in  each.  The  prefixion  of  an  "  augment " 
(doubtless  a  pronominal  adverb,  meaning 
"then")  made  of  this  a  past  tense;  but  this 
augment-preterite  has  left  only  scanty  and 
doubtful  relics,  except  in  Indo-Persian  and 
Greek.  Another  past  tense,  or  perfect,  was 
formed  by  reduplicating  the  roots,  apparently 
to  signify  completed  action.  This  is  the 
original  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  perfects,  our 
( "  strong  "  or  irregular)  preterite,  &c.  Futures 
were  made  later,  with  auxiliary  verbs;  one, 
from/,  "go,"  apparently  passed  over  into  a 
modal  use,  as  an  optative,  and  was  succeeded 
by  another,  from  as,  "be."  A  subjunctive 
mood,  of  more  doubtful  derivation,  was  added ; 
and  an  imperative,  probably  limited  at  first  to 
the  second  person.  This,  along  with  parti 
ciples  or  verbal  adjectives  (for  the  develop 
ment  of  distinct  infinitives,  verbal  nouns,  was 
probably  later),  appears  to  have  been  the  whole 
primitive  structure  of  the  simple  verb  ;  a  cau 
sative  conjugation,  besides,  has  had  important 
developments  in  the  derived  tongues.  The  de 
clensional  inflection  (of  nouns,  adjectives,  and 
pronouns)  distinguished  also  three  numbers, 
and  (including  the  vocative)  eight  cases  in  each 
number  ;  or,  besides  the  six  we  know  in  Latin, 
an  instrumental,  denoting  with  or  by,  and  a 
locative,  denoting  in.  Into  this  inflection  was 
introduced  further  a  distinction  of  sex  :  first, 
by  the  special  characterization  of  a  feminine ; 
later,  by  the  additional  separation  of  a  neuter 
(which  in  general  differs  from  the  masculine 
only  in  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative). 
From  the  original  basis  of  sex,  however,  there 
was  a  very  wide  departure  even  in  the  primi 
tive  period,  the  system  of  grammatical  gender 
becoming  very  complicated  and  artificial.  The 
declension  of  pronouns  was  in  many  points  ir 
regular  ;  there  were  as  yet  no  relative  pro 
nouns,  that  order  having  grown  later  out  of 
the  demonstratives  or  interrogatives.  Of  the 
other  parts  of  speech,  the  adverbs  alone  were 
a  fully  formed  class ;  prepositions  were  still 
only  adverbial  prefixes  to  verbs  ;  conjunctions 
were  very  few,  and  only  the  merest  connec 
tives,  the  construction  of  sentences  being  of 
the  simplest  character ;  articles  did  not  come 
into  existence  till  comparatively  modern  times. 
Numerals  had  been  produced  at  least  up  to  a 
hundred ;  as  to  thousand,  the  case  is  very 
doubtful.  The  apparatus  of  noun  and  adjec 
tive  derivation,  in  both  primary  and  secondary 
suffixes,  was  already  elaborated  in  its  principal 
features  ;  conspicuous  examples  are  the  endings 
of  comparative  and  superlative,  and  of  par 
ticiples. — This  primitive  structure  of  Aryan 
language  has  been  variously  modified,  reduced, 
and  added  to,  in  the  later  history  of  the  family ; 
it  was  most  fully  and  distinctly  preserved  in 


the  Sanskrit,  which  on  that  account  casts  most 
light  upon  the  common  history  of  all ;  but  there 
are  points  in  which  each  branch  leads  the  rest. 
On  the  whole,  the  tendency  has  been  toward  a 
reduction  of  earlier  synthetic  structure,  and  a 
prevalence  of  analytic  methods  of  expression, 
by  the  substitution  of  prepositions  for  case- 
endings,  and  of  auxiliaries  for  verb  inflections, 
and  by  the  multiplication  of  relational  words. 
Of  all  the  languages  of  the  family,  the  English 
has  gone  furthest  in  this  direction.  Aryan 
language  is  called  distinctively  "  inflective  "  (as 
is  also  Semitic,  although  its  inflectiveness  is  of 
a  very  different  character).  By  this  is  meant 
that  it  not  merely  forms  combinations  from 
elements  originally  independent,  reducing  one 
of  them  to  a  subordinate  position,  as  "forma 
tive  element,"  indicating  a  modification  or  re 
lation  of  the  other  or  radical  element ;  but  that 
it  also  peculiarly  integrates  or  unifies  the  com 
bined  elements,  losing  sight  of  and  disguising 
their  separate  individuality,  and  even  allowing 
the  radical  part  to  become  modified  within 
itself  by  the  addition  of  the  other :  thus,  San 
skrit  vid,  Teda,  vaidilca ;  Greek  AE/TTW,  ehnrov, 
/.e^onta  ;  Latin  fid,  jfldo,  fcediis ;  English 
(where  the  endings  have  disappeared)  sing, 
sang,  sung,  song.  It  is  matter  of  dispute  among 
linguists  whether  such  changes  are  by  origin 
purely  phonetic,  or  symbolically  significant : 
the  former  appears  to  be  the  better  opinion. — 
The  unity  of  Aryan  language  necessarily  im 
plies  the  former  existence  of  a  unitary  Aryan 
people ;  that  is,  at  some  time  in  the  past  there 
must  have  existed  somewhere  in  the  world  a 
single  limited  community,  in  whose  use  the 
language  above  described  grew  up  and  took 
shape,  and  by  whose  extension  and  separation 
it  became  so  widely  spread  and  so  diversified 
as  we  find  it  actually  to  be ;  but  when  and 
where,  it  is  impossible  to  say  with  any  definite- 
ness.  The  greatest  antiquity  we  can  attain  in 
the  history  of  the  family  is  3000-2000  B.  0., 
when  the  Indians  and  Persians  formed  together 
one  people.  The  oldest  parts  of  the  Vedas 
may  be  as  old  as  2000  13.  C. ;  of  the  Avesta, 
considerably  less.  We  have  no  trustworthy 
scale  as  yet  with  which  to  measure  chrono 
logically  the  changes  of  language;  and  our 
I  opinions  of  the  time  of  Aryan  unity  must  be 
I  governed  greatly  by  our  opinions  as  to  the 
j  wider  question  of  the  antiquity  of  man ;  the 
I  former  is  variously  estimated  at  from  three  up 
to  five  or  ten  thousand  years  before  Christ,  As 
I  to  the  place,  current  opinion  is  inclined  to  fix 
it  on  the  highland  of  central  Asia,  near  the 
head  waters  of  the  Ox  us  and  Jaxartes ;  and 
I  this  situation  is  claimed  to  be  pointed  out  by 
!  the  evidence  of  the  language  itself.  That, 
I  however,  is  by  no  means  the  case ;  the  mere 
fact  that  Indo-Persian  language  is  less  changed 
'  from  original  Aryan  than  is  the  speech  of  any 
other  branch  (which  is  all  the  linguistic  evidence 
!  that  can  be  alleged)  does  not  at  all  prove  that 
the  Indo-Persian  common  abode  is  nearest  to 
the  original  aoode  of  the  family ;  the  changes 


ARYAN  RACE   AND   LANGUAGE 


801 


of  language  arc  not  dependent  on  and  measured 
by  "emigration.  It  is  in  reality  only  the  testi 
mony  of  the  Bible  as  to  the  place  of  origin  of 
the  whole  human  race,  and  the  long-rooted 
opinions  which  have  grown  up  partly  under 
its  influence,  partly  under  that  of  the  known 
growth  and  spread  of  civilization,  that  have  led 
men  to  look  to  southwestern  Asia  as  the  cradle 
of  the  Aryan  race  and  speech.  Some  recent 
scholars,  rebelling  against  these  influences, 
have  fixed  it  rather  in  Europe ;  but  there  is 
nothing  of  definite  value  to  say  for  this  view. 
With  reference,  however,  to  the  degree  of 
cultivation  reached  by  the  Aryan  mother  tribe 
before  its  separation,  more  definite  and  trust 
worthy  information  is  obtainable  :  by  inference, 
namely,  from  the  words  which,  as  occurring  in 
all  or  nearly  all  the  branches,  must  be  sup 
posed  to  have  formed  a  part  of  the  primitive 
vocabulary.  The  items  of  such  information 
were  first"  put  together  by  A.  Kuhn ;  Pictet 
later  produced  an  elaborate  but  uncritical  and 
untrustworthy  work  on  the  subject ;  the  last 
attempt  at  reconstruction  of  the  Aryan  vo 
cabulary  is  by  Fick.  The  main  facts  established 
are  that  the  tribe  was  already  far  past  savagery, 
having  all  the  principal  domestic  animals  that 
we  have,  practising  the  arts  of  weaving  and 
agriculture,  being  acquainted  with  one  or  two 
metals  (whether  iron  is  not  certain),  and  pos 
sessing  some  of  the  most  important  cereals ;  it 
was  rather  pastoral-agricultural  than  nomadic 
in  its  way  of  life. — It  is,  of  course,  vain  to 
attempt  tracing  the  history  of  dispersion  and 
migration  of  the  branches  of  the  dismembered 
family  into  their  present  seats ;  but  such  dis 
persion  must  have  taken  place  mainly  by  grad 
ual  spread  and  unconscious  separation,  not 
by  a  deliberate  parting  and  marching  off  in 
different  directions,  as  some  seem  to  please 
themselves  with  fancying.  Even  the  grade  of 
kinship  between  the  branches  is  not  made  out 
beyond  dispute.  That  the  Sanskrit-speaking 
race  of  India  parted  from  the  Iranians,  on 
Iranian  territory,  and  entered  India  by  the 
northwest,  not  very  long  before  the  Vedic 
period,  is,  indeed,  universally  acknowledged. 
And  the  closer  relationship  of  Greek  and  Italic, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  Germanic  and  Letto- 
Slavic,  on  the  other,  is  quite  generally  held ; 
but  which  of  these  two  pairs  stands  nearer  to 
the  Asiatic  is  a  matter  of  less  unanimity  of 
opinion,  though  with  a  preponderance  to  the 
side  of  the  classic  tongues.  The  place  of  the 
Celtic,  again,  is  still  more  disputed  :  some  con 
nect  it  closely  with  the  Italic,  others  rather 
with  the  Germanic,  &c. ;  while  yet  others  re 
gard  it  as  quite  separate  from  all.  These  are 
matters  which  will  doubtless  be  determined  by 
and  by;  and  their  determination  may  throw 
more  light  than  we  have  at  present  upon  the 
general  course  of  the  movements  of  the  family. 
There  may  have  been  other  branches,  as  inde 
pendent  as  the  seven  mentioned,  but  driven  out 
of  existence  in  the  course  of  the  historical 
changes  that  time  has  brought ;  it  is  doubtful 
VOL.  i. — 51 


whether  the  Albanian,  or  Shkipetar,  is  not  a 
relic  of  such  a  branch,  the  Illyrian  ;  after  long 
doubt,  the  best  authorities  at  the  present  time 
appear  to  set  it  down  as  Aryan.  What  other 
races  may  have  earlier  occupied  a  part  of  the 
present  seats  of  the  Aryans  is  also  mainly 
matter  for  conjecture ;  but  that  the  latter  have 
encroached  upon  the  domain  of  Finno-Hun- 
garian  ("  Turanian  ")  tribes  in  northern,  and 
of  Iberians  (Basques)  in  southwestern  Europe, 
does  not  admit  of  question.  More  or  less  of 
mixture  with  aboriginal  races  is  a  natural  or 
unavoidable  result  of  such  wide  extension  ;  so 
that  Aryan  speech  is  likely  to  be  everywhere 
purer  than  Aryan  blood ;  and  there  may  be 
nations  or  tribes  in  which,  by  successive  in 
termixture,  Aryan  blood  is  in  a  minority,  even 
a  decided  one ;  yet  it  is  not  at  all  to  be 
questioned  that,  on  the  whole,  the  present 
geographical  limits  of  the  family  have  been 
reached  by  the  growth  and  spread  of  the 
original  Aryan  community.  No  hypothesis  of 
borrowing,  or  of  the  dominating  influence  of 
one  tribe,  propagating  and  imposing  its  own 
idiom  through  wide  regions,  can  possibly  ex 
plain  the  facts  of  the  case ;  such  influence  is 
absolutely  impossible  without  high  culture, 
aided  by  literature  and  the  art  of  writing,  of 
which  there  are  no  traces  in  the  pre-historic 
Aryan  period. — One  of  the  evidences  that  there 
is  a  unity  of  race  as  well  as  of  language  among 
the  branches  of  the  Aryan  family,  is  the  emi 
nence,  historical  or  literary,  or  both,  which  most 
of  them  have  won  among  mankind.  The  family 
was  far  from  being  the  first  to  rise  to  impor 
tance,  but  it  has  reached  a  higher  place,  and 
maintained  itself  there  more  persistently,  than 
any  other.  The  Persian  empire  may  be  re 
garded  as  the  earliest  appearance  of  an  Aryan 
people  as  a  leading  actor  in  the  drama  of  his 
tory  ;  then  Greek  and  Roman  supremacy  fol 
lowed  one  another  ;  and  in  the  modern  era,  it 
is  the  European  nations  of  this  kindred,  with 
their  colonies,  that  have  been  and  are  almost 
monopolizing  the  progressive  force  of  humanity. 
India  has  lived  a  more  isolated  life,  but  a  grand 
and  notable  one ;  and,  through  Buddhism,  it 
has  powerfully  influenced  a  great  part  of  Asia. 
This  historical  importance  of  the  Aryans  con 
stitutes  one  great  source  of  the  importance 
and  interest  belonging  to  the  study  of  their 
languages.  Another  is  the  high  rank  of  those 
languages  themselves,  as  being  confessedly  the 
most  perfect  instruments  of  human  expression 
and  aids  to  human  thought.  Moreover,  the 
immense  range  and  variety  of  Aryan  dialects, 
taken  in  connection  with  their  high  develop 
ment  and  with  the  legibility  of  their  history, 
have  made  the  study  of  this  family  the  train 
ing  ground  and  the  basis  of  general  linguistic 
science. — For  more  detailed  discussion  of  the 
matters  presented  here,  see  the  "  Lectures  on 
Language  "  of  Professors  Max  Miiller  and  W. 
D.  Whitney ;  the  second  volume  of  Duncker's 
Geschichte  des  Alterthums  ;  Pictet's  Origines 
indo-europeennes  ;  and  Fick's  Vergleichcndes 


802 


ARZACHEL 


ASBESTUS 


WdrterbucTi  der  IndogermaniscJien  SpracJien. 
The  last  two,  with  Bopp's  and  Schleicher's 
comparative  grammars,  have  been  mentioned 
above.  The  relations  of  Latin  and  Greek  re 
spectively  to  the  family  have  been  best  set 
forth  by  Oorssen,  Lateinische  Sprache,  and  G. 
Curtius,  Griechische  Etymologic. 

ARZACHEL,  Abraham,  a  Jewish  astronomer, 
born  at  Toledo,  Spain,  flourished  about  1060. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  the  obliquity  of  the  zodi 
ac,  and  determined  the  apogee  of  the  sun.  The 
famous  Alfonsine  astronomical  tables,  prepared 
in  1252  by  order  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile,  were 
derived  in  part  from  the  writings  of  Arzachel. 
Several  of  his  works  are  extant  in  Latin. 

ARZAMAS,  or  Arsamas,  a  town  of  European 
Russia,  capital  of  a  district,  in  the  government 
and  GO  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Nizhni  Novgorod,  on 
the  Tyesha;  pop.  in  1867,  10,517.  It  is  an  old 
town,  and  has  34  stone  churches,  a  fine  cathe 
dral  built  in  1812-'41,  several  convents,  manu 
factures  of  silk,  linen^  iron,  and  leather,  and 
two  annual  fairs. 

AS,  a  Roman  weight,  equivalent  to  the  libra 
of  12  ounces.  It  was  also  the  name  of  a  Ro 
man  brass  coin,  originally  an  as  in  weight,  but 
reduced  at  successive  times,  until  it  weighed 
but  half  an  ounce ;  it  was  stamped  at  first  with 
the  figure  of  a  sheep,  ox,  or  sow,  afterward 
with  the  face  of  Janus,  and  a  ship's  prow. 

AS,  or  Asa  (Norse,  plur.  ^E^ir ;  Ger.  plur. 
Aseri),  in  northern  mythology,  a  member  of 
the  ruling  race  of  gods,  12  male  and  12  female, 
including  Odin,  Thor,  Baldur,  Freyr,  Frigga, 
Freyja,  Idunna,  Eira,  and  Saga,  who  dwelt  in 
Asgard.  (See  MYTHOLOGY.) 

ASA,  the  third  king  of  Judah,  reigned  41 
years,  about  957-916  B.  0.  He  was  the  son 
and  successor  of  Abijam,  and  great-grandson 
of  Solomon.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
opposition  to  the  forms  of  idolatry  which  had 
become  prevalent  in  the  preceding  reigns.  Be 
ing  assailed  by  Zerah,  an  Ethiopian  king,  with 
an  immense  army,  Asa  won  a  complete  vic 
tory,  and  for  ten  years  enjoyed  peace.  Then 
he  became  involved  in  a  war  with  Baasha,  king 
of  Israel,  and,  at  the  cost  of  the  accumulated 
treasures  of  the  temple,  induced  the  king  of 
Damascus  to  enter  into  alliance  with  him.  His 
reign  was  upon  the  whole  a  prosperous  one. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jehoshaphat. 

ASAFCETIDA  (also  called  stercus  diaboli  and 
cibus  deorum),  a  resinous  gum  derived  from 
the  root  of  the  narthex  asafocMda,  a  plant 
of  the  family  unibellifero},  which  grows  in 
Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  neighboring  regions. 
It  yields  all  its  virtues  to  alcohol.  Triturated 
with  water,  it  forms  a  wrhite  or  pink  milky 
emulsion.  Its  peculiar  property  is  its  strong 
disagreeable  odor  and  taste.  This  resides  in 
the  volatile  oil  it  contains,  which  may  be  sepa 
rated  by  distilling  the  aqueous  or  alcoholic  so 
lution.  The  oil  is  said  to  contain  from  15 '75 
to  23  per  cent,  of  sulphur.  Asafoetida  is  used 
in  Persia  as  a  condiment  for  flavoring  sauces  and 
food.  The  leaves  are  eaten  and  the  root  roasted 


for  the  same  purpose.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as 
an  expectorant  and  antispasmodic  or  nervous 
stimulant.  It  is  supposed  to  act  beneficially  in 


Narthex    usafoetida. 

hysteria,  flatulence,  and  some  spasmodic  affec 
tions  of  the  respiratory  organs. '  (See  AXTI- 
SPASMODICS.)  The  volatile  oil  is  undoubtedly 
absorbed,  as  is  shown  by  the  odor  being  per 
ceptible  in  the  breath  and  other  excretions. 

ASAPH,  a  Levite,  appointed  by  David  as  lead 
ing  chorister  in  the  musical  services  which  he 
organized  in  connection  with  divine  worship. 
The  duty  thus  assigned  him  descended  by  a 
certain  succession  in  his  family,  constituting 
them  a  kind  of  order  parallel  with  the  priest 
hood,  though  not  equal  to  them  in  dignity  or 
influence.  The  "children  of  Asaph"  appear 
still  in  the  times  of  Ezra  and  Neheiniah  as 
holy  singers.  Asaph  is  called  in  Chronicles  a 
seer  (hozeK),  and  twelve  psalms  (1.  and  Ixxiii.- 
Ixxxiii.)  are  attributed  to  him.  Another  Asaph 
was  chancellor  of  King  Hezekiah. 

ASBEff,  in  Africa.     See  AIE. 

ASBESTUS  (Gr.  aafieoTos,  a  substance  unaffect 
ed  by  fire,  from  a  privative  and  cj3£vvvfj.t,  to 
quench),  a  term  used  rather  to  denote  a  pecu 
liar  form  assumed  by  several  minerals  than  to 
designate  any  particular  species.  Tremolite, 
actinolite,  and  other  forms  of  hornblende,  ex 
cepting  those  containing  much  alumina,  pass 
into  fibrous  varieties,  the  fibres  of  which  are 
sometimes  very  long,  fine,  flexible,  and  easily 
separable  by  the  fingers,  and  look  like  flax. 
These  kinds,  like  the  corresponding  mineral 
pyroxene,  are  called  asbestus.  Pliny  supposed 
it  to  be  a  vegetable  product,  although  good  for 
making  incombustible  cloth,  as  he  states.  The 
amianthus  of  the  Greeks  and  Latins  was  the 
same  thing ;  the  word  meaning  undefiled,  and 
alluding  to  the  facility  of  cleaning  the  cloth  by 
throwing  it  into  the  fire.  The  colors  vary  from 
white  to  green  and  wood-brown.  The  name 
amianthus  is  now  applied  usually  to  the  finer 
and  more  silky  kinds.  Mountain  leather  is  a 


ASBURY 


ASCAPJDES 


803 


kind  in  thin  flexible  sheets,  made  of  interlaced 
fibres,  and  mountain  cork  the  same  in  thicker 
pieces ;  both  are  so  light  as  to  float  on  water, 
and  they  are  often  hydrous.  The  individual 
crystals  of  asbestus  are  easily  separated  from 
each  other,  are  very  flexible  and  elastic,  and 
have  a  fine  silky  lustre.  A  single  fibre  fuses 
into  white  enamel  glass ;  but  in  the  mass  it  is 
capable  of  resisting  ordinary  flame,  and  has 
hence  been  extensively  applied  in  the  manu 
facture  of  fire-proof  roofing,  flooring,  steam 
packing,  clothing,  and  lamp  wicking.  The 
ancients  were  familiar  with  its  incombustibility, 
and  wove  a  cloth  out  of  it  for  the  purpose  of 
wrapping  up  the  bodies  of  the  dead  when  ex 
posed  on  the  funeral  pile ;  they  also  made  nap 
kins  of  it,  which  were  cleaned  by  throwing 
them  into  the  fire;  and  they  employed  the 
finer  varieties  for  the  wicking  of  votive  lamps. 
Gloves  for  handling  hot  iron  and  firemen's 
clothing  have  been  made  of  it  in  Bohemia  and 
France ;  and  at  one  time  it  was  thought  that 
an  important  industry  would  grow  out  of  this 
application,  but  experience  has  developed  some 
practical  difficulties,  and  asbestus  fabrics  are 
now  a  curiosity.  The  use  of  this  material  for  a 
non-conducting  envelope  of  steam  pipes,  for 
fire-proof  roofing,  and  for  safes,  bids  fair  to 
become  extensive. — Asbestus  occurs  abundant 
ly  in  Switzerland,  Italy,  Scotland,  on  the  island 
of  Corsica,  on  Staten  Island,  and  in  numerous  | 
other  localities.  A  magnesian-iron  hornblende  j 
called  anthophyllite  frequently  occurs  as  a  ! 
bowlder  on  the  island  of  New  York,  and  has  ! 
been  found  in  situ  at  the  corner  of  59th  street 
and  10th  avenue. 

ASBURY,  Francis,  the  first  bishop  of  the  Meth 
odist  Episcopal   church  ordained  in  America, 
born   at  Handsworth,  Staffordshire,  England, 
Aug.  20, 1745,  died  at  Spottsylvania,  Va,,  March 
31, 1816.    At  the  age  of  14  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  mechanic ;  but  through  the  influence  of 
the  Methodist  preachers  who  visited  his  father's 
house,  he  was  led  at  the  age  of  16  to  commence 
his  labors   as  a  local  preacher.     In  1767  he  I 
joined  the  itinerant  ministry,  and  after  three  I 
years  of  home  service  was  sent  in  1771  as  mis-  j 
sionary  to  America,  and  the  next  year  was  ap-  ! 
pointed  by  John  Wesley  general   assistant  in  ! 
America.     He  reinvigorated  the  itinerant  sys-  ! 
tern,  and  sent  missionaries  into  wide  ranges 'of  | 
country  to  preach  and  found  new  societies.    On  j 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  war,  many  | 
of  the  clergy  of  the  church  of  England  and  j 
some  of  the  Methodist  preachers  returned  to  j 
England.     Among  the  latter,  in  1778,  went  T.  j 
Rankin,  who  had  succeeded  Asbury  as  general  j 
assistant.    Asbury  resolved  to  remain  in  Ameri-  | 
ca.    In  common  with  many  others,  he  was  from  j 
conscientious  scruples  a  non-juror.     From  this  ! 
cause,  and  from   the  eflfect  of  Mr.  Wesley's 
"Calm  Address,  &c.,"  Asbury  and  his  Metho 
dist  coadjutors  were  regarded  with  suspicion  by 
the^ struggling  colonists,  and  often  molested  in 
their  work  ;  his  prudence  however  at  length  al 
layed  prejudice.    On  the  return  of  peace  it  was 


deemed  expedient  to  establish  an  independent 
Methodist  Episcopal  church  for  America.  Ac 
cordingly,  on  Sept.  2,  1784,  Thomas  Coke  was 
j  duly  ordained  by  Mr.  Wesley  and  two  other 
I  English  presbyters  superintendent  of  the  Meth 
odist  societies  in  America,  with  instructions  to 
|  ordain  Asbury  as  joint  superintendent.  On 
I  Dec.  27,  1784,  after  unanimous  election  by  the 
|  American  preachers,  he  was  inducted  into  of 
fice.  For  more  than  30  years  his  personal  his 
tory  is  the  history  of  the  progress  and  develop 
ment  of  Methodism  in  America.  In  middle 
life  he  was  of  robust  frame,  of  medium  stature, 
with  a  fresh  and  healthful  countenance,  and  a 
keen,  penetrating  eye  that  told  of  his  wonder 
ful  insight  into  character.  Though  not  privi 
leged  with  the  culture  of  the  university,  he 
had  acquired  a  moderate  knowledge  of  the 
Greek  and  Hebrew  languages.  In  connec 
tion  with  Coke,  he  devised  a  plan  for  a  com 
plete  system  of  academic  and  collegiate  educa 
tion,  and  as  early  as  1785  laid  the  foundations 
for  the  first  Methodist  college  in  America.  As 
an  organizer  and  administrator  Asbury  was 
only  inferior  to  Wesley,  by  whom  he  had  been 
instructed,  and  much  of  whose  spirit  he  had 
imbibed.  During  his  American  ministry  he 
travelled  over  270,000  miles  through  the  entire 
extent  of  the  country;  he  preached  about  16,- 
500  sermons,  or  nearly  one  each  day  for  45 
years ;  he  presided  at  224  annual  conferences, 
and  ordained  more  than  4,000  preachers.  The 
organization,  discipline,  and  marvellous  pro 
gress  of  Methodism  were  largely  due  to  the 
sagacity,  administrative  ability,  and  untiring 
activity  of  Asbury.  Through  the  itinerant 
system,  of  which  he  was  the  reinvigorator  and 
life-long  illustrator,  the  spiritual  destitution  of 
our  pioneer  population  was  relieved.  He  was 
never  married.  His  only  literary  works  are  his 
"Journals"  (3  vols.  8vo),  an  invaluable  record 
of  his  remarkable  life. 

,  ASCALON  (Heb.  AshMon ;  Arab.  Askalan\ 
one  of  the  five  leading  or  princely  cities  of 
Philistia,  was  situated  midway  between  Gaza 
and  Ashdod,  on  the  Mediterranean,  about  37 
m.  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem.  Though  several  times 
mentioned  in  the  poetical  books  of  the  Scrip 
tures,  it  figured  less  conspicuously  in  the  early 
history  of  the  Hebrews  than  in  that  of  the 
Maccabees  and  the  crusades.  It  was  twice 
taken  by  Jonathan  the  Asmonean,  was  the 
scene  of  a  great  victory  of  the  Christians  under 
Godfrey  and  Tancred  in  1099,  was  taken  by 
Baldwin  III.,  king  of  Jerusalem,  in  1153,  and 
was  recaptured  by  Saladin  in  1187.  By  treaty 
between  Richard  and  Saladin  (1192)  it  was 
destroyed  jointly  by  the  Mussulmans  and  Chris 
tians.  The  wine  of  Ascalon  is  celebrated  by 
Pliny.  Near  the  town  stood  in  antiquity  a 
famous  temple  of  Derceto,  the  Syrian  Venus, 
of  which,  however,  no  trace  remains  now. 
Altogether,  as  Zephaniah  predicted,  Ascalon 
has  become  "a  desolation." 

ASCARIDES  (Gr.  dmeapfr),  a  term  used  by  Hip 
pocrates,  and  now  applied  to  several  nematoid 


804 


ASCENSION" 


ASCHERSLEBEN" 


worms  which  infest  the  intestines  of  man  and 
animals :  the  ascaris  vermicular  is,  mawworm 
or  pin  worm,  which  infests  the  rectum  or  low 
est  intestine;  the  tricocephalus  dispar,  or  long 
thread  worm,  found  in  the  ca3cum  or  upper 
part  of  the  large  intestines ;  the  A.  lumbri- 
coides,  or  large  round  worm,  mostly  found  in 
the  small  intestines.  The  body  of  the  large 
round  worm  is  long,  elastic,  and  fusiform,  or 
tapering  at  the  two  extremities;  the  anterior 
being  somewhat  obtuse  and  furnished  with 
three  tubercles,  which  surround  the  mouth. 
(See  EXTOZOA.) 

ASCENSION,  a  S.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana,  inter 
sected  by  the  Mississippi  river  and  bounded  N. 
E.  by  the  Amite  river  and  E.  by  Lake  Maure- 
pas;  area,  420  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,577,  of 
whom  7,310  were  colored.  The  parish  consists 
chiefly  of  an  alluvial  plain.  A  great -part  of 
the  land  is  subject  to  frequent  inundations,  and 
is  extremely  fertile,  particularly  on  the  banks 
of  the  river.  In  1870  the  parish  produced 
160,542  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  981  bales  of 
cotton,  15,926  Ibs.  of  rice,  6,423  hhds.  of  sugar, 
and  308,587  gallons  of  molasses.  Capital,  Don- 
aldsonville. 

ASCENSION  DAY,  a  festival  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Episcopal  churches,  kept  in  com 
memoration  of  the  ascension  of  Jesus,  recorded 
by  the  evangelist  to  have  happened  on  the  40th 
day  after  his  resurrection.  It  is  kept  on  Thurs 
day,  and  the  day  is  also  called  Holy  Thursday. 
It  has  been  observed  at  least  since  A.  D.  68. 
In  the  5th  century  Mamertus,  bishop  of  Vienne, 
instituted  a  three  days'  preparation  for  this 
festival.  This  occupies  the  three  days  imme 
diately  preceding  Holy  Thursday,  which  are 
called  rogation  days. 

ASCENSION  ISLAND,  an  island  about  8  m.  in 
length  and  6  in  width,  lying  in  the  south  Atlan 
tic  ocean,  in  lat.  7°  56'  S.,  Ion.  14°  25'  W.  It 
is  of  volcanic  formation,  mountainous,  and  was 
barren  and  uninhabited  until  the  imprisonment 
of  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,  when  it  was  occu 
pied  by  a  small  British  force,  who  have  con 
tinued  to  cultivate  and  improve  it.  Its  shores 
supply  a  vast  number  of  turtles.  It  serves  as  a 
depot  and  watering  place  for  ships. 

ASCH,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  situated  near  the 
frontiers  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  14  m.  N.  W. 
of  Eger;  pop.  in  1869,  9,405.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  important  industry,  especially  in  silk  and 
woollen  goods.  Formerly  the  "dominion  of 
Asch,"  embracing  an  area  of  41  sq.  m.,  was  an 
immediate  territory  of  the  German  empire ;  in 
1331  it  was  made  a  fief  of  the  Bohemian  crown, 
but  received  in  return  a  promise  of  a  perpetual 
exemption  from  taxes ;  its  entire  incorporation 
with  Bohemia  did  not  take  place  till  1770. 

ASCHAFFENBURG,  a  city  of  Bavaria,  in  the 
circle  of  Lower  Franconia,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  Main,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a 
handsome  stone  bridge,  23  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Frank 
fort;  pop.  in  1871,  9,212.  It  has  a  fine  palace, 
the  Johannisburg,  formerly  the  residence  of 
the  electors  of  Mentz.  Among  the  other  nota 


ble  buildings  are  the  Stiffs  Kirche,  erected  in 
980,  and  the  Pompejanum  or  Pompeian  house, 
which  Louis  I.  built  from  1842  to  1849  in  imi 
tation  of  the  house  of  Castor  and  Pollux  at 
Pompeii.  Aschaffenburg  was  a  town  as  early 
as  the  8th  century,  and  in  the  middle  ages  often 
appears  in  history.  During  the  war  between 
Prussia  and  Austria,  in  1866,  an  engagement 
took  place  at  Aschaffenburg  on  July  14,  in 
which  the  Austrians  were  defeated,  and  2,000 
of  their  troops  were  cut  off  from  retreat  and 
captured  in  the  city. 

ASCHAM,  Roger,  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1515,  died  Dec.  30,  1568.  He 
was  of  humble  parentage,  and  was  brought  up 
by  Sir  Anthony  Winglield,  with  whose  sons  he 
was  educated.  In  1534  he  graduated  at  St. 
John's  college,  Oxford,  where  he  gained  a  fel 
lowship.  Ascham  early  embraced  Protestant 
principles.  In  1537  he  became  a  college  tutor, 
and  was  appointed  by  the  university  to  read 
Greek  in  the  public  schools.  When  Henry  VIII. 
founded  a  Greek  lectureship  Ascham  was 
appointed  to  it,  and  in  1544  was  made  uni 
versity  orator,  a  post  which  obliged  him  to 
prepare  all  addresses  and  write  the  complimen 
tary  and  business  letters  to  great  men.  For 
this  his  elegant  Latinity  particularly  qualified 
him.  In  1548  Ascham  was  appointed  teacher 
of  learned  languages  to  the  lady  Elizabeth, 
afterward  queen.  He  continued  in  her  house 
hold  two  years,  when  he  quitted  her  suddenly 
from  a  pique  against  persons  in  her  establish 
ment.  In  1550  he  was  appointed  secretary  to 
Sir  Richard  Morysine,  the  English  ambassador 
to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  which  appointment 
he  retained  for  three  years,  until  the  death  of 
Edward  VI.  and  the  ambassador's  recall. 
While  abroad,  he  travelled  in  Germany,  visited 
Italy,  and  wrote  the  results  of  his  travels  in  "  A 
Report  and  Discourse  of  the  Affaires  of  Germa 
ny."  On  his  return  in  1553  he  was  appointed 
Latin  secretary  to  the  queen,  and  on  the  death 
of  Mary  he  was  continued  in  his  office  by  Eliz 
abeth,  who  required  his  services  as  tutor  in  the 
languages,  in  which  he  read  with  her  several 
hours  each  day.  He  wrote  a  small  treatise  on 
archery,  entitled  "Toxophilus,"  and  dedicated 
it  to  Henry  VIII.,  who  ordered  him  an  annual 
pension  of  £10  for  it.  He  also  wrote  "The 
Scholem aster,"  a  treatise  on  the  study  of 
languages,  which  was  first  published  by  his 
widow.  His  letters  to  Oxford  during  his  stay 
abroad  were  also  collected  and  published.  His 
works  were  published  entire,  Oxford,  1703,  and 
his  English  writings,  London,  1815,  with  a  life 
by  Dr.  Johnson. 

ASCHERSLEBEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Saxony,  about  32  m.  S.  by  W.  of 
Magdeburg,  on  the  river  Eine ;  pop.  in  1871, 
16,734.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollen  and 
linen.  In  the  middle  ages  the  counts  of  Asca- 
nia  (a  district  including  the  present  circles  of 
Aschersleben,  Ermsleben,  and  Ballenstedt)  re 
sided  here,  and  the  ruins  of  their  castle  are 
still  in  existence  on  the  neighboring  Wolfs  berg. 


ASCIDIANS 


ASH 


805 


ASCIDIANS.     See  MOLLUSCOIDS. 

ASCLEPIADES,  called  from  his  native  country 
Bithynus,  a  physician,  born  at  Prusa  in  Bithy- 
niu  in  the  2d  century  B.  C.,  flourished  in  Rome 
in  the  early  part  of  the  1st.  He  first  studied 
rhetoric  and  philosophy,  hut  afterward  aban 
doned  them  for  the  study  of  medicine.  Though 
his  system  contains  some  rules  approved  by 
modern  science,  such  as  reliance  upon  gentle 
measures,  diet,  fresh  air,  &c.,  he  seems  to  have 
attained  success  rather  by  indulging  the  whims 
and  caprices  of  his  patients,  flattering  their 
prejudices,  and  caring  for  their  comfort,  than 
by  any  ability  of  his  own.  After  successful 
practice  in  several  Grecian  cities,  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  gained  great  fame  and  wealth. 
He  is  said  never  to  have  been  ill,  and  to  have 
died  at  a  great  age  by  an  accident.  He  left  sev 
eral  disciples,  who  attained  considerable  promi 
nence  as  teachers  of  his  doctrines. 

ASCOLI.  I.  A  city  (anc.  Asculum  Picenum) 
of  central  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  Ascoli 
Piceno,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tronto,  18  m. 
"W.  of  the  Adriatic  and  87  m.  N".  E.  of  Rome ; 
pop.  about  11,000.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  a 
citadel,  a  Jesuit  college,  a  museum,  library,  and 
a  number  of  private  palaces.  Its  harbor,  Porto 
d'Ascoli,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tronto,  is  de 
fended  by  two  forts,  and  is  frequented  by  coast 
ing  vessels.  II.  Ascoli  Piceno,  a  province  of  cen 
tral  Italy,  formerly  belonging  to  the  papal 
territory,  and  now  constituting  one  of  the  four 
provinces  of  the  Marches ;  area,  808  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  203,009.  Part  of  the  province  is 
traversed  by  branches  of  the  Apennines  and  by 
numerous  valleys  watered  by  the  Tenna,  Aso, 
Tesino,  Tronto,  and  other  rivers.  The  chief 
products  are  corn,  wine,  oil,  honey,  silks,  wool, 
and  fish.  III.  Ascoli  di  Satriano  (anc.  Asculum 
Apulum),  &  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Capitanata,  situated  on  the  E.  slope  of  the 
Apennines,  65  m.  E.  X.  E.  of  Naples ;  pop. 
about  6,000.  Near  it  Pyrrhus  in  279  B.  0. 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Romans ;  and 
in  1190  Count  Andrea,  general  of  the  emperor 
Henry  VI.,  was  defeated  here  by  Tancred  and 
slain.  The  ancient  town  was  on  a  branch  of 
the  Appian  way,  and  considerable  remains  ex 
ist  outside  the  modern  town. 

ASCOT  HEATH,  a  race  course  in  Berkshire, 
England,  26  m.  from  London  and  6  m.  from 
Windsor,  near  the  London  and  Southwestern 
railway.  The  annual  meeting  in  June  is  one 
of  the  principal  events  of  the  turf.  The  first 
prize  is  a  gold  cup  valued  at  £500. 

ASELLI,  or  Asellio,  Gasparo,  an  Italian  anato 
mist,  born  in  Cremona  about  1580,  died  in  Mi 
lan  in  1626.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  in 
the  university  of  Pavia.  In  1622,  while  dem 
onstrating  the  recurrent  laryngeal  nerves  by 
the  dissection  of  a  dog,  he  first  observed  the 
lacteal  vessels  as  a  congeries  of  white  cords 
disseminated  through  the  mesentery;  and  on 
opening  one  of  them  with  the  point  of  the  scal 
pel,  the  milky  chyle  flowed  out,  and  the  dis 
covery  of  the  absorbent  vessels  was  accom 


plished.     Before  that  period  the    mesenteric 
veins  were  supposed,  as  in  the  time  of  Galen, 
to  collect  from  the  intestines  all  the  nutritious 
j  products  of  digestion  and  to  carry  them  to  the 
i  liver,  where   they  were  worked   up   into  the 
I  perfected  blood,  and  the  blood  thence  dissemi 
nated,  through  the  rest  of  the  venous  system, 
!  outward  to  the  whole  body.     A  part  of  the 
!  blood  only,  passing  to  the  heart  and  lungs,  was 
j  thought  to   be   arterialized,    and   so  sent  out 
through  the  arteries  from  the  left  ventricle,  as 
the  venous  blood  was  sent  out  through   the 
veins.     The  discovery  of  Aselli  consisted  sim 
ply  in  finding  a  new  set  of  mesenteric  vessels 
which  took  up  from  the  intestines  the  chyle 
alone,  and  conveyed  it  toward  the  central  or 
gans.     He  did  not  detect  their  real  ultimate 
course,  but  supposed  them  to  terminate  in  the 
liver,  which  still  remained  the  supposed  organ 
for  the  elaboration  and  perfection  of  the  blood. 
It  was  only  some  years  later  (see  PECQUET) 
that  the  independent  course  of  the  lacteals  and 
lymphatics  was  ascertained,   passing  through 
|  the  receptaculum  chyli  and  the  thoracic  duct 
|  to  the  left  subclavian  vein.     Aselli,  however, 
|  was  the  pioneer  in  this  discovery,  and  the  sub- 
|  sequent  success  of  others  depended  on  the  facts 
demonstrated  by  him.     They  are  embodied  in 
his  dissertation  De  Lactibus  sive  Lacteis  Venis 
(Milan,  1627). 

ASGILL,  John,  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 

I  born  about   1655,   died  in  London   in   1738. 

'  After  acquiring  considerable  reputation  in  Lon- 

|  don  in  his  profession  and  as  a  political  and  legal 

|  pamphleteer,  he  went  to  Ireland  in  1699,  where 

i  he  was  elected  to  the  Irish  parliament.    Before 

,  taking  his  seat,  however,  he  was  expelled,  Oct. 

I  11,  1703,  for  blasphemy  in  his  pamphlet  on  the 

j  possibility  of  avoiding  death,  u  An  Argument 

j  proving  that,  according  to  the  Covenant  of 

i  Eternal  Life  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  Man 

may  be  translated  hence  into  that  Eternal  Life 

without    passing    through    Death "    (London, 

\  1700),  which  was  publicly  burned.     Returning 

j  to  London  in  1705,  he  was  elected  in  1707  to 

I  the  English  house  of  commons;  but  he  was 

|  also  expelled  from  this  for  the  same  cause.    He 

passed  the  last  30  years  of  his  life  in  prison  for 

debt,  continuing  to  transact  professional  busi- 

I  ness,  and  publishing  numerous  pamphlets. 

ASH,  a  name  applied  to  four  genera  of  forest 
'  trees.      I.    Fraxinus    (Gr.    ^pd^f,    separation, 
from  the  wood  being  used  for  fences,  or  from 
the  facility  with  which  it  splits),  of  the  family 
:  oleacem,  Juss.,  dicecia  diandria,  Linn.     Polyga 
mous,  calyx  minute,  3  to  4  cleft ;  corol  deeply 
4-parted  or  none.     Stamens  2  to  4 ;  pistillate 
flowers ;   ovary  superior,  compressed,  2 -celled, 
with  2  ovules  each ;  capsule  with  a  membrana- 
ceous   lanceolate  wing  (samara),  1-seeded   by 
abortion ;  seed  pendulous.    Most  of  the  species 
are  indigenous  in  North  America  (more  than 
;  30  E.  of  the  Mississippi),  many  in  Europe,  few 
i  in  Asia  (one  in  Nepaul).     Most  are  large  trees, 
affecting  shady  and  moist  places,  banks  of  riv- 
;  ers,  or  marshes ;  they  prosper  less  in  barren  and 


806 


ASH 


bleak  localities.  The  wood  of  most  species  is 
tough  and  elastic,  and  is  used  by  wheelwrights, 
carriage-makers,  and  ship-builders,  for  many 
purposes.  The  most  important  species  are  the 
following:  F.  acuminata  (Americana,  discolor, 
white  ash) ;  leaves  pinnatifid,  leaflets  petiolate, 
oblong,  3  to  4  pairs  and  1  odd  one,  acuminate, 
shining,  entire  or  slightly  toothed,  glaucous 
beneath,  downy  when  young ;  grows  60  to  75 
feet  high.  This  furnishes  the  best  wood  of  all. 
It  flourishes  from  Canada  to  Carolina,  and  is 
believed  to  be  an  antidote  to  snake  poison. 
F.  sambucifolia  (black  or  water  ash) ;  leaves 
large ;  leaflets  7  to  9  pairs  and  1  odd,  sessile, 
ovate,  lanceolate,  rounded  at  base,  rugose,  shi 
ning  and  smooth  above,  villous  beneath  on  the 
veins ;  60  to  66  feet  high.  F.  tomentosa  (pu- 
lescem,  red  ash) ;  leaflets  7  to  9  pairs  and  1, 
elliptic,  acuminate,  nearly  entire,  very  long; 
petioles  and  young  branches  downy.  It  fur 
nishes  good  wood,  more  reddish  than  that  of 
the  others.  F.  juglandifolia  (viridis,  swamp 
ash);  leaves  very  large,  leaflets  4  pairs  and'l, 
petiolate,  ovate,  serrate,  glaucous  beneath,  pu 
bescent  on  veins ;  a  small  tree.  Michaux  and 
Nuttall  describe  7  more  species  and  some  varie 
ties,  among  which  F.  quadrangulata  (blue  ash), 
of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  attaining  TO  feet 
in  height,  with  valuable  wood,  and  F.  Oregona, 
attaining  80  feet,  are  the  most  remarkable.  In 
Europe  the  principal  species  is  F.  excelsior 
(common  ash),  attaining  90  feet,  with  excellent 
wood,  though  inferior  to  the  Americana.  On 
its  leaves  swarm  cantharides  (Spanish  flies), 
spreading  a  disagreeable  smell.  A  variety  with 
drooping  branches  (weeping  ash)  is  grafted  on 
tall  stems,  and  converted  into  an  arbor  shading 
all  around.  II. .  Ornus  (Gr.  bp£iv6(;,  mountain 
ous)  of  Persoon  (fraxinus  ornus,  Linn.,  flow 
ering  ash),  of  the  same  family  with  fraxinus, 


filaments;  stigma  emarginate;  fruit  winged, 
1 -celled,  1 -seeded;  leaves  opposite,  unequally 
pinnate ;  flowers  in  terminal  or  axillary  pani 
cles.  It  grows  in  shady  woods  in  Europe,  N. 
Asia,  and  America.  Among  the  American 
species,  0.  dipetala  and  0.  Americana  are 
most  remarkable.  In  Europe,  0.  rotundifolia 
exudes  the  manna,  a  sweet  substance  which 
differs  from  sugar  by  not  fermenting  with  water 
and  yeast,  and  serves  as  a  purgative  medicine. 
The  best  manna  is  collected  in  Calabria  and 
Sicily.  The  lilac  and  olive  can  be  successfully 
grafted  on  the  species  of  fraxinus  and  ornus. 
The  cultivated  species  of  omits  are  often  grafted 
on  fraxinus  excelsior;  and  as  ornus  grows 
the  more  rapidly,  a  curiously  protuberant  stem 
is  formed,  and  may  by  alternate  grafting  be 
made  to  take  grotesque  shapes.  III.  Sor~bus 
(its  bark  being  supposed  to  be  an  absorbent  in 
consumption),  of  the  family  pomacem,  Juss., 
icosandria  2-5  pentagynia,  Linn.,  classed  under 
the  genus  pyrus.  Calyx  tubulous,  urceolate, 
limb  5-parted ;  petals  roundish  ;  styles  2  to 
5 ;  drupe  closed,  5-celled,  with  cartilaginous 
putamen ;  cells  2-seeded.  The  species  are : 
'  P.  or  S.  Americana  (mountain  ash) ;  leaves 


Mountain  Ash. 


but  of  the  class  diandria  monogynia,  Linn. 
Calyx  4-parted ;  corolla  2  or  4-parted,  segments 
long,  ligulate ;  stamen  inserted,  with  2  barren 


Oak -leaved  Mountain  Ash. 

pinnatifid ;  leaflets  oblong,  lanceolate,  acumi 
nate,  somewhat  serrate;  common  petiole  very 
smooth;  flowers  white,  in  terminal  corymbs; 
fruit  globose,  yellowish  red,  persistent  almost 
.all  winter.  It  grows  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  states.  P.  microcarpa  (small-fruited) 
extends  from  New  York  into  Carolina;  smaller 
than  the  preceding;  fruit  scarlet.  S.  aucvpa- 
ria  (rowan  tree),  common  in  the  forests  of  1ST. 
Europe ;  grows  up  to  25  feet ;  fruit  edible, 
after  being  frost-bitten  and  kept  in  hay  for 
some  time.  The  fruit  of  other  species  also 
affords  food  to  many  birds.  Only  one  species 
(on  the  Sandwich  islands)  is  known  in  the 
tropical  regions.  The  fruits  of  many  con 
tain  malic  acid,  and  the  flowers,  bark,  and  root 
of  aucuparia  yield  hydrocyanic  (prussicj  acid. 


ASH 


ASHBURTON 


80' 


The  wood  is  valuable  for  many  uses,  and  the 
branches  were  employed  by  the.  Druids  in  their 
rites.  IV.  Xanthoxylum  (Gr.  %av66q,  yellow, 
and  ZV?MV,  wood),  of  the  family  xanthoxylacece, 
Juss.,  dmcid  pentandria,  Linn.  X.  Caroli- 
nianum  (prickly  ash,  toothache  tree),  a  mid 
dle-sized  tree  with  prickly  branches.  X.  ma- 
crophyllon  (pterota,  bastard  ironwood),  in  Ar 
kansas  and  Florida ;  from  15  to  20  feet  high. 
This  species,  as  well  as  others  (called  yellow 
wood,  satin  wood,  &c.)  of  much  greater  size, 
have  hard,  cross-grained  wood. 

ASH,  John,  an  English  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  1724,  died  in  1779.  He  was  pastor  of  a  con 
gregation  at  Pershore,  in  Worcestershire,  and 
published  "  A  New  and  Complete  English  Dic 
tionary"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1775). 

ASHANTEE,  the  most  notable  of  the  existing 
savage  kingdoms  on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa. 
Its  boundaries  are  not  accurately  defined ;  but 
approximately  the  kingdom  may  be  consider 
ed  the  region  fronting  the  Gold  Coast,  between 
lat.  5°  and  10°  X.  and  Ion.  1°  and  6°  W.  Un 
til  the  commencement  of  the  present  centu 
ry  Ashantee  was  unheard  of  by  Europeans, 
for  the  Fantees,  a  hostile  tribe,  occupied  the 
coast.  In  1807  Osai  Tutu  was  king  of  Ashan 
tee.  He  appears  to  have  subjugated  many  of 
the  neighboring  tribes.  Two  of  his  tributary 
chiefs  having  fled  to  the  Fantee  country,  Osai 
demanded  that  they  should  be  given  up  to  him. 
The  demand  was  refused,  and  the  Ashantee 
messengers  were  put  to  death.  Osai  thereupon 
made  an  incursion  into  the  Fantee  country, 
which  he  ravaged  down  to  the  coast.  The 
British,  who  had  a  fort  at  Anamboe  on  the 
coast,  undertook  to  shelter  the  flying  Fan- 
tees.  The  Ashantees  invested  the  fort  and 
compelled  the  British  governor  to  ask  for 
peace.  This  peace  was  of  brief  duration.  In 
1817  the  Ashantees  again  invaded  the  Fantee 
country,  and  took  possession  of  it,  their  acqui 
sition  by  right  of  conquest  being  recognized  by 
the  British  governor  of  the  fort.  In  1823  the 
Fantees,  encouraged  by  the  British,  rose  against 
the  Ashantees,  who  again  marched  into  their 
country.  Sir  Charles  McCarthy,  the  British 
governor  of  the  Gold  Coast,  undertook  to  chas 
tise  the  invaders.  A  sharp  action  took  place, 
Jan.  21,  1824,  in  which  the  British  were  de 
feated,  the  commander  and  nearly  all  his  offi 
cers  being  killed.  The  victorious  Ashantees 
came  near  capturing  the  British  stronghold  of 
Cape  Coast  Castle;  but  sickness  coming  on, 
they  were  obliged  to  withdraw  to  their  own 
country.  Since  that  time  the  Ashantees  have 
kept  aloof  from  the  seaboard,  but  appear  to 
have  extended  their  dominion  into  the  interior. 
Now  and  then  travellers  have  made  their  way 
to  Koomassie,  the  Ashantee  capital,  in  lat.  6° 
51'  X.,  Ion.  2°  16'  W.  They  report  that  the 
government  is  an  absolute  despotism.  The  king 
is  the  great  property  owner,  and  is  the  legal 
heir  of  all  his  subjects.  Slavery  exists  on  a 
large  scale,  many  of  the  nobles  having  as  many 
as  1,000  slaves.  Up  to  within  a  few  years  the 


i  slave  trade  prospered  and  gave  a  large  income 

I  to  the  masters ;   but  now  that   the  trade  has 

!  declined,  slavery  seems  likely  to  die  out.     Po- 

\  lygamy  may  be  considered  the  special  institu- 

!  tion  of  Ashantee.     The  importance  of  a  man  is 

j  measured  by  the  number  of  his  wives;  for  these 

!  are  the  cheapest  laborers.     The  king,  it  is  said, 

I  is  limited  to  3,333  wives,  who  during  the  work- 

;  ing  season  are  scattered  over  his  plantations. 

:  While  at  home  in  the  capital  they  occupy  two 

streets,  where  they  are  secluded  from  all  but 

the  king  and  his  female  relatives ;  any  other 

person  who  looks  upon  one  of  them,  even  by 

accident,  is  punished  by  death.     As  to  their 

!  religion,  human  sacrifices   seem   to  constitute 

!  the  distinguishing  feature.     The  soil  is  fertile, 

I  producing  every  kind  of  tropical  grains  and 

fruits.     The  abundance  of  gold  displayed  as 

ornaments   shows    that  mines    are   common ; 

many  of  the  richest,  however,  are  held  sacred 

to  the  divinities,  and  so  not  worked.     Among 

the  special    industries  may  be  mentioned  a 

beautiful  fabric  of  cotton,  woven  in  strips  four 

inches  wide,  and  afterward  sewn  together.     A 

considerable  commerce  is  carried  on  between 

i  Koomassie   and   Hoossa,  Bornoo,  Timbuctoo, 

and  other  points  in  the  interior  ;  the  principal 

i  exports  are  gold  dust  and  ivory.     The  popula- 

1  tion  is  estimated  to  reach,  or  even -to  exceed, 

I  3,000,000.     (See  GOLD  COAST.) 

ASHBURTON,  Alexander  Baring,  baron,  an  Eng- 
;  lish  merchant   and  statesman,  born  Oct.  27, 
|  1774,  died  May  13,  1848.     He  was  the  second 
son  of  Sir  Francis  Baring,  who  sent  him  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  married  in  1798  the 
eldest  daughter  of  William  Bingham  of  Phila 
delphia.     After  his  return  to  England,  he  pub 
lished  in  1808  a  pamphlet  relating  to  the  orders 
in  council  and  to  the  conduct  of  Great  Britain 
toward   the    neutral   commerce   of   America, 
which  passed  through  several  editions.     From 
!  a  partner  he  became  on  the  death  of  his  father 
.  in  1810  the  head  of  the  house  of  Baring,  and 
|  was  a  member  of  parliament  from   1812   to 
|  1835,  when,  after  having  been  for  four  months 
president  of  the   board  of  trade  and   master 
;  of  the  mint,  he   was  raised   to   the  peerage 
under  the  title  of  Baron  Ashburton,  which  had 
i  become  extinct  in  1823  on  the  death  of  his 
I  first  cousin.     (See  DUNXIXG,  JOHN.)     In  the 
S  house  of  commons  he  had  opposed  the  reform 
!  bill,  and  in  the  house  of  lords  he  opposed  the 
i  repeal  of  the  corn  laws.     The  unsettled  con- 
|  dition  of  the  northeastern  boundary  question 
!  led  Sir  Robert  Peel  to  send  him  on  a  special 
mission  to  the  United   States,  where  he  con 
cluded,  Aug.  9,  1842,  the  so-called  "Ashbur- 
!  ton  treaty."     It  was  assailed  by  the  opposition 
in  England,  led  by  Lord  Palmerston,   as  the 
i  "  Ashburton  capitulation  ;  "  and  in  the  United 
!  States,  Mr.  Webster  was  charged  with  having 
been  overreached ;  but  public  opinion  on  both 
.  sides  of  the  water  has  sanctioned  it  as  a  satis 
factory  adjustment  of  difficult  matters  of  con- 
j  troversy,  some  of  which  had  embarrassed-  the 
;  relations  of  the  two  countries  for  60  years. 


808 


ASHBY  DE  LA  ZOUCH 


ASHER 


The  extraordinary  compliment  of  a  vote  of 
thanks  for  a  diplomatic  achievement  was  paid 
to  Lord  Ashburton,  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  Hume 
in  the  house  of  commons,  and  of  Lord  Broug 
ham  in  the  house  of  lords;  and  an  earldom 
was  offered  to  him,  which  he  declined.  The 
negotiations  were  facilitated  hy  his  high  char 
acter  and  intelligence,  by  his  amiable  disposi 
tion,  and  by  his  excellent  personal  relations 
with  Daniel  Webster,  then  secretary  of  state, 
one  of  whose  grandsons  was  named  after  him. 
Lord  Ashburton  was  a  privy  councillor,  a  trus 
tee  of  the  British  museum,  and  D.  C.  L.  of  Ox 
ford.  Talleyrand  at  one  time  confided  to  him 
the  custody  of  his  memoirs,  and  presented  him 
with  Canova's  bust  of  Napoleon.  He  died  at 
the  country  seat  of  his  daughter  Harriet,  the 
widow  of  the  marquis  of  Bath.  His  wife, 
who  was  a  woman  of  superior  accomplish 
ments,  died  about  six  months  after  him. — His 
eldest  son,  WILLIAM  BINGIIAM  BAKING,  Lord 
Ashburton,  who  was  a  member  of  parliament 
for  17  years  and  held  various  official  positions, 
died  March  23,  1864;  and  his  brother  FRANCIS, 
the  3d  baron,  died  Sept.  6,  1808.  The  present 
and  4th  baron,  ALEXANDER  HUGH  BAKING,  is 
the  son  of  the  latter. 

ASHBY  DE  LA  ZOUCH,  a  market  town  of  Lei 
cestershire,  England,  15£  m.  N.  Wr.  of  Leicester; 
pop.  3,800.  It  is  a  place  of  resort  for  its  salt 
water  baths,  and  has  an  ancient  church  and 
the  remains  of  a  fine  castle,  in  which  Mary 
queen  of  Scots  was  once  imprisoned. 

ASIIDOD  (the  Azotus  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro 
mans  ;  now  called  Eadud),  one  of  the  five  chief 
Philistine  cities  on  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
lying  midway  between  Ascalon  and  Ekron, 
about  10  miles  from  each.  It  is  21  m.  S.  of 
Jaffa,  and  32  W.  of  Jerusalem.  Its  Hebrew 
name  signifies  a  stronghold,  and  as  it  lay  in  the 
only  practicable  route  between  Egypt  and  As 
syria,  its  possession  was  of  great  importance 
in  all  the  wars  between  those  powers.  The 
Hebrews  were  never  able  to  hold  it  for  more 
than  a  brief  period.  About  715  B.  C.  it  was 
taken  by  the  Assyrians,  and  85  years  later  was 
retaken  by  the  Egyptians,  after  a  siege  by  Psam- 
metichus  which  Herodotus  states  to  have  lasted 
29  years.  It  remained  a  place  of  some  conse 
quence  1,000  years  more,  for  Azotus  was  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  the  incumbent  of  which  had 
a  place  at  the  councils  of  Nice  and  Chalcedon. 
In  the  time  of  Jerome,  about  A.  D.  400,  it  was 
a  small  unwalled  town.  Travellers  of  the  last 
century  describe  it  as  an  inhabited  site,  marked 
by  ancient  ruins,  such  as  broken  arches  and 
partly  buried  fragments  of  marble  columns, 
with  what  appears  to  be  an  ancient  khan,  the 
principal  chamber  of  which  has  been  used  as  a 
Christian  church.  This  ruined  khan,  to  the 
west  of  the  present  village,  marks  the  site  of 


the  acropolis  of  the  ancient  town,  and  the 
grove  near  it  alone  protects  the  site  from  the 
shifting  sand  of  the  adjoining  plain,  which 
threatens  to  overwhelm  the  spot. 

ASHE,  a  N.  W.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordering  on  Virginia  and  Tennessee,  bounded 
E.  and  S.  E.  by  New  river ;  area,  about  300 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,573,  of  whom  582 
were  colored.  It  is  a  mountainous  region, 
with  portions  good  for  grazing,  but  is  general 
ly  not  fertile.  In  1870  the  county  produced 
16,341  bushels  of  wheat,  32,311  of  rye,  120,545 
of  Indian  corn,  42,350  of  oats,  and  23,211  Ibs. 
of  wool.  Capital,  Jefferson. 

ASHE,  John,  an  officer  in  the  war  of  the 
American  revolution,  born  in  England  in  1721, 
died  in  North  Carolina  in  October,  1781.  He  was 
six  years  old  when  his  father  emigrated  to  Amer 
ica  and  took  up  his  abode  in  Newton,  now  Wil 
mington,  N.  C.  He  was  several  times  a  repre 
sentative  in  the  colonial  assembly,  of  which  body 
he  was  speaker  from  1762  to  1765,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  to  suggest  the  provincial  con 
gress,  in  which  he  occupied  a  prominent  posi 
tion.  He  joined  the  army  at  the  first  outbreak 
of  hostilities,  led  a  force  to  destroy  Fort  John 
son  in  1775,  and  as  brigadier  general  took  part 
in  the  movements  of  Lincoln  on  the  Savannah 
in  1778  and  1779.  In  the  latter  year  he  suf 
fered  a  severe  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Gen.  Pre- 
vost,  at  Brier  Creek.  He  was  made  a  prisoner 
in  1781,  but  was  released  on  parole. 

ASHER,  the  eighth  of  the  sons  of  Jacob,  and 
the  second  by  Zilpah,  the  handmaid  of  Leah. 
The  name  signifies  "happy."  The  tribe  of 
Asher  at  the  exodus  numbered  41,500  males 
over  20  years  of  age,  being  exclusive  of  Levi 
the  ninth  in  order  of  number,  Ephraim,  Manas- 
seh,  and  Benjamin  only  being  below  it.  Be 
fore  entering  Canaan,  the  numbers  of  the  tribe 
had  increased  to  53,400,  making  it  the  fifth. 
The  territory  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Asher  was 
on  the  seashore,  from  Carmel  northward,  with 
Manasseh  on  the  S.,  Zebulon  and  Issachar  on 
the  S.  E.,  Naphtali  on  the  E.,  and  Syria  on  the 
N.  Its  assigned  N.  boundary  on  the  seashore 
was  a  little  N.  of  Sidon ;  but  the  Asherites 
were  unable  to  expel  the  Sidonians  and  the 
other  Phoenicians  within  their  limits,  with  whom 
they  appear  to  have  lived  on  friendly  terms. 
Their  territory  contained  some  of  the  most  fer 
tile  portions  of  Palestine,  including  a  part  of 
the  great  valley  of  Esdraelon.  Asher  and 
Simeon  were  the  only  tribes  W.  of  the  Jordan 
which  furnished  no  judge  or  hero  to  Israel.  In 
the  time  of  David  the  tribe  had  become  so  in 
significant  that  it  is  omitted  from  the  list  of 
the  chief  rulers ;  and  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah 
it  is  mentioned  with  a  kind  of  surprise  that 
some  from  the  tribe  of  Asher  came  up  to  the 
passover  at  Jerusalem. 


END   OF   VOLUME    FIRST. 


S   OF  VOLUME  I. 


PAGE 

A,  a  letter 1 

A,  in  music 1 

AA,  several  rivers 1 

Aachen.    See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aalborg 1 

Aak-n 2 

Aali  Pasha 2 

Aalst.    See  Aclst. 

Aalten 2 

Aar 2 

Aarau 2 

Aard-Vark 3 

Aard-Wolf. 3 

Aargau  3 

Aarhuus 4 

Aaron,  high  priest 4 

Aaron,  a  physician 4 

Aarsens.  Frans  van 4 

Aasen.  Ivar  Andreas 4 

Aasvar 4 

Ab 4 

Ababdeh 4 

Abaco.  Great 4 

Abacus,  in  architecture 5 

Abacus,  a  cupboard 5 

Abacus,  a  mystic  staff 5 

Abacus,  a  calculating  machine 5 

Abad  I.— Ill 5 

Abaddon.     See  Apollyon. 

Abaka  Khan 5 

Abana 5 

Abancourt,  Charles  Xavier  Joseph  d'  5 

Abano,  Pietro  d' 5 

Abarbanel.     See  Abravanel. 

Abarca.  Joaquin 5 

Abarim 5 

Abascal,  Jose  Fernando 5 

Abauzit.  Firmin 6 

Abbadie,  Jacques 6 

Abbadie.  Antoine  Thomson  and  Ar- 

naud  Michel  d\ .                               .  6 


PAGE 

Abbott,  Austin 10 

Abbott,  Lyman 

Abbott,  Edward 

Abbott.  Charles,  Lord  Tenterden. 
Abbreviations. . . . 
Abd  . . 


Abbas  I.,  the  Great 

Abbas  ben  Abd-el-Mottalib 

Abbas  Mirza 

Abbas  Pasha 

Abbassides 

Abbatucci,  Jacques  Pierre 

Abbatucci.  Charles . 

Abbatucci,  Jacques  Pierre  Charles. 

Abbe 

Abbeokuta ;...    . 

Abbess  

Abbeville.  France 

A  bbeville  county 

Abbo  CVrnuus 

Abbo  Floriacensis 

Abbot .... 

Abbot.  Abiel,  D.  D 

A  bbot.  Bcniumin.  LL.  D 

Abbot,  Charles,  Lord  Colchester 

Abbot,  George 

Abbot,  Gorhain  Durnnier,  LL.  I) 

Abbot  Samuel 9 

Abbotsibrd 9 

Abbots-Langley 10 

Abbott,  Jacob 10 

Abbott,  John  Stephens  Cabot 10 

Abbott,  Gorhain.    See  Abbot. 

Abbott,  Benjamin  Vaughan 10 


10 

11 
11 
11 
12 

Abdallah  ben  Abd-el-Mottalib 12 

Abdallah  ben  Zobair 12 

Abd-el-Halim 13 

Abd-el-Hamid 13 

Abd-el-Kader 13 

|  Abd-el-Wahab 14 

!  Abdera 14 

'  Abderrahman  1 14 

I  Abderrahman,  sultan  of  Morocco. ...  14 

i  Abdias 14 

j  Abdication 15 

Abdomen 15 

Abdul-Aziz 

1  Abdul-Medjid 

i  Abecedarians 

A'Becket.  Gilbert  Abbott 

Abeel,  David,  D.  D 

Abegg,  Julius  Friedrich  Ileiurich . . . 

Abel 

Abel  de  Pujol,  Alexandra  Denis 

Abel  de  Pujol,  Adrienne  Marie  Louise 
Grandpierre  Deverzy 

Abe  lard,  Pierre " ».. 

Abelites 

Aben 

Abenaquis 

Abencerrages 

Abendberg 

Aben  Ezra 

Abensberg 

Aberbrothwick.    See  Arbroath. 

Abercroinbie.  James 

Abercrombie.  John.  M.  D 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph 

Aberdare 

Aberdeen,  New 

Aberdeen,  Old 

Aberdeen,  Earls  of 

Aberdeen,   Sir   George  Gordon,   1st 
Earl  of 

Aberdeen,  George  Hamilton  Gordon, 
4th  Earl  of. 

Aberdeen,  George  Hamilton  Gordon, 
6th  Earl  of 

Aberdeenshire 

Aberdevine 

Abernethy.  John 

Aberration  of  Light 

Aberration  in  Optical  Instruments.. . 

Aberystwith  

Abeyance 

Abiad,  Bahr  el.    See  Nile. 

Abiathar.... 

Abib 

Abich.  Wilhelm  Hermann 

Abimelech  (two) 

Abinger.  James.  Lord 

Abington,  Frances 

Abipones 

Abjuration.  Oath  of. 

Abkhasia 

Ablution 

Abner  . . 


PAGE 

Abo  ...    27 

Abo-Bjorneborg 27 

Aboiney ^7 

Aborigines,  American.     See  Ameri 
can  Indians. 

Abortion 27 

Aboukir  .'.'.'.'     30 

About.  Edmond 30 

Abracadabra 30 

Abraham 31 

Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara 81 

Abrantes 31 

Abrantus,  Andoche  Junot,  Duke  of. .  31 
Abrantes,     Laure     Permon     Junot, 

Duchess  of 31 

Abrantes,  Napoleon  Andoche  Junot, 

Duke  of 32 

Abrantes.  Adolphe  Alfred  Michel  Ju 
not.  puke  of 32 

Abrantes.  Josephine  Junot  d' 32 

Abrantes.  Constance  Junot  d' 32 

Abravanel,  Isaac  ben  Judah 82 

Abraxas 32 

Abruzzo 33 

Abruzzo  Citeriore  83 

Abruzzo  Ulteriore  I.  and  II 33 

Absalom 33 

Absalon 33 

Abscess 33 

34 
:  1 
84 
85 
85 
87 
38 
88 


17 

17 

19      Absinth 

19     Absolon,  John 

19  Absolute    .... 

20  Absolution 

20      Absorption 

20     Absorption  of  Gases 

20     Absorption  of  Heat 

Absorption  of  Light 

20     Absorption  Spectrum 8S 

20      Abstinence 39 

20  Abstinence,  Total.     See  Total  Absti- 

21  nence. 

21  Abt.  Franz 41 

22  Abubekr 41 

22  Abul-Casim.    See  Albucasis. 

Abulfaragius.  Mar  Gregorius 41 

22      Abulfeda.  Ismail  ibn  Ali 41 

Abu  Sambul.     See  Ipsambul. 

22  Abu  Shehr.     See  Bushire. 

Abu  Temam 41 

22     Abvdos  (two) 41 

22  Abyla • 42 

23  Abyssinia 42 

23      Abyssinian  Church 48 

23  Acacia 49 

24  Academy 49 

24      Academy,  Italian 50 

24  Academy.  French 50 

Academy.  Spanish 52 

25  Academy,  Portuguese 52 

25     Academy,  German 52 

25     Academy,  Switzerland 52 

25     Academy,  Belgium 52 

25      Academy,  Holland 52 

25  Academy,  Scandinavian 52 

26  Academy,  Russian 53 

26      Academy.  British  and  Irish 53 

21!      Academy.  Turkish  Empire 53 

26     Academy.  Australian 53 

26     Academy,  Asia. 53 


11 


CONTEXTS 


PAGE 

Academy,  American 53 

Academy,  Itio  Janeiro 54 

Acadia 54 

Acalepho? 54 

Acanthus  54 

Acapulco 54 

Acarnania 55 

Acarus 55 

Acastus 55 

Accad 55 

Acceleration 55 

Acceleration  of  the  Moon 55 

Acceleration  of  the  Stars 56 

Acceptance 56 

Accessory 58 

Acclimation 59 

Acclimatization 59 

Accolti,  Benedetto 60 

Accomack  county 60 

Accordion 6 ) 

Accra CO 

Accrington 60 

Accubation 60 

Accum.  Friedrlch 01 

Aceldama 61 

Acephalocyst 61 

Acetates 61 

Acetic  Acid 61 

Acetylene 6-' 

Achaean  League 62 

Aclueaus 63 

Acluemenes  (two) 63 

Achaia 63 

Achard.  Franz  Karl 63 

Achard.  Louis  Amedee  Eugene ....  63 

Achates 63 

Achates,  a  river 63 

Acheen 63 

Achelous 64 

Achenbach,  Andreas  64 

Achenb'ach,  Oswald C4 

Acheron  (three) 64 

Acherusia 64 

Acht-rv,  Dom  Jean  Luc  d1 64 

Achilles 64 

Achilles  Tatius  (two) 65 

Achinet.    See  Ahmed. 
Achmim.    See  Ekhmim. 

Achromatic  Lens 65 

Acid 6(5 

Acilius  Glabrio,  Manius 66 

Aci  Kcale 66 

Acis 66 

Ackermann.  Konrad  Ernst 66 

Ackermann.  Sophie  Charlotte 66 

Acland,  John  Dybe 60 

Acland,  Henry  Wentworth 67 

Aclinic  Line CT 

Acoemetfe 67 

Acolyte 67 

Acoma 67 

Aconcagua,  a  province 67 

Aconcagua,  a  mountain 67 

A  conite 68 

Aconite.  Winter 68 

Acomtia.    See  Aconite. 

Acosta,  Jose  de 69 

Acosta,  Uriel 69 

Acosta,  Joaquin 69 

Acoustics 69 

Acquaviva,  Claudio  dc 72 

Acquaviva  delle  Fonti 72 

Acqui 72 

Acre 72 

Acre.  St.  Jean  <T 72 

Acrelius,  Israel 73 

Acroceraunia 73 

Acropolis.. .  73 

Act.    See  Bill. 

Acta  Diurna 73 

Acta?on 74 

Acta  Eruditoruin 74 

Acta  Sanctorum 74 

Actian  Game 74 

Actinia  74 

Actinism 75 

Actinometer 76 

Action 76 

Actium 77 

Acton,  Sir  John  Francis  Edward. . .  77 

Acton  Burnell 78 

Acts  of  the  Apostles 78 


PAGK 

Acuna,  Cristobal  de 79 

Acupuncture 79 

Ada  county 79 


Adairco.,  Ky 79 

Adair  co..  Mo 79 

Adair  co..  Iowa 79 

Adair,  Sir  Robert 79 

Adal 79 

Adalbert  (three) 80 

Adalbert,  lleinrich  Wilhclm SO 

Adalia  80 

Adam 80 

Adam.  Adolphe  Charles SO 

Adam,  Albreeht 80 

Adam,  Alexander 81 

Adam  of  Bremen 81 

Adam  de  la  Halle 81 

Adamawa 81 

Adamites 81 

Adams  co.,  Penn 81 

Adams  co.,  Miss 82 

A  cams  co..  () 82 

Adams  co.,  I  ml 82 

Adams  co.,  Ill 82 

Adams  co.,  Iowa 82 

Adams  co.,  Wis  82 

Adams  co..  Neb 82 

Adams  township 82 

Adams.  Charles  Baker 82 

Adams.  Charles  Francis 82 

Adams,  John  Quincy 83 

Adams.  Charles  Francis.  Jr 84 

Adams,  Henry  Brooks 84 

Adams.  Edwin 84 

Adams,  Hannah 84 

Adams,  John 84 

Adams,  John 97 

Adams,  John,  LL.  D 98 

Adams,  John  Couch 98 

Adams,  John  Quincy 98 

Adams,  Nehemiah.  1).  D 106 

Adams,  Samuel 106 

Adams.  William,  I).  D 110 

Adams,  William  T 110 

Adam's  Peak 110 

Adana 110 

Adanson,  Michel Ill 

Adar Ill 

Adda Ill 

Adder.    See  Viper. 

Addington  county Ill 

Addiifgton.  Henry,  Lord  Sidmouth .  Ill 

Addington,  Henry  Unwin. . .' Ill 

Addison  county Ill 

Addison,  Joseph 112 

Adel.     See  Adal. 

Adelaar 112  j 

Adelaide 113  | 

Adelaide,  Eugenie  Louise 113  j 

Adelaide,  Saint 113  I 

Adelsberg 114  ' 

Adelung,  Johann  Christoph 114  i 

Adeluug,  Fried  rich  von 114  j 

Aden  114 

Aderno  115 

Adet,  Pierre  Auguste 115 

Adhesion 115 

Adijro 117 

Adipocere 117 

Adipose  Substances 118 

Adipose  Tissue 119 

Adirondack  Mountains 120 


Adit. 

Adjutant 122 

Adjutant  Bird.    See  Marabout. 
Adlerberg,   Vladimir,    Fedorovitch, 

Count 123 

Adlerberg  II.,  Alexander,  Count. . .  123 

Adlerberg  III.,  Nicholas 123 

Adlercreutz,  Karl  Johan.  Count.. ..  123 

Adlersparre,  Georg,  Count 123 

Adlersparre,  Karl  August,  Count...  123 

Admetus 123 

Administrator.    See  Executor. 

Admiral 124 

Admiralty 124 

Admiralty  Islands 128 

Admonition 128 

Adobe  Houses 128 

i  Adolphus,  John 128 

!  Adolphus.  John  Lycester 129 

i  Adolphus,  Frederick 129 


Adolphus  of  Nassau 129 

Adonai 129 

Adonia 129 

Adonis 129 

Adoptiani 130 

Adoption 130 

Adour 130 

Adowa lyo 

Adrastca 131 

Adrastus 131 

Adria 131 

Adrian,  a  city 131 

Adrian,  a  Eoman  emperor.  See 
Hadrian. 

Adrian  I.— VI.,  Popes 131 

Adrianople 132 

Adriatic  Sea 132 

Adullam 132 

Adulteration 132 

Adultery 134 

Advancement  of  Science,  Associa 
tions  for  the 137 

Advent  137 

Advertisement 137 

Advocate.    See  Lawyer. 

Advocatus  Uiaboli 

Advowson 

yEacus  

yEdiles 

yEdui 

yEga>on.     See  Briareus. 

yEganis 

yEgean  Sea.    See  Archipelago. 

yEgina ' 

/Egis  

yEgisthus 

yEIia  Capitolina 

yElianus.  Claudius 

Aelst.     See  Alost. 

Aelst,  Evert  van 

Aelst.  Willem  van 

yEmilius,  Paulus.  See  Paulus,  L. 
yEinilius. 

yEmilius,  Paulus,  historian 

yEneas 

yEneas  Sylvius.  See  Pius  II.  (Pope). 

yEneid.     See  Virgil. 

yEnianes 

YEolian  Harp 

yEolian  Isles.    See  Lipari  Islands. 

yEolians   

yEolipyle 

yEolis 

yEolus  (two) 

yEon 

yEpinus.  Johann 

yEpinus,  Franz  Ulrich  Theodor 

yEqtii 

Acrians 

Aeroe 

Aeroklinoscope 

Aerolite 

Aerometer 

Aeronautics 

yEschines.  an  orator 

yEschines.  a  philosopher 

yEschylus 

yEscuiapius  

yEsop  

yEsopus.  Clodius 

yEsthetics  ... 


yEthrioscope 

Action 

Aetius 

Acting,  a  general 

yEtolia 

Afauasieff,  Alexander  Nikolaievitch. 

Afer,  Domitius 

Affidavit 

Affinity 

Affinity.  Chemical 

Affirmation 

Affre.  Denis  Auguste 

Afghanistan 

Afium  Kara-llissar 

Afragola 

Airanius,  Lucius 

Africa 

Africa,  Languages  of 

Africanus,  Sextus  Julius 

Afzelius,  Adam 

Afzelius,  Arvid  August 


141 

141 

142 
142 
142 
142 
142 
142 
142 
143 
143 
143 
143 
143 
145 
145 
151 
151 
151 
152 
153 
153 
153 
154 
154 
154 
155 
156 
156 
156 
157 
158 
158 
159 
159 
160 
163 
163 
163 
163 
171 
171 
171 
171 


CONTEXTS 


in 


PAGE 

Asra 171 

AgacK-z  171 

Asradir 172 

Airamcmnon 172 


179 
171) 
17!) 


Agami 172 

Aganippe  172 

Agapa- 172 

Agapemone 172 

Agapet.t 173 

Airard.  Arthur 173 

Agardh.  Karl  Adolf 173 

Airardh.  Jacob  Georg 173 

Agaric.  Mineral 173 

Airaricus 1 73 

Agasias 1 73 

Agassiz,  Louis  John  Rudolph 173 

Agate 177 

Agatha,  Saint 179 

Agatharchides 179 

Aiiatharchus  

Agathias 

Agathocles 

Agathou 179 

Agave 179 

Agde lt-0 

Age  180 

Agen 185 

Agent 1 85 

Ages 185 

Agesilaus 186 

Aggerhuus 187 

Aghrim 187 

Agincourt 187 

Agincourt.  Jean  Baptiste  Louis  Se- 

roux  d' 187 

Agis  I.— IV..  kings  of  Sparta 187 

Aglaophon 183 

Agmegue  Indians 183 

Agnano 188 

Agnes,  Saint 188 

Agnes  Sorel 183 

Agnesi,  Maria  Gaetana 188 

Agnesi.  Maria  Teresa 188 

Agnoeta? 1  :V5 

Agnolo.  Baccio  d' 183 

Agnone 189 

Agnus  Dei 189 

Agobard.  Saint 189 

Agonic  Line 189 

Agonistici 189 

Agosta 189 

Agostino  and  Agnolo 190 

Agoult.  Marie  Catherine  Sophie  de 

Flavigny.  Countess  d1 190 

Agouti 190 

Agra,  province  and  city l'.»0 

Agram " 1  y  1 

Agrarian  Laws 191 

Agreda.  Maria  de 192 

Agreement.    See  Contract. 

Agrib.  Mount 192 

Agricola.  Cneius  Julius 192 

Agricola.  Georg 193 

Agricola.  Johann  Friedrich 1!>3 

Airricola.  Johannes 

Agricola.  Rudolf. 

Agricultural  Chemistry 

Agriculture  \ 

Agrigentum 207 

Agrionia 208 

Agrippa,  Herodes.    See  Herod. 

Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanius 203 

Agrippa  von  Nettesheim,  Heinrich 

Cornelius 208 

Agrippina  (two) 208 

Agua.  Volcan  de 209 

Aguado.  Alexandre  Marie 209 

Aguas  Calientes,  state  and  city 209 

Ague ". 209 

Aguesseau,  Henri  Francois  d' 209 

Aguilar 209 

Aguilar.  Grace 209 

Aguirre,  Jose  Saenz  de 210 

Aguirre,  Lope  de 210 

Aguihas 210 

Agustina 210 

Agyniani 210 

Ahab 210 

Ahanta 210 

Ahasuerus 210 

Alinz.    See  Hebrews. 

Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel 210 


PAGE 

Ahaziah.  king  of  Judah 211 

Ahimeleeh 211 

Ahithophel 211 

Ahlefeld,   Charlotte    Sophie    Luise 

Wilhelinine 211 

Ahlfeld.  Johann  Friedrich 211 

Ahlquist,  August  Engelbert 211 

Ahhvardt.  Tlieodor  Wilhelm 

Ahmed  Shah 

Ahmedabad 

Ahmednuggur,  district  and  town.. .  212 

Ann.  Johuun  Franz 212 

Ahrens.  Heinrich 212 

lan  ...  . .  212 


211 
211 

212 


Ahrii 


Ahwaz 

Ai 

Aidan,  Saint 

Aidin,  province  and  city 

Aiguebelle 

Aiguebelle,    Paul    Alexandre    Ne- 

veue  d1 

Aiguille 

Aiguillon,   Armand   Viguerot    Du- 

plessis  Richelieu,  Due  d1 

Aigues-Mortes 

Aiken 


Aikin.  John. . 
Aikin.  Arthur. 
Aikin,  Lucv. . 


Aikman,  William 

Ailantus 

Ailly.   Pierre  dn 

Ailred 

Ailsa  Craig 

Aimard.  Gustave 

Aime-Martiu,  Louis 

Ainion,  the  four  sons  of 

Ain 

Ain-Madhi 

Aiunuiller,  Maximilian  Emanuel... 

Ainos  

Ainsworth,  Henry 

Ainsworth,  Robert 

Ainsworth,  William  Francis 

Ainsworth,  William  Harrison , 

Aintab  

Air 

Air.  an  oasis 

Air  Bladder 

Air  Cells... 


Airdrie 

Aire.  a  river. 
Aire  (two). . . 

Air  Gun 

Air  Plants... 
Air  Pump.  . 
Air  Vessels.. 


212 
212 
213 
213 
213 

.213 
213 

213 

213 
213 
213 
214 
214 
214 
214 
214 
214 
214 
214 
215 
215 
215 
215 
215 
215 
210 
216 
216 
210 
216 
216 
216 
217 
217 
213 
218 
218 


213 

218 

219 

2 


1!'3 
193 
193 

200 


Airy.  George  Biddell 

Aisne 

Aisse.  Mile 

Aitkin  countv 

Aiton.  William 

Aitaema.  Lieuwe  van 

Aix..... 

Aix-la-Chapelle 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  Treaty  of 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  Congress  of 

Aix-ies-Bains 

Aizani  .. 


223 
223 
223 
223 
223 
223 


A  jaccio 

Ajalon 

Ajan 

Ajax 

Ajmeer.  district  and  city 

A  kabah 

Akabah.  Gulf  of.   

Akbar.  Jelal-ed-Deen  Mohammed. 

Akenside.  Mark 

Akerblad.  Johan  David 

A  kerman  

Akers.  Benjamin  Paul 

Akhaltzikh 

Akhissar 

Akhlat 

Akhtyrka 

Akiba  ben  Joseph 

Akmolinsk 

Akron 

Ak-Shehr 

Aksu , 

Akyab  

Al  (Arabic  article) , 


224 
224 
224 
224 


225 
225 
225 
225 
225 
225 
226 
226 
226 


226 
226 
226 
226 
220 
226 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 


PAGE 

Alabama -_'27 

Alabama  River 2C4 

Alabaster i.3  i 

Alachua  county '235 

Alacoque,  Marguerite  Marie 2S5 

Ala  Dagh 235 

Alagoas,  province  and  town 235 

Alain  de  Lille 235 

Alais 235 

Alajuela 235 

Alaman,  Lucas 235 

Alamance  county 2o5 

Alamanui.  Luigi 236 

Alameda  county 236 

Alamo 236 

Alamos.  Real  de  los 236 

Alan,  William 236 

Aland  Islands 287 

Alani 237 

Al-Araf 237 

Alarcon.  Hernando  de 237 

Alarcon  v  Mendoza,  Juan  Ruiz  de.  237 

Alaric  I. 'and  11 237 

Alarm 238 

Alasco.  John.    See  Laski. 

Ala-Shehr 239 

Alaska 239 

Alava 243 

Alb 243 

Alba 243 

Albacete,  province  and  city 243 

Alba  Longa ". 243 

Alban,  Saint 243 

Albanenses 248 

Albaui.  Francesco 243 

Albania,  in  ancient  geography 243 

Albania,  in  modern  geography 244 

Albano 245 

Albany  co.,  N.  Y 245 

Albany  co.,  Wyoming 245 

Albany,  a  city 245 

Albany,  a  district 243 

Albany,  Louise  Marie  Caroline  He- 

loi'se.  Countess  of 248 

Albategnius 249 

Albatross 249 

Al-Beladori.  Abul  Hassan  Ahmed..  249 

Albemarle  county  ; 249 

Albemarle  Sound 250 

Albergati-Capacelli,  Francesco,  Mar- 

chesed' 250 

Alberic  I.  and  II.,  rulers  of  Rome. .  250 

Alberoni.  Giulio 250 

Albers,  Johann  Friedrich  Hermann  250 

Albert  county 250 

Albert  (Alexander  Martin) 250 

Albert  I..  Emperor 251 

Albert.  Duke  of  Prussia 251 

Albert.  Prince 251 

Albert  Friedrich  August 252 

Albert  Edward.  Prince  of  Wales 252 

Alberti.  Leone  Battista 252 

Albertinelli.  Mariotto 252 

Albert  N'yanza.     See  N'yanza. 

Albertus  Magnus 252 

Albi 253 

Albigenses 253 

Albinos 253 

Albinus,  Bernhard  Siegfried 254 

Albion 254 

Albion,  N.  Y 254 

Albion.  Xew 254 

Albirco 2.54 

Alboin i'54 

Alboni,  Marietta 254 

Al-Borak 2M 

Albornoz.  Gil  Alvarez  Carillo -254 

Albrecht  Friedrich  Rudolph 2.M 

Albrechtsberger,  Johanu  Georg. . . .  251 

Albret 255 

Albret.  Jeanne  d' 255 

Albucasis 255 

Albuera 255 

Albufera 2r5 

Albumen 255 

Albuminuria 256 

Albuquerque 258 

Albuquerque,  Alfonso  d' 258 

Alburnum 259 

Alca-us 259 

Alcaide 259 

Alcala  de  Ilenares 259 


CONTENTS 


PACE 

AlcaUi  la  Eeal 259 

Alcalde 259 

Alcamenes 259 

Alcamo 260 

Alcantara 260 

Alcantara,  Knights  of 260 

Alcavala 260 

Alcazar 260 

Alcazar  de  San  Juan 260 

Alccstis.    See  Aclmetus. 

Alchemy 260 

Alciati.  Giovanni  Paolo 262 

Alcibiades 262 

Alchindus.     See  Alkindi. 

Alcinous 262 

Alciphron 263 

Alcira 263 

Alcriiii-on  (two) 263 

Alcmaoonida: 263 

Alcman 264 

Alcmona 264 

Alcock,  Sir  Eutherford 264 

Alcohol 264 

Alcona  county 265 

Alcorn  county 266 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson 266 

Alcott,  Louisa  May 266 

Alcott,  William  Alexander,  M.  D. . .  266 

Alcoy 267 

Alctiin 267 

Alcyone 267 

Aldan  mountains 267 

Aldan  river 267 

Aldborough 267 

Aldebaran 267 

Aldegonde,  Saintc.  Philip  van  Mar- 
nix,  Baron  of 267 

Aldegrever,  lleinrich 267 

Aldehyde 267 

Alden.  John 268 

Aidenhoven 268 

Alder 26S 

Alderman 26S 

Alderney 268 

Aldershott 269 

Aldhelm 269 

Aldine  Editions 269 

Aldini,  Antonio.  Count 269 

Aldini,  Giovanni 269 

Aldobrandini  family 269 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey 270 

Aldridge,  Ira 270 

Aldrovandus,  Ulysses 270 

Ale.     See  Beer,  and  Brewing. 

Aleandro,  Girolamo 270 

Alecto 271 

Alegambe.  Philippe 271 

Alcman,  Mateo 271 

Alernanni 271 

Alembert,  Jean  le  Eond  d1 271 

Alembic 272 

Alemtejo 272 

Alencon 272 

Alenfou,  Francois,   Duke  of.    See 
An]ou. 

Aleppo 272 

Aleshki 273 

Alesia 273 

Alessandresku,  Gregory 273 

Alessandri,  Basil ". 273 

Alessandria 274 

Aleutian  Islands 274 

Alewife 275 

Alexander  co.,  N.  C 275 

Alexander  co..  Ill 275 

Alexander  the  Great 275 

Alexander  I.— VIII.,  Popes 279 

Alexander  I..  Emperor 280 

Alexander  II.,  Emperor 2S3 

Alexander  I. — III.,  Kings  of  Sect- 
land 285 

Alexander.  Alexander  Humphreys.  285 

Alexander,  Archibald,  D.  D 285 

Alexander,  Sir  James  Edward 286 

Alexander,  James  Waddel,  D.  D..  .  286 

Alexander.  Joseph  Addison,  D.  D. .  286 
Alexander.  Ludwig  Christian  Georg 

Friedrich  Emil 286 

Alexander.  Stephen.  LL.  D 286 

Alexander,  William  (two) 2^7 

Alexander  of  Aphrodisias 2S7 

Alexander  Archipelago 287 


PAGE 

Alexander  Balas 287 

Alexander  of  Hales 287 

Alexander  Jannitus 288 

Alexander  John  1 288 

Alexander  Karageorgevitch 288 

Alexander  Nevskoi .    288 

Alexander  Sevcrus 289 

Alexandrc,  Aaron 289 

Alexandretta 2S9 


Alexandria  county 289 

Alexandria,  Va 289 

Alexandria,  La 290 

Alexandria.  Egypt 290 

Alexandrian  Codex 291 

Alexandrian  Library 291 

Alexandrian  School 292 

Alexandrine 292 

Alexandropol 292 

Alexandrov 292 

Alexandrovsk 292 

Alexei.     See  Alexis 

Alexis   I.,  Comnenus.  Emperor  of 

Trebizond 202 

Alexis  I.,   Comnenus,   Emperor  of 

Constantinople 292 

Alexis,  Wilibald.     Sec  Ilaring. 

Alexis  Mikhailovitch 293 

Alexis  Petrovitch : 294 

Alfani 294 

Alfarabius . .   2i)4 

Alfieri.  Yittorio.  Count ^94 

Alfonso  I.,  the  Catholic 295 

Alfonso  II.,  the  Chaste 295 

Alfonso  III.,  the  Great 295 

Alfonso  VI..  the  Valiant 295 

Alfonso  VII.  or  VIII.,  Ilaimondez..  295 

Alfonso  X.,  the  Wise 295 

Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon 296 

Alfonso  V.  of  Aragon  and  I.  of  Na 
ples  .... 


296 
297 
2!)7 
Alford,  Henry 297 


I'l 
Alfonso  I.  of  Portugal 

Alfonso  V.  of  Portugal. . 


Alfort 

Alfred  the  Great 


Algardi,  Alessandro 

Algarotti,  Francesco 

Algarovilla 

Algarve  

Algazzali,  Abu  Ilamed  Mohammed.  801 

Algebra 301 

Alireciras 302 

Algerba 302 

Alger,  Horatio,  Jr 302 

Alger,  William  Eounseville 302 

Algeria 302 

Alghero...'. 307 

Algiers 307 

Algoa  Bay 308 

Algoma 

Algonquins  

Alguazil 

Albania 

Alhambra 

Alhondega 

AH  Pasha 

All  ben  Abu  Taleb 311 

Alibaud.  Louis 81 1 

Alibert,  Jean  Louis 811 

All  Bey 312 

Alicante,  province  and  town 812 

Alicata.     Sec  Licata. 

Alien 312 

Alighieri,  Dante  degli.     See  Dante . 

Alighur 

Aliment 

Alimentary  Canal 

Alimentus,  Lucius  Cincius. . . 

Alimony 

Alison.  Archibald 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald 

Alizarine 

Alizarine,  Artificial 

Alkali 

Alkalimetry 322 

Alkaloid 322 

Alkana.     See  Henna. 

Alkanet 822 

Alkindi 322 

Alkmaar 322 

Alkmaar,  lleinrich  von 323 


..  314 
. .  314 
.  .  317 
. .  318 
. .  319 
. .  320 
.  .  320 
..  321 
..  321 
322 


PAGE 

Alkoran.    See  Koran. 

Allah 323 

Allahabad 323 

Allamakee  county 323 

Allainand,  Jean  Nicolas  Sebastien. .  323 

Allan,  David 323 

Allan.  Sir  \Villiam 324 

Allan-Kardec,  Ilippolite  Leon  Deni- 

zard 324 

Allard.  Jean  Francois 824 

Allardice,  Eobert  Barclay.    See  Bar 
clay. 

Allegan  county 324 

Allegany  co.,  N.  Y 824 

Allegany  co.,  Md 324 

Alleghany  co.,  Va 3'24 

Alleghany  co..  N.  C 325 

Alleghany  College.    See  Meadville. 
Alleghany   Mountains.    See  Appa 
lachian  Mountains. 

Alleghany  Eiver 325 

Allegheny  co.,  Penn 325 

Allegheny  City 325 

Allegiance 825 

Allegri,  Antonio.    See  Correggio. 

Allegri,  Gregorio 327 

Alleine,  Joseph 327 

Alleinc,  Eichard 327 

j  Allemand,  Zacharie  Jacques  Theo 
dore,  Count 328 

j  Allen  co.,  Ky 328 

!  Allen  co.,  Ohio 328 

Allen  co.,  Ind 328 

Allen  co.,  Kansas 328 

Allen,  Bog  of.     See  Bog. 

Allen,  Ethan 328 

Allen,  Ira 329 

Allen,  Joseph  W 3.9 

Allen,  Paul 329 

Allen,  Samuel 329 

Allen,  Solomon 329 

Allen,  Thomas 330 

Allen,  William,  D.D 330 

Allen,  William 330 

Allen,  William  Henry 330 

Allen,  William  Henry,  LL.  D 380 

Allende,  Jose 331 

Allentown 331 

Allestree,  Eichard 331 

Alleyn,  Edward 331 

All-Fours 331 

Allgaier,  Johann 331 

All  Hallows.     See  Hallow  Eve. 

Allibone,  Samuel  Austin.  LL.D 331 

Allier 332 

Alligator 332 

Allix,  Jacques  Alexandre  Francois. .  333 

Allix.  Pierre 333 

I  Alloa 334 

i  Allobroges 834 

j  Allodium 334 

Allom,  Thomas 334 

i  Allomakee.     See  Allamakee. 

Allopathy 334 

Al'.ori,  Alessandro 334 

Allori,  Cristofuno 334 

Allotropism 384 

Allouez,  Claude  Jean 335 

Alloy 335 

All  Saints1  Bay 337 

All  Saints1  Day 837 

All  Souls 337 

Allspice 387 

Allston,  Washington 337 

Alluvium 338 

Alma 840 

!  Almacks 340 

Almaden 340 

Almagest 340 

Almagro 340 

i  Almagro,  Diego  de  (two) 840 

Almaii 341 

Al-Mamoun,  Abu  Abbas  Abdallah..  341 

Almanac 341 

Al-Mansour,  Abu  Jaffar  Abdallah. .   342 

Almaric.... 343 

Almeh 343 

Almeida 343 

Almeida,  Francisco  de 343 

Almeria 343 

Alniodovar,  Ildefonso  Diaz  de  Eibe- 
ra,  Count  of. 343 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Ahnohades 344 

Almon.  John 344 

Almond 344 

Almomle,  Philippus  van 345 

Almoner 345 

Almonte,  Juan  Nepomuceno 345 

Aimoru 845 

Ahnoravides 345 

Almquist.  Karl  Jonas  Ludwig 345 

Almy.  William 346 

Alnwick  346 

Aloe 346 

Aloe.  American.    See  Agave. 

Aloes 34G 

Aloidae 347 

Alompra 347 

Alost 347 

Alpaca 347 

Alp  Arslan 347 

Alpena  county 348 

Alpes,  Basses   and    Hautes.      See 

Basses- Alpes.  and  Ilautes-Alpes. 

Alpes-Maritimes 348 

Alpha  and  Omega 348 

Alphabet 34S 

Alpheus 351 

Alpine  county 351 

Alps 351 

Alpujarras 355 

Alsace 355 

Alsace-Lorraine 356 

Alsen 357 

Alsted.  Johann  Heinrich 357 

Alston.  John 357 

Alstr rimer.  Jonas 357 

Alstriimer,  Klas 357 

Altai 358 

Altamaha 359 

Altamura 359 

Altar 359 

Altdorf 360 

Altdorfer,  Albrecht 360 

Altena 360 

Altenburg 360 

Alten-Oetting 360 

Altenstein 360 

Altenstein.  Karl,  Baron 361 

Alteratives 361 

Alternate    Generation.      See    Jelly 

Fish. 

Althfea 361 

Althen.  Khan 361 

Althorp.  Viscount.    See  Spencer. 

Altitude 362 

Altkirch 362 

Altmiihl 362 

Alt-Getting.     See  Alten-Oetting. 

Alton 362 

Alton,  Richard,  Count  d' 362 

Alton.  Edward.  Count  d' 362 

Alton,  Johann  Wilhelm  Eduard  d1. .  363 
Alton.  Johann  Samuel  Eduard  d1..  363 

Altona 303 

Altoona 363 

Altorf 363 

Alto-Kilievo 863 

Alturas  county 363 

Alum 3G3 

Alumina 866 

Aluminum 367 

Alumnus 361) 

Alunno,  Nicolo 369 

A  lured. , 369 

Aluta 369 

Alva,  Fernando  Alvarez  de  Toledo 

Duke  or 369 

Alvar , 371 

Alvarado 3T1 

Alvarado.  Pedro  de 371 

Alvarez.  Francisco 372 

Alvarez.  Juan 372 

Alvinczy,  Joseph.  Baron 372 

Alxinger.  Johann  Baptist  von 372 

Alzey ,. 372 

Amadeus 373 

Amadeua  V..  Count  of  Savoy 373 

Amadeus  VIII.,  Count  of  Savoy. . .  373 

Amadeus  I..  King  of  Spain 373 

Amadis  of  Gaul 373 

Amador  county 373 

Amalario 873 

Amalasonth=  ...  . .  373 


PAGH 

Amalekites  .......................  374 

Amalfl  ...........................  874 

Amalgam  ........................  874 

Amalgamation  ....................  375 

Amalia,    Anna,   Duchess  of   Saxe- 
Weitnar  ........................  375 

Ainalie,  Marie  Friederike.  Queen  .  .  .  375 
Amalie,  Marie  Friederike  Auguste, 
Duchess  of  Saxony  ..............  376 

Amals  ............................  376 

J  Amalthsea  ........................  376 

Amanus  .........................  876 

Amar,  J.  P.  Andre  ................  876 

Amaranth  ........................  876 

Amarapura  .......................  377 

Amasia  ...........................  377 

Amasis  I.  and  II  ..................  377 

Amati  family  .....................  377 

Amati,  Andrea  ....................  377 

Amati,  Nicold  .....................  377 

Amati,  Antonio  ...................  377 

Amati,  Geronimo  .................  377 

Amati.  Nicolo  .....................  377 

Amatitlan  ........................  378 

Amatus  Lusitanus  ................  378 

Amaurosis  ........................  378 

Ainaury,  Count  of  Joppa  ......  ....  378 

Amaury,  King  of  Cyprus  ..........  378 

Amaury  of  Chartres.     See  Almaric 

ofBene.  378 

Amaxichi  ........................  378 

Amaziah,  King.     See  Hebrews. 
Amazon  ..........................  378 

Amazonas.  Brazil  ..................  380 

Amazonas,  Peru  ..................  380 

Amazonia  ........................  380 

Amazons  .........................  3SO 

Ambassador  .................  ....  881 

Amber  ...........................  3S1 

Amberg  ..........................  382 

Amberger.  Christoph.  .  .  ...........  383 

Ambergris  ........................  8S3 

Ambiorix  ........................  3S3 

Ambleteuse  ......................  8S3 

Amboise  .........................  883 

Amboise.  George  d'  ____  ,  ..........  3;3 

Amboyna  .........................  383 

Ambracia.  .   ...................  ...  384 

Auibriz  ..........................  3S4 

Ambrones  .  .......................  384 

Ambrose,  Saint  ......  .............  384 

Ambrosia.  ,  .......................  385 

Ambrosian  Chant  .................  385 

Ambrosian  Library  ................  885 

Ambulance  .......................  336 

Amelia  county  ..........  .  .........  386 

Amelot  de  la  Houssaye,  Abraham 
Nicolas  .........................  386 

Amelotte,  Denis  ..................  886 

Amenophis  I.  —  I  II  ................  386 

Amerbach.  Johann  ................  387 

America  .........................  387 

American  Antiquities  .............  393 

American  Indians  ...........  ......  401 

American  Indians,  Languages  of  the  407 
Americanisms  ....................  414 

American  River  ...................  416 

American  Wines  ..................  416 

Amerigo  Vespucci.     See  Vespucci. 
Amersfoort  .......................  422 

Ames,  Edward  R.,  D.  D  ...........  422 

Ames.  Fisher  ....................  422 

Ames.  Joseph  (two)  ...............  422 

Ames,  William,  D.  D  ..............  423 

Amesbury  ........................  423 

l  Amethyst  ........................  423 

•  Amga.;  ..........................  423 

|  Amharic  Language  .......  .  ........  423 

j  Amherst  county  .  ........  ."  ........  423 

I  Amherst.  Mass  ....................  423 

|  Amherst,  Burmah  .................  424 

l  Amherst,  Jeffery,  Baron  ...........  424 

Amherst,  William  Pitt,  Earl  .......  424 

i   Amianthus.     See  Asbestus. 

j  Amice  ...........  .................  424 

Amici,  Giovanni  Battista  ..........  425 

!  Amidas,  Philip  ....................  425 

!  Amiens  ..........................  425 

Amiot,  Joseph  ....................  425 

425 


PAGE 

Amman,  Johann  Konrad 426 

Amman,  Jost 426 

Ammianiis  Marcellinus 426 

Ammergau.     See  Ober-Ammergau. 

Ammon 426 

Ammon,  Christoph  Friedrich  von..  426 

Ammonia 427 

Ammoniac 428 

Ammonites 428 

Ammonium 428 

Ammonium,  Oasis  of.    See  Siwah. 

Ammonias  Saccas 429 

Ammonoosuck,  Upper  and  Lower. .  429 

Ammunition 429 

Amnesty 429 

Amoeba.     See  Animacules. 

Amoutons,  Guillaume 432 

Ainoor 433 

Amoor  Country 433 

Amor.    See  Eros. 

i  Amoretti,  Carlo 433 

Amoretti,  Maria  Pellegrina 433 

Amorites 434 

Amortization 434 

Amory,  Thomas 434 

Amos , 434 

Amoskeag.     See  Manchester,  N.  H. 

Amoy 434 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie 434 

Ampere,  Jean  Jacques  Antoine 435 

Ampfing 435 

Amphiaraus , 435 

Amphibia 435 

Amphictyons 4% 

Amphilochus 438 

Amphion . .    439 

Amphipolis 439 

Amphisbsena 439 

Amphitheatre. . , 431) 

Amphitrite 441 

Amphitryon 441 

Amphora 441 

Ampulla 441 

Amputation 441 

Amritsir 442 

Amru  ibn  el- Aas 442 

Amru'1-Kais 442 

Amsdorf,  Nikolaus  von 443 

Amsler,  Samuel 443 

Amstel 443 

Amsterdam 443 

Amuck 445 

Amulet 445 

Amurath  1 445 

Amurath  II 44C> 

Amussat,  Jean  Zulema 447 

Amvgdaloid 447 

Amyl. 447 

Amylene 447 


Amyntas  I.—  Ill 
Amyot,  Jacques 
Amyraut,  Moise 
Ana 

Anabaptists 
Anabas  Scandens 
Anabasis  ........... 

1  Anableps 
Anacharsis 
Anacletus  I.,  II 


448 
448 
448 
448 
448 
450 
451 
451 
451 
451 


Anaconda  .........................  451 


Anacreon 

Anadyornene  . 

Anadyr 

Anaesthetics . . 

Anagni 

Anagram 


452 
452 
452 
452 
455 
455 


Amite  river 
Amite  county 
Amlwch  ...... 


425 
426 


Anahuac 455 

Anaitis , 455 

Analytical  Geometry 455 

Anam 456 

Anamboe 457 

Ananias  (three) 457 

Anastasia,  Saint  (three) 457 

Anastasius  I.— IV..  Popes 458 

Anastasius  I.,  II.,  Emperors 458 

Anastomosis 458 

Anata.     See  Anathoth 

Anathema 453 

Anathoth 459 

Anatolia.     See  Asia  Minor, 

Anatomical  Preparations 459 

Anatomy 460 


VI 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Anatomy,  Comparative.    See  Com 
parative  Anatomy. 

Anaxagoras 463 

Anaxarchus 468 

Anaxiraander 4*58 

Anaximeues  (two) 463 

Ancach 464 

Ancelot,  Jacques  Arsene   Francois 

Polycarpe 464 

Ancefot.  Marguerite  Louise  Virginie 

Chardon. . . 464 

Anchises 464 

Anchor 4i!4 

Anchoret 467 

Anchovy 467 

Anchylosis 467 

Ancicnne  Lorette 468 

Ancillon,  David 468 

Ancillon.  Charles 468 

Ancillon,  Ludwig  Friedrich 46S 

Aucillon.  Johann  Peter  Friedrich..  463 

Anckarstroem,  Johau  Jakob 40S 

Anclaiu.    See  Anklam. 

Ancona,  province  and  city 468 

Ancre.  Concino  de1  Concini,   Mar 
shal  <T 469 

Ancus  Marcius 470 

Ancyra 470 

Andalusia , 470 

Andaman  Islands 470 

Andelys,  Les. 471 

Andenne 471 

Anderlecht 471 

Anderloni,  Pietro .    471 

Anderloni.  Faustino 471 

Andersen.  Hans  Christian. 471 

Anderson  co..  S.  C 472 

Anderson  co..  Texas 472 

Anderson  co.,  Teun 472 

Anderson  co..  Ky 472 

Anderson  co.,  Kansas 472 

Anderson,  Alexander 472 

Anderson,  Sir  Edmund 472 

Anderson.  James  (two) 472 

Anderson,  John ;  478 

Anderson.  Martin  Brewer,  LL  D . .  473 

Anderson,  Robert 473 

Andersonville. 473 

Anderssen,  Adolph 475 

Andersson,  Carl  Johan 475 

Andersson,  Nils  Johan 475 

Andes 475 

Andlavv,  Franz  Xaver  von '.  480 

Andocides 480 

Andorra 480 

Andover.  Eng 481 

Andover.  Mass 481 

Andrada,  Antonio  d1 481 

Andrada  e  Sylva.  Bonifacio  Joze  d'.  481 

Andral,  Gabriel. 482 

Andrassy.  Gyula 482 

Andre,  Johann  Anten 482 

Andre.  John •. . .  482 

Andrea.  Girolamo  d1 483 

Andrea  Pisano 483 

Andrea  del  Sarto.    See  Sarto. 

Andrea?,  Jakob 483 

Andrese,  Johann  Valentin 483 

Andrea?,  Laurentius 484 

Andreani,  Andrea 484 

Andreanov  Islands.     See  Aleutian 
Islands. 

Andree.  Karl  Theodor 484 

Andreini,  Francesco 484 

Andremi,  Isabella 484 

Andreini,  Giovanni  Battista 484 

Andreossi,  Antoine  Francois,  Count 

d' 484 

Andres.  Juan 484 

Andrew  countv 484 

Andrew  I.— Ill 4R5 

Andrew.  Saint 485 

Andrew,  James  Osgood,  D.  D 485 

Andrew.  John  Albion 485 

Andrews,  James  Pettit 486 

Andrews.  Lancelot 486 

Andria 486 

Andrieux,  Francois  Guillaume  Jean 

Stanislas 486 

Andriscus 486 

Androclus 486 

Androides.    See  Automaton. 


PAGE 

Andromache 487 

Andromeda 487 

Andronicus  I.— IV 487 

]  Andronicus,  Livius 4»7 

Audronicus  of  Rhodes 487 

Andros,  Greece 4b8 

i  Andros ,  Bahamas 488 

i  Andros,  Sir  Edmund 488 

Androscoggin  county 488 

j  Androscoggin  river 488 

!  Andryana,  Alexandre 488 

Andujar 488 

Anegada 489 

Anel,  Dominique 489 

|  Anemometer 489 

Anemone , 490 

!  Anemoscope _ 491 

Anerio,  Felice .' 491 

i  Anerio,  Giovanni  Francesco 491 

Aneroid.     See  Barometer. 

Aneurin 491 

Aneurism 491 

Anfossi,  Pasquale 492 

Angara 492 

[  Angel 492 

Angel,  a  coin 492 

!  Angel  Fish 493 

Angeli,  Filippo 498 

Angelico,  Fra 493 

Angelina  county 493 

Angeli,  Joseph  K 493 

Angela , 494 

Ansjclo.  Michel.     See  Buonarotti, 

Angelus  Domini 494 

Angelus  Silesius 494 

Angerman , 494 

|  Angermiinde. 494 

Angers,  r 494 

Anghiera,  Pietro  Martire  d' 494 

Angilbert,  Saint 494 

Angina  Pectoris , 495 

Angler 496 

Angler  Fish.     See  Goose  Fish. 

Angle 497 

Anglesea 4J7 

Anglesey,  Earl  of.     See  Annesley. 
Anglesey,    Henry    William    Paget, 

Marquis  of. 497 

Angling 498 

Anglo-Saxons , 498 

Anglo-Saxon  Church 500 

Anglo-Saxon  Jurisprudence 500 

Anglo-Saxons.  Language  and  Liter 

attire  of  the .' 501 

Angola 506 

Angora 506 

Angorno. 507 

Angostura 507 

Angostura  Bark 507 

Angot,  Jean 507 

Angouleme 507 

Angouleme,  Charles  de  Valois.  Duke 

of 507 

Angouleme.  Louis  Antoine  de  Bour 
bon,  Duke  of 508 

Angouleme,   Marie  Therese   Char 
lotte,  Duchess  of 508 

Angoumois 508 

Angua 508 

Anguisciola,  Sofonisba 508 

Angus.  Earls  of.     See  Douglas 508 

Anhalt 508 

Anhydrides 508 

Ani 509 

Anciet-Bourgeois 509 

Anicetus 509 

Aniello,  Tommaso.    See  Masaniello. 

Anilic  Acid..* 509 

Aniline ? 509 

Animal 509 

Animacules 513 

i  Animal  Electricity 518 

1  Animal  Heat 522 

Animal  Magnetism 524 

Anime 527 

Anise  Seed 527 

Anjou 527 

Anjou,  Margaret  of.     See  Margaret 

Anklam 528 

Ankwitz,  Mikolaj.  Count 528 

Anna  Carlovna 528 

Anna  Comnena 528 


PAGE 

Anna  Ivanovna 528 

Annaberg 528 

Annals 529 

Annapolis 529 

Annapolis  county 530 

Annapolis.  Nova  Scotia 530 

Ann  Arbor 530 

Annats 531 

Annatto.    See  Annotto. 

Anne.  Queen 531 

Annealing 531 

Anne  Arundel  county 532 

Anne  of  Austria 532 

Anne  Boleyn 532 

Anne  of  Brittany 533 

Anne  of  Cleves 533 

Annecy..., 533 

Annelida 533 

Annesley.  Arthur 533 

Annesley.  James 534 

Annius  of  Viterbo 534 

Anno,  Saint 534 

Annonay . .  •. 534 

Annotto 534 

Annuity 534 

Annunciation 535 

Anodyne 535 

Anointing 535 

Anoka  county : . . . .  536 

Anolis ' 536 

Anquetil.  Louis  Pierre 536 

Anquetil-Duperron,  Abraham  Hya- 

cinthe.. 536 

Ansaloni,  Giordano 537 

A  nsaries 537 

Anscarius.  Saint 537 

Ansdell.  Richard 537 

Anselm.  Saint 538 

Anson  county 538 

Anson,  George.  Lord 538 

Anson,  George. 538 

Ansonia 538 

Anspach 538 

Anspach,  Elizabeth.  Margravine  of.  539 

Ansted.  David  Thomas. 539 

Anster.  John. 539 

Anstey,  Christopher 539 

Anstey,  Thomas  Chisholm 539 

Ant 540 

Antacids 542 

Ant« 542 

Anta?us 542 

Antalcidas 542 

Antar 542 

Antarctic  Discovery 542 

Antarctic  Ocean,  and  Antarctic  Cir 
cle.  See  Polar  Seas,  and  Polar 
Circles. 

Ant-Eater 543 

Antelope , : 544 

Antenna; 546 

Antenor .   546 

Antequera 547 

Anthelmintics.     See  Entozoa. 

Anthemius  (two) 547 

Anther 547 

Anthon,  Charles,  LL.  D 547 

Anthony.  Henry  B 548 

Anthony,  Saint'  (two) 548 

Anthony.  Susan  Brownell 548 

Anthracene 548 

Anthracite. , .* 548 

Anthropology.  See  Anatomy,  Ar 
cheology,  Comparative  Anatomy, 
Ethnology,  Moral  Philosophy, 
Philosophy,  and  Physiology. 

Anthropomorphites 559 

Antibes 559 

Antichlor 559 

Antichrist 559 

Anticosti 559 

Anticyra  (two) 560 

Antidotes 560 

Antietam,  Battle  of 560 

Antigone 562 

Antigonus  the  Cyclops 562 

Antigonus  Gonatas 563 

Antigonus  Doson 563 

,  Antigonus,  King  of  the  Jews 563 

I  Antigua 568 

i  Anti-Libanus 568 

I  Antilles  ...  564 


CONTEXTS. 


vn 


569 


509 
570 


PACK 

Anti-Masonry 564 

Antimony  . . " 564 

Antinoinians 5(5(5 

Antiiious 566 

Antioch 560 

Antioch  (.'oik-are 507 

Antioohus  I..  Soter 568 

Antiochus  III.,  the  Great 568 

Antiochus  IV..  Epiphanes 569 

Antioquia 

A'ltiparos 

Antipas.  Herod.    See  Herod. 

Antipater 

Antiphon 

Antiphony 570 

Anti-Rentiam 570 

Antisana 571 

Anti-Scorbutics.    See  Scurvy. 

Antiseptics 571   I 

Antispasinodics 571 

Anti-Slavery.    See  Slavery. 

Antistheues 572  ! 

Antitaurus.    See  Taurus. 
Antitrinitarians.    See  Unitarianism. 

Antium 572 

Ant  Lion 573 

Antoine  de  Bourbon 573 

Antommarchi.  Carlo  Francesco 573 

Antonelli.  Giacomo 574 

Antonello  da  Messina 574  ; 

Antoninus.  Marcus  Aurelius 574 

Antoninus     Pius,    Titus    Aurelius 

Fulvius 575  | 

Antonio.  Nicolas 575 

Antonius.  Marcus 575  : 

Antony,  Mark 576  . 

Antraigues.  Emmanuel  Louis  Henri 

d»  Launay,  Count  d' 576 

Antrim,  county  and  city 577  j 

Antrim  co.,  Mich 577 

Antwerp 577  j 

Ami  bis 578  : 

Anvil 579  j 

Anviile.  Jean  Baptiste  Bourguignon 

d' 579 

Aorta 579 

Aosta 579 

Apaches " 579 

Ape 580 

Apeldoorn 581 

Apelles 5S1 

Apelt.  Ernst  Friedrich 5S1 

Apennines 581 

Apenrade 5S3 

Aphis 5S3 

Aphrodite.    See  Venus 

Apicius  (three) 5S4 

Apis 584 

Aplanatic  Lens 584 

Apocalypse 584 

A  pocrypha 585 

Apolda 586 

Apollinarians 586 

Apollo 586 

Apollo  Belvedere 


PAGE 

Appiani.  Andrea 598 

Appiano,  Jacopo  1 598 

Appiano,  Gherardo 598 

Appiano,  Jacopo  III 598 

Appiano.  Jacopo  IV 598 

Appian  Way 598 

Appius  Claudius.     See  Claudius. 

Apple 598 

Apples  of  Sodom 601 

Appleton 601 

Appleton.  Daniel 601 

Appleton,  Jesse,  D.  D 601 

Appleton.  Nathan 601 

Appleton.  Samuel 602 

Appling  county 602 

Appold,  J.  George 602 

Appomattox  county. . ; 602 

Appomatto.\»  Court'  House 602 

Appomattox  River 602 

Appouyi   Gyorgy  Antal,  Count 602 

Apponyi,  Antal 602 

Apponyi.  Rudolf 602 

Apponyi.  Gyorgy (502 

Appraisement 603 

Apprentice 603 


Apollodorus  of  Charystus 5S6 

Apollouia ' 586  , 

Apollonius  Perirtt-us 5S7 

Apollonius  Rhodius 587  : 

Apollonius  Tyanieus 587 

Apollo* 587  i 

Apollyon 587  ! 

Apoplexy.    See  Brain,   Diseases  of 
the. 

Apostles 583  ! 

Apostles'  Creed 


Apraxin,  Fedor 

Apraxin,  Stefan  Fedorovitch 

Apricot 

Apries 

April 

Apteral 

Apteryx 

Apuleius 

Apulia 

Apure 

Apurimac 

Aqua 

Aqua  Tofaua 

Aquarians . ." 

Aquarium 

Aqueduct 

Aquila 

Aquila.  Kaspar 

Aquileia 

Aquinas,  Thomas 

Aquitania 

Arabella  Stuart.    See  Stuart. 

Arabesque  

Arabgir 

Arabia 

Arabic  Language  and  Literature. . . 

Arabici 

Aracan 

Aracato 

Arachne 

Arachnids 

Arad 

Aradus 

Arafat.. 

Arago,  Dominique  Francois 

Arago.  Jean 

Arago.  Jacques  £tienne  Victor 

Arago.  Etknne 

Arago,  Emmanuel 

Aragon 


Aratrona 

Araguay 

Araktcheyeff,  Alexei 

Aral.  Sea'of. 

Aram 

Aram.  Eugene 

Aranda.  Pedro  Pablo  Abarca  y  Bo- 
lea,  Count  of " 

Aranjiuv 

Arany.  J;mos 

Aropahoe  countv. . . , 


Apostolici  (three) 

Apothecary 

A  ppalachee  Bay 

Appalachees 

Appalachian  Mountains 

Appalachicola  River 

Appalachicola.  a  town 93 

Appanoose  county 593 

Apparatus " 593 

Apparition 5!\3 

Appeal 594 

Appenzell 597  . 

Apperlev  Charles  James 597 

Appert,  Benjamin  Nicolas  Marie. . .  597 

Appetite 597. 

Appian 598  j 


Arapahoes 

Ararat.  Asia 

Ararat.  North  Carolina. 
Aras.     Sec  Araxes. 

Aratus  (three) 

Araucanians 

Arauco 

Araxes . . . 


Arbaces. , 
Arbalast. 
Arbela  . . 
Arbit»r  . . 


See  Archerv 


Arbitration 

Arblay.  Madame  d1 

Arbogast 

Arbois  . . . 


PAGK 

j  Arbor  Vita? 03S 

Arbrissel.  Robert  of 6o3 

Arbroath 63S 

Arbuthnot,  John .' 683 

Arbutus 639 

Arc 640 

Arc.  Joan  of.    See  Joan  of  Arc 

Arcachon 640 

Arcadia (140 

Arcadius 641 

Arcesilaus 641 

Arch 641 

Archaeology 642 

Archa-opteryx 645 

Archangel 645 

Archbishop 646 

Archdeacon 646 

Archduke 646 

Archelaus  (eight) 647 

Archeaholz,  Johann  Wilhelm 648 

Archer  county 648 

Archery 648 

Arches,  Court  of 64i) 

Archias.  Aulus  Licinius 650 

Archiater 650 

Archibald,  Adams  G 650 

Archidamus  I. — V.,  kings 650 

Archil 650 

Archilochus  of  Paros 651 

Archimandrite 651 

Archimedean  Screw 651 

Archimedes 651 

Archipelago 652 

Architecture 652 

Archon 666 

Archytas  of  Tarentum 667 

Arcis-sur-Aube 667 

Arcole 667 

Arcos  de  la  Frontera 667 

Arcot 667 

Arctic  Discovery 667 

Arcturus 680 

Arcueil 681 

Arcy.  Grotto  of 6^1 

Ardabil 681 

Ardeche 681 

Ardennes 681 

617     Ardeshir 681 

617     Arditi,  Luigi 681 

617     Are 682 

622      Arendal 682 

626     A reolar  Tissue.    See  Cellular  Tissue. 
626  !  Areometer.    See  Hydrometer. 

626     Areopagas 682 

626     Arequipa 682 

626  Ares.     See  Mars. 

627  Aretaeus 683 

627     Arethusa 683 

627  Aretino,  Guido 683 

628  Aretino.     See  Bruni.  Leonardo. 

628  Aretino,  Pietro 683 

628  Arezzo 683 

628  Argseus.  Mount.     See  Arjish. 

629  Argali.    See  Sheep. 

629  Argali,  Samuel 6S3 

630  Argelander,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Au- 
630         gust 684 

630  Argens.  Jean    Baptiste   de  Boyer. 

631  Marquis  d? 6S4 

631      Argenson,    Rene    Louis  Voyer  d\ 

631  Marquis  d1 684 

|  Argenson.   Marc    Pierre  Voyer  d', 

632  !       Count  d' 634 

('32  I  Argenson.  Marc  Antoine  Ren?  de 
632   j       Palmy.. 684 

632  >   Argentan 685 

('32  I  Argenteuil 685 

633  '  Argenteuil  county 685 

Argenteus  Codex 6-5 

Argentine  Republic 685 

683      Argives 696 

634  Argol.    See  Tartar. 

635  Argolis.     See  Argos. 

635  !  Argonaut.    See  Nautilus. 

635  !  Argonauts 696 

!  Argonne 697 

635  !  Argoon 697 

T-35  ;  Argos 697 

035  Argot.    See  Slang. 

(!37  Arguelles,  Augustin 697 

63S  Argus 698 

638  i  Argyleshire 698 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Argyll,  Colin,  1st  Earl  of. 698 

Argyll,  Archibald.  2d  Earl  of. 698 

Argyll.  Archibald,  5th  Earl  of 698 

Argyll,  Archibald,  8th  Earl  of 698 

Argyll,  Archibald,  9th  Earl  of 698 

Anryll.  Archibald,  10th  Earl  and  1st 

Duke  of 69!) 

Argyll,  John.  2d  Duke  of 699 

Argyll,  Archibald,  3d  Duke  of. 699 

Argyll,  John  George  Douglas,  8th 

Duke  of 699 

Argyro-Kastro 699 

Argyropulos.  Johannes 699 

Ariadne 699 

Ariaklus 699 

Arianism 7<»0 

Ariaiio 701 

Arias  Montanus,  Benedict  us 701 

Arica 701 

Ariege 702 

Ariel 702 

Arion 702 

Ariosto.  Ludovico 702 

Ariovistus 702 

Arista,  Mariano 702 

Arista?us 702 

Aristarchus  (two) 703 

Aristidcs  (three) 703 

Aristippus 704 

Aristobulus  (three) 704 

Aristogiton.     See  Harmodius  and 

Aristogiton. 

Aristomenes 704 

Aristophanes 705 

Aristotle 705 

Aristoxenus 707 

Arithmetic • 707 

Arins 708 

Arizona 709 

ArjishDagh 711 

Ark  (two) 712 

Arkansas  Indians 712 

Arkansas  Paver 712 

Arkansas,  a  state 713 

Arkansas  county 717 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard 717 

Arlos 718 

Arlincourt,  Victor,  Viscount  (T 718 

Arlon 719 

Armada.  Spanish 719 

Armadillo 720 

Armageddon 721 

Armagh,  county  and  city 721 

Armagnac 721 

Armagnac,  Bernard  VII.,  Count  of.  721 

Armagnac,  Jean  V.,  Count  of 722 

Armand,    Charles.      See    Kouurie, 

Marquis  de  la. 

Armansperg,  Joseph  Louis,  Count..  722 

Armatofes 722 

Armengaud,  Jean  Germain  Desire..  722 

Armentieres 722 

Armenia 722 

Armenian  Church 724 

Armenian  Language  and  Literature.  727 

Armin,  Eobert 728 

Arminians 728 

Arminius 729 

Arminius,  James 730 

Armitage,  Edward 731 


PAGE 

Armor 731 

Armorica 734 

Arms 734 

Armstrong  county 735 

Armstrong,  John 735 

Armstrong,  John  (two) 730 

Armstrong,  Sir  William  George. . . .  736 

Army.... 736 

Arnauld,  Antoine 754 

Arnauld  d'Andilly,  Eobert 754 

Arnauld,  Henri 754 

Arnauld,  Antoine 755 

Arnauld,    Marie  Jacqueline   Ange- 

lique 755 

Arnauld,  Agnes 755 

Arnauld,  Angelique 756 

Arnault,  Vincent  Antoine 756 

Arnauts.     See  Albania. 

Arnd.  Johann 756 

Arndt.  l-.rnst  Moritz 756 

Arne,  Thomas  Augustine 757 

Arnhem 757 

Arnica 757 

Arnim.  Johann  Georg 757 

Arnim,  Karl  Otto  Ludwig  von 758 

Arnim,  Ludwig  Achiin  von 758 

Arnim,  Elisabeth  von 758 

Arnim,  Gisela  von 758 

Arno 758 

Arnobius 759 

Arnold,  Benedict 759 

Arnold  of  Brescia 760 

Arnold,  Christoph 760 

Arnold,  Edwin 761 

Arnold,  Matthew 761 

Arnold,  Samuel.  Mus.  Doc 761 

Arnold,  Thomas.  D.I) 761 

Arnold,  Thomas  Kerchever 762 

Arnott.  Neil 762 

Arnould.  Sophie 762 

Arnsberg 763 

Arnstadt 763 

Arnswalde 763 

Arolas,  Juan 763 

Aro'sen 763 

Aroostook  county 763 

Arpad    ' 763 

Arpino 763 

Arpino,   Giuseppe  Cesari  d\      See 

Cesari. 

Arqua , 763 

Arrack 763 

Arran 763 

Arran.  Isles  of 763 

Arran,  Earl  of. 763 

Arran,James  Hamilton,  Earl  of  (two)  764 

Arras 764 

Arrawaks 764 

Arrest 764 

Arrhidaeus,  Philip 766 

Arria 767 

Arrian 767 

Arrivabene,  Giovanni,  Count 767 

Arroo 767 

Arrowroot 767 

Ars.    See  Ars-sur-Moselle. 
Arsamas.    See  Arzamas. 

Arsenic 768 

Arsinioe  (four) 770 

Arsinoe,  Egypt  (two) 771 


PAGE 

Arson 771 

Ars-sur-Moselle 772 

Arta 772 

i  Artabanus 772 

I  Artabazus  (two) 772 

!  Artaxata 773 

;  Artaxerxes  (three) 773 

I  Artemidorus  of  Ephesus 773 

I  Artemis.     See  Diana. 

Artemisia,  queen  (two) 773 

Artemisia,  a  plant 773 

I  Artemisium 774 

!   Artery 774 

!  Artesian  Wells 774 

i  Artevelde.  Jacob  van 780 

Artevelde.  Philip  van 780 

Arthritis  .' 780 

Arthur 781 

i  Arthur,  Timothy  Shay 781 

Arthur,  \\  illiam 781 

Artichoke 781 

|  Articulate 782 

{ Articulation 783 

*  Artigas,  Jose 784 

Artillery  . . ; 784 

Artiodactyles 797 

Artois 797 

Artot.  Joseph 798 

Arundel.  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of.  798 
Arundelian  Marbles.     See  Arundel, 
Thomas  Howard. 

Arundell,  Blanch 799 

Arwidsson,  Adolf  Ivar 799 

Aryan  Race  and  Language 799 

Arzachel,  Abraham 802 

Arzamas 802 

As,  a  weight 802 

As 802 

Asa 802 

Asafcetida: 802 

Asaph  ,02 

Asben.    See  Air. 

Asbestus 802 

Asbury,  Francis 803 

Ascalon 803 

Ascarides 803 

Ascension  parish 804 

Ascension  Day 804 

Ascension  Island 804 

Asch 804 

Aschaffenburg 804 

Ascham,  Roger  804 

..  804 


Aschersleben 

Ascidians.    See  Molluscoids. 
Asclepiades 

Ascoli 


-0,-) 

hit,') 
805 
S05 
805 
805 


Ascoli 

I  Ascoli  Piceno 

!  Ascoli  de  Satriano 

|  Ascot  Heath 

!  Aselli,  Gasparo ... 

Asgill,  John 8UO 

Ash 805 

Ash,  John 807 

:  Ashantee 807 

Ashburton.  Alexander  Baring.  Baron  807 

:  Ashby  de  la  Zouch 808 

!  Ashdod 808 

i  Ashe  county 808 

!  Ashe,  John SOS 

i  Asher , 808 


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